arguing science - internet archive
TRANSCRIPT
ArdsSnd McSbncb- A D Salldsb ln rRb Fsrs rb lc McSbncb ana
MYSrSr © CABG by Ruffxrt Shxlwrakx, cichaxl Shxrmxr a“w
ghxBxstSchools.org
All rights rxsxrvxw. ao ffart oy this book may bx usxw or
rxffrowucxw i“ a“y ma““xr without writtx“ ffxrmissio“ yrom
thx ffublishxr xxcxfft i“ critical articlxs a“w rxvixws. Lo“tact
thx ffublishxr yor i“yormatio“.
cri“txw i“ thx l“itxw Statxs oy Amxrica.
xISBa EHIBEDEGIBFIE
Library oy Lo“grxss Latalogi“g-i“-cublicatio“ Mata
aamxsF Shxlwrakx, Ruffxrt. | Shxrmxr, cichaxl.
gitlxF Argui“g scix“cx F a wialogux o“ thx yuturx oy scix“cx
a“w sffirit 6
Ruffxrt Shxlwrakx a“w cichaxl Shxrmxr.
Mxscrifftio“F Rhi“xbxck, axw York F co“kfish Book
cublishi“g Lomffa“y, CABG.
Iwx“tifixrsF LLLa CABGACFEAI | ISBa EHIBEDEGIBFHH
1alk. ffaffxr0
SubjxctsF LLSRF chilosoffhy a“w scix“cx. | Scix“cx--
chilosoffhy. |
chysics--chilosoffhy. | chilosoffhy oy “aturx.
Llassificatio“F LLL dBHF .SFDCI CABG | MML FAB--wcCD
LL rxcorw availablx at httffsF66lcc“.loc.gov6CABGACFEAI
co“kfish Book cublishi“g Lomffa“y
CC Nast carkxt Strxxt
Suitx DAE
Rhi“xbxck, axw York BCFHC
lSA 1IEF0 IHG-EIGB
www.mo“kfishffublishi“g.com
J ablR r S H r naRnas
gitlx cagx
Loffyright cagx
VREF F H E
J MEG EI J I H MOOLI ,ORL - RlcNRg SRNLMRAaN
IagNRmINn
J MEG EI J I H MOOLI ,ORL - cILRANL SRNRcNR
IagNRmINn
VF RJ 1 - M FJ ERNF LNI M NN I H NEN H E
H MF VJ ER 1
H las aRr 0
VF RJ 0 - M EN J F L F H J NON FJ F I NI J F N H E
H las aRr ,
H las aRr -
VF RJ , - L OI F N I I H NEN H E
H las aRr .
H las aRr 6
F r r anr aRs
VREF FHE
I“ CABF, ghxBxstSchools.org wxbsitx hostxw a“ i“tx“sivx
Mialogux o“ thx aaturx oy Scix“cx bxtwxx“ two wxll-k“ow“
scix“cx writxrs, Ruffxrt Shxlwrakx a“w cichaxl Shxrmxr.
ghosx wialoguxs yorm thx basis oy this book. nhilx thx
book’s xwitors havx sxx“ fit to rxarra“gx somx oy thx
sxfiux“ci“g oy thx wialogux 1as it affffxars o“li“x0 a“w havx
mawx mi“or mowificatio“s i“ thx la“guagx yor thx sakx oy
clarity a“w rxawability, thx wialogux ffublishxw hxrx is, i“ all
xssx“tial mattxrs, thx samx.
Mrs. Shxlwrakx a“w Shxrmxr agrxxw to takx ffart i“ this
wialogux ovxr thrxx co“sxcutivx mo“ths, with xach mo“th
wxvotxw to a ffarticular toffic. I“ thx first mo“th, cay, thx
yocus was o“ matxrialism i“ scix“cx. Mr. Shxlwrakx arguxw
that scix“cx “xxws to yrxx itsxly yrom matxrialist wogmaL
i“wxxw, scix“cx misu“wxrsta“ws “aturx by bxi“g wxwwxw to
ffurxly matxrialist xxffla“atio“s. Mr. Shxrmxr offffosxw Mr.
Shxlwrakx’s ffositio“, argui“g that scix“cx, ffroffxrly
co“cxivxw, is a matxrialistic x“txrffrisxL yor scix“cx to look
bxyo“w matxrialist xxffla“atio“s is to bxtray scix“cx a“w
x“gagx i“ suffxrstitio“. I“ Ju“x, thx yocus was o“ mx“tal
actio“ at a wista“cx. Mr. Shxlwrakx wxyx“wxw thx ffositio“
that txlxffathy, NSc, a“w ffsychic6ffsi ffhx“omx“a i“ gx“xral
arx rxal a“w backxw uff by co“vi“ci“g xviwx“cxL thxir
i“vxstigatio“ wxsxrvxs to bx ffart oy scix“cx. Mr. Shxrmxr
offffosxw Mr. Shxlwrakx’s ffositio“, argui“g that ffsychic or
ffsi ffhx“omx“a arx artiyacts oy ffoor xxffxrimx“tal
ffrocxwurx or outright yrauwL “o co“vi“ci“g xviwx“cx or
xxffxrimx“ts suffffort thxir rxality. Muri“g thx thirw mo“th,
July, thx yocus was o“ Vow a“w scix“cx. Mr. Shxlwrakx ffut
yorth thx “otio“ that thxrx is “o co“flict bxtwxx“ scix“cx
a“w thx xxistx“cx oy Vow a“w that xviwx“cx yrom co“scious
xxffxrix“cx rx“wxrs bxlixy i“ Vow rxaso“ablx. Mr. Shxrmxr
offffosxw Mr. Shxlwrakx’s ffositio“, argui“g that scix“cx i“ “o
way sufffforts thx xxistx“cx oy VowL i“ yact, scix“cx
u“wxrcuts thx rxaso“ablx“xss oy bxlixy i“ Vow.
I“ orwxr to ffroviwx a suitablx co“txxt yor this wialogux,
Mrs. Shxlwrakx a“w Shxrmxr agrxxw to bx i“txrvixwxw by
ghx Bxst Schools ffrior to thxir wialogux. It is our hoffx that
you, thx rxawxr, will x“joy this yxisty a“w thoughtyul co“txst
oy iwxas as much as wx havx x“joyxw thx ffrocxss oy
ffublishi“g thxm.
J MEG EI J I HMOOLI ,ORL
RaVE RJ I ME LI RF BE NN J E RLNE c
Rbs Rra I lRldranR, a Lambriwgx-trai“xw biochxmist a“w
ffla“t ffhysiologist, is a ffromi“x“t ffublic i“txllxctual critical
oy thx authoritaria“ism a“w closxw-mi“wxw“xss that hx fi“ws
i“crxasi“gly tyffical oy mai“strxam scix“cx.
Shxlwrakx is thx author oy “umxrous bxstsxlli“g books,
i“cluwi“g A N bb McSbncb lc L Scb 1BEIB0, NRb LbLSrrR lc
N arsrb 1BEEA0, NRb Brbsbncb lc rRb Basr 1BEII0, D lds NRar
F nlb R Rbn NRbSr Ab nbrs Arb Clm Snd H lm b 1BEEE0, NRb
Mbnsb lc BbSnd Mrarba Ar 1CAAD0, a“w, most rxcx“tly,
McSbncb Mbr Frbb- , 0 BarRs rl N bb D Ssclabrw 1CABC0. ghis
i“txrvixw will yocus xsffxcially o“ McSbncb Mbr Frbb 1titlxw
NRb McSbncb D blssSln i“ thx l.a.0, which co“cx“tratxs o“
thx scix“tific x“txrffrisx as such a“w thx obstaclxs to its
ffroffxr ffursuit.
Shxlwrakx has takx“ o“ thx rolx oy scix“tific “gawfly” i“
thx ffrouw trawitio“ oy Socratxs, urgi“g scix“tists to
fiuxstio“ rxcxivxw wiswom a“w to rxmovx iwxological
bli“wxrs.
AaY Rs G arlaY Sr r J lRG RsaI clr r ls,r rgD gha“k you vxry
much yor agrxxi“g to this i“txrvixw. noulw you bxgi“ by
givi“g us a fiuick skxtch oy your backgrou“wN nhx“ a“w
whxrx wxrx you bor“N nhat wxrx your yamily’s
circumsta“cxsN nhat was your rxligious uffbri“gi“g, iy a“yN
A“w fflxasx wxscribx your xwucatio“ a“w xarly carxxr.
Rbs Rra I lRldranRD I was bor“ o“ Ju“x CI, BEEC, i“
axwark-o“-grx“t, aotti“ghamshirx, i“ thx N“glish
ciwla“ws, a“w was brought uff thxrx. cy yamily was
wxvoutly cxthowist. I wx“t to a high church A“glica“
boarwi“g school. I was yor a whilx tor“ bxtwxx“ thxsx two
vxry wiffxrx“t trawitio“s—o“x crotxsta“t a“w thx othxr
A“glo-Latholic with i“cx“sx a“w all thx traffffi“gs oy
Latholicism.
Orom a vxry xarly agx I was i“txrxstxw i“ ffla“ts a“w
a“imals. cy yathxr was a“ amatxur “aturalist a“w
ffharmacist a“w hx x“couragxw this i“txrxst. cy mothxr ffut
uff with it. I kxfft lots oy a“imals at homx.
I k“xw yrom fiuitx a“ xarly agx that I wa“txw to wo
biology, a“w I sffxcializxw i“ scix“cx at school. ghx“ I wx“t
to Lambriwgx, whxrx I stuwixw biology a“w biochxmistry.
Rowxvxr, as I ffrocxxwxw i“ my stuwixs, a grxat guly offx“xw
bxtwxx“ my origi“al i“sffiratio“—“amxly, a“ i“txrxst i“
actual livi“g orga“isms—a“w thx ki“w oy biology I was
taughtF orthowox, mxcha“istic biology, which xssx“tially
wx“ixs thx liyx oy orga“isms, but i“stxaw trxats thxm as
machi“xs.
ghxrx sxxmxw to bx vxry littlx co““xctio“ bxtwxx“ thx
wirxct xxffxrix“cx oy a“imals a“w ffla“ts a“w thx way I was
lxar“i“g about thxm, ma“iffulati“g thxm, wissxcti“g thxm
i“to smallxr a“w smallxr bits, gxtti“g wow“ to thx molxcular
lxvxl, a“w sxxi“g thxm as xvolvi“g by bli“w cha“cx a“w thx
bli“w yorcxs oy “atural sxlxctio“.
I yxlt morx a“w morx that thxrx was somxthi“g wro“g,
but I coulw“’t ffut my fi“gxr o“ it. ao o“x xlsx sxxmxw to
thi“k thxrx was a“ythi“g wro“g. ghx“ a yrix“w who was
stuwyi“g litxraturx lx“t mx a book o“ Vxrma“ ffhilosoffhy
co“tai“i“g a“ xssay o“ thx writi“gs oy Voxthx, thx ffoxt a“w
bota“ist.B
I wiscovxrxw that Voxthx, at thx bxgi““i“g oy thx BEth
cx“tury, haw a visio“ oy a wiffxrx“t ki“w oy scix“cx—a holistic
scix“cx that i“txgratxw wirxct xxffxrix“cx a“w
u“wxrsta“wi“g. It wiw“’t i“volvx brxaki“g xvxrythi“g wow“
i“to ffixcxs a“w wx“yi“g thx xviwx“cx oy o“x’s sx“sxs. ghis
wiscovxry—thx iwxa that thxrx coulw bx a wiffxrx“t ki“w oy
“atural scix“cx—fillxw mx with grxat xxcitxmx“t. So
i“vigoratxw was I by this ffrosffxct that I wa“txw to fi“w out
why scix“cx haw bxcomx so mxcha“istic. I was yortu“atx to
gxt a yxllowshiff at Rarvarw, whxrx I sffx“t a yxar stuwyi“g
thx history a“w ffhilosoffhy oy scix“cx. ghomas auh“’s book
NRb Mrrscrsrb lc McSbnrSfic LballsrSlnsC haw rxcx“tly comx
out, a“w it haw a big i“flux“cx o“ mx, gavx mx a “xw
ffxrsffxctivx. It mawx mx rxalizx that thx mxcha“istic thxory
oy liyx was what auh“ callxw a “ffarawigm”—a collxctivxly
hxlw mowxl oy rxality, a bxlixy systxm. Rx showxw that
ffxriows oy rxvolutio“ary cha“gx i“volvxw thx rxfflacxmx“t
oy olw scix“tific ffarawigms by “xw o“xs. Iy scix“cx haw
cha“gxw rawically i“ thx ffast, thx“ ffxrhaffs it coulw cha“gx
agai“ i“ thx yuturx. I was vxry xxcitxw by that.
nhx“ I got back to Lambriwgx rN“gla“ws, I wiw a ch.M. o“
how ffla“ts wxvxloff, ffarticularly worki“g o“ thx hormo“xs
withi“ ffla“ts. I wx“t o“ with my rxsxarch o“ ffla“t
wxvxloffmx“t a“w bxcamx a rxsxarch yxllow oy Llarx Lollxgx
i“ Lambriwgx a“w also a rxsxarch yxllow oy thx Royal
Socixty, which gavx mx trxmx“wous yrxxwom, yor which I’m
vxry gratxyul.
AaY Rs G arlaY D Sffirituality, mysticism, a“w Lhristia“ity
havx fflayxw a ffromi“x“t rolx i“ your liyx. Orom your
writi“gs, o“x gxts thx sx“sx that you arx o“ a ffilgrimagx or
fiuxst. Loulw you xlaboratx o“ this asffxct oy your liyxN nas
thxrx a ffoi“t i“ your liyx whxrx you xxffxrix“cxw what might
bx callxw a “rxligious co“vxrsio“” 1or ffxrhaffs sxvxral0N
Rbs Rra I lRldranRD nhx“ I rxcxivxw a gra“t i“ BEGI yrom
thx Royal Socixty to go a“w stuwy troffical ffla“ts i“
calaysia, at thx l“ivxrsity oy calaya, I travxlxw through
I“wia o“ thx way thxrx. I you“w I“wia a vxry xxciti“g fflacx
to bx, a“w as I travxlxw through that cou“try I x“cou“txrxw
gurus a“w ashrams a“w txmfflxs, which offx“xw my xyxs to a
ra“gx oy ffhx“omx“a I was comfflxtxly u“yamiliar with.
nhx“ I got back to N“gla“w I got i“txrxstxw i“ xxfflori“g
co“scious“xss, a“w I haw various ffsychxwxlic xxffxrix“cxs,
which co“vi“cxw mx that thx mi“w was vastly grxatxr tha“
a“ythi“g I’w bxx“ tolw about i“ my scix“tific xwucatio“.
ghx“ I got i“txrxstxw i“ tra“scx“wx“tal mxwitatio“ bxcausx
I wa“txw to bx ablx to xxfflorx co“scious“xss without wrugs.
I was i“crxasi“gly i“triguxw by I“wia, by yoga, a“w by
mxwitatio“, a“w i“ BEHE I haw a cha“cx to go a“w work i“
I“wia as ffri“ciffal ffla“t ffhysiologist at thx I“txr“atio“al
Lroffs Rxsxarch I“stitutx yor thx Sxmi-Ariw groffics
1ILRISAg0 i“ Rywxrabaw.
I was thrillxw by thx iwxa oy immxrsi“g mysxly i“ this
xxotic a“w yasci“ati“g culturx. nhilx I was i“ I“wia, I visitxw
txmfflxs a“w ashrams a“w I attx“wxw wiscoursxs by gurus
a“w holy mx“. I also took uff Sufism, a“w haw a Sufi txachxr
i“ Rywxrabaw, who was thx gra“wyathxr oy a yrix“w oy mi“x.
Rx gavx mx a Sufi ma“tra, a b axSca, which yor about a yxar
I ffracticxw i“ a Sufi yorm oy mxwitatio“. But I wiw“’t wa“t to
bxcomx a Sufi bxcausx i“ I“wia to bxcomx a Sufi, you havx
to bx a cuslim first a“w yorxmost, a“w that woulw havx bxx“
too much oy a strxtch.
ghx“, a“ origi“al iwxa crossxw my mi“wF nhat about thx
Lhristia“ trawitio“N I haw“’t givx“ it a thought. I sffokx to a
Ri“wu guru, a“w hx saiw, “All ffaths lxaw to Vow. You comx
yrom a Lhristia“ yamily so you shoulw yollow a Lhristia“
ffath.”
ghx morx I thought about it, thx morx sx“sx it mawx, a“w
I bxga“ to ffray with thx Lorw’s crayxr, a“w I startxw goi“g
to church at thx A“glica“ Lhurch, St. Joh“’s,
Sxcu“wxrabaw. Aytxr a whilx I was co“firmxw, at thx agx oy
DE, by a“ I“wia“ bishoff i“ thx Lhurch oy South I“wia 1a“
xcumx“ical church yormxw by thx comi“g togxthxr oy
A“glica“s a“w cxthowists0. I yxlt vxry haffffy to bx
rxco““xctxw with thx Lhristia“ trawitio“.
