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APA Publication
Manual Sixth Edition
1
2
2001 2010
What is APA?
APA
(American Psychological
Association)
It was developed by social and
behavioral scientists to
standardize scientific writing.
It is the most commonly used
format for manuscripts in the
social sciences.
3
What is APA?
• Manual Chapters
o Chapter 1:Writing for the Behavioral and Social Sciences.
o Chapter 2: Manuscript Structure and Content.
o Chapter 3: Writing Clearly and Concisely.
o Chapter 4: The Mechanics of Style.
o Chapter 5: Displaying Results.
o Chapter 6: Crediting Sources.
o Chapter 7: Reference Examples.
o Chapter 8: The Publication Process.
4
What is APA?
• APA style is used for:
o Empirical studies.
o Literature reviews.
o Theoretical articles.
o Methodological articles.
o Case studies.
5
Ethical and Legal
Standards
6
Ethical and Legal Standards in
Publishing
• Ensuring accuracy of scientific knowledge.
o Ethical reporting of research results: be honest.
o Data sharing: make data available during review and publication
process.
o Data retention: retain raw data for five years after publication and
protect confidentiality of research participants.
o Duplicate publication: same data or ideas in two separate
publications.
7
Ethical and Legal Standards in
Publishing
• Ensuring accuracy of scientific knowledge.
o Piecemeal publication of data: unnecessary splitting of
the findings from one research effort into multiple
articles.
o Plagiarism.
o Self-plagiarism: present previously published work as
new scholarship.
8
Ethical and Legal Standards in
Publishing
• Protecting the rights and welfare of research
participants.
o Rights and confidentiality of research participants.
o Conflict of interest.
9
Ethical and Legal Standards in
Publishing
• Protecting intellectual property rights.
o Publication credit: authorship is reserved for persons who make a
substantial contribution to and who accept responsibility for a
published work.
o Reviewers: the manuscript is a confidential and privileged document
during review process.
o Author´s copyright on an unpublished manuscript: include the
copyright notice on all published and unpublished works.
o Planning for ethical compliance.
10
Format and
Manuscript Elements
11
Language in an APA paper
• Clear: be specific in descriptions and explanations.
• Concise: condense information when you can.
• Plain: use simple, descriptive adjectives and minimize the figurative
language.
• Use:
o The third person rather than the first person:
e.g. Correct: The study showed that…
Incorrect: I found that...
o The active voice rather than the passive voice:
e.g. Correct: The participants responded…
Incorrect: The participants have been asked....
12
13
Format
• Margins: Set margin at 1 inch (2.54 cm.) from all edges of the
paper.
• Alignment: Is set at the left margin only for all text except title
and title page.
• Font (typeface): The preferred typeface is Times New Roman 12.
• Indents: Indent the first sentence of each paragraph ½ inch. All
other lines of the paragraph wrap to the left margin. Indent
blocked quotes (40 words or more) including the first sentence.
• Line Spacing: All lines are double-spaced. The first line of each
page (except title page) begins at the top margin.
14
• Page Numbers: Place page numbers at the top right corner (inside
the header), beginning with the title page.
• Order of Manuscript Pages
o Title page
o Abstract
o Text
o References
o Tables
o Figures
o Appendices
Format
15
Manuscript Elements: Title Page
• Running Head
o On the first line of the title page flush-left.
o Begin with the words “Running head” following by a
colon. Then give an abbreviated title of your paper in 50
characters or less (in caps.).
16
• Running Head
Manuscript Elements: Title Page
17
Manuscript Elements: Title Page
In the upper half of the title page:
• Full Title
o Twelve words or less.
o It should be a concise statement of the main topic and should
identify the variables or theoretical issues under investigation and
the relationship between them.
o Should be typed in uppercase and lowercase letters, centered.
• Author’s name: First name, middle initial(s) and last name. Omit
all titles and degrees.
• Institutional Affiliation
18
Manuscript Elements: Abstract
• Brief, comprehensive summary of the contents of the article.
The label “Abstract” should appear in uppercase and lowercase
letters, centered, at the top of the page. The abstract must begin
in a new page.
