Aquaculture Defined?

• The art of cultivating the natural produce of water.

• Farming of aquatic organisms in natural or controlled marine or freshwater environments

• Rearing of aquatic organisms under controlled or semi-controlled conditions.

• Husbandry of organisms in an aquatic ecosystem

• Rearing of aquatic organisms under controlled or semi-controlled conditions

• Mariculture – (old name) marine or brackish water

History of Aquaculture

• Egyptian tombs have bas-relief of fish (tilapia) being removed from ponds – 2500 B.C.

• Carp were farmed in China as early as 2500 B.C.

• England – 1500 A.D. carp culture was introduced

• U.S. – first fish hatchery was in Oregon 1877

Aquaculture

Over the past three decades, aquaculture hasbecome the fastest growing food producingsector in the world. Aquaculture hasexpanded, diversified, intensified andadvanced technologically, and, as a result, itscontribution to aquatic food production hasalso increased significantly.

Aquaculture and Seafood

Aquaculture is growing as a source of the world’s seafood supply.

Capture from the oceans is maximized.

Aquaculture

Globally, more “food fish” is consumed on a percapita basis than any other type of meat oranimal proteinFish (16.0 kg per capita supply in 1998),Pork (14.9 kg in 1998),Poultry (10.1 kg in 1998),beef and veal (9.8 kg in 1998)

Sources: (Delgado et. al., 2003).

Benefits of Aquaculture

Ability to bring fresh, or even live, seafood to market at a specific time and quantity.

US seafood market

Asian fresh seafood market

0

0.5

1

1.5

2

2.5

19

50

19

54

19

58

19

62

19

66

19

70

19

74

19

78

19

82

19

86

19

90

19

94

19

98

20

02

Mil

lio

ns

ton

s

Year

TOTAL

Plants

Fish

Molluscs

Aquaculture = emerging industry in Europe

FISHSTAT (March 2007)

Current Aquaculture Production

• Aquaculture is the fastest growing sector of U.S. agriculture with an approximate annual growth rate of 10%

• Currently aquaculture accounts for 25% of all seafood consumed in the U.S.

World Aquaculture Production

• In 2000 45.51 million metric tons by weight of aquaculture products

• Equal to US $56.47 billion

• China is the largest aquaculture producing country in the world

Percent of Total Food Fish Supplied by Aquaculture

Aquaculture Production, Ocean Fisheries, and Fishmeal Production

Aquaculture

In Palestine, the entire consumption of animal proteinof the Palestinians is made up of almost chicken, sheepand beef with hardly any fish.

The average per capita monthly consumption in thePalestinian Territories, in terms of Jordanian dinar is:meat and poultry JD9, bread and cereals JD5,vegetables, legumes and tubers JD4, fruits and nutsJD3, dairy products and eggs JD3, sugar andconfectionery JD2, and fish and oil just JD1. Thisreflects the insignificant level of fish in their diet.

Aquaculture in Palestine

Eating too much meat and poultry is an unhealthy nutrition.

Meat and poultry are high in cholesterol resulting in higher bloodcholesterol.

High cholesterol increases the risk of coronary heart disease weakeningthe heart and making it less efficient.

The risk among Palestinians is compounded with other factors, such assmoking and high blood pressure. Fish has very little, if any, dietarycholesterol. Indeed, a survey carried out by the Israel Ministry of Healthhas shown that Palestinians living in East Jerusalem have much highercoronary heart disease mortality than Jews living in Jerusalem (Kark J.,2000). A primary contributing factor is the dietary habitats of thePalestinians. Palestinians are not eating fish.

• Aquaculture in the Palestinian authority region• The political factors, combined with environmental, economic and

infrastructural barriers resulted in a sharp decline in the fishery catch and adeficit in fish supply of the Mediterranean.

• The fishery catch dropped dramatically from over 3,700 metric tons in 1970to less than 510 metric tons in 1991 (FAO).

