Architecture of a tide-inCuenced, wave dominatedshallow-marine deposit from a Paleoproterozoic riftsetting: Example from the Badalgarh Formation,Bayana basin, Rajasthan, northwest India

PARTHA PRATIM CHAKRABORTY* and RAHUL BAILWAL

Department of Geology, University of Delhi, Delhi 110 007, India.*Corresponding author. e-mail: parthageology@gmail.com

MS received 5 October 2020; revised 11 December 2020; accepted 11 December 2020

A *125 m thick shallowing-upward arenaceous succession from the Badalgarh Formation, Bayana basin,India provided the opportunity to document shelf to foreshore transition from a paleoproterozoic riftset-up. Process-based facies analysis allowed identiBcation of 12 different shallow-marine facies types,grouped under four different facies associations namely (i) lower oAshore or open shelf, (ii) upper oAshoreto distal lower shoreface, (iii) lower to middle shoreface and (iv) upper shoreface to foreshore. Fromunequivocal dominance of wave- and storm-generated features and fortuitous documentation oftide-generated structures in upper oAshore, lower and middle shoreface settings, we infer a tide-inCu-enced, wave-dominated coast at the Badalgarh Sea. From measurement of different vector attributesthrough the studied succession, we infer (i) near east–west orientation for the Badalgarh shoreline,(ii) storm deposits as products of shore-perpendicular return Cow, and (iii) tidal peak Cow at a high anglewith the shoreline and conBned in the upper oAshore, lower and middle shoreface settings. A gradationaltransition from oAshore to lower shoreface and, in turn, to middle and upper shoreface suggests accre-tionary character for the Badalgarh shoreface in a high-gradient rift setting. Overlying deep water (distaloAshore) argillaceous marine strata, the arenaceous shallowing-upward Badalgarh succession is inter-preted as a product of highstand systems tract (HST) constituted of stacked tens- to hundreds of meter-thick shallowing-upward depositional cycles. Since the abrupt shift in facies type (shallow to deep water)across the upper boundaries of depositional cycles is not unambiguous, we intend to assign these cycles asgenetic stratigraphic cycles or T-R cycles over ‘parasequence’.

Keywords. Paleoproterozoic; tide-inCuenced; wave-dominated; shallow-marine; Badalgarh Formation;depositional cycle.

1. Introduction

The shoreface environment stretches from the shelfup to the beach (Niedoroda 1985). As a transitionenvironment, the shoreface performs as a source,barrier, Blter and conduit of material transfer fromland to the sea. The oceanographic and geologic

processes in this environment control behaviour ofthe shoreline in response to relative sea-levelchanges (e.g., normal regressive, forced regressiveand transgressive), major meteoric events (storm),or human-induced changes in sand supply (in caseof modern shorelines) at different time scalesranging from days to years, decades and millennia.

J. Earth Syst. Sci. (2021) 130:63 � Indian Academy of Scienceshttps://doi.org/10.1007/s12040-021-01558-6 (0123456789().,-volV)(0123456789().,-volV)

In general, sedimentologists have tended toconsider sediment caliber, prevailing wave energyand storm climate, i.e., storm energy and frequencyfor description of wave-dominated shoreface faciessuccession (Walker and Plint 1992; Clifton 2006).In steep-gradient coarse-grained systems, wavesbreak near to the beach and reCect major waveenergy back to the ocean, whereas in Bne-grained,gentle-gradient beach-shoreface system wavesbreak far away from the shoreline and dissipatewave energy over a wide surf zone where bars andtroughs develop. Proposing a prograding shorelinemodel in a microtidal system, Harms (1975, 1982)illustrated progressively coarser and/or cleanershoreface sandstones up the section. The idea alsogot support from illustrations of composite shore-face sequences from modern coasts based on boxedcores (Reading and Collinson 1996). Studies ofmodern coastlines have demonstrated that gentlyinclined beaches represent more high energy sys-tems compared to their steep-gradient counter-parts (Komar 1976; Clifton 2006). A growing bodyof recent literature, however, has gone beyond thetraditional tight-box shoreline model (wave-domi-nated vs. tide-dominated) and cited the inCuence oftide on sediment dynamics of wave-dominatedbeach and shoreface (Messelink and Hegge 1995;Levoy et al. 2000; Yang et al. 2008; Dashtgard et al.2009, 2012; Frey and Dashtgard 2012); dependingon tidal cycle shift in the position of wave agitationis documented (including nature and duration ofwave action) at any given part of beach-shorefaceproBle in shorelines of large tidal range. Most ofthese models, however, are developed from obser-vations on tectonically passive margin settingswhere low-gradient rivers deliver Bne sand onto thecoastline, e.g., the Atlantic coast, Gulf coasts,German and Dutch coasts (Clifton 2006). Exam-ples from basins belonging to other tectonic set-tings, viz., rift, foreland and with coarser grain sizepopulation (medium- to coarse-sand with occa-sional granule) are limited in literature (Praveet al. 1996; Samanta et al. 2016).Taking into consideration Beld and seismic

records, sedimentologists have described three endmembers of shoreface depending on their relativeposition in the stratigraphic succession in responseto sea-level change. These are (i) accretionaryshoreface; developed on high-gradient shelf whenthe rate of accommodation increase is low, (ii)ravinement shoreface; developed on high gradientshelf at times of rapid increase of accommodation,and (iii) sharp-based shoreface; developed on

low-gradient shelf during periods of high rate ofaccommodation removal. Whereas, Brst two vari-eties are products of high gradient proBle and format times of accommodation rise but at differentrates, the third variety forms at low-gradient pro-Bles and at times of relative sea-level fall andaccommodation removal. Understandably, in ashelf-shoreface proBle, the Brst two types areexpected to show gradational transition withwell-developed shoreface-shelf transition facies,whereas in the case of third variety, the shoreface islikely to be sharp-based and located close tounconformity and sequence boundary.In this backdrop, the Paleoproterozoic Badal-

garh Formation, Alwar Group, Bayana basin,North Delhi Fold Belt (NDFB; Bgure 1) oAers aunique scope to document and illustrate evolutionof a shelf-foreshore transition developed in a rifto-genic setting. In general, Proterozoic sedimentol-ogy is heavily fraught with epeiric sea model and itis believed that the reduced shelf gradients heavilybiased sedimentation in Proterozoic epeiric seas arein favour of tides instead of wave and storm sincewaves dissipate rapidly on shallow water platforms(Pratt and James 1986; Eriksson et al. 2008; Boseet al. 2012). Wave-dominated coastlines are mostlyreported away from the river mouths (with hightidal inCuence) and typically associated withamalgamated supra-littoral storm beds (Erikssonet al. 1995; Sarkar et al. 2004). As such Proterozoicwave-dominated shoreface deposits, like theirPhanerozoic counterparts, are composed of highlymature, well-sorted sandstone with minor peb-bles and pebble lags and very little mudstone.Parallel-lamination, planar- and trough cross-lam-ination and hummocky and swaley cross-lamina-tion are commonly observed structures alike theirPhanerozoic analogues. However, there are raredocumentation and characterization of shelf-shoreface transition and facies tract delineationkeeping in mind the tectonic backdrop and shelfgradient in the basin (cf. Vakarelov et al. 2012). Instudies of Phanerozoic shallow marine deposits andmodern coastlines, sedimentologists have soughtfor an additional tool, i.e., ichnofacies (after Pem-berton et al. 1992) to take a call on subtle envi-ronmental interpretation, which otherwise posedproblematic based on physical criteria (texture,sedimentary structure). In the absence of any ich-nological signature because of Paleoproterozoictimeframe, the present study solely relied upon thephysical criteria (texture, bed geometry and sedi-mentary structure) to decipher different facies and

63 Page 2 of 22 J. Earth Syst. Sci. (2021) 130:63

Figure

1.TheAravalli–Delhifold

belt(A

DFB)in

theIndianpeninsula

(a)withitsdetailed

geologicalmapindicatingpositionoftheBayanasub-basinenboxed

(b).

Detailed

geologicalmapoftheBayanasub-basinwiththestudyareaenboxed

(c).

Detailed

geologicalmapofthestudyareawithstudiedsectionsmarked

starred

(d).

General

lithostratigraphic

subdivisionofthebasinsuccessionwithavailable

geochronologyisshownin

upper

right(e).

(MB:Marw

arBasin,VB:Vindhyanbasin,NSL:Narm

ada–Son

lineament,

CH

B:Chhattisgarh

basin,MR:MahanadiRift,

PG:Prahnita–Godavari

Basin,EGMB:Eastern

GhatMobileBelt,

KBB:Kaladgi–Bhim

aBasinandCu

B:

CuddapahBasin).

J. Earth Syst. Sci. (2021) 130:63 Page 3 of 22 63

facies associations. Over a stretch of 20 km fromthe Sita village in the west to the Mohrtalab villagein the east (Bgure 1), the Badalgarh lithopackagerepresents an overall shallowing- and cleaning-up-ward succession with development of several sub-environments. The main objectives of the presentcontribution are:

(i) To document facies type development in differ-ent shallow-marine sub-environments, in par-ticular the shoreface settings (oAshore toforeshore) under different operative depositionalprocesses, e.g., wave climate, storm action, tidalinCuence in different bathymetry,

(ii) To reconstruct the depositional architectureof shelf-shoreface transition (sharp, grada-tional) in a rift set-up,

(iii) To observe and document intra-depositionalcycle facies architecture, and

(iv) To decode facies sequence including strati-graphic evolution with an assessment ofsea-level change and wave climate.