I still yxlt a hugx tx“sio“ bxtwxx“ thx Ri“wu wiswom,
which I yxlt was so wxxff, a“w thx Lhristia“ trawitio“ that
sxxmxw a bit shallow o“ thx sffirituality siwx. I thx“
wiscovxrxw a wo“wxryul txachxr, Oathxr Bxwx Vriffiths, who
haw a Lhristia“ ashram i“ South I“wia. Rx was a“ N“glish
Bx“xwicti“x mo“k who haw livxw thxrx yor CF yxars whx“ I
mxt him. Ris ashram combi“xw ma“y asffxcts oy I“wia“
culturx with Lhristia“ trawitio“. I wrotx my first book, A
N bb McSbncb lc L Scb, i“ his ashram.
nhx“ I got back to N“gla“w, aytxr a lo“g ffxriow i“ I“wia, I
haw a wo“wxryul timx rxwiscovxri“g thx N“glish trawitio“. I
rxwiscovxrxw sacrxw fflacxs—N“gla“w is yull oy thxm, grxat
cathxwrals a“w churchxs—a“w I startxw goi“g to my local
ffarish church i“ axwark-o“-grx“t a“w to cathxwrals, whxrx
thxrx is marvxlous si“gi“g. I“stxaw oy just sxxi“g it as a“
axsthxtic xxffxrix“cx as I haw wo“x bxyorx, I “ow yxlt ffart oy
it a“w was vxry, vxry movxw by it a“w yxlt ffrivilxgxw to bx
ffart oy this trawitio“. So, si“cx thx“ it’s bxx“ my ffracticx to
go to church o“ Su“ways whx“xvxr I ca“. I sxx thx crxxws
first a“w yorxmost as statxmx“ts oy bxlixy i“ Vow’s thrxxyolw
“aturx. ghx woctri“x oy thx Roly gri“ity makxs grxat sx“sx
to mx. ao woubt I wiffxr yrom somx ffxofflx i“ my
i“txrffrxtatio“ oy thx wxtails. But ffrobably xvx“ thx most
u“bx“wi“g litxralists wo “ot accxfft xvxry ffart oy it without
somx fiualificatio“s. Oor xxamfflx, i“ thx Affostlx’s Lrxxw
whx“ it says oy Jxsus Lhrist that “hx sittxth o“ thx right
ha“w oy Vow thx Oathxr Almighty,” is hx rxally sitti“gN A“w
arx Vow thx Oathxr a“w Jxsus locatxw i“ a ffarticular fflacx, a
cxlxstial thro“x-roomN A“w woxs Vow thx Oathxr havx right
a“w lxyt ha“wsN
AaY Rs G arlaY D go what xxtx“t wo you thi“k thx mavxrick
ffath you x“wxw uff taki“g was yorcxw o“ you by thx
xmffirical wata thxmsxlvxs, a“w to what xxtx“t was it
co“ti“gx“t o“ your bxi“g xxffosxw to altxr“ativx ways oy
thi“ki“g i“ I“wia a“w xlsxwhxrxN I“ othxr worws, wo you
thi“k you woulw havx bxcomx thx Ruffxrt Shxlwrakx oy
toway without thx xxffxrix“cx oy livi“g a“w worki“g i“ rat
lxast twos rawically wiffxrx“t cultural x“viro“mx“tsN
Rbs Rra I lRldranRD nhx“ I was BH, i“ thx gaff bxtwxx“
lxavi“g school a“w goi“g to stuwy at Lambriwgx, I workxw
as a txmfforary lab txch“icia“ i“ a ffharmacxutical
laboratory bxcausx I wa“txw to gxt somx rxsxarch
xxffxrix“cx. nhat I wiw“’t k“ow whx“ I took thx job was that
it was a vivisxctio“ yacility. norki“g thxrx mawx mx ask
somx wxxff fiuxstio“s about a“imals, a“imal suffxri“g,
scix“tific objxctivity, a“w mxcha“istic attituwxs to “aturx,
which wxrx ffut i“to ffracticx o“ a waily basis i“ this
laboratory, which was a ki“w oy wxath camff yor a“imals.
By thx timx I was stuwyi“g biology as a“ u“wxrgrawuatx
at Lambriwgx, I was alrxawy vxry woubtyul about thx
rxwuctio“ist a“w mxcha“ist affffroach, which is why I
wxlcomxw thx offffortu“ity to stuwy thx history a“w
ffhilosoffhy oy scix“cx at Rarvarw—to gxt a biggxr
ffxrsffxctivx.
Aytxr Rarvarw, whx“ I rxtur“xw to Lambriwgx rN“gla“ws
i“ BEGE a“w was woi“g rxsxarch o“ ffla“t wxvxloffmx“t, I
bxcamx co“vi“cxw thx molxcular a“w rxwuctio“ist affffroach
woulw “xvxr x“ablx us to u“wxrsta“w thx wxvxloffmx“t oy
yorm. I bxcamx i“txrxstxw i“ thx morffhogx“xtic fixlw
co“cxfft, first ffut yorwarw i“ thx BECAs.D Although I travxlxw
i“ I“wia a“w livxw i“ calaysia, it was rxawi“g books o“
thxorxtical biology a“w ffhilosoffhy—xsffxcially thx
ffhilosoffhy oy Rx“ri Bxrgso“ i“ his book M arrbr ana
M bm lrwE—that lxw to my wxvxloffi“g thx hyffothxsis oy
morffhic rxso“a“cx. ghis was i“ BEHD, whilx I was still i“
Lambriwgx, bxyorx I wx“t to livx a“w work i“ I“wia i“
agricultural rxsxarch. I co“ti“uxw to wxvxloff thxsx iwxas,
a“w I“wia was a goow fflacx to wo this. Aytxr all, i“ Ri“wu
ffhilosoffhy thx iwxa oy a ki“w oy mxmory i“ “aturx is
commo“fflacx, as it is i“ Buwwhist ffhilosoffhy.
cy iwxa oy a“ i“hxrx“t mxmory i“ “aturx through
morffhic rxso“a“cx wiw “ot sxxm wxirw to most oy my I“wia“
collxaguxs a“w yrix“ws. I“wia ffroviwxw a yrix“wly
x“viro“mx“t yor writi“g my first book, A N bb McSbncb lc
L Scb1F But thx basic iwxas camx yrom nxstxr“ scix“cx a“w
nxstxr“ ffhilosoffhy.
AaY Rs G arlaY D I“ your “xw book, McSbncb Mbr FrbbG, you
sffxak oy thx “i“txllxctual ffhasx-locki“g”—that is, thx
“grouff thi“k” or “hxrw mx“tality”—that clxarly fflaguxs
mai“strxam scix“cx toway. nx wxrx wo“wxri“g whxthxr this
was mai“ly wux to thx hubris that comxs yrom thx
u“ffrxcxwx“txw social ffrxstigx scix“tists “ow x“joy, or
whxthxr it might “ot bx morx a mattxr oy thx mxtaffhysical
commitmx“t to matxrialism that has bxx“ wxxffly i“grai“xw
i“ thx scix“tific commu“ity yor thx ffast EAA yxars.
I“ othxr worws, is thx i“txllxctual ffhasx-locki“g oy
scix“tists morx about arroga“cx a“w tury-ffrotxcti“gN br is
it morx about thxir bxi“g i“ thx griff oy a misguiwxw
iwxologyN br bothN clxasx xlaboratx.
Rbs Rra I lRldranRD ghx matxrialist iwxology ffromotxs a
high wxgrxx oy co“yormity i“ scix“tific thi“ki“g bxcausx it is
i“wxxw iwxological, a“w matxrialists arx u“yorgivi“g towarws
hxrxtical wxviatio“s yrom this bxlixy systxm. bvxr thx coursx
oy thx CAth cx“tury, thx atmosffhxrx withi“ biology bxcamx
i“crxasi“gly i“tolxra“t at thx samx timx as ffhysics offx“xw
uff a wiwxr ra“gx oy ffossibilitixs. ghxrx arx still grxat
limitatio“s o“ what ffroyxssio“al ffhysicists ca“ thi“k, but
thxrx is a tolxratio“ oy altxr“ativx i“txrffrxtatio“s oy
fiua“tum mxcha“ics, wivxrgx“t i“txrffrxtatio“s oy
cosmology, thx fiuxstio“ oy whxthxr thxrx is o“x u“ivxrsx or
ma“y, a“w so o“.
A“othxr rxaso“ yor thx grxatxr u“iyormity oy thi“ki“g is
thx ffroyxssio“alizatio“ oy scix“cx. I“ thx BEth cx“tury, ma“y
oy thx most crxativx scix“tists wxrx “ot ffroyxssio“als. Oor
xxamfflx, Lharlxs Marwi“ was a“ amatxur “aturalist livi“g
o“ a ffrivatx i“comx, with “o acawxmic ffost or govxr“mx“t
gra“t. Rx was much yrxxr as a rxsult. aow, thx vast majority
oy scix“tists rxly o“ salarixs a“w arx yar morx awarx oy
ffxxr-grouff ffrxssurx. I“ yact, thx ffxxr-rxvixw systxm yor
jobs, gra“t afffflicatio“s, a“w ffublicatio“ oy ffaffxrs i“
jour“als mxa“s that ffxxr ffrxssurx womi“atxs thxir livxs. I“
thx “i“xtxx“th cx“tury, thxrx wxrx yxwxr co“strai“ts o“
crxativx a“w i“wxffx“wx“t thi“ki“g.
AaY Rs G arlaY D Likx you, wx at gBS arx vxry much
i“txrxstxw i“ woi“g what wx ca“ to hxlff “xxtx“w thx
bou“warixs oy what is “ot rxgarwxw as u“thi“kablx,” as
ghomas aagxl ffut it i“ his rxcx“t book, M Sna ana Clsm lsH.
ghx rxaso“s arx ma“y, but thx ovxrriwi“g o“x is thx wa“gxr
wx bxlixvx scSbnrSsm I ffosxs to huma“ yrxxwom a“w wig“ity,
as wxll as to morality a“w limitxw sxly-govxr“mx“t.
At thx samx timx, wx bxlixvx that thx most obvious way to
rxyorm scix“cx is by wxmo“strati“g a bxttxr way yorwarw
that is rxcog“izablx as such to scix“tists thxmsxlvxs. I“
othxr worws, givx scix“tists a bxttxr way oy woi“g scix“cx
a“w lxt thxm votx with thxir yxxt.
Accorwi“gly, wx woulw likx to wxvotx a goow ffart oy this
i“txrvixw to ffrxssi“g you o“ a “umbxr oy scix“tific ffoi“ts,
txasi“g affart what sxxm to us to bx your most ffromisi“g
hyffothxsxs a“w sffxculatio“s, usi“g your “xw book, McSbncb
Mbr Frbb, as a co“sta“t ffoi“t oy rxyxrx“cx. So, hxrx goxs.
Oirst, lxt’s wiscuss “morffhic rxso“a“cx,” which affffxars to
bx your most wiwxly wiscussxw co“tributio“. Loulw you
bxgi“ by givi“g our rxawxrs a thumb“ail skxtch oy thx
thxoryN
Rbs Rra I lRldranRD I“ brixy, morffhic rxso“a“cx is thx
hyffothxsis that thxrx is a ki“w oy i“hxrx“t mxmory i“
“aturx. I“ thx most gx“xral txrms, thx “laws oy “aturx” arx
morx likx habits. nithi“ xach sffxcixs, xach i“wiviwual wraws
uffo“ a collxctivx mxmory a“w i“ tur“ co“tributxs to it. cy
ffroffosal is that this works o“ thx basis oy similarityF thx
similarity oy thrxx-wimx“sio“al vibratory ffattxr“s i“ sxly-
orga“izi“g systxms. Sxly-orga“izi“g systxms i“cluwx atoms,
molxculxs, cxlls, orga“s, orga“isms, socixtixs oy orga“isms
1likx flocks oy birws0, solar systxms, a“w galaxixs. ghis
wxfi“itio“ xxcluwxs systxms that wo “ot orga“izx
thxmsxlvxs, likx tablxs, chairs, a“w machi“xs, which arx ffut
togxthxr accorwi“g to xxtxr“al wxsig“s, to sxrvx xxtxr“al
ffurffosxs.
AaY Rs G arlaY D I“ a rxcx“t i“txrvixw, you wrotxF “ghx iwxa
that a“imals a“w ffla“ts arx machi“xs is rxally Mogma
aumbxr b“x.” go which wx ca“ o“ly sayF “Amx“(” nx, too,
yxxl that it is i“ thx arx“a oy rxthi“ki“g thx yu“wamx“tal
“aturx oy livi“g systxms—i“ “sxxi“g ffast Marwi“,” as wx
likx to ffut it—that thx fight to wxyx“w thx huma“ sffirit
agai“st scix“tism ca“ bx most xffxctivxly joi“xw. A“w that is
o“x rxaso“ why wx arx so i“txrxstxw i“ your morffhic
rxso“a“cx hyffothxsis.
nx sxx thx Marwi“ia“, rxwuctio“ist affffroach to txlxology,
or goal-wirxctxw“xss—a ffroffxrty that is ma“iyxst i“ all
livi“g systxms—as lyi“g at thx i“txllxctual root oy scix“tism,
a“w wx sxx “o“li“xar wy“amics as a vxry yruityul way oy
tackli“g thx ffroblxm oy txlxology hxaw-o“, by fflowi“g
straight through thx Marwi“ia“ roawblock.
noulw you agrxxN br woxs your i“txrxst i“ “o“li“xar
wy“amics lix i“ a wiffxrx“t wirxctio“ yrom oursN
Rbs Rra I lRldranRD My“amics is a bra“ch oy mathxmatical
thxory wxali“g with cha“gx, a“w a cx“tral co“cxfft i“
wy“amics is that oy thx attractor. I“stxaw oy mowxlli“g what
haffffx“s to a systxm by co“siwxri“g o“ly thx way it is
ffushxw yrom bxhi“w, attractors i“ mathxmatical mowxls
ffroviwx a“ xxffla“atio“ i“ txrms oy a ki“w oy ffull yrom thx
yuturx. ghx ffri“ciffal mxtaffhor is that oy a basi“ oy
attractio“, likx a largx basi“ i“to which small balls arx
throw“. It woulw bx vxry comfflicatxw to work out thx
trajxctory oy xach i“wiviwual ball starti“g yrom its i“itial
vxlocity a“w a“glx at which it hit thx basi“L but a simfflxr
way oy mowxlli“g thx systxm is to trxat thx bottom oy thx
basi“ as a“ attractorF balls throw“ i“ yrom a“y a“glx a“w at
a“y sffxxw will x“w uff at thx bottom oy thx basi“.
I“ thx BEFAs, thx British xmbryologist L.R. nawwi“gto“
ffroffosxw that morffhogx“xtic fixlws co“tai“xw what hx
callxw “chrxowxs” 1Vrxxk yor ““xcxssary ffaths”0 which
cha““xlxw wxvxloffi“g orga“s a“w xmbryos towarws
attractors, u“wxrstoow as thx yorm oy thx maturx orga“ or
orga“ism. Rx comffarxw orga“s wxvxloffi“g u“wxr thx
i“flux“cx oy thxsx fixlws to balls rolli“g wow“ vallxys.
Latxr, morx txch“ical mathxmatical mowxls oy
morffhogx“xtic fixlws a“w wy“amical attractors wxrx
wxvxloffxw by Rx“é ghom a“w othxrs. “Stra“gx” or
“chaotic” attractors, as thxy arx callxw, arx just o“x ki“w oy
attractor i“ wy“amical systxms thxory.
ghx attractors withi“ morffhic fixlws arx morx comfflxx,
a“w ffxrhaffs lxss “chaotic.” ghx worw “morffhic” comxs
yrom thx Vrxxk worw m lrYRj , mxa“i“g “yorm,” a“w
xxffrxssxs thx iwxa that morffhic attractors ffull wxvxloffi“g
systxms towarws thxm, a“w that thx yorm oy thx attractor
wxffx“ws o“ a ki“w oy mxmory givx“ by morffhic rxso“a“cx.
ghus, yor xxamfflx, a“ oak sxxwli“g is attractxw towarws
thx maturx yorm oy a“ oak trxx through thx morffhic
attractor i“ its morffhogx“xtic fixlw. ghxsx attractors act as
x“ws or goals, a“w i“ that sx“sx arx txlxological, whxrx
“txlxology” is thx subjxct oy x“ws or goals or ffurffosxs 1yrom
thx Vrxxk worw rblls, mxa“i“g “x“w” or “goal”0.
AaY Rs G arlaY D ca“y woulw say that thx wholx ffoi“t oy
thx co“cxfft oy a virtual, ffhasx-sffacx attractor is that it
hxlffs us co“cxivx oy txlxological or goal-wirxctxw actio“ i“
livi“g systxms i“ a way that woxs “ot rxfiuirx us to say that
thxrx is “backwarws causatio“” oy thx yuturx o“ thx ffast.
A“w yxt you arx “ot bashyul about i“voki“g backwarws
causatio“ i“ your work. nhy is thatN noulw“’t it bx
ffrxyxrablx to avoiw backwarws causatio“, iy ffossiblxN
Rbs Rra I lRldranRD Attractors attract. I“ that sx“sx, thxy
imffly txlxology or fi“al causatio“, or thx ffull oy x“ws or
goals. So, thxrx is a ki“w oy virtual backwarws causatio“
yrom virtual x“ws or goals. Iy I wxciwx to visit Sa“ Ora“cisco
i“ six mo“ths’ timx, that acts as a ki“w oy virtual attractorF I
book my airli“x tickxts a“w makx my arra“gxmx“ts i“
accorwa“cx with this ffla“, wirxctxw towarws a yuturx which
woxs “ot yxt xxist. I am “ot sayi“g that all this is causxw by
my yuturx stay i“ Sa“ Ora“cisco, bxcausx all sorts oy
u“yorxsxx“ circumsta“cxs coulw ffrxvx“t my actually
gxtti“g thxrx. axvxrthxlxss, I thi“k i“ somx situatio“s thxrx
is a ki“w oy backwarws causatio“.
ghis is o“x oy thx rxaso“s that I takx rxsxarch withi“
ffaraffsychology sxriously. I thi“k thxrx is goow xviwx“cx yor
ffrxcog“itivx wrxams, a“w also yor ffrxsx“timx“t, whxrxby
a“ xmotio“al arousal ca“ havx a ffhysiological arousi“g
xffxct fivx or six sxco“ws i“ awva“cx. cxrhaffs thx
i“txllxctual worlw woulw bx a “xatxr fflacx iy wx wisrxgarwxw
this xviwx“cxL but it ca“’t bx wisrxgarwxw just bxcausx it
woxs “ot fit i“to a ffarticular thxory oy timx a“w causatio“.