• After May 1994, the fishing zone was expanded and several internationally,funded projects to enhance the fishery sector are currently in the GazaStrip. However, in view of the current trend of industrialization in the area,the increased pollution of the Gaza Strip coastal area and degradation ofthe marine environment marine fish quality will certainly deteriorate andthreaten the safety of the consumer. In addition, the fishery catch, as oftoday, is not enough to satisfy the local demand for fish.

• Introducing Aquaculture to the Palestine Authority seems vital to overcomethe shortage of fish supply. Several other reasons justify the preference ofaquaculture over fishery in the PA.

Why Aquaculture Products?

• U.S. or locally grown (Exclusive Economic Zones)

• Control: Food fed, Density, Quality of product

• Sustainable in the face of Finite Resources—overfishing and habitat destruction antangonists

• Diversify farm income

• Proximity—Farms may be closer to local markets.

• Fuel Cost $$$

Why Aquaculture Products?

• Health Consciousness (protein, FA’s, micronutrients)

-2 fish meals/week decreases mortality from heart problems 50%

-Omega-3 fatty acids decreases occurrence of heart disease (oily marine fish – Salmon)

• American Cancer Association– -Regular fish consumption decreases chances of colon cancer 50%

• Efficiency of growth

Feed Conversion (grain:flesh) feed conversion rate, or feed conversion efficiency (FCE), is a measure of an animal's efficiency in converting feed mass into increased body mass.

Feed Conversion (grain:flesh)

• Beef cattle on feedlot 8:1

• Swine 3.3:1

• Poultry 2.25:1

• Rainbow trout 1.5:1

• Tilapia 1.25:1

• fish are so efficient!

• Increased production beyond the natural sustainablefishery yield for a given water volume.

• Less fluctuation and shortfalls in catch due toseasonability

• Better production efficiency of fish protein andenhancement of fish quality.

• Improved water quality for irrigation purposes whenintegrated with the existing irritation systems andutilization water bodies unsuitable for domestic oragricultural purposes.

• Good use of the brackish water that is found in manylocations in the (west Bank region).

Why Aquaculture Products?

Aquaculture is based on water

The key to the successful culture of aquatic organisms is maintenance of water quality.

Poor water quality = poor harvest.

Fish ponds in China

To a great extent water quality determines the success or failure of a fish farming operation

WATER IN AQUACULTURE SYSTEMS

Source

From where?

underground

surface

Wells• Types

–

–

• Advantages– no predators– no pathogens

• Disadvantages–

– low O2

Springs

• Advantages

–

– few or no predators

– no pathogens

• Disadvantages

–

Rivers, Lakes and Streams

• Advantages

– large volumes

– inexpensive

• Disadvantages

–

– excessive nutrients

Surface

• Advantages

– inexpensive

• Disadvantages

– contaminates

–

Municipal

• Advantages–

– no predators–

• Disadvantages– disinfectants

•

• chloramines–

Properties of Water

Aqueous Terrestrial

• Oxygen 0-14 mg/L 21%

• Temperature + 10˚C + 40˚C

• Density Variable (4˚C) Constant

• Composition Variable* Constant

*“Universal Solvent”

Dissolved Oxygen

• Importance

– highest cause of mortality

• Solubility

– variables

• Safe levels

– > 5mg/l

Testing Water Quality

Water quality parameters

often tested are:

Dissolved oxygen

Water temperature

pH

Total Ammonia Nitrogen

Nitrite/Nitrate

Alkalinity/Hardness

Salinity

Water test kit

Water Aeration

Water Quality

During culture

Turbid water

Clear water

Fertile water

NITRIFICATION /

DENITRIFICATION

NO3- N2NO2

- NO N2O

NH3/NH4+ NO3

-+ O2

NO2-

Nitrification:

Denitrification (Anaerobic processes):

Nitrification

NO3-NH3

1½ O2

nitrosomonas nitrobacter

1½ O2

NO2-

• Requires 3 moles oxygen to convert one mole of ammonia to nitrate

•

Biofilters

0.8

0.6

0.4

0.2

0.02 6 10 14 18 22

8

6

4

2

0

Ammonia(mg/l)