2. Geological setting

Unconformably overlying the Archean basementcomprised of meta-sediments and granite, the vol-cano-sedimentary succession of the ProterozoicDelhi Supergroup is exposed in a number of basins inthe north-eastern part of the Aravalli mountainrange and is stratigraphically subdivided into threegroups, viz., Raialo, Alwar andAjabgarh, in order ofsuperposition (Bgure 1). The*3 km thick deformed,unmetamorphosed volcano-sedimentary sequenceexposed in the Bayana basin, represents the easternlimit of the Delhi Supergroup. The Raialo Group iscalcareous–arenitic in character, whereas the AlwarandAjabgarhGroups are dominated by arenitic andargillitic sediments, respectively. Despite theproposition of stratigraphy of the basin in early 19thcentury by Heron (1917, 1953), the basin awaitedspecialized sedimentological attention for long.Most studies remained conBned in revision ofstratigraphy and description of the broad lithology(Singh 1982), bulk sediment petrography (Ahmadet al. 2012) and geochemistry (Raza et al. 2012).From preliminary regional lithological distributionand paleocurrent pattern, Singh (1988, 1991)ascertained a continental rift model for the basinthat started with downsag followed by active fault-ing that deBned the graben-form basin margins.Continued extension along the centre of the

basins resulted in outpouring of volcanics, whichinterrupted the sedimentation process.The sedimentary rocks of the Bayana basin are

clastic (with subordinate volcaniclastic) in natureand belong to the Alwar and Ajabgarh Groups.The studied Badalgarh Formation (BF) belongs tothe Alwar Group and is subdivided into twomembers, viz., Baghrain Sandstone and AlapuriQuartzite. Except for description of broad lithology(feldspathic arenites, wackes and pink quartzarenite represent the Baghrain Sandstone andAlapuri Quartzite, respectively), no detailedsedimentological work involving depositionalprocesses, paleoenvironnmental setting, spatio-temporal evolution, etc., carried out on thisformation. Only exceptions are the works of Singh(1988, 1991) that demand special mention. With-out going into any process-based sedimentologyand documentation of supportive Beld features,Singh (1982, 1985, 1991) intuitively surmised thedevelopment of Cuvial and various tide-dominatedshallow marine environments including tidal Cat,lagoon, tidal channel and tidal bar in the course ofBayana sedimentation history.

3. Data and methods

The study focuses on a 25 km2 area in the Bayanabasin, northwestern India. Arenaceous and argilla-ceous strata representing the BF are exposed in thehillock and cliA sections around the Bayana town. Atotal of four vertical sections, 4–20 km apart fromeach other were studied, measured and documented(Bgure 1). Fortunately, in one of these sections thatis the Gajipur section exposes the distal oAshorefacies and provided scope for documentation ofshelf-shoreface transition. Also, the Mohrtalabsection represents transition from the arenaceousBadalgarh Formation to overlying rudaceousBayana Formation and hence, provided scope fordocumentation of depositional architecture ofentire BF. The Bayana basin succession isdeformed. But the deformation is in basin scale. Atthe outcrop- and transect-scale, beds are sub-hori-zontal to moderate-dipping. In the study area,average dip of bed is 12� and directed uniformlytowards north northeast. This has allowed goodscope for facies delineation, decoding of faciesassociations and their mutual interrelation, docu-mentation of facies succession including stratalstacking pattern and recording of paleocurrent(vector) attributes. The facies description was done

63 Page 4 of 22 J. Earth Syst. Sci. (2021) 130:63

taking into consideration lithology, grain size, sed-imentary structure, grading types (normal, inverse,ungraded) and paleocurrent direction. The classi-Bcation of facies association is based on sedimen-tological characteristics including lithology andCow processes as described by Kernen et al. (2012),Pemberton et al. (2012) and Dashtgard et al.(2012). The Cow processes that led to foreshore todeep water deposition are inferred from sedimen-tary structures observed in the outcrop. Sedimentsamples for grain size analysis are selected from allarenaceous facies associations to demonstrate grainsize variation through the Badalgarh succession.Depositional cycles at different orders are identiBedfrom litholog measurement and photomosaicreconstruction. Attempt has been made to docu-ment variation in the volume of authigenic glau-conite cement, if any, through the sedimentationhistory of a depositional cycle.

4. Lithofacies and facies associations

Table 1 illustrates facies types and correspondingdepositional processes.A total of 12 facies typesweredeBned and grouped into four facies associations.

4.1 Facies Association I (FA 1): Lower oAshoreor open shelf

Dark grey, splintery shale or silty mudstone withminor siltstone (facies 1a, b; table 1) represents thismudstone-dominated association, best exposure ofwhich can be observed at the Gajipur section in theeastern part of the study area. The maximumexposed thickness is 4.5 m. Thin (generally\2 cmthick) beds of siltstone and Bne sandstone areoccasionally interbedded with the silty mudstone(Bgure 2a). Volumetrically, these beds are minorcomponent of this association and locally mayconstitute maximum up to 15% of the association.Many of these interbeds are traced continuously fortens of meters in the outcrop, some pinch out lat-erally. Internally, the coarse interbeds are eithermassive or display incipient grading above sharp,planar bases. Occasionally, interbeds havinggraded character reveal presence of Cat to wavy-parallel laminations, resembling micro-hummockycross-stratiBcation, grading upward into ripplecross-lamination (Bgure 2b). Bed tops are eithergradational to overlying mudstone or sharp andcapped by oscillation ripples (symmetric formswith unidirectional foresets; average wavelength

and amplitude 5 and 0.5 cm; ripple index 10).Carbonaceous detritus is common in this associa-tion and locally found concentrated along thebedding plane. Upwards in this mudstone-domi-nated association, a gradual increase in grain size,sandstone/mudstone ratio, and siltstone/Bnesandstone layer thickness can be noticed inits gradational transition to overlying faciesassociation II.

4.2 Interpretation

Mudstone without any signature of current or waveaction suggests deposition as hemipelagite in aquiet-water open shelf environment well below fairweather wave base. Low volumetric percentage ofsiltstone/Bne sandstone beds, maximum up to 15%in the upper part of the association, indicateprolonged fair weather condition in the shelf withslow continuous accumulation through suspensionsettlement. Demarcation of some laminae by car-bonaceous debris indicates rhythmically Cuctuat-ing depositional energy, possibly under tidalinCuence. In addition, the sharp-based thin silt-stone/Bne sandstone beds with wavy parallellaminations resembling micro-hummocky cross-stratiBcation (HCS) and oscillation ripple at thebed top suggests storm inCuence (tempestite) intheir deposition. From sporadic distribution andthin-bedded character, it is inferred that the silt-stone/Bne sandstone beds may represent distaloAshore counterparts of storm-driven beds in theimmediate proximal environment that is in theupper oAshore or lower shoreface (discussed later).Progressive shoaling and progradation through theassociation are manifested in the upward increasein thickness and abundance of tempestite beds.

4.3 Facies Association II (FA II): UpperoAshore to distal lower shoreface

Interbedded medium- to coarse-grained sandstoneand grey silty mudstone constitute the heterolithicassociation (facies IIa–c; table 1) and is best exposedat the Gajipur section, gradationally overlying theFA I. Upwards the association is represented byincrease in sandstone/mudstone ratio, sedimentcalibre (medium- to coarse-grained sand) andsandstone layer thickness. An up-section changewell noticed in the association is in terms of lithologythat is from mudstone- to sandstone-dominated.

J. Earth Syst. Sci. (2021) 130:63 Page 5 of 22 63

Table

1.Faciesassociations,

constituen

tfacies

typesan

dtheirsummarycharacteristicsfrom

theBad

algarh

Formation.

Facies

association,codeand

lithology

Facies

types

andcode

Description

Interpretation

I.Lower

oAshore

oropen

shelf

(FA

I)shale/mudstone

(a)Shale/siltymudstone;

cmsto

decim

etre

thick;atcasescarbonaceous

Dark

greyin

colour,splintery

innature

without

anywaveandcurrentfeature

Hem

ipelagite,

suspensionsettlementbelow

fair

weather

wavebase

(b)Cms.-thick,Bnesandstone/siltstone,

broadlenticularto

tabulargeometry

in

outcrop

Sharp

base

andsharp/gradationalupper

contact

withmudstone;

internallymassiveorwith

incipientnorm

algrading;waveripple

atbed

top

Storm

deposit,distalcounterpartsofproxim

al

tempestites

II.Upper

oAshore

tolower

shoreface

(FA

II)heterolithic

(sandstone-shale)

(a)Decim

etre-thick,broadlenticular

medium-grained

sandstonein

alternationwithgreycolouredsilty

mudstone.

Mudstones

similarto

facies

Ia

Sharp,erosionalbase,internallylow-angle

planarorwavyplanarlaminated.Low-angle

truncationsseparatinglaminasets.Presence

of

gutter

atbed

sole.Oscillatory

andcombined

Cow

ripplesonbeddingtop

Storm

deposits;either

Bllingin

scours

(swaley

cross-stratiBcation)orform

ingthesw

elling

partsofhummockysandstonebodies(H

CS).

