architectural restoration

56
EPOKA UNIVERSITY Tirana, ALBANIA 2011 Faculty of Engineering and Architecture Department of Architecture Arch 322 Historical Environment and Conservation Lida MIRAJ Lesson 6

Upload: awen

Post on 11-Feb-2016

40 views

Category:

Documents


0 download

DESCRIPTION

EPOKA UNIVERSITY Tirana, ALBANIA 2011 Faculty of Engineering and Architecture Department of Architecture Arch 322 Historical Environment and Conservation Lida MIRAJ Lesson 6. Historic Building Survey, Inspection and Recording. Design, relief, environment. Diagnosis of Building Failures. - PowerPoint PPT Presentation

TRANSCRIPT

Page 1: Architectural Restoration

EPOKA UNIVERSITYTirana, ALBANIA

2011 

Faculty of Engineering and ArchitectureDepartment of Architecture

Arch 322Historical Environment and Conservation

Lida MIRAJ

Lesson 6

 

Page 2: Architectural Restoration

• Historic Building Survey, Inspection and Recording. Design, relief, environment.Diagnosis of Building Failures.

Page 3: Architectural Restoration

Architectural Restoration

 History of Architectural Techniques.   The  informative and  methodological  aspect,  the  traditional architectural cultures, their language system and the technique-constructive  aspects.    Architectural  relief and the critical reading of specific examples.

Page 4: Architectural Restoration

Vitruvius,  writing  around  25  BC  in  his  Ten Books on Architecture,  distinguished  types  of  aggregate appropriate  for  the  preparation  of  lime  mortars.  For structural  mortars,  he  recommended  pozzolana,  which were  volcanic  sands  from  the  sandlike  beds  of  Puteoli brownish-yellow-gray  in  color  near Naples  and  reddish-brown at Rome. Vitruvius specifies a ratio of 1 part lime to 3 parts pozzolana for cements used in buildings and a 1:2  ratio  of  lime  to  pulvis  Puteolanus  for  underwater work,  essentially  the  same  ratio  mixed  today  for concrete used at sea

Page 5: Architectural Restoration

• By  the  middle  of  the  1st  century,  the  principles  of underwater  construction  in  concrete were well  known to Roman builders. The City of Caesarea was the earliest known  example  to  have  made  use  of  underwater Roman concrete technology on such a large scale.

• Rebuilding Rome after the fire in 64 AD, which destroyed large portions of the city, the new building code by Nero consisted of largely brick-faced concrete. This appears to have  encouraged  the  development  of  the  brick  and concrete industries.

Page 6: Architectural Restoration

In most usage, the raw concrete surface was considered unsightly and some sort of facing was applied.  Different techniques were characteristic of different periods and included:

• Opus incertum: small irregular stones.• Opus reticulatum: small squared tuff blocks laid in a diamond 

pattern.• Opus quadratum: regularly laid courses of ashlars.• Opus latericium: regularly laid courses of brick.• Opus spicatum: brick laid in a herringbone pattern.• Opus vittatum: square tuff blocks intersected by brick bands at 

regular and irregular distances.• Opus africanum: vertical chains of upright blocks with 

alternating horizontal blocks.• Opus testaceum: thick horizontal brick work.

Page 7: Architectural Restoration

Roman concrete (also called Opus caementicium) was  a  material  used  in  construction  during  the late Roman Republic through the whole history of the  Roman  Empire.  Roman  concrete  was  based on a hydraulic-setting cement with many material qualities  similar  to modern  Portland  cement.  By the middle  of  the  1st  century,  the material  was used frequently as brick-faced concrete, although variations  in  aggregate  allowed  different arrangements  of  materials.  Further  innovative developments  in  the  material,  coined  the Concrete  Revolution,  contributed  to  structurally complicated forms, such as the Pantheon dome.

Page 8: Architectural Restoration

Concrete,  and  in  particular,  the  hydraulic  mortar responsible  for  its  cohesion,  was  a  type  of  structural ceramic  whose  utility  derived  largely  from  its  rheological plasticity  in  the  paste  state.  The  setting  and  hardening  of hydraulic cements derived from hydration of materials and the  subsequent  chemical  and physical  interaction of  these hydration products. This differed from the setting of slaked lime mortars, the most common cements of the pre-Roman world. Once  set, Roman concrete exhibited  little plasticity, although it retained some resistance to tensile stresses.The  setting  of  pozzolanic  cements  has  much  in  common with setting of their modern counterpart, Portland cement. The high silica composition of Roman pozzolana cements is very close to that of modern cement to which blast furnace slag, fly ash, or silica fume have been added.

Page 9: Architectural Restoration

Italy, Rome, via Appia antica, tomb. The remains show the internal core of the building, made in roman concrete (cementizio: opus caementicium).