Nitrites &Nitrates(mg/l)

NHNO

NO

23

3

Time in Days

Time Requiredfor Bio-Filter to Mature

Factors that influence water quality

Photosynthesis/Respiration

Water temperature

Fertilization

Feeds

Aeration

Water exchange

Fish perform allbodily functions in water

• Eat

• Breathe

• Take in and lose salts

WATER IN AQUACULTURE SYSTEMS

Water Balance in Freshwater Fish

Salts

Large quantitiesof dilute urine

Ammonia

Water

Water Balance in Saltwater Fish

Small quantities ofconcentrated urine

Ammonia

Water

Drinkssea water

Water Resources

• Water quality

• Water quantity

• Water sources

Inadequate water quality causes more losses than any

other problem!

Uniform dissolved O in pond2

Decomposingmaterials

Low dissolvedoxygen (cool)

High dissolvedoxygen (warm)

Low dissolved oxygen -possible fish kill

TurnoverTurnover

Relationships

Pre-Use treatmentSterilization

• Ultraviolet –•• Chlorination-de-chlorination –•

Temperature control• Heating • Chilling

WATER IN AQUACULTURE SYSTEMS

Water utilization• Open water systems

• Flow-through -Water enters pond or series of ponds and exits with/without treatment

-

-

WATER IN AQUACULTURE SYSTEMS

WATER IN AQUACULTURE SYSTEMS

• Ponds

• Raceways

• Cages

• Recirculating aquaculture systems

Ponds

• Minimum requirement

– to replace evaporation

–

Raceways

• Minimum requirement

– 500 gal/min. or 1900L/min

• Rational

–

–

Recirculating Aquaculture Systems

• Minimum requirement– varies depending on size of

system–

• Rational– needed to backflush filtersduring harvesting–

–

Aquaculture Classified

• Intensive Aquaculture: Highly controlled, high density, RAS, raceways, confined (industrialized)

•Extensive Aquaculture: Minimal control,

lower density, ponds, third world

World Aquaculture

Proportion of Total Aquaculture Production for Different Taxonomic Groups

Commonly Cultured Fish

• Foodfish

– Many species

• Ornamental fish

– Aquaria

– Backyard ponds

• Bait fish

– Minnows

– Shiners

– Goldfish (carp)

• Natural stock enhancement

– Salmon

– Trout

– Black sea bass

– Red Drum

– Many others…

Commonly Cultured Crustaceans

• Marine (Penaeid) shrimp

• Freshwater shrimp (prawns)

• Crabs

• Crayfish

• Lobsters

• Brine Shrimp

Commonly Cultured Molluscs

• Clams

• Oysters

• Mussels

• Abalone (Sea snails

• Urchins

Catfish

Catfish have widely been caught and farmed forfood for hundreds of years in Africa, Asia,Europe, and North America. Judgments as to thequality and flavor vary, with some food criticsconsidering catfish as being excellent food, whileothers dismiss them as watery and lacking inflavor.

Tilapia- an important species in aquaculture

• During recent years, tilapiine fish have become one of the mostcommercially important groups of freshwater fish in world aquaculture.They are indigenous to African countries but their distribution haswidened as a result of artificial introduction to more than 100 tropical andsubtropical countries.

Tilapia- an important species in aquaculture

Tilapia are highly suitable for aquaculture because of several physiological attributes: • they have high growth potential• they tolerate a variety of environmental conditions and can

adapt to wide ranges of salinity, oxygen tension, and overcrowding (Watanabe et al., 1985)

• they exhibit relatively short reproductive cycles and breed prolifically under culture conditions (Coward and Bromage, 2000)

• they are strongly resistant to disease and infection.• they are acquiescent to handling (Rothbard et al., 1983).• they are highly valued by humans as food and have a large

international market (Coward and Bromage, 2000).