Flow

withhighbed

shearandtemporally

waningenergy

(b)Cmsto

decim

etre-thickmedium

grained

sandstonein

alternationwith

siltymudstone

Parallel

laminaenearlyconform

able

withthe

underlyingbeddingsurface.W

ithunderlying

surface

thelaminasetoften

assume

low-angle

downlapandonlaprelationship

Sim

ilarto

quasi-planarlaminationofArnott

(1993).Depositionunder

storm

-wave

generatedoscillatory

Cow

withastrong

unidirectionalCow

component

(c)Decim

etre-thickSandstone-shale

heterolithic

units;

often

intheform

of

wedges.Erosionallyoverlain

byunitsof

facies

IIB

Unidirectionaltabular/planarcurved

cross-

strata;occasionalmudstonedrapeonforeset

Tidalbedform

withpulsatingenergycondition

III.Lower

shoreface

tomiddle

shoreface

(FA

III)

sandstone-

dominated(subordinate

siltstone/Bnesandstone)

(a)Reddish,thin

(cms-thick)rippledor

massiveBnesandstone;

presentin

associationwithboth

facies

bandc

Finesandstonebedseither

massiveorripple

laminated.Oscillationripples(av.W

avelength

andamplitude7and0.7

cm,respectively)

Fair

weather

product

withdominantoscillatory

Cow

inCuence

(b)Decim

etre-to

meter-thicklenticular

unitsofmedium-to

coarse-grained

sandstone;commonamalgamatedunits

Sharp,erosionalbase,internallylow-angle

planar-curved

orsw

aleycross-stratiBcation

Highenergyandhighfrequency

episodic

oscillatory

Cow

withsomeunidirectionalCow

component(storm

)

(c)Tabularmedium

to

coarse-grained

sandstone;

tracedover

tensofmeter

inoutcrop.Presentin

upper

part

oftheassociation

Sharp

base,sharp/gradationaltop.Internally

massive,

planelaminated;lowangle

truncation

surfaces.

Oscillationripplesonbeddingtop.

Wedges

oftroughcross-stratiBcationsin

alternationwithdominantforesetorientation

towardsnortheast

andsubordinately

towards

WNW

Planelaminationwithnortheast

(sea)w

ard

and

west-southwest(land)ward

directedtrough

cross-stratiBcationindicate

surf

assem

blage;

dominance

ofoscillatory

Cow

(d)Tabularmedium

tocoarse-grained

cross-stratiBed

sandstone

Unidirectionalcross-stratiBcationwithnorth-

eastward

directedforeset.Downcurrentchange

incross-stratiBcationgeometry

from

sigmoidal

totabularandfurther

toplanar-curved

Tidaldeposit;

UnsteadyCow

withCuctuating

Cow

energy

63 Page 6 of 22 J. Earth Syst. Sci. (2021) 130:63

Silty mudstone layers are similar to their coun-terparts described in FA I. Mudstone layers aremm- to cm-thick, grey in colour, Bssile and com-monly drape sandstone layers (Bgure 3a). Locallythe mudstone layers are silt-poor, structureless orcontain thin parallel interlaminae of silt and sand.In cases, laminated mudstone layer is founddirectly overlying scoured surface that truncatesthe underlying sandstone laminae. Though beddingplanes are commonly replete with oscillation rip-ples, in some fortuitous exposure current rippleswith mud draped foresets can be observed withinthe mudstones (Bgure 3b). Alike FA I, carbona-ceous debris can be observed demarcating somestratiBcation in this association as well.Thick (cm- to decimetre-scale) sandstone layers

are sharp, planar based and internally massive/gradational, horizontal, low-angle planar lami-nated or with wavy parallel lamination, resem-bling micro-hummocky cross-stratiBcation (HCS).Some thick sandstone units show presence ofdecimetre-thick swaley cross-stratiBcation (SCS;Bgure 3c) and decimetre-wide planar curvedcross-stratiBcation. In addition, units with planar

Figure 2. FA I: Silty mudstone of facies Ia with occasionalthin siltstone/Bne sandstone interbeds (arrowed; a).Fine sandy interbed with sharp base and with Cat to wavyparallel-lamination (b). Note occurrence of oscillation ripplesat bedding top (pen length 14 cm).

Table

1.(C

ontinued.)

Facies

association,codeand

lithology

Facies

types

andcode

Description

Interpretation

IV.Upper

shoreface

to

foreshore

(FA

IV)

sandstone(w

ithminor

conglomerate)

(a)Amalgamatedtabular

bedsofmedium-to

coarse-

grained

sandstone

Massiveorplane-laminatedwithlow-angle

term

inationof

laminationsto

lower

bed

boundaries;low

angle

truncation

surfaces.

Occasionalstringers/

laminaeofheavyminerals.

Occasionalinterbedsofnorth-easterly

directedtrough

cross-tratiBcationsin

lower

part

oftheassociation

HighenergysheetCow.Interbeddingofseaward

directedtroughsatthebasalpart

ofthe

associationsuggestsurf-swash

transition

(b)Cmsthicksheet

conglomerate;interbedded

withunitsoffacies

Iva

Single

train

ofpebble,cobbles;clastssubrounded

tosubangular

AlluvialsheetCow;maybeatdistalalluvialfan

(c)Decim

etre-to

meter-

thickgraded

conglomerate

inalternationwithbeds

offacies

b

Norm

algradingwithsize-andconcentration-gradingofclasts;

massiveoverridingsandstone.

Lateralpinch

outin

tensof

meter

scale

indicatingwedge-shaped

ingeometry

Alluvialmass

Cow;distalcounterpart

ofalluvial

fanconglomerates

J. Earth Syst. Sci. (2021) 130:63 Page 7 of 22 63

curved cross-stratiBcation with unidirectionalforeset (set thickness 9.5 cm) and reactivationsurface also present, which are muddier, lensoidalin geometry, meters in width and at times, displaypresence of mud drapes on foresets (Bgure 3c). Attimes, the sets of unidirectional cross-strata aresharply truncated and overlain by planar strati-Bed coarse-grained sandstone (Bgure 3c). Moreoften than not, bed tops are mantled by com-bined-Cow ripples with symmetric form and uni-directional foreset. The ripples display nearlyENE–WSW crest trend and north-eastward fore-set migration (Bgure 3d). Some sandstone beds

also show concentration of elliptical carbonaceousmud chips at their bases (Bgure 3e). Rarelysandstone beds display cm-wide soft-sedimentdeformation structures at their bases includingload structure and incipiently developed Camestructure (Bgure 3f).

4.4 Interpretation

From increase in grain size (medium to coarsesand), bed thickness and degree of erosionalamalgamation of thicker sandstone interbeds, anincrease in depositional energy, deposition rate

Figure 3. FA II: Sharp-based interbedded sandstone–mudstone in FA-II. Note swelling geometry of sandstone bodies with sharpupper boundary having hummocky topography (arrowed; a), current ripples with mud drape within interbedded mudstone(arrowed; b), Swaley cross-stratiBcation (SCS) within thicker sandy interbeds (c; small dash arrow), Unidirectionalplanar-curved cross-stratiBcation with (i) mudstone drape on foreset and (ii) downcurrent reactivation surface (c; solid arrow).Note erosional truncation and decapping of cross-stratiBed set by plane laminated coarse sandstone (c; dashed arrow), combinedCow ripples (with crest bifurcation and unidirectional foreset) on bedding plane with *east–west crest line orientation (d),concentration of elliptical carbonaceous mud chips at the base of sandstone bed (arrowed; e), and soft-sediment deformationstructure including load structure and incipiently developed Came structure (f).

63 Page 8 of 22 J. Earth Syst. Sci. (2021) 130:63

and sedimentation periodicity is inferred up theassociation. The silty mud layers possibly accu-mulated in an overall wave-dominated environ-ment with tidal inCuence and high-energy stormincursions. The commonly present oscillation rip-ples bear undoubted imprint for wave domination.The sharp-based cm to decimetre-thick sandstonebeds with grading, hummocky and swaley cross-stratiBcation and symmetric to combined Cowripples at bed tops are interpreted as products ofstorm Cow with dominant oscillatory component(Harms et al. 1975; Dott and Bourgeois 1982;Duke 1985). Presence of rip-up cohesive mudclasts at the bases of some of these beds suggestsvery high basal shear associated with these Cows.At times, emplacement of the storm beds musthave been rapid enough to cause loading into theunderlying muddy substrate and result in theformation of Came structure. The plane-laminatedsandstone in the association is interpreted asproduct of upper Cow regime sheet Cow at timesof high-energy storm events. Further, in associa-tion with wave and storm products, the lenticulartabular to planar-curved cross-stratiBed muddysandstone units with occasional mud drapes sug-gests strong indication for tidal inCuence withsuspension deposition of mud on cross-strataduring Cow attenuation in tidal cycle. Currentripples, though uncommon, also support the tidalaction. The sharp truncation of some tidally-in-Cuenced units by plane-laminated coarse-grainedsandstone suggests decapping of low-energy tidalbedforms at times of high-energy events.