Page 10: Architectural Restoration

Opus Caementicium was  the  core  of  every  Roman wall  after  the 2nd  century  BC.   Mostly walls made  in opus  caementicium were covered with other materials to make a more robust and workable surface. Opus  caementicium  is a  construction  technique using an aggregate, water and a binding agent. The aggragate functioned as a  filler  like  gravel,  chunks  of  bricks  or  stones  and  rubble.  The binding  agent  is  usually  called  mortar  like  lime,  gypsum  or pozzolana (nowadays (Portland) cement is used). Most Roman buildings are made up of opus caementicium, a sort of concrete which was laid into timber structures until it hardened. The  resulting walls  were  very  solid,  but  not  nice  to  see,  so  very often some sort of facing was applied. 

Page 11: Architectural Restoration

The Romans developed a very effective kind of mortar by mixing pozzolana, a volcanic ash of the region around Naples, with lime; they obtained a cement which was resistant to water. In his work De Architectura (a treatise on architecture dedicated to Emperor Augustus) Vitruvius so described pozzolana: There is a species of sand which, naturally, possesses extraordinary qualities. It is found about Baiæ and the territory in the neighbourhood of Mount Vesuvius; if mixed with lime and rubble, it hardens as well under water as in ordinary buildings. This seems to arise from the hotness of the earth under these mountains, and the abundance of springs under their bases, which are heated either with sulphur, bitumen, or alum, and indicate very intense fire. The inward fire and heat of the flame which escapes and burns through the chinks, makes this earth light; the sand-stone (tophus), therefore, which is gathered in the neighbourhood, is dry and free from moisture. Since, then, three circumstances of a similar nature, arising from the intensity of the fire, combine in one mixture, as soon as moisture supervenes, they cohere and quickly harden through dampness; so that neither the waves nor the force of the water can disunite them.

Page 12: Architectural Restoration
Page 13: Architectural Restoration

• Opus incertum  was  an  ancient  Roman construction technique, using irregular shaped and  random placed  uncut  stones  or  fist-sized tuff  blocks  inserted  in  a  core  of  Opus caementicium.

Page 14: Architectural Restoration

Terracina (provincia di Latina, Lazio, Italia), tempio di Giove Anxur, fianco della terrazza su cui sorgeva il tempio, in Opus incertum.

Page 15: Architectural Restoration

• Opus incertum was the most common facing for ordinary concrete walls of the 2nd and 1st centuries BC. The face of the concrete was studded with 3- to 4-inch (8- to 10-cm) irregularly.

• Initially it consisted of more careful placement of the coementa (rock fragments and small stones mixed with concrete), making the external surface as plain as possible. Later the external surface became further plain by reducing usage of concrete and choosing more regular small stones. When the use of concrete between stones is particularly reduced, it is defined opus (quasi) reticulatum.

• Used from the beginning of the 2nd century BC until the mid-1st century BC, it was later largely superseded by Opus reticulatum.

Page 16: Architectural Restoration

Opus incertumUsing irregualar shaped and random placed uncut stones or fist-sized tufa blocks inserted in a core of opus caementicium, used from the beginning of the 2nd century  BC, later superceded by 

opus (quasi) reticulatum

Page 17: Architectural Restoration

Opus reticulatum used on the exterior wall of Hadrian's Villa used as a retreat for the Roman Emperor Hadrian in the early 2nd century.

Page 18: Architectural Restoration

Opus Reticulatum

• Opus reticulatum (also called Opus certum and known as reticulated work) is a form of  brickwork  used  in  ancient  Roman  architecture.  It  consists  of  diamond-shaped bricks of tuff which are placed around a core of opus caementicium. The diamond-shaped tufa blocks were placed with the pointed ends  into the cement core at an angle of roughly 45 degrees, so the square bases formed a diagonal pattern, and the pattern of mortar lines resembled a net. Reticulatum  is the Latin term for net, and opus, the term for a work of art, thus the term literally translates to "net work".

• This construction technique was used from the beginning of the 1st century BC, and remained very common until opus latericium, a different form of brickwork, became more common.

• Opus reticulatum  was  used  as  a  technique  in  the  Renaissance  Palazzo  Rucellai  in Florence,  the  skill  having  been  lost  with  the  end  of  the  Roman  Empire,  and rediscovered by means of archeology by Leon Battista Alberti.

• The initial, rough form of opus reticulatum, an advancement from opus incertum is called opus quasi reticulatum.

Page 20: Architectural Restoration

Opus (quasi) reticulatumSmall square tufa blocks placed diagonally to form a diamond-shaped mesh pattern, 

often supllemented by other materials at frames of windows and doors or at reinforments at corners of buildings with oblong tufa blocks

Page 21: Architectural Restoration

Opus Latericium and Opus Testaceum

• Opus latericium (also called opus testaceum) was a construction technique  using  bricks.  It  was  first  used  in  the  first  century BC, and it was the dominant construction technique throughout the imperial  period. Many  of  the  large  imperial  structures,  such  as the imperial baths of Rome, were built in opus latericium.