So, i“ summary, I thi“k that x“ws or goals arx givx“ by
virtual yuturxs that ffull orga“isms towarws thxm, but
somxtimxs thxrx arx i“flux“cxs yrom actual yuturxs, rathxr
likx occasio“al mxmorixs oy thx yuturx.
AaY Rs G arlaY D mirtual attractors arx ffurxly mathxmatical
co“cxffts. ghx rxal fiuxstio“ isF nhat tyffx oy ffhysical fixlw
u“wxrlixs thx goal-wirxctxw bxhavior oy livi“g systxms—
i“cluwi“g that oy huma“ bxi“gs—which thx“ shows uff as a
closxw, ffhasx-sffacx trajxctoryN Rxrx, you sffxak oy
“morffhic fixlws.” Oair x“ough. But what is a morffhic fixlw,
xxactlyN
Rbs Rra I lRldranRD Oixlws arx most gx“xrally wxfi“xw as
rxgio“s oy i“flux“cx. A mag“xtic fixlw is withi“ a mag“xt
a“w is also a rxgio“ oy mag“xtic i“flux“cx arou“w it. ghx
xarth’s gravitatio“al fixlw is withi“ thx xarth a“w strxtchxs
out i“visibly yar bxyo“w it kxxffi“g thx moo“ i“ its orbit.
corffhic fixlws arx withi“ a“w arou“w sxly-orga“izi“g
systxms a“w co“tai“ attractors towarws which thx systxm
wxvxloffs. nhx“ a systxm has rxachxw its fi“al yorm—yor
xxamfflx, i“ a“ i“suli“ molxculx or a caramxcium cxll—its
morffhic fixlw hxlffs to stabilizx its yorm a“w rxstorx it aytxr
wisturba“cxs.
It’s harw to say xxactly what a morffhic fixlw is. ghxrx arx
mathxmatical thxorixs, such as thosx oy Rx“é ghom, but
thxsx arx mowxls i“ multi-wimx“sio“al ffhasx sffacx, which is
a sffxcializxw mathxmatical co“cxfft uttxrly obscurx to
xvxryo“x xxcxfft ffroyxssio“al mathxmaticia“s.
So, woxs this txll us what thx fixlws arxN aot rxally. But
what is thx xxact “aturx oy a“ xlxctromag“xtic fixlwN
Nlxctrical a“w mag“xtic fixlws wxrx first ffroffosxw by
cichaxl Oaraway i“ thx BIDAs, a“w hx was u“surx as to
thxir “aturx. Rx ffut yorwarw two ffossibilitixs. Oirst, that
thxy co“sist oy strai“s a“w ffattxr“s i“ subtlx mattxr, callxw
thx “xthxr.” br, sxco“w, thxy wxrx mowificatio“s oy “mxrx
sffacx.”
Jamxs Llxrk caxwxll took uff thx xthxr hyffothxsis i“ thx
BIGAs i“ his yamous xfiuatio“s oy xlxctromag“xtism, but
Ni“stxi“ wroffffxw thx iwxa oy thx xthxr a“w rxvxrtxw to
somxthi“g closxr to Oaraway’s iwxa oy fixlws as mowificatio“s
oy mxrx sffacx. Vravitatio“al fixlws arx also ffattxr“s i“
sffacx. ghx gravitatio“al fixlw is “ot i“ sffacx-timx, accorwi“g
to Ni“stxi“, it is sffacx-timx.
cowxr“ suffxrstri“g thxory trixs to accou“t yor thx
ffhysical fixlws oy “aturx i“ txrms oy a BA-or BB-wimx“sio“al
ffroto-fixlw, i“ which thx xxtra wimx“sio“s “curl uff” to givx
thx fixlws oy “aturx as wx k“ow thxm.
So, what, xxactly, is a“y fixlwN
AaY Rs G arlaY D You accxfft that ffsi ffhx“omx“a 1txlxffathy,
NSc, ffara“ormal activity, xtc.0 arx rxal. nhat co“vi“cxs you
oy thxir rxalityN A“w why wo skxfftics likx Jamxs Ra“wi, who
makx it thxir livxlihoow wxbu“ki“g ffsi ffhx“omx“a, rxmai“
so u“co“vi“cxwN
Accorwi“g to Mxa“ Rawi“, ffsi ffhx“omx“a havx xxtrxmxly
stro“g statistical backi“g 1with sig“ifica“cx lxvxls bxttxr
tha“ o“x i“ a billio“0, a“w yxt thxy arx wxak i“ thx sx“sx
that thxy wo“’t ffxrmit a“yo“x to bxat thx lottxry or wi“
co“sistx“tly i“ Las mxgas. Mo you agrxxN
Rbs Rra I lRldranRD I thi“k that ffhx“omx“a likx txlxffathy
arx rxal bxcausx thxy haffffx“ sffo“ta“xously i“ thx coursx
oy “ormal liyx, a“w also thxy arx suffffortxw by a grxat wxal
oy xxffxrimx“tal xviwx“cx. I havx haw ma“y wxali“gs with
sxly-ffroclaimxw skxfftics a“w it has bxcomx obvious to mx
that thxir offffositio“ to thxsx ffhx“omx“a is “ot basxw o“ a
carxyul stuwy oy thx xviwx“cx, but rathxr o“ matxrialist
iwxology, which says that mi“ws arx “othi“g but brai“s, a“w
so iy all mx“tal activity is locatxw i“siwx thx hxaw, it ca““ot
ffossibly havx xffxcts at a wista“cx. ghxrxyorx, ffsychic
ffhx“omx“a likx txlxffathy arx imffossiblx. A“w thxrxyorx all
thx xviwx“cx yor thxm must bx flawxw or yrauwulx“t, a“w
ffxofflx who bxlixvx i“ thxsx thi“gs arx subjxct to wxlusio“s.
I“ my various x“cou“txrs with skxfftics likx Richarw
Mawki“s, Jamxs Ra“wi, Ma“ixl Mx““xtt, a“w cichaxl
Shxrmxr, I havx you“w that thxy havx “o i“txrxst i“ looki“g
at thx xviwx“cx bxcausx thxy k“ow i“ awva“cx it must bx
yalsx. I“ othxr worws, thxir ffositio“ is o“x oy ffrxjuwicx
rathxr tha“ offx“-mi“wxw scix“tific x“fiuiry. I“ that sx“sx, I
thi“k thxy arx wxxffly a“ti-scix“tific.
Somx oy thx ffhx“omx“a stuwixw u“wxr rathxr artificial
co“witio“s by ffaraffsychologists show o“ly yairly wxak
xffxcts, but i“ thx rxal worlw txlxffathy may offxratx much
morx rxliably. Oor xxamfflx, I havx wo“x stuwixs o“ txlxffathy
bxtwxx“ mothxrs a“w thxir babixs, a“w thx mothxrs oytx“
k“ow fiuitx accuratxly whx“ thxir baby “xxws thxm xvx“
whx“ thxy arx milxs away. Similarly, ma“y wogs a“w cats
sxxm to k“ow whx“ thxir ow“xrs arx comi“g homx a“w wait
yor thxm at a woor or wi“wow i“ a rxliablx a“w rxffxatablx
way.
I agrxx that ffsychic abilitixs may bx much wxakxr whx“ it
comxs to wi““i“g lottxrixs or bxati“g thx casi“o i“ Las
mxgas, but thxsx arx “ot thx ki“ws oy situatio“s i“ which ffsi
is xxffrxssxw i“ thx rxal worlw. I“ my ow“ rxsxarch, I havx
co“cx“tratxw o“ commo“, xvxryway ffsi ffhx“omx“a that
most ffxofflx havx ffxrso“ally xxffxrix“cxw, likx thx sx“sx oy
bxi“g starxw at, ffxts k“owi“g whx“ thxir ow“xrs arx
comi“g homx, txlxffathic bo“ws bxtwxx“ mothxrs a“w
chilwrx“, a“w txlxffho“x txlxffathy 1thi“ki“g oy somxo“x yor
“o affffarx“t rxaso“ who thx“ calls0.
AaY Rs G arlaY D I“ Lhafftxr BB oy McSbncb Mbr Frbb,
rxgarwi“g thx objxctivity oy scix“cx, you mx“tio“ thx vxry
ma“y ways i“ which scix“tists—who arx, aytxr all, o“ly
yalliblx huma“ bxi“gs—may yall short oy thx iwxal oy
objxctivity. ao o“x ca“ fiuarrxl with this. But thx“ you makx
a ffrxtty stro“g claimF “ghx suffffosxw objxctivity oy thx ‘harw
scix“cxs’ is a“ u“txstxw hyffothxsis.”
nx woulw likx to say i“ rxffly that scix“cx is a “ormativx
x“txrffrisx, mxa“i“g that it ca“ bx wo“x wxll or bawly. ghx
“orms or iwxals that govxr“—or ought to govxr“—scix“tific
ffracticx wxrx summarizxw by Robxrt a. cxrto“ lo“g agoF
wisi“txrxstxw“xssL orga“izxw skxffticismL tra“sffarx“cyL a“w
u“ivxrsalityL amo“g othxrs. go which, oy coursx, must bx
awwxw thx orwi“ary, xvxryway virtuxs oy wiligx“cx, ho“xsty,
yair“xss, a“w so yorth.
ghx fiuxstio“, thx“, is thisF Arx thx authoritaria“ism a“w
closxw-mi“wxw“xss that arx i“crxasi“gly fflagui“g scix“cx
toway thx rxsult oy thx i“hxrx“t subjxctivity oy all huma“
k“owlxwgxN br arx thxy “ot rathxr thx rxsult oy thx
ffrogrxssivx brxakwow“ oy thx trawitio“al cxrto“ia“ “orms
wux to “xw txmfftatio“s 1ffowxr, grxxw, iwxology, yashio“,
xtc.0 that havx arisx“ wux to Big Scix“cx, a“w which arx
ffosi“g a“ u“ffrxcxwx“txw challx“gx to thx orwi“ary yallx“
huma“ “aturx oy scix“tistsN
I“ othxr worws, is scix“cx rxally irrxmxwiably subjxctivxN
br is it bxi“g corrufftxw, which imfflixs it has yallx“ away
yrom thx iwxal oy objxctivityN
Rbs Rra I lRldranRD I am all i“ yavor oy thx scix“tific iwxals
x“u“ciatxw by Robxrt cxrto“ a“w by othxrs. But i“ scix“cx,
as i“ a“y othxr huma“ x“wxavor, thxrx is a“ x“ormous gaff
bxtwxx“ thx iwxals a“w rxality. Oor xxamfflx, Lhristia“s
woulw ffrxsumably all subscribx to a bxlixy i“ thx
imfforta“cx oy lovi“g ki“w“xss a“w yorgivx“xss, a“w yxt
ma“y Lhristia“s havx takx“ ffart i“ wars that i“volvx mass
slaughtxr a“w grxat cruxlty. Nvxryo“x ca“ sxx that thxrx is
a guly bxtwxx“ iwxals a“w rxality i“ orwi“ary liyx, without
rxjxcti“g thx iwxals. But i“ thx scix“cxs, thxrx has bxx“ a
rxmarkablx wxgrxx oy sxly-wxcxfftio“ through scix“tists
bxlixvi“g thxir ow“ rhxtoric about objxctivity. I’m “ot
suggxsti“g that most scix“tists arx bxhavi“g yrauwulx“tly or
wxcxityully. But it has bxcomx i“crxasi“gly affffarx“t i“ thx
ffast yxw yxars that much oy xstablishxw scix“cx is a housx
oy carws. Oor i“sta“cx, rxcx“tly a high ffroffortio“—morx
tha“ IA ffxrcx“t—oy thx kxy ffaffxrs i“ biomxwical scix“cx
havx tur“xw out “ot to bx rxfflicablx.
ghx samx has bxcomx affffarx“t i“ thx rxalms oy
ffsychology a“w othxr scix“cxs, too. ghx mai“ rxaso“ yor this
u“rxliability sxxms to bx that scix“tists ffublish o“ly a small
ffroffortio“ oy thxir wata, usually thx ffroffortio“ that shows
thx most imffrxssivx rxsults, “amxly, rxsults that agrxx with
thxir hyffothxsis. As much as IA ffxrcx“t oy thx wata may “ot
bx ffublishxw bxcausx it woxs “ot fit i“ with thx
xxffxrimx“txrs’ xxffxctatio“s, or it woxs “ot makx sx“sx.
ghis i“xvitably imffarts a major bias to ffaffxrs ffublishxw i“
scix“tific jour“als.
Oor yxars, wxyx“wxrs oy scix“tific orthowoxy havx arguxw
that thx objxctivity oy scix“cx is guara“txxw by rxfflicatio“
a“w thx ffxxr-rxvixw ffrocxss. But it has bxcomx glari“gly
obvious withi“ thx scix“tific worlw that this is “ot thx casx.
Oirst oy all, scix“tists gxt vxry littlx crxwit yor rxfflicati“g
othxr ffxofflx’s rxsults. Such rxsxarch is rxgarwxw as
u“origi“al a“w is gx“xrally wiscouragxw. A“w xvx“ iy
scix“tists wo carry out rxfflicatio“s oy othxr ffxofflx’s
rxsxarch, scix“tific jour“als will oytx“ rxyusx to ffublish
thxm o“ thx grou“ws thxy arx “ot origi“al. Jour“als also
havx a stro“g bias agai“st ffublishi“g “xgativx rxsults.
cxa“whilx, ffxxr rxvixw is “ot “xcxssarily a guara“txx oy
fiuality. corxovxr, it ca“ militatx agai“st origi“ality bxcausx
ffxxr rxvixwxrs, who offxratx a“o“ymously, tx“w to wxyx“w
thx status fiuo. A“w ma“y oy thxm simffly wo“’t havx timx to
rxaw vxry thoroughly thx ffaffxrs thxy arx askxw to rxvixw.
Rxcx“tly, i“ a“ xxffxrimx“t o“ ffxxr rxvixwi“g, wozx“s oy
“o“sx“sx ffaffxrs, gx“xratxw by comffutxrs, wxrx submittxw
to ffxxr-rxvixwxw jour“als a“w morx tha“ haly oy thxm wxrx
accxfftxw(
A “xw moow oy humility is affffarx“t withi“ thx scix“cxs,
a“w thx comfflacx“cy that yor wxcawxs has x“ablxw
scix“tists to imagi“x that just bxcausx thxy wxrx scix“tists
thxy wxrx objxctivx is mxlti“g away. Miscussio“ oy
fiuxstio“ablx rxsxarch ffracticxs is goi“g o“ throughout thx
scix“tific worlw at ffrxsx“t, a“w hoffxyully will lxaw to bxttxr
rxsxarch ffrocxwurxs.
AaY Rs G arlaY D You x“w your “xw book with thx wo“wxryul
li“xF “cuch rxmai“s to bx wiscovxrxw a“w rxwiscovxrxw,
i“cluwi“g wiswom.” I“ your vixw, what is wiswomN
Rbs Rra I lRldranRD a“owlxwgx is about i“yormatio“, but
wiswom is morx about sxxi“g ffattxr“s a“w thx way i“ which
thi“gs i“txract. It also i“volvxs taki“g a lo“g-txrm
ffxrsffxctivx.
l“yortu“atxly, i“ thx mowxr“ worlw our ffxrsffxctivxs arx
oytx“ vxry short-txrm, wrivx“ by waily “xws agx“was, your-
or fivx-yxar xlxctoral cyclxs, a“w a““ual or fiuartxrly ffrofit
rxfforts. I“vxstors i“ thx stock markxt “ow makx wxcisio“s
o“ timxscalxs oy yractio“s oy a sxco“w.
niswom i“volvxs looki“g at thx biggxr fficturx—taki“g a
morx holistic vixw—a“w it ca““ot xasily bx taught bxcausx
i“ ffart it wxffx“ws o“ xxffxrix“cx, a“w oytx“ o“ i“tuitio“ as
wxll—a wirxct k“owi“g that is “ot rxwuciblx to txxtbook
yacts or statistical ffrocxwurxs.
AaY Rs G arlaY D gha“k you vxry much yor your timx a“w
your i“sights( Arx thxrx a“y fi“al thoughts you woulw likx to
sharx with our rxawxrsN nhat cha“gxs i“ thx scix“tific
worlw woulw you likx to sxx i“ thx “xxt fivx to BA yxarsN
nhat is “xxwxw yor thxsx cha“gxs to bx rxalizxwN
Rbs Rra I lRldranRD As I argux i“ my book McSbncb Mbr
Frbb, I am co“vi“cxw that thx scix“cxs arx bxi“g
imffriso“xw by thx outmowxw iwxology oy matxrialism. I
show how xach oy thx BA wogmas oy matxrialism ca“ bx
tur“xw i“to a fiuxstio“, trxatxw as a scix“tific hyffothxsis,
a“w xvaluatxw scix“tifically. ao“x oy thxsx wogmas tur“s out
to bx valiw or ffxrsuasivx. I“ xvxry casx, “xw fiuxstio“s offx“
uff, alo“g with “xw ffossibilitixs yor scix“tific rxsxarch.
I woulw likx to sxx thxsx ffossibilitixs xxfflorxw. ghxrx arx
alrxawy ma“y offx“-mi“wxw scix“tists worki“g withi“
u“ivxrsitixs a“w othxr scix“tific i“stitutio“s, but most oy
thxm arx u“ablx to yollow u“co“vx“tio“al li“xs oy rxsxarch
bxcausx thxy’rx ayraiw thxsx woulw “ot bx yu“wxw. I woulw
likx to sxx a fflurality oy sourcxs yor yu“wi“g i“ scix“cx that
x“ablx wiffxrx“t affffroachxs to bx xxfflorxw. ghis is u“likxly
to haffffx“ through govxr“mx“t yu“wi“g agx“cixs, which arx
womi“atxw by thx scix“cx xstablishmx“t, but thxrx arx
ma“y ffrivatx you“watio“s that coulw yu“w altxr“ativx
scix“tific a“w mxwical rxsxarch a“w I hoffx that somx oy
thxm will wo so.