4.5 Facies Association III (FA III):Lower-middle shoreface complex

Alternation of massive/rippled siltstone anddecimetre- to meter-thick isolated/amalgamatedunits of coarse-grained sandstone (facies IIIa–d;table 1) represent this sandstone-dominated asso-ciation. The lower part of the association is wellrepresented in the Sita Kund section; whereas thebest development of the upper part is noticed nearthe Alapuri fort section, southwest of the Bayanatown (Bgure 1). The overall changes noticedupward in the association include: (i) increase insandstone–siltstone ratio, (ii) increase in sandstonebed thickness and amalgamation and (iii) domi-nance of tabular geometry in sandstone beds inplace of lenticular character (Bgure 4). In the lowerpart of the association, the lensiod sandstone bod-ies are 8–13.5 cm thick and laterally persistent

from a few meters to more than 15 m. Laterallythey pinch into thin sandstone sheets that continuefor more than 60 m and at times swell to formanother sandstone lens (Bgure 5a). The lowerboundaries of these beds are often sharp, erosionalin the form of gutters. In outcrop, the gutters aresymmetrical and centimetre-scale in width anddepth and display northeast–southwest orienta-tion. Wave ripple cross-lamination, hummockycross-stratiBcation and low angle planar-curvedcross-stratiBcation are commonly associatedstructures. Some of these sandstone units witherosional base also display incipient normal sizeand concentration grading with granule concen-tration at their bases (Bgure 5b). Moving upwardin the association, decimetre-thick lenticularsandstone units, laterally intercepted by cm-thicksiltstone, display truncation-bound low-angle crossand planar stratiBed beds occupying scoursresembling swaley cross-stratiBcation (SCS; width40 cm and set thickness 9 cm; Bgure 5c). Foresetdip of these cross-stratiBcations in downdip direc-tion varies from 22� to 7�. Definite tendency ofgrain size Bning can be noticed in the downslopedirection of cross-stratiBcations that turn the unitmore heterolithic. Thin bedded siltstone units inthe heterolithic portion are cm-thick and laterallydiscontinuous in meters-scale (Bgure 5c). No cur-rent or wave ripple was observed within thesiltstone. In this backdrop, we could also docu-ment the presence of wedge-shaped sandstonebodies, internally characterized by unidirectionalcross-stratiBcation with downcurrent change ingeometry from sigmoidal (with top set) to tabularand Bnally to planar-curved geometry with adecrease in foreset angle from 24� to 10� (Bgure 6a,b). Paleocurrent measurements from these cross-stratiBcations reveal north-eastward downcurrentdirection.Upwards, the decimetres-thick, erosionally

amalgamated, moderately well- to well-sortedmedium- to coarse-grained tabular sandstone bedsalternate with cm-thick thin bedded tabular tobroad lenticular medium-grained sandstone canbe laterally traced over hundreds of meters(Bgure 7a). The thick beds display undulatorypinch and swell bed geometry because of erosionalbases and presence of trains of wave-generatedoscillation ripples on the bedding surfaces(Bgure 7b). The ripples are symmetrical in proBle,mostly straight crested (rarely three-dimensional)and occasionally have crest bifurcations (crestlineorientation *east–west). The average wavelength

J. Earth Syst. Sci. (2021) 130:63 Page 9 of 22 63

and amplitude of ripples is 7 cm and 0.55 cm,respectively, and their crestlines display east–westto WNW–ESE orientation. Internally, these beds

are massive, quasi plane laminated (QPL),low-angle planar-curved cross-stratiBed, troughcross-stratiBed or poorly-developed hummocky

Figure 4. FA III: A panoramic view of lower to middle shoreface transition; note change in bed thickness, lateral continuity ofbeds and degree of erosional amalgamation upward in the succession. Dashed line making boundary between the lower andmiddle shoreface.

Figure 5. FA III: Interbedded sandstone and siltstone in lower shoreface; note sharp-based sandstone with pinching and swellinggeometry. Also note the presence of northeast–southwest oriented symmetrical gutter at the base of sandstone interbeds (a),normal grading in some sandstone interbeds (b; pen length 22 cm), amalgamated swaley cross-stratiBcation (c) with downdipBning in grain size (d) turning the unit heterolithic.

63 Page 10 of 22 J. Earth Syst. Sci. (2021) 130:63

cross-stratiBed. Planar-curved and trough cross-stratiBcations display multi-modal foreset orienta-tion with dominant mode towards north-east andsubordinate towards west-northwest (Bgure 7c).Rounded quartz granules and rip-up shale clastscan be noticed either concentrated along somelaminae or as 1–3 cm thick lenses at the base of thebeds. Microbial mat features, e.g., reticulate peteeridges, wrinkle structures (Kinneyia) and radialgas/Cuid escape structure (Astropolithon) arenoticed on the rippled surface of thick beds(Bgure 8). The thin beds maintain similar grain sizeto that of thick-bedded ones, but differ in the scaleof bedding lenticularity and size of bed-top bed-forms. Alike thick-bedded units, the thin beds are

massive or plane laminated and display symmetricoscillation ripples on their bed surfaces. Rippleforms (set thickness *2 cm) are centimeters inwavelength and are often isolated and starved.Decrease in thickness of thin-bedded interval andincrease in the thickness and erosional amalgama-tion of thick-bedded units is commonly observedupward in the association.

4.6 Interpretation

Although paleobathymetric inference without anyfossil/ichnofossil clue may be considered specula-tive, it may be possible that above FA II, this facies

Figure 6. FA III: Sandstone wedge (facies IIId; table 1) displaying unidirectional cross-stratiBcation with downdip change incross-strata geometry (sigmoidal to tabular to planar-curved); Beld photograph (a) and sketch therefrom (b).

Figure 7. FA III: Alternation between thick-bedded tabular sandstone and thin-bedded tabular to broad lenticular sandstonein middle shoreface (a), wave ripples on bedding plane with *east–west crest line orientation (b) and planar-curved/troughcross-stratiBcation with bimodal foreset orientation, northeast (sea) ward and west-northwest (land) ward (c).

J. Earth Syst. Sci. (2021) 130:63 Page 11 of 22 63

association at its basal part records deposition in alower shoreface domain (cf. Walker and Plint 1992;Galloway 2002). In contrast to FA II, significantlylow mud content in this association suggests apaleo-depth and hydrodynamic condition that didnot allow settlement or preservation of Bnes that isabove the fair weather mud line. The change in bedgeometry and rate of bed amalgamation upwardthrough this association also signiBes progradationup to middle shoreface domain. The episodicincursion of high-energy storm in lower shorefaceis manifested in the form of swaley cross-

stratiBcation, low-angle cross-stratiBcation andgutters (Duke et al. 1991; Midtgaard 1996; Sarkaret al. 2002). At times deposition was also frompowerful storm-generated turbidity currents Cow-ing down the regional paleoslope, as is inferredfrom gutters and normal grading within some ofthe storm beds. Common facies models (Harmset al. 1979; Clifton 2006) predict occurrence ofswaley cross-stratiBcation (SCS) above intervalsdominated by hummocky cross-stratiBcation(HCS), which is not observed in the present case.Presence of SCS without associated HCS is

Figure 8. FA III: Microbial mat-induced structures: (a) Palimpset ripple, (b) reticulate Petee ridges, (c) gas/Cuid escapestructure (Astropolithon; arrowed), (d) wrinkle structure (Kinneyia), and (e) sand cracks.

63 Page 12 of 22 J. Earth Syst. Sci. (2021) 130:63

documented from other shoreface successions aswell, e.g., the Campanian Bearpaw to HorseshoeCanyon Formation transition in Alberta, Canada.From the study of the Campanian shoreface suc-cession, Vakerelov et al. (2012) suggested loweraggradation rates due to high transport-to-deposi-tion ratio in shallow water setting at times ofstorms. Fair weather products in such conditionhave a low preservation potential and get pre-served only as laterally impersistent, thin beddedheterolithics between amalgamated SCS beds.Rarely preserved sandstone wedges in the associa-tion record intraset change in cross-strata geome-try and foreset angle in the downcurrent directionthat are inferred as products of unsteady tidalcurrent with waxing and waning of Cow strength.However, from available exposure, we could notdocument paleocurrent bidirectionality in theassociation.The middle shoreface represents a zone of high

oscillatory energy with wave shoaling, surfing

and initial breaking (Reinson 1984; Thom et al.1986). In association with plane lamination,occurrence of northeast (sea) ward and west-southwest (land) ward dipping planar-curved andtrough cross-stratiBcations bear signatures of surfassemblage (cf. Walker 1984; Reading 1986).Longshore bars are commonly present in themiddle shoreface that migrate landward in fairweather conditions to get welded with foreshore(Pemberton et al. 2012). The erosional-based,occasional amalgamated broad lenticular to tab-ular thick-bedded medium- to coarse-grainedwell-sorted sandstone beds in the upper part ofthis association are interpreted as products oflongshore bars. Wedges of QPL, low-angle cross-stratiBcation, and oscillatory ripples on beddingplane suggest strong inCuence of storm in themiddle shoreface (Davies 1978; Aigner and Rei-neck 1982). The thin-bedded sandstones withminor siltstone are interpreted as fair-weatherproducts, subordinately present.