• A good abstract is (APA, 2010, p. 26):
o Accurate
o Non-evaluative
o Coherent and readable
o Concise
• No indentation.
19
Manuscript Elements: Main Body
• Type the title of the paper centered, at the top of
the page.
• Type the text double-spaced with all sections
following each other without a break.
20
Manuscript Elements: References
• Begin in a new page.
• The label “References” should appear in uppercase
and lowercase letters, centered (APA, 2010, p. 37).
• Double-space all reference entries.
• The first line of each reference is set flush left and
subsequent lines are indented.
Organizing a
Manuscript
21
22
Headings (APA, 2010, pp. 62-63).
• There are five possible formatting arrangements,
according to the number of levels of
subordination.
• Each section starts with the highest level of
heading.
• The introduction section does not carry a heading.
Level of Heading (APA, 2010, p. 62).
Centered, Boldface, Uppercase
and Lowercase Headings
Flush Left, Boldface, Uppercase and Lowercase Heading
Indented, boldface, lowercase paragraph heading
Indented, boldface, italicized, lowercase paragraph heading ending with a period.
Indented, italicized, lowercase paragraph heading ending with a period.
Level 1
Level 2
Level 3
Level 4
Level 5
24
Seriation (APA 2010, p. 63).
Within a paragraph or sentence:
• Identify elements in a series by lowercase letters in parentheses
The participant’s three choices were (a) working with another
participant, (b) working with a team, and (c) working alone.
• Use commas to separate three or more elements that do not have
internal commas; use semicolons to separate three or more
elements that have internal commas
Sales classification was (a) low sales, who obtained less than
$25,000; (b) regular sales, who obtained between $25,000 and $100,000;
and (c) remarkable sales, who obtained sales for more than $100,000.
25
Seriation (APA 2010, p. 62).
Separate paragraphs in a series:
1. An Arabic numeral followed by a period but not enclosed in or
followed by parentheses.
2. The first word is capitalized, and the sentence ends with a
period or correct punctuation.
3. If the use of numbered lists may connote an unwanted or
unwarranted ordinal position among items; these items could
be identify by bullets.
Numbers and
Statistical Symbols
26
27
Numbers
• Use numerals to express numbers 10 and above and words to
express numbers below 10.
• Exceptions:
o Use words for approximations of numbers of days,
months, and years
...about three months ago.
o Any number that begins a sentence, title, or text heading.
Thirty-four men were selected to participate in the experiment.
28
• Exceptions (cont.):
o Common fractions.
one fifth of the class two-thirds majority.
o Universally accepted usage.
the Twelve Apostles Five Pillars of Islam
• Combining numerals and words to express numbers
o Use a combination of numerals and words to express back-to-back modifiers.
2 two-way interactions ten 7-point scales
o When combining numerals and words, readability may suffer, spell out both numbers.
first two items
Numbers
29
• Decimal Fractions
o Use a zero before the decimal point with numbers that
are less than 1 when the statistic can exceed 1.
0.23 cm 0.48 s
o Do not use a zero before a decimal fraction when the
statistic cannot be greater than 1.
r(24) = -.43 p = .028
Numbers
30
• To form the plural of numbers, whether expressed as figures or as words, add s or es alone, without an apostrophe
fours and sixes 1950s 10s and 20s
• Commas in numbers
o Use commas between groups of three digits in most figures of 1,000 or more.
Exceptions:
Page numbers page 1029
Binary digits 00110010
Serial numbers 290466960
Degrees of temperature 3071 °F
Degrees of freedom F(24, 1000)
Numbers
Statistical Symbols
• When using a statistical term in the narrative, use the term, not
the symbol:
o Use: The means were
o Not: The Ms were
• Population parameters are usually represented by Greek
letters:
o Population correlation would be represented as r.
• Most estimators are represented by italicized Latin letters.
o Population correlation would be represented as r.
31
Statistical Symbols
• Symbols for number of subjects:
o Use an uppercase, italicized N to designate the number of
members in the total sample: N = 135.
o Use a lowercase, italicized n to designate the number of
members in a limited portion of the total sample: n = 30.