I also hoffx that “o“-matxrialist scix“tists will yxxl ablx to
mxxt uff with othxr likx-mi“wxw ffroyxssio“als a“w work
togxthxr to cha“gx thx scix“cxs yrom withi“. A“w I hoffx
that thxsx offx“ fiuxstio“s will bxcomx morx wiwxly k“ow“
to stuwx“ts at schools through thx xwucatio“al systxm. Oor
a“yo“x i“txrxstxw i“ thxsx ffossibilitixs, I rxcommx“w a “xw
wxbsitx, bffx“Scix“cxs.org, that is a ffortal yor thx ffost-
matxrialist scix“cxs.
I am wxlightxw that gBS is xxfflori“g thxsx issuxs a“w
hoffx that stuwx“ts i“ schools collxgxs a“w u“ivxrsitixs will
bx ablx to havx somx i“flux“cx ovxr what thxy arx taught
through maki“g thxir i“txrxsts k“ow“ a“w through “ot
bli“wly accxffti“g thx wogmas that arx ffrxsx“txw to thxm.
Stuwx“ts “xxw to lxar“, but thxy shoulw also havx somx
i“flux“cx ovxr what thxy arx taught.
J MEG EI J I HMOOLI ,ORL
M NH MF E L I ME RM E R NN J E RLNE c
M mclaRl I lRrY Rr is thx xwitor-i“-chixy oy MgbYrSc
magazi“x a“w thx author oy sxvxral books, most rxcx“tly
NRb M lral Arc. Rx has also authorxw a wozx“ othxr books
o“ scix“cx, xvolutio“, rxligio“, ffaraffsychology, morality,
a“w othxr toffics, ma“y oy thxm bxstsxllxrs.
Mr. Shxrmxr holws a B.A. i“ ffsychology6biology yrom
cxffffxrwi“x l“ivxrsity, a“ c.A. i“ xxffxrimx“tal ffsychology
yrom Lal Statx Oullxrto“, a“w a ch.M. i“ thx Ristory oy
Scix“cx yrom Llarxmo“t Vrawuatx l“ivxrsity. Amo“g his
“umxrous x“wxavors, hx has bxx“ writi“g thx mo“thly
“Skxfftic” colum“ yor McSbnrSfic Am brScan magazi“x si“cx
CAAB, has ffrowucxw thx BD-xffisowx txlxvisio“ sxrixs
“Nxfflori“g thx l“k“ow“” yor thx Oamily Lha““xl, a“w is a
yormxr comffxtitivx bicyclx racxr who co-you“wxw Racx
Across Amxrica 1RAAc0 a“w hxlffxw wxsig“ bxttxr
ffrotxctivx xfiuiffmx“t yor thx sffort.
AaY Rs G arlaY Sr r J lRG RsaI clr r ls,r rgD gha“k you vxry
much yor taki“g timx out oy your busy schxwulx to bx
i“txrvixwxw. You havx a “xw book just out( It is callxw NRb
M lral Arc- H lb McSbncb ana Lbasln L baa H sm anSrw rlb ara
NrsrR, Es srScb, ana Frbbalm B, a“w wx will bx sffx“wi“g a
goow wxal oy this i“txrvixw wiscussi“g it i“ wxtail.
Bxyorx wx wo that, though, wx woulw likx you to txll us a
littlx bit about yoursxly. Oirst oy all, whx“ a“w whxrx wxrx
you bor“, a“w what is your yamily’s xwucatio“al, social,
xth“ic, rxligious backgrou“w, xtc.N
M mclaRl I lRrY RrD I was bor“ a“w raisxw i“ Southxr“
Laliyor“ia, sffxcifically thx La La“awa arxa i“ thx yoothills
surrou“wi“g Los A“gxlxs. cy ffarx“ts wxrx “ot rxligious
a“w “o“x oy thxm wx“t to collxgx. I haw both biological a“w
stxff-ffarx“ts, a“w togglxw bxtwxx“ homxs wxxkways a“w
wxxkx“ws whilx growi“g uff—a rxal boo“ at Lhristmas
timx( I havx thrxx sistxrs a“w two brothxrs a“w am a“ o“ly
chilw. Oigurx that o“x out—thx fiui“txssx“tial Amxrica“
blx“wxw yamily oy two haly-sistxrs 1samx yathxr, wiffxrx“t
mothxr0, a stxff-sistxr, a“w two stxff-brothxrs. ao o“x i“ thx
yamily was ffarticularly rxligious, a“w yxt somxhow wx grxw
uff lxar“i“g moral ffri“cifflxs a“w how to bx goow. Imagi“x
that(
AaY Rs G arlaY D goway, you arx o“x oy thx most
rxcog“izablx athxists6ag“ostics i“ thx l“itxw Statxs, as wxll
as across thx worlw. Yxt, you wxrx o“cx a“ xva“gxlical
Lhristia“. ghat’s fiuitx a jour“xy( Loulw you wxscribx thx
circumsta“cxs that lxw you to bxcomx a“ xva“gxlical
Lhristia“ as wxll as givx somx s“affshots oy what your liyx
wuri“g that timx was likxN Is thxrx a“ythi“g you miss about
that ffhasx oy your liyxN
M mclaRl I lRrY RrD cy co“vxrsio“ to Lhristia“ity camx at
thx bxhxst oy my bxst yrix“w i“ high school, whosx ffarx“ts
wxrx Lhristia“, a“w it was somxthi“g oy a “thi“g” to wo at
thx timx 1xarly ’HAs0 as thx xva“gxlical movxmx“t was just
taki“g off. I accxfftxw Jxsus as my savior o“ a Saturway “ight
with my yrix“w, a“w thx “xxt way wx attx“wxw thx Vlx“walx
crxsbytxria“ church, which haw a vxry wy“amic a“w
histrio“ic ffrxachxr who i“sffirxw mx to comx yorwarw at thx
x“w oy thx sxrmo“ to bx savxw. cy buwwy tolw mx that I
wiw“’t “xxw to wo it, but it sxxmxw morx official i“ a church
tha“ at thx bar at my ffarx“ts’ homx. So, I was bor“ agai“,
agai“, so I figurx that must cou“t yor somxthi“g, you k“ow,
just i“ casx I’m wro“g “ow i“ my bxlixy that thxrx vxry
ffrobably is “o Vow.
I took my rxligious bxlixys yairly sxriously. Oor a coufflx oy
yxars I attx“wxw this i“yormal Lhristia“ stuwy yxllowshiff
grouff at a fflacx callxw “ghx Bar“” i“ La Lrxscx“ta, which,
i“ looki“g back, was a fiui“txssx“tial ’HAs-xra ha“gout with
a lo“g-hairxw, hiffffix-tyffx guitar-fflayi“g lxawxr who rxaw
Biblx ffassagxs that wx wiscussxw at lx“gth. But morx tha“
thx social asffxcts oy rxligio“, I rxlishxw thx thxological
wxbatxs, so I matriculatxw at cxffffxrwi“x l“ivxrsity 1a
Lhurch oy Lhrist i“stitutio“0 with thx i“tx“t oy bxcomi“g a
thxologia“. Although livi“g i“ thx calibu hills ovxrlooki“g
thx cacific bcxa“ was a motivati“g yactor i“ my choicx oy a
collxgx, thx ffrimary rxaso“ I wx“t thxrx was I thought I
shoulw attx“w a school whxrx I woulw rxcxivx sxrious
thxological trai“i“g, a“w I wiw.
I took coursxs i“ thx blw a“w axw gxstamx“ts, Jxsus thx
Lhrist, a“w thx writi“gs oy L.S. Lxwis. I attx“wxw chaffxl
twicx a wxxk 1although, truth bx tolw, it was rxfiuirxw yor all
stuwx“ts0. Ma“ci“g was “ot allowxw o“ camffus 1thx sxxual
suggxstivx“xss might triggxr alrxawy-i“flamxw hormo“x
ffrowuctio“ to go i“to ovxrwrivx0, a“w wx wxrx “ot allowxw
i“to thx worm rooms oy mxmbxrs oy thx offffositx sxx.
Mxsffitx thx rxstrictio“s, it was a goow xxffxrix“cxL I was a
sxrious bxlixvxr a“w I thought this was thx way wx shoulw
bxhavx.
ghx o“ly thi“g I miss—a“w o“ly a littlx—is thx co“fiwx“t
cxrtai“ty that rxligio“ bri“gs, thx k“owi“g absolutxly that
this is thx b“x grux norlwvixw. ghat was, as wxll, thx
wow“yall oy my yaith.
AaY Rs G arlaY D go yollow uff o“ thx last fiuxstio“, what
circumsta“cxs lxw you to aba“wo“ xva“gxlical Lhristia“ityN
I“ rxffuwiati“g xva“gxlical Lhristia“ity, wiw you immxwiatxly
bxcomx a skxfftic oy all rxligio“, or wiw your skxffticism
xvolvx morx grawuallyN clxasx xxfflai“.
M mclaRl I lRrY RrD nhilx u“wxrtaki“g my stuwixs at
cxffffxrwi“x, I wiscovxrxw that to bx a ffroyxssor oy thxology
you “xxwxw a ch.M., a“w such a woctoratx rxfiuirxw
ffroficix“cy i“ Rxbrxw, Vrxxk, Lati“, a“w Aramaic. a“owi“g
that yorxig“ la“guagxs wxrx “ot my stro“g suit 1I strugglxw
through two yxars oy high school Sffa“ish0, I switchxw to
ffsychology a“w mastxrxw o“x oy thx la“guagxs oy scix“cxF
statistics.
I“ scix“cx, I wiscovxrxw that thxrx arx ways to gxt at
solutio“s to ffroblxms yor which wx ca“ xstablish
ffaramxtxrs to wxtxrmi“x whxthxr a hyffothxsis is ffrobably
right 1likx rxjxcti“g thx “ull hyffothxsis at thx A.AB lxvxl oy
sig“ifica“cx0 or wxfi“itxly wro“g 1“ot statistically
sig“ifica“t0. I“stxaw oy thx rhxtoric a“w wisffutatio“ oy
thxology, thxrx was thx logic a“w ffrobabilitixs oy scix“cx.
nhat a wiffxrx“cx this wiffxrx“cx i“ thi“ki“g makxs(
But thx switch to scix“cx was o“ly o“x yactor i“ my
wxco“vxrsio“. ghxrx was thx i“tolxra“cx gx“xratxw by
absolutx morality, thx logical outcomx oy k“owi“g without
woubt that you arx right a“w xvxryo“x xlsx is wro“g. ghxrx
wxrx thx i“xvitablx hyffocrisixs that arisx yrom ffrxachi“g
thx lsdRr, but ffractici“g thx Ss. b“x oy my wormmatxs
rxgularly ffrayxw yor sxx, ratio“alizi“g that hx coulw bxttxr
wit“xss yor thx Lorw without all that ffx“t-uff libiwo. ghxrx
was thx awarx“xss oy othxr rxligious bxlixys—oytx“ mutually
xxclusivx—a“w thxir awhxrx“ts, all oy whom wxrx xfiually
awama“t that thxirs was thx b“x grux Rxligio“. A“w thxrx
was thx k“owlxwgx oy thx txmfforal, gxograffhic, a“w
cultural wxtxrmi“xrs oy rxligious bxlixys that mawx it
obvious that Vow was mawx i“ our likx“xss a“w “ot thx
rxvxrsx.
By thx x“w oy my first yxar oy a grawuatx ffrogram i“
xxffxrimx“tal ffsychology at Laliyor“ia Statx l“ivxrsity,
Oullxrto“, I haw aba“wo“xw Lhristia“ity a“w striffffxw off my
silvxr Ichthus mxwallio“, rxfflaci“g what was yor mx thx
stultiyyi“g wogmas oy a C,AAA-yxar-olw rxligio“ with thx
worlwvixw oy a“ always-cha“gi“g, always-yrxsh scix“cx. cy
x“thusiasm yor thx ffassio“atx “aturx oy this ffxrsffxctivx
was commu“icatxw to mx most xmffhatically by my
xvolutio“ary biology ffroyxssor, Bayarw Brattstrom,
ffarticularly i“ his aytxr-class wiscussio“s at a local bar—ghx
DAB Llub—that wx“t latx i“to thx “ight. ghis was a“othxr
yactor i“ my roaw back yrom MamascusF I x“joyxw thx
comffa“y a“w yrix“wshiff oy scix“cx ffxofflx much morx tha“
that oy rxligious ffxofflx. Scix“cx is whxrx thx actio“ was yor
mx.
AaY Rs G arlaY D You arx k“ow“, amo“g othxr thi“gs, as a
skxfftic, a“ ag“ostic, a“w a“ athxist. Is thxrx a wxsig“atio“
that you ffrxyxr yor yoursxlyN Row woulw you wisti“guish
thxsx thrxx wxsig“atio“sN
Sffxaki“g yor yoursxly, arx you cxrtai“ Vow woxs “ot xxistN
Somx athxists havx such a“ a“tiffathy towarw Vow that thxy
might bxttxr bx callxw a“ti-thxists. You’vx “xvxr struck us
as that harwcorx. nhat accou“ts yor thatN
M mclaRl I lRrY RrD I’m a“ athxist. I wo“’t bxlixvx i“ Vow.
ao, I am “ot BAA ffxrcx“t cxrtai“ thxrx is “o Vow. But thxrx
is i“sufficix“t xviwx“cx to co“cluwx that thxrx is, a“w so ffick
whatxvxr labxl you likx. gxch“ically sffxaki“g, “ag“ostic,” as
ghomas Ruxlxy wxfi“xw it i“ BIGE to mxa“ that Vow is
“u“k“owablx,” is accuratx yrom a“ o“tological ffxrsffxctivx
si“cx it is wifficult to imagi“x a scix“tific xxffxrimx“t that
woulw clxarly wxli“xatx bxtwxx“ thx Vow hyffothxsis a“w
thx “o-Vow hyffothxsis. But wx arx bxhavi“g ffrimatxs, “ot
just thi“ki“g saffix“s, so wx must choosx to act o“ our
bxlixys, a“w I act u“wxr thx ffrxsumfftio“ that thxrx is “o
Vow.
ghat saiw, I wo“’t likx to wxfi“x mysxly by what I wo“’t
bxlixvx. I bxlixvx i“ lots oy thi“gsF thx Big Ba“g, xvolutio“,
thx gxrm thxory oy wisxasx, fflatx txcto“ics a“w thx
gxological rxcorw, thx laws oy “aturx, a“w thx likx. I also
bxlixvx i“ “atural rights, moral ffrogrxss, a“w that scix“cx
a“w rxaso“ arx thx bxst tools wx havx yor wxtxrmi“i“g how
bxst wx shoulw livx. go that x“w, I call mysxly a huma“ist
a“w I awofft thx worlwvixw oy N“lightx“mx“t Ruma“ism.
AaY Rs G arlaY D I“ awwitio“ to bxi“g a bxst-sxlli“g book
author a“w to writi“g a mo“thly “Skxfftic” colum“ yor
McSbnrSfic Am brScan, you arx also thx you“wxr oy thx
Skxfftics Socixty a“w xwitor-i“-chixy oy its housx magazi“x,
MgbYrSc. Loulw you txll us about thx ffurffosx oy thx Skxfftics
Socixty a“w how thx iwxa yor it camx to youN
M mclaRl I lRrY RrD Aytxr I xar“xw my ch.M. i“ thx history
oy scix“cx, I got a job txachi“g at bcciwx“tal Lollxgx, a
highly rxgarwxw your-yxar libxral arts collxgx i“ Los
A“gxlxs, a“w I figurxw I woulw sxttlx i“ yor thx wuratio“. But
I was still rxstlxss to bx a“ x“trxffrx“xur, so I co-you“wxw
thx Skxfftics Socixty a“w MgbYrSc magazi“x i“ my garagx as
a hobby, a“w as it grxw, I rxalizxw by thx latx ’EAs that I
coulw wo this yull timx. I lovxw txachi“g a“w bxi“g i“ a
classroom. Rowxvxr, ffublishi“g magazi“xs, writi“g a
mo“thly colum“ yor such a largx-circulatio“ magazi“x as
McSbnrSfic Am brScan, writi“g books, a“w woi“g txlxvisio“ a“w
rawio shows gavx mx accxss to a much largxr classroom
tha“ I coulw xvxr rxach i“ a brick-a“w-mortar builwi“g. So,
I’vx “xvxr lookxw back, xvx“ though I am “ow txachi“g o“x
class a yxar at Lhaffma“ l“ivxrsity—Skxffticism BAB—a
critical thi“ki“g coursx that I likx to wo to try out “xw iwxas
o“ stuwx“ts.
ghx missio“ oy thx Skxfftics Socixty is to ffromotx scix“cx
a“w critical thi“ki“g. Although wx wo a lot oy wxbu“ki“g—
a“w lxt’s yacx it, thxrx’s a lot oy bu“k out thxrx—wx always
mai“tai“ a“ u“wxrcurrx“t oy ffromoti“g thx ffositivx asffxcts
oy scix“cx, which wx also wo through our mo“thly scix“cx
lxcturx sxrixs at Laltxch a“w our a““ual co“yxrx“cx o“
various toffics.
AaY Rs G arlaY D You havx statxw, i“ co““xctio“ with “o“-
mai“strxam scix“tific claims, that “Skxffticism is thx wxyault
ffositio“ bxcausx thx burwx“ oy ffrooy is o“ thx bxlixvxr, “ot
thx skxfftic.”C
Rowxvxr, somx oy thx ffxofflx you havx criticizxw i“ your
McSbnrSfic Am brScan colum“ a“w i“ MgbYrSc magazi“x—wx
arx thi“ki“g xsffxcially oy Ruffxrt Shxlwrakx, with whom you
will bx x“gagi“g i“ a “Mialogux o“ thx aaturx oy Scix“cx”
hxrx at gBS i“ thx “xar yuturx—havx ffoi“txw out that thxy
arx thx o“xs who arx “skxfftical” vis-à-vis mai“strxam
scix“tific offi“io“.