• Tilapia- an important species in aquaculture

• Culture of tilapia has progressed swiftly during recent years,particularly in Thailand, Taiwan, the Philippines and China.Currently, tilapia are the third most cultured fish after carp andsalmonids, but according to a report of the American TilapiaAssociation they will become the most important aquaculture fishthis century. Total harvest figures for tilapia grew from 515,000tones in 1984 to 1.5 million tons in 2002, mostly as a result ofaquaculture expansion. Total production of fish from aquaculturewill have to increase by about 1 million tons a year (from the 2001level of 37.5 million tones to 53.6 million tones) until the year 2020to supply the human food fish demand of 127.8 millions (Delgado etal., 2003).Tilapia consumption has been rapidly increasing in manycountries e.g. since 1995 annual retail sales of tilapia haveconsistently surpassed those of trout in the USA.

• Tilapia- an important species in aquaculture

• Optimization of hatchery efficiency is of greatimportance if production is to be maximizedand maintained. Scarcity of water has alwaysbeen the dominant factor in agriculture, as ithas been throughout most of the arid MiddleEast. There is thus a necessity to maximize theefficiency of water utilization in the cultureprocess, meaning as much purification andrecirculation of water as possible.

Carp Culture

Carp Aquaculture

• Possibly the oldest form of aquaculture in the known world.

• Currently the largest (2/3 of ALL fish production is carp)

• Three key species:

– Grass Carp

– Silver Carp

– Bighead carp

Grass Carp

Silver Carp

Bighead carp

Introduction

• Why carp?

• Eat low on the food chain.

• Tolerate poor water quality

• Adapt to both alkaline and acidic water!

Broodfish• Broodfish should be selected at 2-4 years of age.

• Grown in ponds up to 1 to 10 acres (0.4 to 4 ha).

• Stock males and females at 1:1 or 2:3

• Preferred Temperature 77°F.

• Hormone injection (hCG) can be used to induce ovulation.

• Expect ~250,00 eggs/quart of liquid during incubation.

Culture Methods

• Overall carp culture is similar to other warm water fish culture.

• Fry will go through a “green water” stage

• Densities of >500,000 fry/a (1.25 million/ha) are possible!

Feeding

• Grass carp: can be reared on plants alone, but also perform well on pellets.

• Bighead are eat detritus and zooplankton in the wild, but also take to pellets!

• Silver carp are primarily planktonivores.

Feeding

Yield?

• Carp ponds often yield 2000-5000 lbs./acre

1 lbs. = 0.45359237 kg

One international acre is defined as 4046.8564224 square metres

• Often sold live or whole on ice.

?

More on carp...

• Grass carp are a member of the Order Cypriniformes and Family Cyprinidae. Cyprinidae is the largest family of freshwater fish species and includes all the minnows and carps.

• Grass carp: Native to Asian rivers, but stocked widely across the US.

Eggs/Fertilization/Hatching

• Grass carp spawn naturally only in rivers with high water flows and appropriate temperature.

• Pond spawning does not take place.

Feeding/Growth

• Grass carp consume vegetation intermittently at temperatures as low as 37 oF (3 oC).

• They eat steadily at 50 to 60 oF (10 to16 oC), with optimal consumption at temperatures between 70 and 86 oF (21 and 30 oC).

Additional Cultured Organisms• Seaweed

– Food for Abalone

– Extraction of nutrients for vitamins

• Corals / Sponges / Sea Fans

– Extraction of medicines

– Aquarium trade• Live rock

– Aquarium trade

THE PRACTICE OF SUSTAINABLE AQUACULTURE

PROPER LAND USE

WATER USE, CONSERVATION, AND REUSE

FEEDING EFFICIENCY

• Animal protein is more expensive than plant protein

• Select species “low in the food chain”

• Polyculture systems use feed more efficiently

ENERGY EFFICIENCY

• Ideal energy source for aquaculture is the sun (warm the water, energy for photosynthesis)

• Cages and pens can reduce energy required for harvesting

• Greenhouses can be used to extend growing season

Collection and concentration of

suspended particles (mostly OM)