• Symbol for percentage: use it only when it is preceded
by a numeral: 18%.
32
Statistical Symbols
• Standard, boldface, and italic type:
o Greek letters, subscripts, and superscripts that function as
identifiers and abbreviations that are not variables are set in
standard typeface:
mgirls, a1 bi
o Symbols for vectors and matrices are set in boldface:
V, S
o All other statistical symbols are set in italic type:
N, Mx´, df, SSE, MSE, t, F
33
Tables and Figures
34
Tables and Figures
• Enable authors to present a large amount of information
efficiently and to make their data more comprehensible.
• Tables
o Show numerical values or textual information arranged in an
orderly display columns and rows.
• Figures
o May be a chart, graph, photograph, drawing, or any other
illustration or non-textual depiction.
35
Tables and Figures: General Information
• Number all tables and figures with Arabic numerals in the
order in which they are first mentioned in text.
Table 1, Table 2, Figure 1, Figure 2...
• List of Tables (first)
• List of Figures (then)
• When Tables and Figures are cited in the text : use T and F.
36
Tables and Figures: Copyright Permission
• If you reproduce or adapt a table, figure, questionnaire, or test item from a copyrighted source, you must obtain written permission for print and electronic reuse and give credit in the table or figure capture to the original author and copyright holder.
From [or The data in column 1 are from] “Title of Article,” by A.N. Author and C.O. Author, year, Title of Journal, Volume, p. xx. Copyright [year] by the Name of Copyright Holder. Reprinted [or adapted] with permission.
37
Tables
38
General Information
• Allows complex data to be expressed in a tidy format.
• They should not be used when results can easily be
expressed in text.
• Consider combining tables that repeat data (identical
columns or rows of data should not appear in two or
more tables).
• Tables may be submitted either single - or double -
spaced.
39
40
Tables
Table Number: Table numbers must be written in Arabic numbers
Table Title: A description of the table in italics, single-spaced from
the table number.
Table Note: Three types of notes can be place below the table:
Note. General notes to a table appear here, including definitions of
abbreviations.
aA specific note appears on a separate line below any general notes;
subsequent specific notes are run in.
* A probability note (p value) appears on a separate line below any
specific notes; subsequent probability notes are run in.
Table Number Table Title
Stub Head: heading that
identifies the entries in
leftmost column
Column Spanner: heading
that identifies the entries in
two or more columns in the
body of the table
Decked heads: heading
that is stacked, often to
avoid repetition of words
in column headings
Column heads:
heading that
identifies the
entries in just one
column in the body
of the table
Cell: point of
intersection between a
row and a column
Table Body: rows of
cells containing
primary data of the
table
Stub or stub column:
leftmost column of the
table; usually lists the
major independent or
predictor variables
Table note: three
types of notes can be
placed below the
table, which can
eliminate repetition
from the body of the
table 41
Basic Components of a Table
Table X
Number of Children With and Without Proof of
Parental Citizenship
___ ____________________________________
Girls Boys
Grade With Without With Without
Wave 1
3 380 240 281 232
4 297 251 290 264
5 301 260 306 221
_______________________________________
Total 878 751 877 717 _______________________________________ Note. General notes to a table appear here, including definitions of abbreviations. a A specific note appears on a separate line below any general notes; subsequent specific notes are run in
*A probability note ( p value) appears on a separate line below
any specific notes; subsequent probability notes are run in .
Table Titles
• Brief but clear and explanatory Too General:
Relation between College Majors and Performance [It is unclear what data
are presented in the table.]
Too detailed:
Mean Performance Scores on Test A, Test B, and Test C of Students with
Psychology, Physics, English, and Engineering Majors [This duplicates
information in the headings of the table.]
Good Title:
Mean Performance Scores of Students with Different College Majors
42
Table Titles
• Abbreviations that appear in the heading or the body
of a table sometimes can be parenthetically
explained.
Comparison of Median Income of Adopted Children (AC) v.
Foster Children (FC)
• If the abbreviations require longer explanations or do
not relate to the table title, explained them in the
table notes.
43
Table Headings
• Establish the organization of the data and identify the
columns of data beneath them.