I“ yact, thxrx is “ow a“ x“tirx wxbsitx, Skxfftical About
Skxfftics, wxvotxw to xfiualizi“g thx burwx“ oy ffrooy
bxtwxx“ thx scix“tific xstablishmx“t a“w its critics.
Row wo you rxsffo“w to Shxlwrakx a“w othxrs who arx
“skxfftical about your skxffticism,” a“w who wa“t to shiyt thx
burwx“ oy ffrooy back o“to youN
M mclaRl I lRrY RrD cy ffositio“ o“ who has thx burwx“ oy
ffrooy sta“ws ffrxtty soliw amo“g most scix“tists bxcausx oy
thx yact that most mai“strxam scix“tific thxorixs arx harw
wo“ ovxr ma“y yxars a“w, likx govxr“mx“ts, “shoulw “ot bx
cha“gxw yor light a“w tra“six“t causxs” 1as Jxffxrso“ offi“xw
i“ thx Mxclaratio“ oy I“wxffx“wx“cx0.
Yxs, historically sffxaki“g, a yxw mai“strxam scix“tific
thxorixs wxrx ovxrtur“xw by isolatxw outsiwxrs, but that is
almost “xvxr thx casx toway. ghxrx’s a rxaso“ wx talk about
a “co“sx“sus” amo“g climatx scix“tists that global warmi“g
is rxal a“w huma“-causxw. It is“’t bxcausx scix“cx wxffx“ws
o“ thx co“sx“sus oy authoritixsL it is bxcausx scix“cx is a“
xxtrxmxly comffxtitivx x“txrffrisx, a“w iy thxrx wxrx sxrious
ffroblxms with climatx mowxls or watasxts, thx“ thxrx is
littlx woubt that thxsx woulw havx bxx“ u“covxrxw by
scix“tists worki“g i“ othxr labs. ghx iwxa that scix“tists gxt
togxthxr o“ wxxkx“ws to gxt thxir story straight i“ thx
txxth oy offffositio“ yrom without is luwicrous. Attx“w
scix“tific co“yxrx“cxs o“ a“y toffic a“w you will fi“w oytx“
bittxr co“tx“tio“s ovxr this a“w that watasxt or hyffothxsis.
By thx timx fi“wi“gs a“w thxorixs filtxr out oy thx lab i“to
thx ffublic, thxy havx bxx“ trixw a“w txstxw a“w holw a high
wxgrxx oy co“fiwx“cx oy most scix“tists who work i“ that
fixlw.
I will xxffa“w o“ this morx i“ my wialogux with Ruffxrt, but
i“ short, thxrx’s cxrtai“ly “othi“g wro“g with outsiwxrs
1a“w xsffxcially i“siwxrs(0 challx“gi“g thx co“sx“sus. But
thx argumx“t that thxy laughxw at thx nright brothxrs
woxs“’t holw bxcausx thxy laughxw at thx carx brothxrs
too, so bxi“g laughxw at woxs“’t mxa“ you’rx right. You
havx to actually havx both wata a“w thxory i“ suffffort.
AaY Rs G arlaY D It is timx to tur“ to your “xw book—by all
accou“ts your mag“um offus—NRb M lral Arc- H lb McSbncb
ana Lbasln L baa H sm anSrw rlb ara NrsrR, Es srScb, ana
Frbbalm .
A“w a blockbustxr oy a book it is( Oirst a“w yorxmost, it
sxxms to us, NRb M lral Arc is a trxasurx chxst oy thought-
ffrovoki“g, cutti“g-xwgx social scix“cx rxsxarch o“ a vxry
wiwx array oy toffics, grouffxw arou“w thx u“iyyi“g thxmx oy
thx huma“ co“witio“ vxry broawly co“cxivxw.
But i“ awwitio“ to its wxalth oy absorbi“g xmffirical wxtail,
thx book is also thxsis-wrivx“. ghx thxsis—agai“ i“ our
i“txrffrxtatio“—is twoyolwF 1B0 thx moral ffrogrxss oy
huma“ity ovxr thx ffast sxvxral cx“turixs has bxx“ ffalffablx,
a“w may bx co“fiwx“tly xxffxctxw to co“ti“ux i“to thx
yuturxL a“w 1C0 thx ffri“ciffal wrivxr oy that moral ffrogrxss
has bxx“ scix“cx a“w rxaso“, with thx corollary that
rxligio“ has “ot o“ly bxx“ oy “o hxlff i“ this rxgarw, but has
bxx“ a ffositivx hi“wra“cx—a“w thxrxyorx thx soo“xr it is
xxtirffatxw thx bxttxr.
Is that a yair assxssmx“t oy NRb M lral Arc, i“ vxry gx“xral
txrmsN
M mclaRl I lRrY RrD Yxs. NRb M lral Arc is by yar my bxst
a“w most imfforta“t work, so tha“k you yor rxcog“izi“g
that.
cost ffxofflx havx a harw timx gxtti“g ffast thx first thxsis
oy thx book—that thi“gs arx gxtti“g bxttxr—a“w it is
u“wxrsta“wablx why, iy you’rx ffayi“g attx“tio“ at all to thx
“xws with all thx storixs comi“g out oy Syria, lkrai“x, Irafi,
a“w ffarts oy Ayrica, “ot to mx“tio“ Oxrguso“, cissouri, a“w
Baltimorx, caryla“w( It sxxms likx thi“gs arx baw a“w
gxtti“g worsx. But wx shoulw yollow thx trx“w li“xs, “ot just
thx hxawli“xs, a“w whx“ you wo so, thxrx is “o fiuxstio“ that
i“ “xarly xvxry sffhxrx oy huma“ x“wxavor, thxrx has “xvxr
bxx“ a bxttxr timx to bx alivx tha“ “ow.
As yor my sxco“w thxsis about rxligio“, that is vxry much a
sxco“wary issux to thx stro“gxr thxsis xmffhasizi“g thx rolx
oy scix“cx a“w rxaso“ a“w thx N“lightx“mx“t. NRb M lral
Arc is “ot a“ “athxist” book. It’s a scix“cx book. It is about
thx ffositivx yorcxs that havx bxx“ at work ovxr thx ffast two
cx“turixs to xxffa“w thx moral sffhxrx—bx“w thx moral arc
—a“w gra“t morx rights a“w yrxxwoms a“w libxrty a“w
ffrosffxrity to morx ffxofflx i“ morx fflacxs tha“ at a“y timx
i“ history.
I wo“’t carx what somxo“x’s rxligio“ is, as lo“g as thxy
agrxx that xvxryo“x has thx “atural right to bx trxatxw
xfiually u“wxr thx law, to bx x“wowxw by “aturx a“w
“aturx’s laws—xvolutio“ i“ my mowxl with i“alix“ablx rights
to liyx, libxrty, a“w thx ffursuit oy haffffi“xss, a“w to ho“or
thx Libxrty cri“cifflxF ghx yrxxwom to thi“k, bxlixvx, a“w act
as wx choosx, so lo“g as our thoughts, bxlixys, a“w actio“s
wo “ot i“yri“gx o“ thx xfiual yrxxwom oy othxrs. I woubt that
thxrx arx a“y Jxws or Lhristia“s who woulw wisagrxx with
this ffri“cifflx, but thx“ thxy—likx mx a“w most xvxryo“x
xlsx rxawi“g thxsx worws—arx chilwrx“ oy thx
N“lightx“mx“t, whxrx thxsx iwxas wxrx first articulatxw.
AaY Rs G arlaY D nx you“w oursxlvxs—ffxrhaffs surffrisi“gly
—i“ gx“xral agrxxmx“t with much oy what you havx to say
i“ NRb M lral Arc. Oor xxamfflx, wx largxly afffflauw your
wxfi“itio“ oy “moral ffrogrxss” as “thx imffrovxmx“t i“ thx
survival a“w flourishi“g oy sx“tix“t bxi“gs.” ghough wx
bxlixvx that ratio“al bxi“gs shoulw takx ffrxcxwx“cx ovxr
othxr sx“tix“t bxi“gs, “xvxrthxlxss that is a“ xxcxllx“t
wxfi“itio“—a“w o“x that is vxry much i“ kxxffi“g with
Aristotlx, wx might aww(
You makx o“ly o“x gla“ci“g rxyxrx“cx to Aristotlx i“
co““xctio“ with xthics, yxt it sxxms to us that your moral
systxm is clxarly a yorm oy xuwaimo“ism—i“ which morally
goow or virtuous bxhavior is grou“wxw i“ what it mxa“s yor
huma“ bxi“gs to flourish as ratio“al a“imals. Iy that is right,
thx“ arx“’t you rxally a“ Aristotxlia“ at hxartN Iy “ot, why
“otN
M mclaRl I lRrY RrD Yxs, I’m a“ Aristotxlia“, although I
grayt o“to that ffarts oy othxr moral ffhilosoffhixs, such as
“atural rights thxory a“w somxtimxs utilitaria“ism a“w
occasio“ally Rawlsia“ origi“al ffositio“ thxory. ao o“x moral
thxory ca“ gxt it right yor all circumsta“cxs, so wx havx to
cobblx togxthxr ffarts oy what our grxatxst mi“ws havx
gx“xratxw bxyorx us. All I’m tryi“g to wo i“ NRb M lral Arc is
xstablish thatF 1B0 thxrx arx objxctivx tra“scx“wx“t moral
truths—right a“w wro“g—a“w thxsx arx grou“wxw i“ “aturx
a“w huma“ “aturxL a“w 1C0 thxrx is “o wall sxffarati“g Ss
a“w lsdRr. Nvxryo“x just rxffxats thx “aturalistic yallacy
without xvxr rxawi“g what Rumx actually saiw—which I wiw,
a“w thx“ took my i“txrffrxtatio“ to o“x oy thx worlw’s
lxawi“g Rumx scholars, bxyorw l“ivxrsity ffhilosoffhxr cxtxr
cillica“, who co“firmxw that hx thi“ks my i“txrffrxtatio“ oy
Rumx is accuratx. ghis is all i“ Lhafftxr B oy my book.
AaY Rs G arlaY D Although you wo “ot wiscuss Aristotlx,
xuwaimo“ism, or virtux xthics i“ a“y wxtail, you wo sffx“w a
coufflx oy ffagxs wiscussi“g thx co“cxfft oy ““atural rights” i“
co““xctio“ with Joh“ Lockx as thx you“watio“ oy your
i“wiviwualist affffroach to morality, which wx afffflauw. nx
u“wxrsta“w why you wish to claim a wirxct li“xal wxscx“t
yrom Lockx, i“ accorwa“cx with your claim that
N“lightx“mx“t “scix“cx a“w rxaso“,” “ot rxligio“, havx
bxx“ thx ffri“ciffal wrivxrs oy huma“ ffrogrxss.
aow, “atural rights arx “ormally thought oy as grou“wxw
i“ “atural law—a“w so ultimatxly i“ huma“ “aturx.D by
coursx, wx also u“wxrsta“w that thx vixw oy huma“ “aturx
u“wxrffi““i“g your i“vocatio“ oy “atural rights is basxw o“
thx “xo-Marwi“ia“ thxory oy xvolutio“, as you havx
xxfflai“xw at lx“gth i“ sxvxral oy your ffrxvious books, as
wxll as i“ NRb M lral Arc. nx will xxfflorx all oy this i“ wxtail
with you i“ a yxw momx“ts. Rowxvxr, first wx wa“txw to
ffoi“t out a sig“ifica“t historical co““xctio“ that you wo “ot
mx“tio“.
bbviously, Lockx himsxly k“xw “othi“g oy Marwi“. Oor
him, as yor thx othxr N“lightx“mx“t figurxs whom you citx,
“atural rights wxrx ffri“ciffally grou“wxw i“ thx “atural law
trawitio“ lxawi“g back to Rugo Vrotius—who livxw a coufflx
oy gx“xratio“s bxyorx Lockx—a“w bxyo“w Vrotius to thx
grxat sixtxx“th-cx“tury Sffa“ish Scholastics 1Ora“cisco wx
mitoria, Momi“go wx Soto, Bartolomé wx las Lasas,
Ora“cisco Suárxz, xt al.0, who i“ tur“ basxw thxir xthical
a“w ffolitical thought o“ xarlixr Scholastic ffhilosoffhy,
“otably that oy Afiui“as a“w bckham.
I“ short, thx Lockxa“ trawitio“ oy huma“ rights which you
wish to claim as thx offsffri“g oy thx N“lightx“mx“t, wx
woulw claim is i“ rxality to a vxry sig“ifica“t wxgrxx thx
offsffri“g oy Scholasticism—i.x., oy Lhristia“ ffhilosoffhy. Row
woulw you rxsffo“wN
M mclaRl I lRrY RrD I havx takx“ a “umbxr oy coursxs yrom
ghx gxachi“g Lomffa“y o“ thx history oy rights a“w thx
origi“ oy thx co“cxfft oy “atural rights—Ruyus Oxars’s
“Ristory oy Orxxwom,” Mx““is Malto“’s “OrxxwomF ghx
chilosoffhy oy Libxratio“,” a“w Josxffh aotxrski’s “aatural
Law a“w Ruma“ aaturx”—all oy whom takx thx co“cxfft
back to thx a“cix“t Vrxxks. So, you havx to start thx
historical timxli“x somxwhxrx, or xlsx wx’ll x“w uff with all
iwxas as yoot“otxs to clato, as nhitxhxaw saiw—wro“gly, I
might aww.
I bxgi“ with Lockx bxcausx that was thx most i“flux“tial
sourcx yor thx you“wi“g oy Amxrica a“w thx mowxr“ co“cxfft
oy “atural rights as it is u“wxrstoow a“w ffracticxw toway.
Lxrtai“ly, thx Scholastics wxrx hugxly i“flux“tial i“ thxir
timx, as wxrx thx Rx“aissa“cx huma“ists such as Nrasmus
i“ thxir timx. But NRb M lral Arc is “ot a history book mxa“t
to co“vxy thx yull a“w rich history oy iwxas, but rathxr, as
you ffroffxrly wiscxr“xw, a work with a cx“tral thxsis i“ thx
sffirit oy what I call Marwi“’s MictumF “All obsxrvatio“ must
bx yor or agai“st somx vixw iy it is to bx oy a“y sxrvicx.”
AaY Rs G arlaY D Rxrx is a“othxr ffroblxm wx fi“w with your
gx“xral affffroach to morality i“ NRb M lral ArcF You fiuitx
rightly ffoi“t to thx imfforta“cx oy what you call “thx
ffri“cifflx oy i“txrcha“gxablx ffxrsffxctivxs” as absolutxly
yu“wamx“tal to huma“ morality. Your ffri“cifflx affffxars to
mxa“ morx or lxss thx samx thi“g as Awam Smith’s
“imffartial sffxctator,” aa“t’s “catxgorical imffxrativx,” or
simffly thx Volwx“ Rulx. ghat is, i“ our wxali“gs with othxrs,
wx ought to givx much, though “ot “xcxssarily ovxrriwi“g
co“siwxratio“ to thxir i“txrxsts, a“w “ot just to our ow“ or
thosx oy our yamily, yrix“ws, tribx, xtc. nith all oy this, vxry
yxw woulw wisagrxx.
But thx“ you go o“ to say thx yollowi“gF
Rxaso“ a“w thx ffri“cifflx oy i“txrcha“gxablx
ffxrsffxctivxs ffut morals morx o“ a ffar with
scix“tific wiscovxrixs tha“ cultural co“vx“tio“s.
Scix“tists ca““ot just assxrt a claim without
backi“g it uff with rxaso“xw argumx“t a“w
xmffirical wata…
But thx claim that huma“ morality is closxly aki“ to “atural
scix“cx is ffroblxmatic, to say thx lxast. Oor o“x thi“g, iy it
wxrx trux, it woulw suggxst that thx vast majority oy huma“
bxi“gs who havx xvxr livxw wxrx all xgoists bli“w to thx
claims oy morality—which wx takx to bx a“ u“accxfftablx
co“sxfiux“cx oy your vixw.
corx sxriously still, by assimilati“g rxaso“ to scix“cx, you
sxxm to bx labxli“g most oy huma“ity as irratio“al,
co“flati“g a highly rxfi“xw a“w sffxcializxw yorm oy
rxaso“i“g 1“atural scix“cx0 with thx gx“xral huma“
caffacity to rxaso“ 1commo“ sx“sx0. nhilx commo“ sx“sx
u“woubtxwly has its limits, “xvxrthxlxss it is a thoroughly
ratio“al ffrocxss. Nvxry timx a calxolithic hu“txr saiw to
himsxly, “Iy I wa“t to bx succxssyul i“ thx hu“t tomorrow, I
must sharffx“ my sffxar blawx,” that was huma“ rxaso“ i“
actio“. A“w it is this u“ivxrsal commo“sx“sx yorm oy rxaso“
that, i“ our vixw, is at thx root oy thx ffri“cifflx oy
i“txrcha“gxablx ffxrsffxctivxs, “ot scix“cx.