Sludge

Physico-chemical

processes

Particulate

organic

matter

SAPROPHAGOUS PATHWAY

Fungi

Worms

Microfauna

Bacteria

DenitrificationNitrification

NO3-NH3/NH4

+

NO3- N2

Sea cucumber

Ahlgren, 1998

HERBIVORY PATHWAY

Microalgae

Cyanobacteria Macroalgae

Biomass (growth)

Nutrient

CO2

For harvest

and sale

Food source for

other organisms

CASE STUDY:« RECIRCULATING SYSTEMS »

Arbiv & Van Rijn, 1995

« fresh » water

(3m3/day)

Sedimentation pond

and mechanical

filtration systems

Carps

Biofiltration

bacteria

CASE STUDY:« RECIRCULATING SYSTEMS »

Twarowska et al., 1997

« fresh » water = 7%

of the system volume

Tilapia

Sedimentation pond

and mechanical

filtration systems

18% of feed

volatile

solids inputBiofiltration

bacteria

65% of mean TAN

concentration

INTEGRATED AQUACULTURE

Traditional vs. Integrated Multi-

tropic Aquaculture of Gracilaria

chilensis60% salmanoid feed stays in water

Gracilaria chilensis (seaweed) removes amonia

and nitrates from waterhttp://www.texasaquaculture.org/

Integrated aquaculture = raising fish with another

crop

http://land.allears.net/blogs/jackspence/LWTL32.jpg

Traditional vs. Integrated Multi-

tropic Aquaculture of Gracilaria

chilensis

Study examines potential of seaweed to filter

excess nutrients from salmon farms

CASE STUDY: « INTEGRATED AQUACULTURE SYSTEMS »

GENESIS, 2001-2004

Sea bass

Nutrients POM

LightOysters

High-value products

Time-dynamic

culture

High-

management

demands

Diatoms

+ Si

CASE STUDY: « INTEGRATED AQUACULTURE SYSTEMS »

SEAPURA, 2001-2004

Palmaria

Gracilaria

Porphyra

Chondrus

CASE STUDY: « INTEGRATED AQUACULTURE SYSTEMS »

SeaOr Marine farm: Shpigel et al., 1993; Neori et al., 2000; 2004

3 kgFeed

LightUlva lactuca

Oysters

Microalgae

Wastes POM and dissolved

matter returned back to the sea = 4,25% of TAN

Settling faeces = 32,8% of TAN

1 kg

7,8 kg

3 kg

Retention = 63% of TAN

NEW DEFINITION OF

INTEGRATION

Several organisms with different trophic pathways

Mutual benefits achieved ecologically

Conversion into biomass (≠ dilution)

Production of each organisms optimized

Aims of ‘bio-diversification’:

To reduce environmental impacts of aquaculture activity

To increase the commercial value of the system

Proper integration = Water re-used

Integrated recirculating aquaculture

Herbivory

conversion

Detrivorous

conversion

AbaloneOysters

Microalgae Macroalgae

OVERALL NUTRIENT BALANCE

40-70% feed N

10-55% feed P

5-25% feed N

25-45% feed P

50-80% feed N

35-85% feed PWASTES

Bacteria Worms

BIOMASS CONVERSION =

7% feed N and 6% feed P

Bacteria

BIOMASS CONVERSION =

4-15% feed N and 25-45% feed P Schneider et al., 2005

UNSOLVED PROBLEMS

Farmer pond

Pictures of Current aquaculture practice

Integrated with horticulture

Integration with Rice

Integration with chicken

Farmer’s pond

Fish seed collection from wild

ORGANIC AQUACULTURE

ORGANIC AQUACULTURE

• Organic aquaculture is the production of aquacropswithout “off-farm” inputs

• Aquacrops cannot receive any therapeutic chemicals or feed additives

• Genetic engineering and cloning are not allowed

• No discharge of wastewater into the natural environment

• Outside contaminants must be kept from the water supply

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT OF AQUACULTURE