• Should be brief and should not have many more characters
in length that the widest entry
Poor: Good:
44
Grade level
3
4
5
Grade
3
4
5
Table Headings
• Use standard abbreviations and symbols for nontechnical terms
(e.g., no. for number, % for percent) and statistics without
explanations (e.g., M, SD, χ2).
• A list of statistical abbreviations and symbols can be found in
the APA Publication Manual.
Table 1
Demographic Characteristics of Participants (N = 1,022)
45
Characteristics n %
Age at time of survey (years)
20 - 29 244 24
30 - 39 534 52
40 - 49 132 13
50 - 59 112 11
Table Headings
• Establish the organization of the data and identify the columns
of data beneath them.
• A column spanner covers two or more columns, each with its
own column head: decked heads, which can be used to avoid
repetition of words in column heads.
• Do not use more than two levels of decked heads.
Incorrect: Wordy: Correct:
46
Temporal lobe:
Left Right Left temporal
lobe
Right temporal
lobe
Temporal lobe
Left Right
Table Headings
• Table spanners can be used for establishing divisions
within the text body.
Table 2
Individual and Family Characteristics as a Percentage of the Sample
47
Table
Spanners
Characteristic
Mother
( n = 750 )
Father
( n = 466 )
Child
( n = 750 )
Self - identity
Mexican 77.2 71.0 41.0
Mexican American 22.8 29.0 59.0
Nativity
Mexico 74.2 (38.2 ) 80.0 (44.2) 29.7
United States 25.8 (61.8) 20.0 (55.8) 70.3
Language preference
English 30.2 (52.7) 23.2 (52.7) 82.5 (70.0)
Spanish 69.8 (48.3) 76.8 (48.3) 17.5 (30.0)
Table Body
• Decimal Values
o In general round to two decimal places.
o To report p values, report exact p values to two or three
decimal places.
o Report p values less than .001 as p < .001.
Table 3
Analysis of Covariance of Posttest Knowledge Scores as a Function of Instruction
Condition and Tutor Help, with Pretest Knowledge Scores and Covariates
48
Source df SS M S F ω 2
Covariate 1 39.31 9 .31 4.22 ** .05 Instruct ion condition (IC) 2 38.78 1 9 .39 2.50* .03 T utor held (TH) 2 30.26 3 0 .26 3.90** .04
IC X TH 2 76.04 3 8 .02 4.90** .06 Error 54 419.04 7 .76 Total 60 573.43 9 .56
* p < .05. ** p < .0 1
Table Body
• Empty Cells
o If the data cannot be filled because data are not applicable,
leave the cell blank.
Table 4
Demographic Characteristics of Participants (N = 1,022)
49
Characteristics n % M
Gender
Male 560 54.79
Female 462 45.21
Age at time of survey (years)
20 - 29 244 24 25.60
30 - 39 534 52 34.80
40 - 49 132 13 45.50
50 - 59 112 11 56.10
Table Body
• Empty Cells
o If a data cannot be reported, insert a dash in that cell and explain
the use of the dash in the general note.
o By convention a dash in the main diagonal position of a
correlation matrix indicates the correlation with itself.
50
Table 5
Intercorrelations for Dimensions of Achievement Scale and Five other Need for Achievement
Measures
Measure 1 2 3 4 5 6
1. Dimensions of Achievement Scale --
2. Brunswick Achievement Measure .76 --
3. Need for Achivement Inventory .70 .88 --
4. Achievement Perception Test .56 .65 .61 --
5. Peer rating of need for achievement .45 .5 5 .52 .67 --
6. Self - rating of need for achivement .53 .56 .43 .37 .87 --
Table Notes • General Notes
o Qualifies, explains, or provides information relating to the table
(abbreviations, symbols, references and the like).