Figure 9. FA IV: Moderate to well-sorted coarse-grained quartzitic sandstone (a), tabular sandstone bodies erosionallyamalgamated in the upper part of the association (facies FA IVa; b), quasi-parallel lamination (QPL) wedges subparallel withlower set boundaries (c), low-angle planar curved cross-stratiBcation with northeastward foreset (d), interbedded pebble/cobblesheet conglomerate (e) and normal-graded conglomerate (f) in the uppermost part of the association. The open arrow indicatesthe normal-graded character.

J. Earth Syst. Sci. (2021) 130:63 Page 13 of 22 63

4.7 Facies Association IV (FA IV): Uppershoreface to foreshore-beach complex

This facies association occupies the topmost posi-tion in the studied succession and is represented bywell- to moderately-well sorted medium-grained orcoarser sandstone (facies IVa–c; table 1, Bgure 9a).Internally, the decimetre- to meter-thick tabularsandstone beds are massive or low-angle to hori-zontal laminated (Bgure 9b); a few beds also showpresence of indistinct or cryptic laminae. Massiveconglomerates and pebbly sandstones alternatewith sandstone at the topmost part of the associ-ation (Bgure 9c). Commonly, sandstone beds dis-play non-undulating and sub-parallel beddingplanes. Centimetre- to decimetre-thick wedgingunits of low-angle planar curved cross-stratiBcation(av. set thickness 11 cm), either isolated or inamalgamation, are occasionally interbedded withtabular sandstone beds in the lower and middleparts of the association (Bgure 9d). Paleocurrentmeasured from the cross-stratiBcations revealmultidirectional paleoCow pattern with dominantmode towards northeast. Upward in the associa-tion, tabular well-sorted sandstone beds becomemore amalgamated and internally composed ofplanar lamination wedges, parallel to sub-parallelwith lower set boundaries (Bgure 9e). Heavy min-eral lamination is observed in some sandstone bedsin this part of the association. Low-angle discor-dance between bed sets is noticed in the upper partof the association. Laterally, impersistent con-glomerate interbeds in the topmost part of theassociation are decimetre- to meter-thick, domi-nantly clast- to matrix-supported and withsand/granule as void Blling matrix. Pebbly tocobbly polymodal clasts of quartzite, sandstone,vein quartz and BIF with maximum clast size 15cm constitute the conglomerate units. Clast sizesshow little variation between the conglomeratebeds through the association. Internal stratiBcationwithin the conglomerate beds is mostly indistinct;wherever visible in pockets is constituted of low-angle planar parallel stratiBcation. Occasionally,normal-graded character is noticed within theconglomerate units in which clasts display upwarddecrease in both size and concentration (Bgure 9f).

4.8 Interpretation

In contrast to two previous facies associations(FA II and III), this facies association recordsdominantly fair weather products under shoaling

wave condition. Well- to moderately well-sortedsandstone with multidirectional trough cross-stratiBcation in alternation with plane laminatedsandstone and low-angle planar cross-stratiBedsandstone in the lower part of the associationsuggest their deposition in upper shoreface domain.In contrast, meters-thick sandstone beds, oftenamalgamated, in the upper part of the associationwith dominant horizontal planar stratiBcation,low-angle to sub-horizontal depositional surfacesand without much cross-stratiBed beds in theassociation are interpreted as products of sheetCow in swash zone or beach environment (Praveet al. 1996; Nicols 2009; Vakarelov et al. 2012). Inparticular, beds with wedge-shaped sets of internalstratiBcation parallel to sub-parallel with lower setboundary are typically identiBed as products ofswash zone in a foreshore setting. The concentra-tion of heavy minerals along few lamina justiBesthis logic. The foreshore lies on the landward sideof shoreface and is characterised by sedimentolog-ically uniform deposit for all wave-dominatedshorefaces. Between the upper shoreface productsin the lower part of this association and foreshoreproducts in the upper part, an interval constitutedof sandstones with Cat bedding with interruption ofwedges or troughs of seaward dipping cross-bed-ding that signiBes the surf-swash transition (cf.Clifton 2006). The impersistent conglomerate unitsin the topmost part of the association with pebbleto cobble sized clasts are interpreted as of alluvialorigin. The wedging character and incidence ofnormal grading allowed us to infer the conglomer-ates as inter-digitated units from immediateshoreward continental alluvial (fan) environment.

5. Facies succession and depositional cycles

A clear thickening- and shallowing-upward faciesstacking motif is recorded in the studied successionof the Badalgarh Formation in the form of suc-cessive superimposition of facies successions FA Ito FA IV (Bgure 10), as discussed above. Thesequential changes recorded in the overall coars-ening-upward trend include: (i) increase in thesandstone: mudstone/siltstone ratio, (ii) increasein thickness of sandstone beds from cm- to meters-scale, (iii) change in geometry of sandstone bedsfrom dominant lenticular in the lower part todominantly tabular in the upper part, (iv) increasein sandstone bed amalgamation, and (v) decreasein the abundance of cross-stratiBed sandstone and

63 Page 14 of 22 J. Earth Syst. Sci. (2021) 130:63

significant increase in the occurrence of plane-laminated sandstone. Within this trend, we alsoidentiBed two higher-order depositional cycles,namely, (i) depositional cycles (DC-1); conBnedwithin a facies succession and constituted of bedsand bedsets, and (ii) depositional cycles (DC-2);constituted of a number of facies associations. WedeBne the cycles on the basis of (i) systematicshallowing- and thickening-upward facies stackingmotif, and (ii) abrupt superposition of two dis-parate facies, that do not belong to adjacent envi-ronments, across a sharply deBned surface. TheDC-1 cycles (Bgure 11a) are most prominently

displayed in FA III, i.e., lower to middle shorefacecomplex whereby the cycles are expressed in theform of thickening-upward bedsets. These cyclesare average *3 m in thickness, better expressed insandstone-dominated sections, laterally discontin-uous over hundreds of meters to kilometre scaleand between section to section the number andinternal character of these cycles are not correlat-able. Though indication for the development ofsmaller-scale cycles can also be sensed in theproximal sections (FA IV) in a very rudimentaryway, the distal sections (FA I and II) do not showany evidence for development of these cycles,

Figure 10. A shallowing-upward facies succession from the studied Badalgarh Formation. Rose diagrams indicating attitudes ofdifferent vector attributes (oscillation ripple crest line orientation, gutter alignment, foreset migration direction), dominantsedimentary structure and average grain size of sandstone at different stratigraphic levels are shown alongside. Note (i) a highangle relationship between oscillation ripple crest trend and gutter/forest migration direction, and (ii) no appreciable change ingrain size between lower shoreface and upper shoreface-foreshore.

J. Earth Syst. Sci. (2021) 130:63 Page 15 of 22 63

suggesting that the DC-1 cycles are characteristicof proximal near-shore sections. In contrast, theDC-2 cycles (Bgure 11b) are tens to hundreds ofmeters in thickness, traceable over a few kilome-tres, progradational in nature, coarsening- andthickening-upward in character, observed only indistal aerial view and constituted of FA II, III andparts of FA IV (Bgures 11b, 12). Each cycle beginswith sediments of FA II and display upwardincrease in proximal, shallow marine sandstonewith concomitant decrease in deep marine mud-stone, siltstone and sandstone. An abrupt shift infacies type from FA III/FA IV to FA II marks theupper boundaries of these cycles (Bgure 11b). Thethickness, degree of shallowing and progradationand nature of upper boundary demarcation; how-ever, not same in all the cycles; in a stack of cyclesthe lower ones display higher thickness (averagethickness, 25 m), upward shallowing up to uppershoreface and demarcation of their upper bound-aries by abrupt shift in facies, whereas the cyclestowards top are comparatively thin (averagethickness 10 m), shallow upward up to foreshore-beach setting and upper boundaries demarcated byabrupt change in the stratal stacking patterninstead of change in the facies type (Bgures 11b,12). Indeed, the upper boundaries of DC-2 cycles

present in the top part of the studied succession aremarked by change in stratal stacking motif that isabrupt occurrence of thin-bedded strata aboveamalgamated, thick-bedded strata across a sharpboundary. An increase in the amount of glauconitecement (2–6%) documented from bottom to top ofa DC-2 cycle (Bgure 12).

6. Discussion

In a coast-perpendicular cross-section of moderncoastline, the shelf-to-foreshore systems are mod-elled as coarsening-upward facies successions withdistal oAshore typically dominated by fair weathercondition, successively overlain by upper oAshoreto distal lower shoreface and lower to middleshoreface complexes aAected by both storm andfair weather conditions and Bnally by uppershoreface–foreshore complex with widely variablecharacter depending on sediment texture andmorphodynamic condition of the shoreline (Proustet al. 2001; Pemberton 2012). In contrast, Pre-cambrian marine records are biased towards epi-continental (epeiric) sea deposits rather than theremnants of open ocean margins, shelves and deepsea settings (Eriksson et al. 2004; Pratt and

Figure 11. Depositional cycles in the Badalgarh succession; meters-thick DC-1 cycles in FA III, constituted of beds and bedsets. Arrows indicate thickening-upward character of these cycles (a), panoramic view of tens of meters thick shallowing-upwardDC-2 cycles (b). See text for description.