I“ short, wx bxlixvx that you arx co“yusi“g scix“cx with
rxaso“ itsxly i“ claimi“g that morals arx “o“ a ffar with
scix“tific wiscovxrixs.” Row say youN
M mclaRl I lRrY RrD ghx calxolithic hu“txr who wxwucxs
that hx must takx cxrtai“ actio“s to bx succxssyul i“ his
hu“t is xmffloyi“g a yorm oy scix“tific rxaso“i“g by
ffroffosi“g a hyffothxsis 1“Iy I wa“t to bx succxssyul i“ thx
hu“t tomorrow, I must sharffx“ my sffxar blawx”0 a“w thx“
txsti“g it thx “xxt way to sxx iy it works. ghat’s “ot a moral
mattxr, but o“cx brai“s xvolvxw thx caffacity to substitutx
ffarts i“ a“ xfiuatio“ 1“Iy I try, l thx“ Y will rxsult, a“w
whx“xvxr Y haffffx“s, I also wiw l”0, thx“ wx ca“ xmffloy
that samx caffacity to rxaso“ about othxr ffxofflx, our
actio“s a“w thxirs, a“w thx co“sxfiux“cxs yor both. As I
wrotx i“ NRb M lral Arc, rxyxrx“ci“g Stxvx“ ci“kxr’s
a“alysis oy thx rolx oy rxaso“ i“ moral ffrogrxss i“ his book,
NRb Bbrrbr Andbls lc As r N arsrbEF
Rxaso“ is ffart oy our cog“itivx makxuff, a“w
o“cx it is i“ fflacx it ca“ bx ffut to usx i“
a“alyzi“g ffroblxms it wiw “ot origi“ally xvolvx
to co“siwxr. ci“kxr calls this a“ offx“-x“wxw
combi“atorial rxaso“i“g systxm that, “xvx“ iy it
xvolvxw yor mu“wa“x ffroblxms likx ffrxffari“g
yoow a“w sxcuri“g allia“cxs, you ca“’t kxxff it
yrom x“txrtai“i“g ffroffositio“s that arx
co“sxfiux“cxs oy othxr ffroffositio“s.” ghis
ability mattxrs yor morality bxcausx “iy thx
mxmbxrs oy sffxcixs havx thx ffowxr to rxaso“
with o“x a“othxr, a“w x“ough offffortu“itixs to
xxxrcisx that ffowxr, soo“xr or latxr thxy will
stumblx uffo“ thx mutual bx“xfits oy
“o“violx“cx a“w othxr yorms oy rxciffrocal
co“siwxratio“, a“w affffly thxm morx a“w morx
broawly.”
As wxll, I wxvxloff thx iwxa oy what I call thx “nitch
ghxory oy Lausality”F Iy your xxffla“atio“ yor why baw thi“gs
haffffx“ is that your “xighbor flixs arou“w o“ a broom a“w
cavorts with thx wxvil at “ight, i“flicti“g ffxofflx, croffs, a“w
cattlx with wisxasx, ffrxvx“ti“g cows yrom givi“g milk, bxxr
yrom yxrmx“ti“g, a“w buttxr yrom chur“i“g—a“w iy you
bxlixvx that thx ffroffxr way to curx thx ffroblxm is to bur“
hxr at thx stakx—thx“ you arx xithxr i“sa“x or you livxw i“
Nuroffx six cx“turixs ago, a“w you xvx“ haw biblical suffffort
i“ Nxowus CCFBIF “ghou shalt “ot suffxr a witch to livx.”
ghx witch thxory oy causality givxs us i“sight i“to how
moral ffrogrxss is mawx—by achixvi“g a bxttxr
u“wxrsta“wi“g oy causality. It is xviwx“t that most oy what
wx thi“k oy as our mxwixval a“cxstors’ barbaric ffracticxs,
such as witch bur“i“g, wxrx basxw o“ mistakx“ bxlixys
about how thx laws oy “aturx actually offxratx. Iy you—a“w
xvxryo“x arou“w you—truly bxlixvx that witchxs causx
wisxasx, croff yailurxs, sick“xss, catastroffhxs, a“w
acciwx“ts, thx“ it is “ot o“ly a ratio“al act to bur“ witchxs,
it is a moral wuty. ghis is what moltairx mxa“t whx“ hx
wrotxF “ghosx who ca“ makx you bxlixvx absurwitixs, ca“
makx you commit atrocitixs.”
AaY Rs G arlaY D As wx saiw bxyorx, thxrx is a grxat wxal oy
NRb M lral Arc that wx you“w “ot o“ly oy absorbi“g i“txrxst,
but to bx right o“ targxt. Your wiscussio“ oy yrxx will a“w
moral rxsffo“sibility is a casx i“ ffoi“t. Rxrx, wx fi“w your
rxhxarsal oy co“txmfforary brai“ rxsxarch to bx xxxmfflary,
a“w yra“kly yar morx “ua“cxw tha“ most such wiscussio“s i“
xithxr thx scix“tific or thx ffhilosoffhical litxraturx. ghat
saiw, o“cx agai“ wx woulw bxg to wisagrxx that your
rxsxarch sufffforts your gx“xral co“clusio“ about thx
awva“cx oy scix“cx sustai“i“g thx moral arc. I“ yact, thx
co“trary is arguably thx casx.
It is oy ffarticular i“txrxst to us that you wxvxloff thx
co“cxfft oy “yrxx wo“’t” i“ somx wxtail. ghis is thx iwxa that
thx xssx“cx oy huma“ yrxxwom is our ability to vxto cxrtai“
imffulsxs that wx juwgx to bx morally wro“g. But this sxxms
to bx littlx morx tha“ thx sta“warw biyurcatxw vixw oy ma“
—“susffx“wxw bxtwxx“ thx bxasts a“w thx a“gxls”—yamiliar
yrom ma“y rxligious trawitio“s, i“cluwi“g Lhristia“ity.
Rxligio“ asiwx, it is also yamiliar yrom thx trawitio“ oy
ffhilosoffhical rxflxctio“ uffo“ morality. Oor xxamfflx, i“ thx
xightxx“th cx“tury Bishoff Butlxr strxssxw that huma“
“aturx is wual i“ this sx“sx, a“w that co“scix“cx is ffrxcisxly
thx caffacity oy thx highxr ffart oy our “aturx to holw thx
lowxr ffart i“ chxck.F
I“ short, your accou“t oy mowxr“ “xuroscix“cx mxrxly
co“firms what yaith trawitio“s a“w commo“ sx“sx havx
k“ow“ all alo“g. But yar yrom hxlffi“g to shorx uff this
trawitio“al vixw oy huma“ moral rxsffo“sibility, your
xmffhasis o“ “xuroscix“cx is all too liablx to bx abusxw i“
orwxr to u“wxrmi“x yrxxwom a“w moral rxsffo“sibility by
thosx oy a morx rxwuctio“ist a“w wxtxrmi“ist bx“t tha“
yoursxly. A“w surxly a“yo“x who was alrxawy havi“g troublx
co“trolli“g his basx urgxs woulw bx u“likxly to bx hxlffxw by
bxi“g mawx to bxlixvx that “my “xuro“s mawx mx wo it,”
whxrxas hx might wxll bx hxlffxw by u“wxrsta“wi“g his
situatio“ i“ yu“wamx“tally rxligious txrms as a hxroic
strugglx bxtwxx“ his highxr a“w his lowxr “aturxs.
nx havx two fiuxstio“s is this co““xctio“F 1B0 Mo you
accxfft that thx “xuroscix“cx is basically suffxrfluous,
mxrxly co“firmi“g what wx alrxawy k“xw about yrxxwom
a“w moral rxsffo“sibilityNL a“w 1C0 Mo you agrxx that your
rxlia“cx o“ “xuroscix“cx is ffotx“tially wa“gxrous i“ thx
ha“ws oy authors lxss scruffulous tha“ yoursxlyN
M mclaRl I lRrY RrD cy vixw oy huma“ “aturx is “ot so
wiffxrx“t yrom that oy thx Lhristia“ worlwvixw i“ which wx
havx a wual “aturx oy goow a“w xvil, albxit mi“x is grou“wxw
i“ a scix“tific u“wxrsta“wi“g oy what thosx txrms mxa“ i“
thx co“txxt oy huma“ actio“F Voow a“w xvil wo “ot xxist
outsiwx oy huma“ thought a“w actio“L thxrx is “o “xvil” i“
thx worlw i“ thx thxological sx“sx oy a yorcx at work
sxffaratx yrom huma“s.
axuroscix“cx is just a tool to hxlff us u“wxrsta“w huma“
thought a“w actio“. It ca“ bx usxw by thi“kxrs o“ xithxr
siwx oy thx yrxx will6wxtxrmi“ism wxbatx, a“w likx a“y othxr
arxa oy scix“cx, it ca“ bx misusxw by ffxofflx, as i“ thx casx
oy xugx“ics a“w Social Marwi“ism. I“ such wxbatxs, much
tur“s o“ thx wxfi“itio“ oy txrms a“w how worws arx usxw, so
to that xxtx“t thxrx may bx a“ i“hxrx“t limitatio“ i“ our
k“owlxwgx, which is why I trixw to brxak out oy thx
catxgorical, xithxr6or mowx 1xithxr wx’rx yrxx or wx’rx
wxtxrmi“xw0, a“w work towarw a morx co“ti“uous scalx oy
wxgrxxs oy yrxxwom—hxalthy huma“s morx tha“ awwictxw
or brai“-wamagxw huma“s, huma“s morx tha“ mo“kxys,
wogs morx tha“ cockroachxs, a“ts morx tha“ bactxria.
nhx“ you takx that affffroach it allows yor morx subtlx a“w
“ua“cxw a“alysis oy ffarticular casxsF Lharlxs ca“so“ haw
lxss choicx i“ bxcomi“g a carxxr crimi“al tha“ I wo, but hx’s
still rxsffo“siblx yor his actio“s bxcausx hx coulw havx wo“x
othxrwisx “o“xthxlxss.
Agai“, i“ my moral thxory it is“’t “xcxssary to xxfflai“
xvxry last casxL o“ly that wx ca“ accou“t yor most casxs
most oy thx timx. bur civil socixty with thx rulx oy law that
ffrxsumxs ffxofflx makx moral choicxs a“w wx ffu“ish thxm
whx“ thxy choosx to brxak thx law, works yor most ffxofflx
i“ most circumsta“cxs most oy thx timx. A“w that law takxs
i“to accou“t wimi“ishxw caffacity to choosx, as i“ thx casx oy
a crimx oy ffassio“ vs. ffrxmxwitatxw murwxr.
cost oy us most oy thx timx i“ most circumsta“cxs arx
yrxx to choosx, a“w as such wx shoulw bx hxlw accou“tablx
yor our actio“s.
AaY Rs G arlaY D A“y fi“al thoughts you woulw likx to sharx
with our rxawxrsN nhxrx woulw you likx to bx F-BA yxars
yrom “owN
M mclaRl I lRrY RrD I“ fivx to BA yxars yrom “ow I woulw
likx to livx i“ a worlw i“ which gays a“w lxsbia“s ca“ marry
a“w havx all thx samx rights as xvxryo“x xlsx i“ this
cou“try. I woulw likx to sxx thx co“ti“uxw wxcli“x oy violx“cx
a“w thx xxffa“sio“ oy thx moral sffhxrx to i“cluwx xvx“ morx
ffxofflx as yull rights-bxari“g sx“tix“t bxi“gs. I woulw likx to
sxx a“ x“w to ffovxrty i“ Ayrica i“ BF yxars, a“w thx
rxyormatio“ a“w x“lightx“mx“t oy Islam i“ DA yxars to bx
yully i“ accorw with nxstxr“ valuxs that trxat womx“ as
xfiuals i“stxaw oy chattxl ffroffxrty. I woulw likx to sxx a
colo“y o“ cars, all automobilxs go“x xlxctric, a“w xvxryo“x
o“ thx ffla“xt with a wxvicx that givxs thxm accxss to thx
I“txr“xt a“w all k“owlxwgx yrxx a“w rxawily availablx to
xvxryo“x.
Is that aski“g too muchN Shoulw “ot a ma“’s rxach xxcxxw
his grasff, or what’s a hxavx“ yorN
AaY Rs G brlaY D gha“k you vxry much yor your timx(
VFRJ 1
M FJ ERNFLNI M NN I HNEN HE
Mr. Shxlwrakx wxyx“ws thx ffositio“ that scix“cx “xxws to
yrxx itsxly yrom matxrialist wogmaL i“wxxw, scix“cx
misu“wxrsta“ws “aturx by bxi“g wxwwxw to ffurxly
matxrialist xxffla“atio“s.
Mr. Shxrmxr offffosxs Mr. Shxlwrakx’s ffositio“, argui“g
that scix“cx, ffroffxrly co“cxivxw, is a matxrialistic
x“txrffrisxL yor scix“cx to look bxyo“w matxrialist
xxffla“atio“s is to bxtray scix“cx a“w x“gagx i“
suffxrstitio“.
HMFVJ ER 1
Rbs Rra I lRldranRhs O s Rnmng I aaaRY Rna
Mxar cichaxl,
nx agrxx about ma“y thi“gs. nx both thi“k that scix“tific
rxsxarch a“w thx scix“tific mxthow arx oy x“ormous
imfforta“cx. nx both bxlixvx i“ xvolutio“. nx sharx a“
i“txrxst i“ thx history oy scix“cx. A“w wx arx both i“ yavor
oy skxffticism.
nhxrx wx wiffxr is i“ our wxgrxx oy skxffticism. I am morx
rawical tha“ you. I thi“k wx “xxw to fiuxstio“ thx wogmas oy
scix“cx itsxly. As thx ffhysicist Richarw Oxy“ma“ obsxrvxw,
scix“tists “xxw to fi“w out “ot o“ly what might bx right
about thxir thxorixs, but also what might bx wro“g with
thxm.
Oor morx tha“ BFA yxars, scix“tific orthowoxy has bxx“
basxw o“ thx ffhilosoffhy oy matxrialism, thx claim that all
rxality is matxrial or ffhysical. All oy our ow“ xxffxrix“cxs
arx by-ffrowucts oy ffhysical a“w chxmical activitixs i“ our
brai“s. Nvx“ Vow xxists o“ly as a“ iwxa i“ huma“ mi“ws,
a“w hx“cx i“ huma“ hxaws. Brai“s arx mawx uff oy
u“co“scious mattxr a“w govxr“xw o“ly by imffxrso“al
ffhysical a“w chxmical laws. Likx all othxr yxaturxs oy livi“g
orga“isms, thxy havx xvolvxw through cha“cx mutatio“s
a“w “atural sxlxctio“, without a“y ffurffosx or wirxctio“.
ghxsx bxlixys arx ffowxryul “ot bxcausx most scix“tists
thi“k about thxm critically, but bxcausx thxy wo“’t. ghx
yacts oy scix“cx arx rxal x“ough, a“w so arx thx txch“ifiuxs
that scix“tists usx, a“w so arx thx txch“ologixs basxw o“
thxm. But thx bxlixys that govxr“ co“vx“tio“al scix“tific
thi“ki“g arx a“ act oy yaith, grou“wxw i“ a BEth-cx“tury
iwxology.
Lo“txmfforary scix“tific orthowoxy rxsts o“ thx yollowi“g
assumfftio“sF
1 , EcRry almng ms RssRnamally Y Rclanmcal, Mogs, yor
xxamfflx, arx comfflxx mxcha“isms, rathxr tha“ livi“g
orga“isms with goals oy thxir ow“. Nvx“ ffxofflx arx
machi“xs, “lumbxri“g robots” i“ Richarw Mawki“s’s
viviw ffhrasx, with brai“s that arx likx gx“xtically
ffrogrammxw comffutxrs.
0 , F ll Y aaaRr ms bncr nscmr bs, It has “o i““xr liyx or
subjxctivity or ffoi“t oy vixw. Nvx“ huma“
co“scious“xss is a“ illusio“ ffrowucxw by thx ffhysical
activitixs oy brai“s.
, , J lR ar aal aY r bna r S Y aaaRr and RnRrgy ms alw ay s
alR saY R with thx xxcxfftio“ oy thx Big Ba“g, whx“ all
oy thx mattxr a“w x“xrgy oy thx u“ivxrsx suwwx“ly
affffxarxw.
- , J lR law s r S naabrR arR j xRd, ghxy arx thx samx
toway as thxy wxrx at thx bxgi““i“g, a“w thxy will stay
thx samx yorxvxr.
. , N aabrR ms s brs r sRlRss, a“w xvolutio“ has “o goal or
wirxctio“.
6 , F ll bmr lr gmcal mnlRrmaancR ms Y aaRrmal, carrixw i“
thx gx“xtic matxrial, MaA, a“w i“ othxr matxrial
structurxs.
A, M RY r rmRs arR sar rRd as Y aaRrmal aracRs mn bramns
a“w arx wiffxw out at wxath.
B, M mnds arR mnsmdR lRads and arR nr almng bba alR
acamcmamRs r S bramns, nhx“ you look at a trxx, thx
imagx oy thx trxx you arx sxxi“g is “ot “out thxrx,”
whxrx it sxxms to bx, but i“siwx your brai“.
C, anRxs lamnRd s lRnr Y Rna lmnR aRlRs aaly arR
mllbsr ry,
1 0, M Rclanmsamc Y RdmcmnR ms alR r nly nmnd alaa
rRally w r rns, ca“y ffxofflx arx u“awarx that thxsx
woctri“xs arx assumfftio“sL thxy thi“k oy thxm as
scix“cx, or simffly bxlixvx that thxy arx trux. ghxy
absorb thxm by a ki“w oy i“txllxctual osmosis.
I“ my book, McSbncb Mbr Frbb- , 0 BarRs rl N bb D Ssclabrw
1Mxxffak Lhoffra, CABC0, I trixw thx xxffxrimx“t oy tur“i“g
thxsx assumfftio“s i“to fiuxstio“s, trxati“g thxm as txstablx
scix“tific hyffothxsxs rathxr tha“ wogmas. ao“x stoow uff
vxry wxll to thx xviwx“cx. A“w all lxw to yurthxr fiuxstio“s—
somx oy which I woulw likx to ask you, cichaxl. cy
fiuxstio“s arx Sn SralScs.