51
Table 6
Predictors of Self Reported Moral Behavior
Self - reported moral behavior
Model 2
Variable Model 1 B B 95% CI
Constant 3.192** 2.99** [2.37, 3.62]
Gender 0.18* 0.17 [ - 0.00, 0.33]
Age - 0.06 - 0.05 [ - 0.14, 0.03]
Social desirability bias - 0.08** - 0.08** [ - 0.10, - 0.05]
Moral identity internalization - 0.17** - 0.16 [ - 0.26, - 0.06]
Moral identity symbolization - 0.07* 0.06 [ - 0.01, 0.12]
Perceptual moral attentiveness 0.07* [0.00, 0.13]
Reflective moral attentiveness - 0.01 [ - 0.08, 0.06]
R 2 .29 .31
F 19.07** 14.46**
R 2 .01
F 2.39 Note. N = 242. CI = confidence interval . . Adapted from “Moral Attentiveness: Who Pays Attention to the Moral Aspects of Life?,” by S. J. Reynolds, 2008, Journal of Applied Psychology, 93, p. 1035. Copyright 2008 by the American Psychologi cal Association. * p < .05 . * * p < . 0 1
Table Notes
• Specific Notes
o Refers to a particular column, row, or cell.
o Indicated by superscript lowercase letter (e.g., a,b,c).
Table 6
Individual and Family Characteristics as a Percentage of the Sample
52
Characteristic
Mother
( n = 750)
Father
( n = 466)
Child
( n = 750)
Na tivity a
Mexico 74.2 (38.2) 80.0 (44.2) 29.7
United States 25.8 (61.8) 20.0 (55.8) 70.3
Language preference b
English 30.2 (52.7) 23.2 (52.7) 82.5 (70.0)
Spanish 69.8 (48.3) 76.8 (48.3) 17.5 (30.0) Note. Adapted from “ Sampling and Recruitment in Studies of Cultural Influences on Adjustment: A Case Study with Mexican
Americans, ” by M. Roosa, F. F. Liu, M. Torres, N. A. Gonz ales, G. P. Knight, and D. Saenz, 2008, Journal of Family
Psychology, 22, p. 3 00. Copyright 2008 by the American Psychological Association. a Census data are for all women or men and are not limited to parents or adults in our age group.
b The most comparable census
data for mothers and fathers are for all adults 18 and older and for children are for 15 to 17 year olds.
Table Notes
• Probability Note
o Indicate how asterisk are used in a table to indicate p values.
o Assign the same number of asterisks from table to table within
your paper, such as *p < .05, **p < .01, and ***p < .001.
Table 3
Analysis of Covariance of Posttest Knowledge Scores as a Function of Instruction Condition and Tutor
Help, with Pretest Knowledge Scores and Covariates
53
Source df SS M S F ω 2
Covariate 1 39.31 9 .31 4.22 ** .05
Instruct ion condition (IC) 2 38.78 1 9 .39 2.50* .03
T utor held (TH) 2 30.26 3 0 .26 3.90** .04
IC X TH 2 76.04 3 8 .02 4.90** .06
Error 54 419.04 7 .76
Total 60 573.43 9 .56
* p < .05. ** p < .0 1
Table Notes
• To distinguish between one-tailed and two-tailed tests in the
same table use an asterisk for the two-tailed p values and an
alternate symbol for the one-tailed p values.
*p < .05, two-tailed. **p < .01, two-tailed. †p < .05, one-tailed. †p < .01,
one-tailed.
• Order the notes in the following sequences: general note,
specific note, probability note.
• Each type note begins flush left (no indentation).
Note. The participants.... Responses
an = 25. bn = 42.
*p < .05. **p < .01.
54
Figures
55
General Information
• Figures can be used to:
o Illustrate complex theoretical formulations.
o Represent a theory graphically through a set of path
models.
o Show the sample flow of subjects through a
randomized experiment.
o Flow of participants in a survey study.
o Illustrate the results of a one-way design with error
bars representing precision of the resulting estimates.
o Empirical results from a complex multivariate model.
o Details of an experimental laboratory set-up. 56
Standards
• Simplicity, clarity, continuity and information value.
• Checklist for a good figure:
o Augments the text.
o Conveys only essential facts.
o Omits visually distracting detail.
o Is easy to read, its elements are large enough to read.
o Is easy to understand.
o Is consistent with and in the same style as similar figures in the same article.
• Do not forget that:
o Lines are smooth and sharp.
o Inside the Figure, sans serif may be used because is simple.
o Elements within the figure are labeled or explained.