63 Page 16 of 22 J. Earth Syst. Sci. (2021) 130:63

Holmden 2008). Available literature (Erikssonet al. 1998, 2005; Chakraborty et al. 2009; Boseet al. 2012) from Precambrian shallow marinedeposits have suggested a gentle, low-gradientshelf, with a uniform circulation pattern withoutmuch energy gradient and rarity of foreshorerecord because of preservation bias. The deposi-tional bias in favour of tides instead of wave andstorm is suggested in reduced shelf gradients ofepeiric basins since waves dampen rapidly on low-gradient surfaces, while tidal height increases.Sarkar et al. (2004) suggested that the wave-dom-inated segments of Precambrian coastlines couldonly develop away from the tide-dominated rivermouths of braid-deltas and typiBed by

amalgamation of supralittoral storm beds. In thisbackdrop, a systematic process-based facies andfacies association delineation allowed us to docu-ment different sub-environments of wave-domi-nated, tide-inCuenced Badalgarh coastline thatdisplays a gradational transition from shelf toshoreface with development of upper oAshore-dis-tal lower shoreface in between. From developmentof a thick (*100 m) shoreface succession with well-expressed sub-environments (lower, middle andupper) and its gradual pinch out into the oAshoreshale (FA I), we interpret the Badalgrah coastlineas accretionary in character, developed in a high-gradient rift setting. EDcient across-shelf sandtransport up to deeper water allowed development

Figure 12. Measured litholog of DC-2 cycles. Note (i) decrease in cycle thickness upward, (ii) abrupt shift in facies (shallow todeep bathymetry) across upper boundaries of cycles present only in the lower part of studies succession. Detailed litholg of a cycleshown on the right with stars indicating positions of sandstone samples from which glauconite cement contents measured. Piediagrams and microphotographs illustrate increase in glauconite cement content upward in a cycle.

J. Earth Syst. Sci. (2021) 130:63 Page 17 of 22 63

of potentially thick sand-dominated shorefacesuccession in the Badalgarh coast.The Badalgarh shallow-marine system docu-

ments unequivocal signatures for wave- andstorm-dominance. In a wave-dominated shallow-marine succession, lower and middle shorefaceexhibit the greatest variability (Dashtgard et al.2012, 2019). Likewise the Badalgarh upper oA-shore, lower and middle shoreface (FA II and III)display complex operations of wave, storm andtide that are characterized by beds with sedimentcalibre nearly similar to those of the uppershoreface. Whereas wave ripples and mas-sive/plane-laminated beds are the dominant fair-weather wave generated structures, swaley (withsubordinated hummocky) cross-stratiBcation andlow-angle plane laminated beds comprise thedominant storm-wave-generated structure; sandystorm beds are interspersed within fair-weatherbeds. From east–west to WNW–ESE crest trendof oscillation ripples including swash ripples pre-sent in FA III and IV, a nearly east–west orien-tation for the Badalgarh shoreline is inferred.Also, from foreshore (proximal)–shelf (distal)facies distribution pattern, it is inferred that theBadalgarh Sea opened towards north-northeast. Ahigh-angle orientation of gutters (NNE–SSW;average orientation 30�–210�) present at the soleof storm beds suggest their return Cow origin.Along with plane lamination, the documentationof trough and planar-curved cross-stratiBcationsin the middle shoreface with dominant north-eastward (seaward) and subordinate WNW-ward(landward) foreset orientations bear indication fora surf assemblage. The occurrence of northeast-ward (seaward) oriented cross-stratiBcation wed-ges within dominant plane laminations in uppershoreface sandstone indicate surf-swash transitionin the Badalgarh shallow marine system.Within the overwhelming wave- and storm-

dominance, we could identify tidal signatures,mostly from the upper oAshore-distal lower shore-face association (FA II). In general, wave-domi-nated, tide-inCuenced shallow-marine depositsremain poorly recognized in rock record because oftheir subdued tidal signatures compared to tide-dominated environments. Documentation of(i) unidirectional tabular and planar-curved cross-stratiBcation with downcurrent reactivation sur-face bearing undoubted proof of traction-domi-nated Cow, (ii) lateral variation in cross-stratiBcation geometry from sigmoidal to tabularto planar-curved geometry in downcurrent

direction indicating unsteady Cow, and (iii) het-erolithic strata with cm-thick alternation betweenBne sandstone and mudstone within FA II and IIIbear indication for the tidal inCuence. Tidal inCu-ence in a wave-dominated shoreface and its mani-festations in the sediment have recently receivedattention; though its documentation remainedlargely restricted within the Phanerozoic succes-sions because of ichnological clue. In tidally inCu-enced, wave-dominated shoreface, tide eithercontrols sediment deposition directly or modulatethe deposition with increasing tidal range (Praveet al. 1992; Dashtgard et al. 2009). The high gra-dient Badalgarh shoreline possibly favoured for-mation of narrow, deep shelf and was prone towave-domination with tidal inCuence either asmicrotidal or at best mesotidal. Hence, the down-dip translation of wave zone by tide was limitedand conBned in FA II and parts of FA III only.Decimetre-thick northeasterly oriented unidirec-tional tidal cross-stratiBcations indicate theattainment of peak tidal velocity in a seawarddirection, possibly during a gravity-accelerated,heightened ebb Cow. However, unlike the shore-parallel peak tidal Cow documented in some earlierstudies (e.g., Wright et al. 1982); the peak tidalCow in the Badalgarh lower-middle shoreface wasat a high-angle with the shoreline. Also, in suchtide-inCuenced system, tides force lateral transla-tion of wave zones in intertidal zones and hence,breaking waves and surf processes dominate sedi-ment deposition in upper shoreface. Vakarelovet al. (2012) suggested the generation of intertidalhorizontal planar stratiBed intervals instead ofcross-stratiBcation in upper shoreface of suchwave-dominated, microtidal systems and identiBedit as a distinguishing criterion, different frompurely wave-dominated coastline. The interbed-ding of wave-/combined-Cow ripples and planar-curved cross-beds with dominant plane-stratiBedbeds support the combined operation of shoalingwave, breaking waves, surf and swash-backwash inthe upper shoreface-foreshore (FA IV) of Badal-garh coastline. The contention is also supported bynear similar sediment caliber in sandstone beds oflower (av. grain size 1.77/) and upper (av. grainsize 1.20/) shoreface (Bgure 10). Dashtgard et al.(2012) have documented sufBciently strong ([0.2m/sec) tidal currents in lower to middle shorefaceduring peak tidal Cow that can entrain and depositsand sediments in lower and middle shoreface withsimilar calibers as of the upper shoreface. A similargrain size trend also documented from relatively

63 Page 18 of 22 J. Earth Syst. Sci. (2021) 130:63

steep gradient ([1�) mixed wave-current inCu-enced SE Australia coast, where grain sizes coarsenoAshore before getting Bne again (Cowell et al.1999).An overall shallowing- and thickening-upward

sandstone-dominated depositional succession,internally built up by stacks of tens of metre-thickthickening- and shallowing-upward depositionalcycles (DC-2), constitute the Badalgarh lithopack-age. Since at any scale of observation, a stratalstacking pattern deBnes a systems tract; the uni-form thickening-upward stacking and shallowing-upward depositional trend through the entirestratigraphic succession is interpreted as a productof ‘systems tract’ following the classical Exxonsequence stratigraphic paradigm (Van Wagoneret al. 1987; Posamentier and Allen 1999; Catu-neanu 2006). Overlying the distal oAshore marineshale of FA I with gradational contact, theBadalgarh ‘systems tract’ with persistent shallow-ing-upward and progradational stacking is inter-preted as a product of relative sea level highstand(HST). In a rift basin, accommodation history isstrongly controlled by mechanical subsidence withaccumulation space creation at a rapid ratebecause of episodic pulses of extension. A longperiod of tectonic quiescence that follows the sub-sidence allows gradual consumption of availableaccommodation by sediment supply, resulting inthe formation of depositional sequences withprogradational trends and overall shallowing-up-ward stacking patterns (Martins-Neto and Catu-neanu 2009). Following classical sequencestratigraphy concept, it can be argued that thehundreds of meter-thick shallowing-upward depo-sitional cycles (DC-2) nested within the ‘systemstract’ represent sets of ‘parasequence’. Increase inthe amount of glauconitic cement upward withinthese cycles bear independent clue for shallowing-upward character. Sandstones with glauconitecement are used for recognition of shallowing andpossible subaerial exposure (Khalifa1983; Catu-neanu 2006) where K, Al and Fe become availablefrom the weathering of clays and feldspars. Theupper boundaries of the ‘parasequence’s are deBnedby Cooding surfaces, demarcated by abrupt occur-rence of deeper water facies above shallow-waterfacies. However, the abrupt shift (FA III/FA IV toFA II) in facies type across the upper boundaries ofthe DC-2 cycles are only prominent in the lowerpart of the succession. In contrast, the DC-1 cyclesare short-lived, conBned within a facies associa-tion and signify only localized, short-lived

progradational events of the shoreline. We willfurther examine these cycles to identify the cau-sative mechanisms behind these cyclicities, thoughwe note that similar cycles in rift settings arelinked with different orders of tectonic perturba-tions (Gawthorpe and Leeder 2000; Yue et al.2018).In the upper part of the studied section, indis-

tinct facies shift across the upper boundaries ofDC-2 cycles and demarcation of upper boundariesbased on strata stacking, instead of facies shift,makes the ‘parasequence’ definition uncertain andtentative. Recent reBnements in sequence strati-graphic rationale (Catuneanu et al. 2010; Zecchinand Cateneanu 2013) have highlighted limitationsin ‘parasequence’ concept taking into consideration(i) restriction of ‘parasequences’ in coastal andshallow marine settings where Cooding surfaces canform, and (ii) allostratigraphic (facies) rather thansequence stratigraphic (surface) nature of theirbounding surfaces, and arguments are placedagainst universal applicability of ‘parasequence’concept. Since the cycles deBnitively displaychange in depositional trend, but we could notalways document abrupt facies change acrossupper boundaries of all DC-2 cycles, we prefer torelate these cycles with high frequency geneticstratigraphic sequence or T-R cycle instead of‘parasequence’.