• Structures  in  opus latericium  are  often  easily  datable,  because they  are  stamped  by  the  producer.  These  brick  stamps  were common  from  the  first  century BC  until  164 AD.  At  this  time  all the  brick  producing  plants  had  passed  into  imperial  hands  and the  brick  stamps  disappeared,  to  reappear  only  in  the  reign  of Diocletian in the late 3rd century.

Page 22: Architectural Restoration

Opus testaceum / latericium

Brickfaced masonry - kiln-backed bricks; the dominant technique throughout the imperial period

Page 23: Architectural Restoration

Ostia

Page 24: Architectural Restoration

Herculaneum Gate, Pompei

Page 25: Architectural Restoration

Baths of Caracalla

Page 26: Architectural Restoration

Baths of Durres

Page 27: Architectural Restoration

Roman Bath DurresPrefurnium Sewage

Page 28: Architectural Restoration

Opus Quadratum

• Opus quadratum is an ancient Roman construction technique, in which squared blocks of stone of the same height were set in parallel courses, often without the use of mortar.

• This technique was used by the Romans from about the 6th century BC and over time, the precision and accuracy of the block cutting improved. The technique continued to be used throughout the age of the Roman Empire, even after the introduction of mortar, and was often used in addition to other techniques. The type of stone, the size of the blocks, and the way the blocks were put together can all be used to help archeologists date structures that display the technique.

Page 29: Architectural Restoration

Opus quadratumWalls of cutstone, recangular in form

Page 30: Architectural Restoration

"Opus quadratum" at Mura Serviane (left) and at Foro di Augusto (right).

Page 31: Architectural Restoration

Opus Quadratum

• Etruscan wayIn early usage (often called the "Etruscan way"), the joints between the blocks introduce discontinuities, making the blocks uneven. Examples of such construction can be found in reservoirs, basements, terrace walls, and temple podiums in Etruscan cities and Rome.

• Greek waySubsequently (the "Greek way"), the blocks would be placed in one of two rotations. "Stretchers" would be placed so the longer side was on the face of the wall, and "headers" would be placed so the shorter side was on the face of the wall, and would thus extend further back into the wall thickness. Various patterns could be produced by changing how the blocks were placed, and it was common to strengthen the wall by ensuring that the joints between blocks were centered over the blocks in the row below.

Page 32: Architectural Restoration

The earliest walls built  in  Europe were  constructed placing  stones one upon the other without any mortar to bind them together (dry-stone  walls).  Near  Rome  examples  of  such  walls  can  be  seen  at Alatri, Segni and at other locations south of the city: they are called cyclopean,  because  archaeologists  felt  that  only  the  mythical Cyclopes could have moved the enormous boulders which made up these  walls.Improvements  in  the  tecnique  used  for  cutting  stones  led  to  the construction of walls with stones having the same size (Isodomum - Vitruvius - De Architectura). In order to strengthen the wall, blocks were  placed  alternately  with  the  longer  side  (stretchers)  or  the shorter  side  (headers)  on  the  face  of  the wall  (opus quadratum).Romans were so fond of the texture effect of opus quadratum that they continued  to use  this  technique even after having developed more effective kinds of masonry.  The wall built at Foro di Augusto with the blocks projecting from the surface inspired Renaissance 

Page 33: Architectural Restoration

Influence of Roman arches on Renaissance (left: Palazzo Lancellotti)

and Neoclassic (right: Palazzo Braschi) architecture.

Page 34: Architectural Restoration

Opus Vittatum

Opus vittatum  was  a  ancient  Roman construction technique, sometimes square with tuff  blocks  intersected  by  one  or  more  brick-bands  at  regular  or  irregular  distances,  and Opus caementicium.This  technique  was  mostly  used  to  erect  high walls,  as  in  the  Baths  of  Caracalla  and  the Aurelian Walls in Rome.

 

Page 35: Architectural Restoration

Opus vittatumOblong (or occasionally square) tufa blocks intersected by one or 

more brickbands at (ir-)regular distances

Page 36: Architectural Restoration

Roman concrete

With  the  introduction  of  Roman  concrete, continuous  outer  walls  were  often constructed, with some blocks laid as headers in  order  to  attach  to  the  inner  wall.  Tile  or marble can be found cemented to such walls, but this was less common for those structures that  were  particularly  load-bearing,  such  as arches  and  pillars  used  for  bridges  and aqueducts.