57
58
Figures
• Legend: Is an integral part of the figure; therefore, it should have the same kind and proportion of lettering that appears in the rest of the figure. Capitalize major words in the legend.
• Caption: It serves both as an explanation of the figure and as a figure title. After the descriptive phrase, add any information needed to clarify the figure including any acknowledgement that a figure is reproduced from another source. They should be placed below the figure.
Legends
• Integral part of the figure
• It should have the same kind
and proportion of lettering
that appear in the rest of the
figures
• Capitalize major words in the
legend
59
Legends
Captions
• Explanation and title of the figure.
• The figure itself should not include a title.
• The caption should be a brief but descriptive phrase.
Too brief: Figure 3. Fixation duration
Sufficiently descriptive: Figure 3. Fixation duration as a function of the
delay between the beginning of eye fixation and the onset of the stimulus in
Experiment 1.
• After the descriptive phrase, add nay information needed to
clarify the figure.
60
61
Figure Example
Figure 1. Conceptual framework of the relationship between TQM practices and
operating and business performance.
Home Literacy
Environment
(Predictors)
Language and
Literacy Skill
(Criterion)
Mediators (Phonological Awareness,
Preschool Letter Identification, Vocabulary)
c
a b
c’
a) Direct pathway
b) Indirect or Mediated Pathway
Home Literacy
Environment
(Predictors)
Language and
Literacy Skill
(Criterion)
Figure 1. Generic mediation model being tested (on the basis of Baron & Kenny, 1986).
Adapted from “Preschool Home Literacy Practices and Children’s Literacy Development: A longitudinal
Analysis,” by M. Hood, E. Conlon, and G. Andrews, 2008, Journal of Educational Psychology, 100, p. 259.
Copyright 2008 by the American Psychological Association.
62
Figure Example
Quoting
63
Direct Quotation of Sources
• If the quotation has less than 40 words, incorporate it into text and enclose the quotation with double quotation marks.
Hofstede (1991) defined culture as “the collective programming of the mind which distinguishes the members of one group or category of people from another” (p. 5).
“In designing new products and services, we use the requirements of domestic customers” (Samson & Terziovski, 1999, p. 406).
64
Direct Quotation of Sources
• If the quotation comprises 40 or more words, display it in a freestanding block of text and omit the quotation marks. Indent the block from the left margin.
Schein (1992) defined culture as the following:
A pattern of shared basic assumptions that the group learned as it
solved its problems of external adaptation and of internal integration,
that has worked well enough to be considered valid and, therefore, to
be taught to new members as the correct way to perceive, to think, and
to feel in relation to those problems. (p. 12)
65
References
66
Citing References in Text
• One work by one author
o The surname of the author (do not include suffixes such as Jr.) and the year of
publication are inserted in the text at the appropriate point:
Lagrosen (2003) found that cultural dimensions of uncertainty avoidance
and individualism-collectivism have an influence on the TQM principles.
The cultural dimensions of uncertainty avoidance and individualism-
collectivism have an influence on the TQM principles (Lagrosen, 2003).
In 2003, Lagrosen found that cultural dimensions of uncertainty
avoidance and individualism-collectivism have an influence on the TQM
Principles.
67
Citing References in Text
• One work by multiple authors
o When the work has two authors, cite both names every time the
reference occurs in text.
As Sashan and Datta (2005) demostrated...
...as has been shown (Sashan & Datta, 2005).
o When the work has three, four, or five authors, cite all authors the first time the reference occurs; in subsequent citations, include only the surname of the first author followed by “et al.” and the year if it is the first citation of the reference within a paragraph.
Bolumole, Frankel, and Naslund (2007) found... [First citation in text].
Bolumole et al. (2007) found [Subsequent citations ]
68
Citing References in Text
• One work by multiple authors o Exception: If two references of more than three surnames with the same
year shorten to the same form, cite the surnames of the first authors and
of as many of the subsequent authors as necessary to distinguish the
two references, followed by a comma and “et al.”.