7. Conclusion

(1) We describe a wave-dominated, tide-inCu-enced shelf to foreshore transition from thePaleoproterozoic Badalgarh Formation depos-ited in a rift setting. Gradational transitionbetween facies associations, in particularbetween the upper shoreface–distal lowershoreface association and in turn, into theproximal lower shoreface–middle shorefaceassociation allowed us to characterize theBadalgarh shoreface as accretionary in char-acter, developed in a high-gradient setting.

(2) Periodic storm events invaded the wave-dom-inated shallow marine system. From swashripple crest-line orientation an east–westcoastline trend is inferred and operation ofstorm Cow as return Cow at a high angle to theshoreline is inferred. The higher gradient coastallowed eDcient transport of sand to deeperwater resulting in thick sand-dominated suc-cession in Badalgarh coast-line.

J. Earth Syst. Sci. (2021) 130:63 Page 19 of 22 63

(3) In an overall wave-dominated set-up, thepresent study could also document undoubtedsignatures of significant tidal current action.We interpret the Badalgarh shallow marinesystem as tide-inCuenced instead of tide-mod-ulated or tide-dominated because of conBne-ment of tidal signatures in upper oAshore tomiddle shoreface settings. Nearly uniformgrain size proBle from upper shoreface to theupper oAshore typify the reasonably strongtidal current that did not allow mud settling onthe sea Coor.

(4) Overlying the marine oAshore shale, the coars-ening- and shallowing-upward Badalgarh suc-cession represents a product of highstandsystems tract (HST), composed of two differ-ent orders (DC-1 and DC-2) of stacked tens- tohundreds of meter-thick depositional cycles.While short-lived DC-1 cycles are interpretedas products of localized progradation, thehundreds-of-meter thick DC-2 cycles are iden-tiBed as genetic stratigraphic/T-R cycles.

Acknowledgements

PPC acknowledges the UGC-CAS programme,Department of Geology, University of Delhi forpartial funding of Beld work. RB acknowledges theBnancial help from the Center for ScientiBc andIndustrial Research (CSIR), Government of Indiain the form of research fellowship. We acknowledgethe help extended by Mr Sagnik Basu Roy andMr Rasikh Barkat in course of Beld work. Theinfrastructural facility extended by the Depart-ment of Geology, University of Delhi, is thankfullyacknowledged.

Author statement

Partha Pratim Chakraborty: Field work, problemvisualization and manuscript writing. Rahul Bail-wal: Field work, Beld data collection and docu-mentation, Bgure drafting and manuscript writing.

References

Aigner T and Reineck H E 1982 Proximality trends in modernstorm sands from the Helgoland Bight (North Sea) andtheir implications for basin analysis; Senck. Marit. 14183–215.

Bose P K, Eriksson P G, Sarkar S, Wright D T, Samanta P,Mukhopadhyay S, Mandal S, Banerjee S and Altermann W2012 Sedimentation patterns during the Precambrian: Aunique record?; Mar. Petrol. Geol. 33 34–68, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpetgeo.2010.11.002.

Catuneanu O 2006 Principles of sequence stratigraphy;Elsevier, Hoboken, 343p.

Catuneanu O, Bhattacharya J P, Blum M D, Dalrymple R W,Eriksson P G, Fielding C R, Fisher W L, Galloway W E,Gianolla P, Gibling M R, Giles K A, Holbrook J M, JordanR, Kendall C G S C, Macurda B, Martinsen O J, Miall A D,Nummedal D, Posamentier H W, Pratt B R, Shanley K W,Steel R J, Strasser A and Tucker M E 2010 Sequencestratigraphy: Common ground after three decades ofdevelopment; First Break 28 41–54, https://doi.org/10.3997/1365-2397.2010002.

Chakraborty P P, Sarkar A, Das K and Das P 2009 Alluvialfan to storm-dominated shelf transition in the Mesopro-terozoic Singhora Group, Chattisgarh Supergroup, CentralIndia; Precamb. Res. 170 88–106, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.precamres.2008.12.002.

Clifton H 2006 A re-examination of facies models for clasticshorelines; In: Facies Models Revisited, pp. 293–337,https://doi.org/10.2110/pec.06.84.0293.

Cowell P J, Roy P S, Cleveringa J and De Boer P L 1999Simulating coastal systems tracts using the shorefacetranslation model; In: Numerical Experiments in Stratigra-phy: Recent Advances in Stratigraphic and SedimentologicComputer Simulations (eds) John W H, Lynn Watney W,Eugene C R, Rudy S, Robert H G and Evan K F, https://doi.org/10.2110/pec.99.62.0165.

Dashtgard S E, Gingras M K and MacEachern J A 2009Tidally modulated shorefaces; J. Sedim. Res. 79 793–807,https://doi.org/10.2110/jsr.2009.084.

Dashtgard S E, MacEachern J A, Frey S E and Gingras M K2012 Tidal eAects on the shoreface: Towards a conceptualframework; Sedim. Geol. 279 42–61, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sedgeo.2010.09.006.

Davis R A 1978 Beach and nearshore zone; In: CoastalSedimentary Environments, Springer US, pp. 237–285,https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4684-0056-4˙6.

Dott R H and Bourgeois J 1982 Hummocky stratiBcation:Significance of its variable bedding sequences; Geol. Soc.Am. Bull. 93 663–680, https://doi.org/10.1130/0016-7606(1982)93%3c663:HSSOIV%3e2.0.CO;2.

Duke W L 1985 The Paleogeography of paleozoic and mesozoicstorm depositional systems: A discussion; J. Geol. Soc.London 93 88–90, https://doi.org/10.1086/628923.

Duke W L, Arnott R W C and Cheel R J 1991 Shelfsandstones and hummocky cross-stratiBcation: Newinsights on a stormy debate; Geology 19 625–628,https://doi.org/10.1130/0091-7613(1991)019%3c0625:SSAHCS%3e2.3.CO;2.

Eriksson P G and Catuneanu O 2004 Third-order sequencestratigraphy in the palaeoproterozoic Daspoort Formation(Pretoria Group, Transvaal Supergroup), Kaapvaal Cra-ton; In: The Precambrian Earth: Tempos and EventsElsevier, pp. 724–735.

Eriksson P G, Reczko B F F, Jaco BoshoA A, Schreiber U M,Van der Neut M and Snyman C P 1995 Architecturalelements from Lower Proterozoic braid-delta and high-energy tidal Cat deposits in the Magaliesberg Formation,

63 Page 20 of 22 J. Earth Syst. Sci. (2021) 130:63

Transvaal Supergroup, South Africa; Sedim. Geol. 9799–117, https://doi.org/10.1016/0037-0738(95)00004-R.

Eriksson P G, Condie K C, Tirsgaard H, Mueller W U,Altermann W, Miall A D, Aspler L B, Catuneanu O andChiarenzelli J R 1998 Precambrian clastic sedimentationsystems; Sedim. Geol. 120 5–53, https://doi.org/10.1016/S0037-0738(98)00026-8.

Eriksson P G, Catuneanu O, Sarkar S and Tirsgaard H 2005Patterns of sedimentation in the Precambrian; Sedim. Geol.176 17–42, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sedgeo.2005.01.003.

Eriksson P G, Bose P K, Catuneanu O, Sarkar S and BanerjeeS 2008 Precambrian clastic epeiric embayments: Examplesfrom South Africa and India; Geol. Assoc. Canada,pp. 119–136.

Frey S E and Dashtgard S E 2012 Seaweed-assisted, benthicgravel transport by tidal currents; Sedimentary Geology265–266 121–125, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sedgeo.2012.04.002.

Galloway W E 2002 Paleogeographic setting and depositionalarchitecture of a sand-dominated shelf depositional system,Miocene Utsira Formation, North Sea Basin; J. Sedim. Res.72 476–490, https://doi.org/10.1306/110801720476.

Gawthorpe R L and Leeder M R 2000 Tectono-sedimentaryevolution of active extensional basins; Basin Res. 12195–218, https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2117.2000.00121.x.

Harms J C 1979 Primary sedimentary structures; Ann Rev.Earth Planet. Sci. 16 227–248, https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.ea.07.050179.001303.

Harms J C, Southard J B, Spearing D R and Walker R G 1975StratiBcation and sequence in prograding shoreline depos-its; In: Depositional environments as interpreted fromprimary sedimentary and stratigraphic sequences; SEPM(Soc. Sedim. Geol.) 81–102, https://doi.org/10.2110/scn.75.01.0081.

Harms J C, Southard J B andWalker R G 1982 Structures andSequences in Clastic Rocks; SEPM (Soc. Sedim. Geol.)1–249, https://doi.org/10.2110/scn.82.09.