Page 37: Architectural Restoration

Opus vittatum mixtum (wall facing)

Oblong  or  occasionally square  tufa  blocks intersected  by  one  or  more brick  bands,  at  regular  or irregular  distances.  Square blocks  (re-used  reticulate blocks)  appear  mainly  in third  century masonry.  After that  they  disappear  as building  material.  Opus vittatum mixtum  has  two subgroups:  A  and  B.  The distinction is made purely for chronological reasons. From the Severan period throughout late antiquity. 

Page 38: Architectural Restoration

Opus vittatum mixtum A (wall facing) Alternating oblong tufa courses and brick bands, 1:1. Tufa blocks usually rather well cut. 

From the early third century throughout late antiquity. Main appearance in the third and fourth century. 

Page 39: Architectural Restoration

Opus vittatum mixtum B (wall facing) Alternating oblong tufa courses and brick bands, in all other combinations than 1:1. Oblong, often rather egg-shaped tufa blocks appearing in an 

irregular number of courses, and alternated at irregular distances with one or more courses of brick. Main appearance in later fourth century. Continuing until the Mediaeval period. 

Page 40: Architectural Restoration

Opus vittatum simplex (wall facing) Oblong tufa blocks without any other interference.  Blocks very well cut during the Republic and early Principate. From the last decades of the Republic mostly found in combination with opus reticulatum.  In late antiquity an increasing tendency to egg-shaped blocks, which appear in the fourth century. 

From the Republic until Nero. Re-appears in the third century. 

Page 41: Architectural Restoration

Opus reticulatum mixtum or Opus mixtum (wall facing)

Masonry of reticulate (small tufa blocks placed diagonally) reinforced and/or intersected by brick bands (normally five to six courses).  The reticulate and the bricks are sometimes interlocking.  The reticulate fields are rather large. 

Page 42: Architectural Restoration

Opus (reticulatum) mixtumMasonry of reticulated material reinforced and/or intersected by 

brickbands or interlocked with bricks

Page 43: Architectural Restoration

Opus Mixtum, Incertum e TestaceumAmphitheater of Durres

Page 44: Architectural Restoration

Roman Wall in Ostia: Opus Mixtum of Reticulatum and Testaceum

Page 45: Architectural Restoration

Opus spicatum (floors) A floor (or wall) made of quite small, elongated tiles, laid in a herringbone 

pattern or in a fishbone pattern. 

Page 46: Architectural Restoration

Opus sectile (floors and walls) Decoration of walls or floors with marble slabs laid in a regular pattern. 

Page 47: Architectural Restoration

Opus sectileDecoration patterns and figures at walls (and floors) with precisely 

cut pieces of polychrome stone, usually marble

Page 48: Architectural Restoration

Opus craticiumTerm both used for wattlework and walls of half-timer construction, 

filled in with stones and/or staw and plastered with mortar

Page 49: Architectural Restoration

Opus signinum (floors and walls) Waterproof floor- and wall-revetment consisting of mortar mixed with 

terracotta sherds and crushed tiles or bricks.

Page 50: Architectural Restoration

Opus signinumWaterproof floor- and wall-revetment of mortar mixed with terracotta sherds and crushed tiles or 

bricks

Page 51: Architectural Restoration

Structure of an arch (Porta Asinaria).

Page 52: Architectural Restoration

The Romans learned from the Etruscans the use of arches to make large openings in a wall; the gates of the Etruscan towns (see for example Arco Etrusco at Perugia) show the first examples of arch. The laws of Physics explaining the conditions required for an arch not to collapse were not fully understood until the XIXth century; yet the Etruscans, and after them the Romans, developed empirical methods for designing arches which still stand more than 2,000 years later.

Page 53: Architectural Restoration

Etruscan Arch, IIIrd cen AD

Page 54: Architectural Restoration

Arch included in an "opus quadratum" structure at Arco dei Pantani

Page 55: Architectural Restoration

Travertine arches forming the supporting structure of Colosseo.

An important aspect the Romans paid attention to was the choice of materials: travertine proved to resist stress with limited strain and was widely employed to build arches. Roman architects found also a way to link the arch to the wall which was both effective from a structural viewpoint and decorative from an aesthetic one.

Page 56: Architectural Restoration

Bibliography:

• Jean-Pierre Adam, Anthony Mathews, Roman Building, 1994.• Lynne C. Lancaster, Concrete Vaulted Construction in Imperial

Rome, Cambridge University Press, 2005.• Heather N. Lechtman & Linn W. Hobbs, “Roman Concrete 

and the Roman Architectural Revolution,” Ceramics and Civilization Volume 3: High Technology Ceramics: Past, Present, Future, edited by W.D. Kingery and published by the American Ceramics Society, 1986.

• W. L. MacDonald, The Architecture of the Roman Empire, rev. ed. Yale University Press, New Haven, 1982.