Ahire, Golhar, and Waller (1996) – Ahire, Waller, and Golhar (1996)
• Ahire, Golhar, et al. (1996)
• Ahire, Waller, et al. (1996)
69
Citing References in Text
• One work by six or more authors
o Cite only the surname of the first author followed by “et al.” and the year for the first and subsequent citations.
o If two references with six or more authors shorten to the same form, cite the surnames of the first authors and of as many of the subsequent authors as necessary to distinguish the two references, followed by a comma and “et al.”
70
Citing References in Text
• Groups as authors
o The names of groups that serve as authors are spelled out each time they appear in a text citation and in the subsequent citations, if the abbreviation is familiar, it may be abbreviate the name in second and subsequent citations.
Instituto Nacional de Estadística e Informática (INEI, 2010) [First citation]
(Instituto Nacional de Estadística e Informática [INEI], 2010) [First citation]
INEI (2010) [Second and subsequent citations]
71
Type of Citation First citation in
text
Subsequent
citations in text
Parenthetical
format, first citation
in text
Parenthetical format,
subsequent citations
in text
One work by one
author
Walker (2007) Walker (2007) (Walker, 2007) (Walker, 2007)
One work by two
authors
Walker and Allen
(2004)
Walker and Allen
(2004)
(Walker & Allen,
2004)
(Walker & Allen,
2004)
One work by three
authors
Bradley, Ramirez,
and Soo (1999)
Bradley et al.
(1999)
(Bradley, Ramirez, &
Soo, 1999)
(Bradley et al., 1999)
One work by four
authors
Bradley, Ramirez,
Soo, and Walsh
(2006)
Bradley et al.
(2006)
(Bradley, Ramirez,
Soo, & Walsh, 2006)
(Bradley et al., 2006)
One work by five
authors
Walker, Allen,
Bradley, Ramirez,
and Soo (2008)
Walker et al. (2008) (Walker, Allen,
Bradley, Ramirez, &
Soo, 2008)
(Walker et al., 2008)
One work by six
authors
Wasserstein et al.
(2005)
Wasserstein et al.
(2005)
(Wasserstein et al.,
2005)
(Wasserstein et al.,
2005)
Groups (readily
identified through
abbreviation) as
authors
National Institute of
Mental Health
(NIMH, 2003)
NIMH (2003) (National Institute of
Mental Health
[NIMH], 2003)
(NIMH, 2003)
Groups (no
abbreviation) as
authors
University of
Pittsburgh (2005)
University of
Pittsburgh (2005)
(University of
Pittsburgh, 2005)
(University of
Pittsburgh, 2005)
Citing References in Text
• Authors with the same surname
o Include the first author’s initial in all text citations, even if
the year of publication differs.
References:
Light, I. (2006).
Light, M. A., & Light, I. H. (2008).
Text
Among studies, we review M. A. Light and Light (2008) and I. Light
(2006).
73
Citing References in Text
• Two or more works within the same parenthesis o Order the citations of two or more works within the same parentheses
alphabetically in the same order they appear in the reference list. Separate the citations with semicolons.
Several studies (Miller, 1999; Shafranske & Mahoney, 1998)
o Identify works by the same author by year of publication. Give the authors’ surnames once; for each subsequent work, give only the date.
Several studies (Porter, 1981, 1992)
o When the work of one author has the same publication date, identify them by the suffixes a, b, c, and so forth, after the year; repeat the year.
Training materials are available (Department of Veterans Affairs, 2001, 2003a, 2003b).
74
Citing References in Text
• Secondary sources
o Use secondary sources sparingly, for instance, when the
original work is out of print, unavailable through usual
sources, or not available in English.
o Put the secondary source in the reference list; in text, name
the original work and give a citation for the secondary
source.
Allport’s diary (as cited in Nicholson, 2003)
75
Reference List
• Begin in a new page.
• References are listed in alphabetical order.
• One-author entries by the same author are arranged by year of publication, the earliest first:
Upenieks, V. (2003)
Upenieks, V. (2005)
• One-author entries precede multiple-author entries beginning with the same surname:
Alleyne, R. L. (2001)
Alleyne, R. L., & Evans, A. J. (1999)
76
References
1. First, write the authors’ surname and then their names’ initials; give in
parenthesis the year the work was published
Author, A. A., Author B. B., & Author C. C. (year).