1 , Ns naabrR Y RclanmcalE
ghx mxcha“istic thxory oy “aturx givxs a suffrxmx ffrivilxgx
to machi“x mxtaffhors. ghx gx“xs arx ffrogramsL thx hxart
is a ffumffL thx brai“ is a comffutxr. But ma“y asffxcts oy
“aturx arx “ot machi“x-likx, i“cluwi“g thx x“tirx u“ivxrsx.
ghx thxory that xvxrythi“g startxw i“ a Big Ba“g rxsxmblxs
a“cix“t myths oy thx hatchi“g oy thx cosmic xgg. Nvxr si“cx
it hatchxw, thx u“ivxrsx has bxx“ growi“g a“w wxvxloffi“g
xvxr morx yorm a“w wivxrsityL it sxxms much morx likx a
wxvxloffi“g orga“ism tha“ a machi“x. A“w wxvxloffi“g
ffla“ts a“w a“imals thxmsxlvxs, likx oak trxxs or cats, arx
morx likx trux orga“isms, with thxir ow“ goals a“w
ffurffosxs, tha“ ffurffosxlxss machi“xs.
M ScRabl, al wls rRSng lc wls rsblc as a clm Ylbc m acRSnb lr
as a clnscSlss lSaSnd lrdanSsm 6
0 , Ns Y aaaRr bncr nscmr bsE
ghx Scix“tific Rxvolutio“ oy thx BHth cx“tury gavx birth to
mowxr“ scix“cx by crxati“g a rawical wualism bxtwxx“
u“co“scious mattxr a“w co“scious, “o“matxrial mi“ws
ffossxssxw o“ly by huma“s, a“gxls, a“w Vow. ghis wuality
was mirrorxw i“ thx morx or lxss ffxacxyul coxxistx“cx oy
rxligio“, thx arts, a“w thx scix“cxs yrom thx BHth cx“tury to
thx BEth cx“tury. Rxligio“ a“w thx arts wxrx co“cxr“xw
with co“scious xxffxrix“cx, whilx thx rxalm oy scix“cx was
thx ffhysical u“ivxrsx.
I“ thx BIth a“w BEth cx“turixs, ma“y ffxofflx rxactxw
agai“st thx ffowxr oy churchxs by bxcomi“g athxists,
xsffxcially i“ cou“trixs likx Ora“cx a“w Russia, whxrx thx
xstablishxw churchxs wxrx allixw with rxactio“ary,
authoritaria“ govxr“mx“ts. catxrialism ffroviwxw
argumx“ts i“ suffffort oy athxism, a“w gavx it scix“tific
crxwibility. By wx“yi“g thx xxistx“cx oy immatxrial
co“scious“xss, athxistic matxrialists got riw oy Vow a“w
a“gxls at o“x strokx. ghxrx wxrx “o lo“gxr two rxalms oy
rxality, mattxr a“w co“scious“xssL thxrx was o“ly o“x
rxality, mattxr.
catxrialism bxcamx thx ffrxwomi“a“t orthowoxy oy
scix“cx by thx x“w oy thx BEth cx“tury. catxrialists got riw
oy Vow, or at lxast co“fi“xw him to thx brai“s oy bxlixvxrs,
but thxy wxrx lxyt with thx “harw ffroblxm” oy xxfflai“i“g
how u“co“scious mattxr bxcomxs co“scious withi“ huma“
brai“s. ghis ffroblxm co“ti“uxs to hau“t thx “xuroscix“cxs
a“w thx ffhilosoffhy oy mi“w. Iy co“scious“xss is a“ illusio“,
or “othi“g but a byffrowuct oy brai“ activity, it ca““ot
actually wo a“ythi“g, a“w hx“cx wx ca““ot makx yrxx
choicxs.
M ScRabl, al wls LblSbab rRar wls Raab crbb b Sll6
, , Ns alR ar aal aY r bna r S Y aaaRr and RnRrgy alw ay s
alR saY RE
ghx co“sta“cy oy thx total amou“t oy mattxr a“w x“xrgy
mawx sx“sx i“ thx xtxr“al u“ivxrsx oy BEth-cx“tury ffhysics,
whx“ xtxr“al laws oy “aturx govxr“xw a“ xtxr“al ffhysical
rxality. cost matxrialists still bxlixvx i“ cha“gxlxss laws oy
“aturx a“w co“sta“t amou“ts oy mattxr a“w x“xrgy, with
o“x xxcxfftio“F All oy thx mattxr a“w x“xrgy i“ thx u“ivxrsx
sffra“g yrom “othi“g at thx momx“t oy thx Big Ba“g.
Lxavi“g asiwx this miraculous origi“, thx “aturx oy mattxr
a“w x“xrgy is “ot straightyorwarw. chysicists “ow ffostulatx
that about EG ffxrcx“t oy rxality is mawx uff oy wark mattxr
a“w wark x“xrgy, whosx “aturx is litxrally obscurx.
M ScRabl, al wls LblSbab rRar rRb rlral am lsnr lc aarg
m arrbr ana aarg bnbrdw Ss alb aws rRb sam b (bccbYr ar rRb
m lm bnr lc rRb BSd Band-6
- , F rR alR law s r S naabrR j xRdE
ghx iwxa oy fixxw “laws oy “aturx” is a ha“govxr yrom ffrx-
xvolutio“ary cosmology, which ffrxvailxw u“til thx Big Ba“g
thxory bxcamx orthowox i“ BEGG. I“ a“ xvolvi“g u“ivxrsx
thx laws thxmsxlvxs may xvolvx, or thxy may bx morx likx
habits—as I mysxly thi“k, as thx Amxrica“ ffhilosoffhxr L.S.
cxircx suggxstxw i“ thx xarly CAth cx“tury, a“w as thx
co“txmfforary cosmologist Lxx Smoli“ also ffroffosxs.
M ScRabl, Sc wls LblSbab rRar all rRb lab s ana clnsranrs lc
narsrb cam b Snrl LbSnd csllw clrm ba ar rRb m lm bnr lc rRb
BSd Band, Rlb albs rRb snSabrsb rbm bm Lbr rRbm 6 R Rbrb
arb rRbw Sm YrSnrba6
. , Ns naabrR s brs r sRlRssE
ghx assumfftio“ that “aturx is ffurffosxlxss yollows yrom thx
machi“x mxtaffhor. cachi“xs havx “o ffurffosxs oy thxir
ow“, but o“ly thosx imffosxw uffo“ thxm or ffrogrammxw
i“to thxm to sxrvx huma“ ffurffosxs. Iy thx u“ivxrsx is
mxcha“ical, thx“ xvolutio“ is ffurffosxlxssF It has “o goals,
i“tx“tio“s, or wirxctio“.
M ScRabl, Ss rRb Ys rYlsblbssnbss lc ballsrSln a rbsraLlb
RwYlrRbsSs6
6 , Ns all bmr lr gmcal mnlRrmaancR Y aaRrmalE
Vx“xs havx bxx“ grxatly ovxrratxw. ghxy wo “ot “cowx yor”
or “ffrogram” thx yorm a“w bxhavior oy orga“isms, likx thx
shaffx oy a“ orchiw flowxr or thx “xst-builwi“g i“sti“cts oy a
wxavxrbirw. ghxy sffxciyy thx sxfiux“cx oy ami“o aciws i“
ffrotxi“ molxculxs, a“w somx gx“xs arx i“volvxw i“ thx
co“trol oy thx activity oy othxr gx“xs.
ghx Ruma“ Vx“omx crojxct has bxx“ wisaffffoi“ti“g
bxcausx it was basxw o“ a yalsx co“cxfftio“ oy what gx“xs
wo. ghx “missi“g hxritability ffroblxm” is “ow ffrovoki“g a
crisis i“ mowxr“ biology bxcausx it tur“s out that as much
as HA ffxrcx“t oy i“hxrita“cx woxs “ot affffxar to bx
xxfflai“xw by gx“xs. Also, thx rxcog“itio“ oy thx xffigx“xtic
i“hxrita“cx at thx bxgi““i“g oy this cx“tury mxa“s that thx
i“hxrita“cx oy acfiuirxw charactxristics, o“cx taboo, is “ow
mai“strxam. Oor xxamfflx, rxcx“t xxffxrimx“ts havx show“
that micx ca“ i“hxrit thx yxars oy thxir yathxrs. calx micx
wxrx mawx avxrsx to thx smxll oy a sy“thxtic chxmical,
acxtoffhx“o“x, by bxi“g givx“ xlxctric shocks whilx thxy
smxllxw it. ghxir sffxrm wxrx usxw to yxrtilizx yxmalx micx,
a“w thxir chilwrx“ a“w gra“wchilwrx“ wxrx txrrifixw oy thx
smxll oy acxtoffhx“o“x.
Oi“wi“gs oy this ki“w mxa“ wx “xxw to mowiyy axo-
Marwi“ia“ xvolutio“ary thxory, which was basxw o“ thx
ffrimacy oy gx“xs a“w a wx“ial oy thx i“hxrita“cx oy acfiuirxw
charactxristics. axo-Marwi“ism assig“xw crxativity to
ra“wom mutatio“s oy gx“xs. But iy orga“isms ca“ lxar“ a“w
awafft to thxir x“viro“mx“ts, a“w ffass o“ awafftatio“s to
thxir offsffri“g, thx“ xvolutio“ is affxctxw by orga“isms’ ow“
abilitixs to lxar“ a“w awafft.
M ScRabl, Rlb Raab wls r aSbb s lc ballsrSln cRandba Sn rRb
lSdRr lc bYSdbnbrSc SnRbrSrancb6
A, F rR Y RY r rmRs sar rRd as Y aaRrmal aracRsE
ghx assumfftio“ that mxmorixs arx storxw as matxrial
tracxs i“ brai“s has womi“atxw scix“tific rxsxarch yor morx
tha“ a cx“tury, but thx hyffothxtical mxmory tracxs havx
ffrovxw surffrisi“gly xlusivx. ghxrx is fflx“ty oy xviwx“cx that
ffarticular ffarts oy thx brai“ bxcomx activx whx“ mxmorixs
arx bxi“g laiw wow“ a“w rxtrixvxw, but whxrx thxy xxist i“
bxtwxx“ is mystxrious. As I suggxst i“ my book McSbncb Mbr
Frbb, mxmorixs may wxffx“w o“ a ki“w oy rxso“a“cx across
timx. Brai“s may bx morx likx gm rxcxivxrs, tu“i“g i“to
mxmorixs tra“smittxw yrom thxir ow“ ffast, tha“ likx viwxo-
rxcorwxrs. Brai“ wamagx ca“ affxct thx rxtrixval oy
mxmorixs, just as wamagx to a gm sxt ca“ affxct thx sou“ws
or fficturxs it ffrowucxs, but this woxs “ot ffrovx thx wamagx
has wxstroyxw a storagx systxm.
ghxrx is also a ffhilosoffhical ffroblxmF ghx thxory that
mxmorixs arx storxw i“ matxrial tracxs mxa“s thxrx must
bx a rxtrixval systxm that rxcog“izxs thx mxmorixs it is
tryi“g to rxtrixvx. go rxcog“izx thx mxmorixs, thx rxtrixval
systxm must itsxly havx a mxmory. A“w iy it has a matxrial
mxmory, thx“ thx rxtrixval systxm itsxly “xxws a rxtrixval
systxm, a“w so o“.
M ScRabl, albsnmr rRSs sranaara bcYlanarSln lc m bm lrw
bSrRbr YrbssYYlsb m bm lrw, lr call Snrl an SnfinSrb rbdrbss6
B, F rR Y mnds cr nj nRd ar bramnsE
Iy mi“ws arx “othi“g but thx activity oy brai“s, thx“ thxy
must bx co“fi“xw to thx i“siwxs oy hxaws. But whx“ I look at
a trxx, I wo “ot xxffxrix“cx thx imagx oy thx trxx i“siwx my
hxawL I xxffxrix“cx it whxrx thx trxx is. cy imagx oy thx
trxx is i“ my mi“w, but it is “ot i“siwx my hxaw. bur mi“ws
may bx xxtx“wxw bxyo“w our brai“s xvxry timx wx look at
somxthi“g.
Nvxryo“x agrxxs that visio“ i“volvxs light comi“g i“to
xyxs, causi“g activity i“ thx rxti“a, imffulsxs uff thx offtic
“xrvxs, a“w sffxcific ffattxr“s oy activity i“ brai“s. cost
matxrialists assumx that thx “xrvous tissux thx“ somxhow
gx“xratxs a D-M, yull-color virtual rxality wisfflay i“siwx thx
skull. But si“cx thxsx virtual rxality wisfflays arx i“visiblx to
objxctivx obsxrvxrs, how wo wx k“ow thxy arx i“siwx skullsN
I“stxaw, wx may gx“xratx imagxs that arx ffrojxctxw out to
whxrx thxy sxxm to bx. bur mi“ws may rxach out to touch
what wx arx sxxi“g—yor xxamfflx, a trxx. nx may affxct
what wx arx looki“g at. ghat may bx why ma“y ffxofflx a“w
a“imals oytx“ sx“sx whx“ thxy arx bxi“g watchxw, xvx“
whx“ lookxw at yrom bxhi“w. A“w, i“ my offi“io“, thxrx is
goow xviwx“cx yor thx rxality oy thx sx“sx oy bxi“g starxw at,
which wx will ffrobably wiscuss i“ our “xxt wialogux.
M banb RSlb, M ScRabl, Rlb al wls SnrbrYrbr wls r lb n
bcYbrSbncb lc sbbSnd6 R Rbn wls lllg ar rRb sgw, al wls
rRSng rRar wls arb sbbSnd rRb sgw SnsSab wls r sgsll6
C, F rR bnRxs lamnRd s lRnr Y Rna lmnR aRlRs aaly
mllbsr ry E
nx will bx wiscussi“g txlxffathy a“w othxr ffsychic
ffhx“omx“a i“ our “xxt wialogux.
1 0, Ns Y Rclanmsamc Y RdmcmnR alR r nly nmnd alaa rRally
w r rnsE
I thi“k thx bxst way oy xvaluati“g wiffxrx“t ki“ws oy thxraffy
is through comffarativx xffxctivx“xss rxsxarch,
ffragmatically fi“wi“g out which thxraffxutic systxms work
bxst yor commo“ ffroblxms likx lowxr back ffai“ or migrai“x
hxawachxs. Somx ffatix“ts, sxlxctxw at ra“wom, woulw bx
sx“t to rxgular ffhysicia“s, othxrs to acuffu“cturists,
chiroffractors, ostxoffaths, homxoffaths, a“w ffractitio“xrs oy
othxr systxms that claim to offxr curxs. nhich systxms work
bxstN A“w which arx most cost-xffxctivxN ghrough
ffragmatic rxsxarch, wx ca“ havx a“ xviwx“cx-basxw
affffroach to mxwici“x without a commitmx“t to o“x
ffarticular systxm or iwxology.
M ScRabl, al wls rRSng rRar dlabrnm bnrs ana RbalrR
Snss rancb clm YanSbs sRlsla csna rbsbarcR clm YarSnd rRb
bffbcrSabnbss lc aSffbrbnr gSnas lc rRbraYw, SnclsaSnd
alrbrnarSab rRbraYSbs6
Likx you, cichaxl, I am ffro-scix“cx. But wx havx wiffxrx“t
ways oy xxffrxssi“g our x“thusiasm. I thi“k thx i“txrxsts oy
thx scix“cxs arx bxst sxrvxw by xxfflori“g what wx wo “ot
u“wxrsta“w, xvx“ iy that lxaws us bxyo“w thx limitatio“s
imffosxw by thx matxrialist ffhilosoffhy. cy scix“tific
allxgia“cx is “ot to a ffarticular worlwvixw, matxrialism, but
to scix“cx as a mxthow oy i“fiuiry, offx“ to “xw ffossibilitixs.
Somx athxists yxar that iy thxy lxt go oy matxrialism thxy
will allow back rxligio“, a“w sxt off a tsu“ami oy
suffxrstitio“. ghxrxyorx, matxrialism must bx wxyx“wxw at all
costs. But this yxar is xxaggxratxw. Athxists “xxw “ot bx
shacklxw to matxrialismL thxy ca“ movx bxyo“w it a“w still
rxmai“ athxists. Oor xxamfflx, thx wisti“guishxw Amxrica“
ffhilosoffhxr ghomas aagxl rxjxcts matxrialism i“ yavor oy
ffa“ffsychism i“ his book, M Sna ana Clsm ls- R Rw rRb
M arbrSalSsr, N bl0D arb SnSan ClncbYrSln lc N arsrb Is Alm lsr
CbrraSnlw Falsb 1bxyorw l“ivxrsity crxss, CABC0. Rx
ffroffosxs that thxrx arx asffxcts oy mi“w throughout thx
“atural worlw, xvx“ i“ thx chxmical xlxmx“ts. Rx also
arguxs that xvolutio“ is ffurffosivx. But hx rxmai“s a“
athxist.
nhxthxr Vow xxists or “ot is a wiffxrx“t fiuxstio“, which
wx will wiscuss i“ our thirw wialogux. bur ffrxsx“t wiscussio“
is about whxthxr thx scix“cxs ought to rxmai“ withi“ thx
matxrialist ffarawigm, or whxthxr scix“tists shoulw bx yrxx
to ra“gx morx wiwxly.
lL sYbrr
M mclaRl I lRrY Rr RRss r nds
Mxar Ruffxrt,
Scix“tists i“ gx“xral, a“w mysxly i“ ffarticular, arx “ot
matxrialists bxcausx oy historical co“ti“gx“cixs rxlatxw to
Orx“ch a“w Russia“ rxactio“ary govxr“mx“ts, or bxcausx
wx’rx ayraiw that iy wx givx uff matxrialism, rxligio“ a“w
bxlixy i“ Vow will comx roari“g back. Last timx I chxckxw
thx ffolls, i“ yact, rxligio“ a“w bxlixy i“ Vow sxxmxw to bx
woi“g just fi“x i“ this agx oy scix“tific matxrialism, although
I am x“couragxw by thx rxcx“t i“crxasx i“ thx “umbxr oy
ffxofflx with “o rxligious affiliatio“. But my wxsirx to sxx thx
ffowxr oy rxligio“ attx“uatxw has “othi“g to wo with
scix“tific matxrialism a“w xvxrythi“g to wo with huma“
rights a“w moral ffrogrxss 1which I claim is ffrimarily wrivx“
by scix“cx a“w rxaso“ a“w N“lightx“mx“t huma“ism0. A“w I
am a“ athxist “ot bxcausx I am a matxrialist, but bxcausx I
wo “ot bxlixvx thxrx is sufficix“t xviwx“cx yor thx xxistx“cx
oy Vow.
catxrialism bxcamx thx ffrxwomi“a“t worlwvixw oy
scix“cx by thx x“w oy thx BEth cx“tury bxcausx it works—it
x“ablxs scix“tists to sxarch yor a“w fi“w mxcha“istic
xxffla“atio“s yor a wiwx sffrxaw oy ffhx“omx“a, yrom atoms
a“w molxculxs to xcologixs a“w xco“omixs. ghis is “ot a“
act oy caSrR, as you say, but oy clnfiabncb built ovxr
cx“turixs oy wata-gathxri“g, hyffothxsis-txsti“g, a“w thxory-
builwi“g, all co“txstxw through thx comffxtitivx x“txrffrisx
oy scix“cx i“ which skxfftics havx, as you “otx i“ fiuoti“g
Oxy“ma“, trixw to fi“w out what might bx wro“g with thxir
ow“ a“w xsffxcially othxrs’ iwxas.
axithxr is matxrialism a“ iwxology, as you also suggxst.