Hasnat Masood Ahmad A, Saikia C and Mohammad Wasim S2012 Petrofacies evolution of Bayana Basin Sandstones ofMesoproterozoic Delhi Supergroup, Bharatpur District,Rajasthan, Northwestern India; Open J. Geol. 2 260–270,https://doi.org/10.4236/ojg.2012.24026.

Heron A M 1917 Biana-Lalsot hills in eastern Rajputana; Rec.Geol. Surv. India 48 181–203.

Heron A M 1953 The geology of central Rajputana; Geol. Surv.India Memoirs 79 389.

Kernen R A, Giles K A, Rowan M G, Lawton T F and HearonT E 2012 Depositional and halokinetic-sequence stratigra-phy of the Neoproterozoic Wonoka Formation adjacent toPatawarta allochthonous salt sheet, Central FlindersRanges, South Australia; Geol. Soc. London, Spec. Publ.363 81–105.

Khalifa M A 1983 Origin and occurrence of glauconite in thegreen sandstone associated with unconformity, BahariyaOases, Western Desert Egypt; J. African Earth Sci. 1321–325, https://doi.org/10.1016/s0731-7247(83)80017-2.

Komar P D 1976 Beach processes and sedimentation; EosTrans. Am. Geophys. Union 58 1092, https://doi.org/10.5860/choice.36-1592.

Levoy F, Anthony E J, Monfort O and Larsonneur C 2000The morphodynamics of megatidal beaches in Normandy;

France Mar. Geol. 171 39–59, https://doi.org/10.1016/S0025-3227(00)00110-9.

Martins-Neto M A and Catuneanu O 2010 Rift sequencestratigraphy; Mar. Petrol. Geol. 27 247–253, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpetgeo.2009.08.001.

Masselink G and Hegge B 1995 Morphodynamics of meso- andmacrotidal beaches: Examples from central Queensland,Australia; Mar. Geol. 129 1–23, https://doi.org/10.1016/0025-3227(95)00104-2.

Midtgaard H H 1996 Inner-shelf to lower-shoreface hummockysandstone bodies with evidence for geostrophic inCuencedcombined Cow, lower cretaceous West Greenland; J. Sedim.Res. 66 343–353, https://doi.org/10.1306/d4268342-2b26-11d7-8648000102c1865d.

Nichols G 2009 Sedimentology and stratigraphy; Wiley,Hoboken, 397p.

Niedoroda A W, Swift D J P and Hopkins T S 1985 Theshoreface; In: Coastal Sedimentary Environments, Springer,New York, pp. 533–624, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4612-5078-4˙8.

Pemberton S G, Frey R W, Ranger M J and MacEachern J1992 Applications of ichnology to petroleum exploration;In: SEPM Core Workshop, 429p.

Pemberton S G, MacEachern J A, Dashtgard S E, Bann K L,Gingras M K and Zonneveld J P 2012 Shorefaces; In:Developments in Sedimentology, Elsevier BV, pp 563–603,https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-444-53813-0.00019-8.

Posamentier H W and Allen G P 1999 Siliciclastic sequencestratigraphy: Recent developments and applications; Soc.Sediment. Geol., Tulsa Oklahoma 7 210.

Pratt B R and Holmden C 2008 Dynamics of epeiric seas; Geol.Assoc. Canada Spec. Paper 8 406.

Pratt B R and James N P 1986 The St George Group (LowerOrdovician) of western Newfoundland: Tidal Cat islandmodel for carbonate sedimentation in shallow epeiric seas;Sedimentology 33 313–343, https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-3091.1986.tb00540.x.

Prave A R 1992 Depositional and sequence stratigraphicframework of the Lower Cambrian Zabriskie Quartzite:Implications for regional correlations and the earlyCambrian paleogeography of the Death Valley region ofCalifornia and Nevada; Geol. Soc. Am. Bull. 104 505–515,https://doi.org/10.1130/0016-7606(1991)104%3c0505:DASSFO%3e2.3.CO;2.

Prave A R, Duke W L and Slattery W 1996 A depositionalmodel for storm- and tide-inCuenced prograding siliciclasticshorelines from the Middle Devonian of the centralAppalachian foreland basin USA; Sedimentology 43611–629, https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-3091.1996.tb02017.x.

Proust J N, Mahieux G and Tessier B 2001 Field and seismicimages of sharp-based shoreface deposits: Implications forsequence stratigraphic analysis; J. Sedim. Res. 71 944–957,https://doi.org/10.1306/041601710944.

Raza M, Ahmad A H M, Shamim Khan M and Khan F 2012Geochemistry and detrital modes of Proterozoic sedimen-tary rocks, Bayana Basin, north Delhi fold belt: Implica-tions for provenance and source-area weathering; Int. Geol.Rev. 54(1) 111–129, https://doi.org/10.1080/00206814.2010.517044.

Reading H G 1986 Sedimentary Environments and Facies;Blackwell, Oxford, 615p.

J. Earth Syst. Sci. (2021) 130:63 Page 21 of 22 63

Reading H G and Collinson J D 1996 Clastic coasts; In:Sedimentary Environments: Processes, Facies and Strati-graphy, pp 154–231.

Reinson E G 1984 Barrier-island and associated strand-plainsystems; In: Facies Models (ed.) Walker R G; 2nd edn,Geol. Assoc. Canada, Toronto, pp. 119–140.

Samanta P, Mukhopadhyay S and Eriksson P G 2016 Forcedregressive wedge in the Mesoproterozoic Koldaha Shale,Vindhyan basin, Son valley, central India; Marine Petrol.Geol. 71 329–343, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpetgeo.2016.01.001.

Sarkar S, Banerjee S, Chakraborty S and Bose P K 2002 Shelfstorm Cow dynamics: Insight from the mesoproterozoicRampur Shale, central India; Sedim. Geol. 147 89–104,https://doi.org/10.1016/S0037-0738(01)00189-0.

Sarkar S, Eriksson P G and Chakraborty S 2004 Epeiric seaformation on Neoproterozoic supercontinent break-up: Adistinctive signature in coastal storm bed amalgamation;Gondwana Res. 7 313–322, https://doi.org/10.1016/S1342-937X(05)70786-3.

Singh S P 1982 Stratigraphy of Delhi Supergroup in Bayana sub-basin, northeastern Rajasthan; Geol. Surv. India 112 46–62.

Singh S P 1985 Fluvial and tidal sedimentation in theProterozoic Alwar Group, Bayana sub-basin, Bharatpurdistrict, Rajasthan; Records Geol. Surv. India 116 89–101.

Singh S P 1988 InCuence of basement tectonics on the Delhisedimentation in the Bayana graben, northeasternRajasthan; J. Geol. Soc. India 32 468–476.

Singh S P 1991 Paleogeography and clastic dispersal of theProterozoic Delhi Supergroup in the Bayana sub-basin,northeastern India; J. Indian Assoc. Sedimentol. 10 19–36.

Thom B G, Roy P S, Short A D, Hudson J P and Davis J R1986 Modern coastal and estuarine environments of depo-sition in southeastern Australia; In: 12th InternationalSedimentology Conference, Guide to Excursion A 4 279.

Vakarelov B K, Ainsworth R B and MacEachern J A 2012Recognition of wave-dominated, tide-inCuenced shorelinesystems in the rock record: Variations from a microtidalshoreline model; Sedim. Geol. 279 23–41, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sedgeo.2011.03.004.

Van Wagoner J C, Mitchum Jr R M, Posamentier H W andVail P R 1987 Seismic stratigraphy interpretation usingsequence stratigraphy: Part 2: Key definitions of sequencestratigraphy, pp. 11–14.

Walker R G 1984 General introduction: Fancies, faciessequences and facies models, Facies Model, pp. 1–9.

Walker R and Plint A 1992 Wave- and storm-dominatedshallow marine systems; In: Facies Models: Response to SeaLevel Change, Geological Association of Canada, GeoText1, Newfoundland, pp. 219–238.

Weleschuk Z P and Dashtgard S E 2019 Evolution of anancient (Lower Cretaceous) marginal-marine system fromtide-dominated to wave-dominated deposition, McMurrayFormation; Sedimentology 66 2354–2391, https://doi.org/10.1111/sed.12601.

Wright L D, Guza R T and Short A D 1982 Dynamics of ahigh-energy dissipative surf zone; Mar. Geol. 45 41–62,https://doi.org/10.1016/0025-3227(82)90179-7.

Yang B C, Gingras M K, Pemberton S G and Dalrymple R W2008 Wave-generated tidal bundles as an indicator of wave-dominated tidal Cats; Geology 36 39–42, https://doi.org/10.1130/G24178A.1.

Yue L, Liu Z and Ma Y 2018 Sedimentary environment anddepositional evolution of the Mesoproterozoic BingmagouFormation on the southern margin of the North ChinaCraton; Sci. Rep. 8 1–12.

Zecchin M and Catuneanu O 2013 High-resolution sequencestratigraphy of clastic shelves I: Units and boundingsurfaces; Marine Petrol. Geol. 39 1–25, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpetgeo.2012.08.015.

Corresponding editor: SANTANU BANERJEE

63 Page 22 of 22 J. Earth Syst. Sci. (2021) 130:63