2. Title: Capitalize only the first word of the title and of the subtitle, if any
and any proper noun.
3. In each entry the first line is flush left, while subsequent lines are
indented.
4. Double-space all reference entries.
5. Some publications include the digital object identifier (DOI), a unique
alphanumeric string assigned by a registration the International DOI
Foundation. We must provide the DOI, if one has been assigned, at the
end of the reference, using this format: doi:10.1037/0278-6133.27.3.379
77
References: Books
• For an entire book:
Author, A. A. (2001). Title of work. Location: Publisher
Author, A. A., & Author, B. B. (2003) Title of work. Location: Publisher.
• For a chapter in a book:
Author, A. A. (2001). Title of chapter. In A. Editor & B. Editor (Eds.),
Title of book (pp. xx-xx). Location: Publisher.
78
Locations
• When citing books and reports, the publisher's location (city and
state or, if outside the United States, city and country) should be
indicated.
• Locations from United States: the names of U.S. states and
territories are placed in the reference list, using the official two-letter
U.S. Postal Service abbreviations.
• Locations outside the United States: spell out the city and the
country names. Use a colon after the location.
79
Locations
• When the author is also the publisher, use Author to indicate the
publisher.
• Examples:
New York, NY: McGraw-Hill.
Washington, DC: Author.
Newbury Park, CA: Sage.
Pretoria, South Africa: Unisa.
80
References: Journals • General reference form
Author, A. A., Author, B. B., & Author, C. C. (year). Title of the article. Title of
Periodical,Vol(N°), pp-pp.
• More than seven authors
Gilbert, D. G., McClernon, J. F., Rabinovich, N. E., Sugai, C., Plath, L. C., Asgaard, G., ...&
Botros, N. (2004). Effects of quitting smoking on EEG activation and attention last
for more than 31 days and are more severe with stress, dependence, DRD2 A1 allele,
and depressive traits. Nicotine and Tobacco Research, 6(1), 249-267.
doi:10.1080/14622200410001676305
• In-press article posted in a preprint archive
Briscoe, R. (in press). Egocentric spatial representation in action and perception.
Philosophy and Phenomenological Research. Retrieved from
http://cogprints.org/5780/1/ECSRAP.F07.pdf
81
References: Examples • Magazine article
Chamberlin, J., Novotney, A., Packard, E., & Price, M. (2008, May). Enhancing
worker well-being: Occupational health psychologists convene to share their
research on work, stress, and health. Monitor on Psychology, 59(5), 26-29.
• Newspaper article
Schwartz, J. (1993, September 30). Obesity affects economic, social status. The
Washington Post, pp. A1, A4.
• Online newspaper article
Brody, J. E. (2007, December 11). Mental reserves keep brain agile. The New York
Times. Retrieved from http://www.nytimes.com
82
References: Examples
• Technical and Research Report
Author, A. A. (year). Title of work (Report No. xxx). Location:
Publisher.
Krishna, A., & Uphoff, N. (1999). Mapping and measuring social capital: A
conceptual and empirical study of collective action for conserving
and developing watersheds in Rajasthan, India (Working paper N°13).
Retrieved from
http://www.wds.worldbank.org/external/default/WDSContentSe
ver/WDSP/IB/2001/10/05/000094946_01092704070811/Rende
red/PDF/multi0page.pdf
83
References: Dissertations and Theses
• Doctoral dissertations and Master’s theses available from a database service
Author, A. A. (year). Title of the doctoral dissertation or master’s thesis (Doctoral
dissertation or master’s thesis). Retrieved from Name of database. (Accession
or Order N°.).
Emale, J. M. (2010). An examination of how conglomerates impact small-medium
enterprises in their relationship (Doctoral dissertation). Retrieved from
ProQuest Dissertations and Theses database. (Publication No. AAT 3407430)
• Unpublished dissertations or thesis
Author, A. A. (year). Title of the doctoral dissertation or master’s thesis
(Doctoral dissertation or master’s thesis). Name of Institution, Location.
84