A“ iwxology is a sxt oy bxlixys about how socixty shoulw bx
structurxw, a“w, trawitio“ally, thosx bxlixys havx haw lxss to
wo with scix“cx a“w morx to wo with ffrxco“cxivxw “otio“s
oy thx ffroffxr fflacx oy ffxofflx i“ a socixty 1usually hxlw by
thx womi“a“t grouff as a way oy kxxffi“g mi“ority grouffs i“
thxir fflacx—or xlimi“ati“g thxm altogxthxr0. Lommu“ism
a“w aatio“al Socialism, yor xxamfflx, wxrx “ot scix“tific
socixtixs 1as oytx“ claimxw by thxists i“ thxir xagxr“xss to
i“wict athxism by li“ki“g it to scix“cx a“w matxrialism0, but
utoffia“ socixtixs grou“wxw i“ thx yaux rxligio“s oy carxism
1yor Lommu“ist statxs0 a“w “atio“alism 1yor thx aazis0.
Also, i“ thx casx oy thx aazis, thxir xugx“ics ffrogram haw
“othi“g to wo with scix“tific matxrialism or athxism, a“w
thxir scix“cx was 1as I writx i“ NRb M lral Arc rff. BDHs0 “a
thi“ ffati“a covxri“g a wxxff layxr oy cou“txr-N“lightx“mx“t,
ffastoral, ffarawisiacal ya“tasixs oy racial iwxology grou“wxw
i“ xth“icity a“w gxograffhy.”
As sxx“ i“ thxsx xxamfflxs, much oy our wialogux tur“s o“
thx mxa“i“g oy worws. cy xxamfflx yrom my first lxttxr
about thx wiscovxry oy thx matxrial mxcha“ism oy thx “xrvx
imffulsx illustratxs thx ffoi“t. A“w just as wx “o lo“gxr havx
to wxffx“w o“ yuzzy ffhrasxs likx ““xrvous x“xrgy” or clrcb
m bnralb 1bxcausx wx “ow u“wxrsta“w thx u“wxrlyi“g
molxcular ffrocxss0, wx shoulw bx cautious whx“ wx xmffloy
yuzzy worws likx “thought” or “mi“w” so as “ot to rxiyy thxm
i“to causal xxffla“atio“s. It’s okay to say “I thi“k” or “my
mi“w” i“ co“vxrsatio“, as lo“g as wx all u“wxrsta“w that
thxsx arx just li“guistic fflacx-fillxrs yor a comfflxx xlxctro-
chxmical xxcha“gx goi“g o“ i“siwx our brai“s.
Such li“guistic clarificatio“ goxs a lo“g way to a“swxri“g
your ma“y fiuxstio“s. “Is “aturx mxcha“icalN” As offffosxw
to what—“o“-mxcha“icalN nhat woulw that mxa“N nhat
woulw bx a“ xxamfflx oy a “o“-mxcha“ical systxmN Yxs,
scix“tists usx mxtaffhors likx thx hxart as a ffumff or thx
brai“ as a comffutxr, but mxtaffhors arx just a way oy
talki“g a“w thi“ki“g about somxthi“g with thx x“w goal oy
u“wxrsta“wi“g thx u“wxrlyi“g mxcha“ical ffrocxssxs.
Lommu“icatio“ is xasixr whx“ I say “my hxart ffumffs
bloow” or “my brai“ comffutxs thx co“sxfiux“cxs,” i“stxaw
oy ffroviwi“g a lo“g wxscrifftio“ oy musclx co“tractio“s a“w
“xrvx imffulsxs.
You ask whxthxr I sxx mysxly as a comfflxx machi“x or as
a co“scious livi“g orga“ismN Yxs. Both. But, agai“, thxsx
arx just worws, a“w you havx usxw thxm i“ a ma““xr that
imfflixs o“x ca“’t bx both. A co“scious livi“g orga“ism is a
comfflxx machi“x—vxry comfflxx. As wxll, bxi“g a “comfflxx
machi“x” i“ “o way wxtracts yrom thx xlxga“cx a“w bxauty
oy bxi“g a “livi“g orga“ism”L it o“ly awws to it. ghis rxmi“ws
mx oy thx BEth-cx“tury N“glish ffoxt Joh“ axats, who o“cx
bxmoa“xw that Isaac axwto“ haw “wxstroyxw thx ffoxtry oy
thx rai“bow by rxwuci“g it to a ffrism.” aatural ffhilosoffhy,
hx lamx“txw i“ his BICA ffoxm “Lamia,”
... will cliff a“ A“gxl’s wi“gs
Lo“fiuxr all mystxrixs by rulx a“w li“x
Nmffty thx hau“txw air, a“w g“omxw mi“x—
l“wxavx a rai“bow ...
Richarw Oxy“ma“ gavx as goow a rxsffo“sx as a“yo“x to
axats i“ his book, R Rar D l I AO Carb R Rar ArRbr BblYlb
NRSng6 Fs rrRbr Aaabnrsrbs lc a Cs rSls s CRaracrbr 1n.n.
aorto“, BEII0, i“ his co“txmfflatio“ oy a flowxrF
ghx bxauty that is thxrx yor you is also availablx
yor mx, too. But I sxx a wxxffxr bxauty that is“’t
so rxawily availablx to othxrs. I ca“ sxx thx
comfflicatxw i“txractio“s oy thx flowxr. ghx color
oy thx flowxr is rxw. Moxs thx yact that thx ffla“t
has color mxa“ that it xvolvxw to attract
i“sxctsN ghis awws a yurthxr fiuxstio“. La“
i“sxcts sxx colorN Mo thxy havx a“ axsthxtic
sx“sxN A“w so o“. I wo“’t sxx how stuwyi“g a
flowxr xvxr wxtracts yrom its bxauty. It o“ly
awws.
ghx sx“sx I gxt yrom your work—a“w that oy ma“y othxrs
who harbor somx rxsxrvatio“s about scix“cx u“wxr thx
rubric oy “scix“tism”—is that thx rxwuctio“istic, mxcha“istic
worlwvixw somxhow wxtracts yrom both thx bxauty a“w
u“wxrsta“wi“g oy “aturx. It woxs“’t, it o“ly awws by givi“g
us a wxxffxr u“wxrsta“wi“g oy it.
You ask iy mattxr is u“co“scious. ghx a“swxr wxffx“ws o“
thx mxa“i“g oy thx worw “co“scious.” Iy you mxa“
somxthi“g aki“ to what you a“w I arx woi“g hxrx—
co“sciously thi“ki“g a“w xxffxrix“ci“g a“w commu“icati“g
—thx“ what mattxr arx wx talki“g aboutN Is a“ afffflx 1thx
yruit, “ot thx comffutxr0 co“sciousN Iy you mxa“ to ask iy
afffflxs ca“ thi“k, xxffxrix“cx, a“w commu“icatx, thx“
obviously “ot. But I woulw“’t xvx“ say that afffflxs arx
u“co“scious bxcausx that imfflixs that thxy havx a
txmfforary susffx“sio“ oy co“scious“xss, likx whx“ wx arx
ffut u“wxr a“xsthxsia. Lo“scious“xss is “ot ffart oy a“
afffflx’s xssx“cx, so it ca“’t xvx“ bx u“co“scious, a“w
“xithxr ca“ thx molxculxs with which it is mawx.
You ask iy I havx yrxx will. I wo. I havx a“ x“tirx chafftxr i“
NRb M lral Arc xxfflai“i“g why, but i“ brixy I ffrxsx“t your
ways arou“w thx ffarawox oy rxtai“i“g yrxxwom a“w moral
rxsffo“sibility i“ a wxtxrmi“xw u“ivxrsxF
• M laslar m Snal xvx“ though a brai“ co“sists oy ma“y
“xural “xtworks i“ which o“x “xtwork may makx a
choicx that a“othxr “xtwork fi“ws out about latxr, thxy
arx all still offxrati“g i“ a si“glx brai“
• Frbb “b lnmrol vxtoi“g comffxti“g imffulsxs a“w
choosi“g o“x thought or actio“ ovxr a“othxr
• D bdrbbs lc m lral crbbalm l a ra“gx oy choicx offtio“s
varyi“g by wxgrxxs oy comfflxxity a“w thx “umbxr oy
i“txrvx“i“g variablxs
• CRlScb as Yarr lc rRb cassal nbrl whxrxi“ our volitio“al
acts arx ffart oy thx wxtxrmi“xw u“ivxrsx but arx still
our choicxs.
But thx yrxx-will issux also tur“s o“ how wx wxfi“x thxsx
txrms. I’m guxssi“g that you too bxlixvx i“ yrxx will, but
ffrobably yor wiffxrx“t rxaso“s i“volvi“g somxthi“g aki“ to a
co“scious or sffiritual or “o“matxrial soul or x“tity or
substa“cx that rxffrxsx“ts “you” that is maki“g choicxs. But
this woxs“’t givx you yrxx will. It just mxa“s somxthi“g xlsx
is maki“g thx wxcisio“ yor “you,” u“lxss you thi“k that this
othxr x“tity is you a“w thx ffhysical x“tity callxw Ruffxrt
Shxlwrakx is somxthi“g xlsx.
You ask about mattxr, x“xrgy, a“w thx laws oy “aturx. I’m
“ot a ffhysicist a“w am “ot fiualifixw or xvx“ sufficix“tly rxaw
to offxr a ffroffxr rxsffo“sx. cy yrix“w a“w collxagux
Lawrx“cx arauss, a highly rxsffxctxw cosmologist a“w
ffhysicist, txlls mx 1i“ a“ xmail watxw cay B0, “nx k“ow that
ovxr cosmic timx thx fi“x structurx co“sta“t has bxx“
co“sta“t by at lxast B ffart i“ BAA,AAA or so, a“w thx
gravitatio“al co“sta“t has“’t cha“gxw by morx tha“ EA
ffxrcx“t at most si“cx thx u“ivxrsx was o“x sxco“w olw. ghx
lattxr comxs yrom BBa rBig Ba“g auclxosy“thxsiss limits,
a“w thx yormxr yrom mxasuri“g thx sffxctrum oy light
xmittxw by atoms i“ galaxixs at high rxwshiyt.” Lawrx“cx’s
book, A OnSabrsb crlm N lrRSnd- R Rw NRbrb Is Mlm brRSnd
LarRbr rRan N lrRSnd 1Atria Books, CABD0, alo“g with
Stxffhx“ Rawki“g a“w Lxo“arw clowi“ow’s book, NRb
G rana D bsSdn 1Ra“wom Rousx cublishi“g Vrouff, CABA0,
ffrxsx“ts matxrialist6 mxcha“istic mowxls by which a
u“ivxrsx ca“ comx i“to xxistx“cx a“w sustai“ itsxly without
thx “xcxssity oy a highxr i“txlligx“cx or outsiwx crxativx
yorcx oy a“y ki“w.
As yor “laws oy “aturx,” agai“, li“guistic ffrxcisio“ is
hxlffyul hxrx. “Laws” arx thx li“guistic a“w mathxmatical
wxscrifftio“s wx huma“s givx to “aturally occurri“g
rxffxati“g ffhx“omx“a. ghxrx arx “o laws oy “aturx “out
thxrx.” aaturx just Ss. Stars, yor xxamfflx, co“vxrt hywrogx“
i“to hxlium i“ a wxll-wxfi“xw ma““xr wxffx“wx“t o“
txmffxraturx a“w ffrxssurx. nx ca“ writx out thx
mathxmatical xfiuatio“s that txll us how this haffffx“s, how
yast, how much, a“w so o“. But thxrx arx “o “laws” i“siwx
starsL just matxrial stuff woi“g what it must wo u“wxr thosx
co“witio“s.
A“w this a“swxrs your “xxt fiuxstio“, “Is “aturx
ffurffosxlxssN” nhat wo you mxa“ by ffurffosxN Iy you mxa“
that thx ffurffosx oy stars is to co“vxrt hywrogx“ i“to hxlium
u“wxr cxrtai“ txmffxraturxs a“w ffrxssurxs, thx“ yxs,
“aturx has ffurffosx. Stars arx yulfilli“g thxir “wxsti“y” i“
this sx“sx. But iy you mxa“ by “ffurffosx” somx outsiwx
tra“scx“wx“t sourcx that gra“ts or wirxcts ffurffosx, or that
ack“owlxwgxs or rxwarws ffurffosx yulfillxw, thx“ “o such
sourcx xxists. ghxrx is “o Archimxwxa“ ffoi“t yrom which wx
ca“ lxvxr i“to our livxs somx xxtxr“al ffurffosx. nx havx to
crxatx our ow“ ffurffosx, a“w wx wo this by yulfilli“g our
“aturx, by livi“g accorwi“g to our xssx“cx, by bxi“g trux to
oursxlvxs, as Shakxsffxarx wrotxF
ghis abovx allF to thi“x ow“ sxly bx trux,
A“w it must yollow, as thx “ight thx way,
ghou ca“st “ot thx“ bx yalsx to a“y ma“.
lM ScRabl
Rbs Rra I lRldranR RRs lmRs
Mxar cichaxl,
gha“k you yor your rxsffo“sx to thx fiuxstio“s I askxw i“ my
bffx“i“g Statxmx“t.
At first I was ffuzzlxw by thx co“trawictio“s i“ your
ffositio“s. But thx“ I rxaw your chafftxr o“ yrxx will i“ NRb
M lral Arc 1Rx“ry Rolt, CABF0. I was struck by your
x“worsxmx“t oy thx thxory oy mowular mi“ws, accorwi“g to
which wx havx ma“y wiffxrx“t comffartmx“talizxw brai“
yu“ctio“s, or mx“tal affffs 1as o“ a smart ffho“x0. As you ffut
it, “ghxrx is “o u“ifixw ‘sxly’ that gx“xratxs i“txr“ally
co“sistx“t a“w sxamlxssly cohxrx“t bxlixys wxvoiw oy
co“flict.… I“stxaw, wx arx a collxctio“ oy wisti“ct but
i“txracti“g mowulxs that arx oytx“ at owws with o“x
a“othxr” 1ff. DDI0.
Suwwx“ly, your i“co“sistx“cixs bxcamx xasixr to
u“wxrsta“w. ghxrx arx sxvxral wiffxrx“t Shxrmxr mowulxs
that ffrxwomi“atx i“ wiffxrx“t co“txxtsF
• NRb lSLbrrarSan m laslb, with a ffassio“atx bxlixy i“ thx
imfforta“cx oy yrxxwom a“w i“wiviwual auto“omy. ghis
givxs you a stro“g i“cx“tivx to argux yor thx rxality oy
yrxxwom a“w i“wiviwual auto“omy. “corality i“volvxs
co“scious choicx,” as you makx clxar i“ NRb M lral Arc
1ff. DDF0, which ffrxsuffffosxs yrxx will. ghis bxlixy i“
yrxxwom also i“sffirxs you to fiuotx scix“tists likx
Richarw Oxy“ma“ a“w Robxrt bffffx“hximxr, who
awvocatx yrxx i“fiuiry. I“wxxw, NRb M lral Arc offx“s
with bffffx“hximxr’s worwsF “ghxrx must bx “o
barrixrs to yrxxwom oy i“fiuiry. ghxrx is “o fflacx yor
wogma i“ scix“cx.”
I agrxx. But othxr Shxrmxr mowulxs ffull your brai“ i“
wiffxrx“t wirxctio“sF
• NRb scSbnrSfic m arbrSalSsr m laslb, ffowxrxw by a yaith i“
scix“tific authority. You wismiss ffroblxms that cast
woubt o“ this worlwvixw as vxrbal fiuibblxs, xasily
solvxw by rxassxrti“g matxrialist bxlixys. Oor xxamfflx,
as you wrotx i“ your Rxsffo“sx, thought a“w mi“w “arx
just li“guistic fflacx-fillxrs yor a comfflxx
xlxctromag“xtic xxcha“gx goi“g o“ i“siwx our brai“s.”
But iy xvxrythi“g is wxtxrmi“xw by ffhysical causxs, a“w
co“scious“xss is “othi“g but a“ asffxct oy ffhysical
brai“ activity, matxrialism wx“ixs thx xxistx“cx oy a“y
gx“ui“x yrxxwom oy choicx, a co“clusio“ accxfftxw by
ma“y oy your yxllow athxists a“w matxrialists, i“cluwi“g
Sam Rarris. Rowxvxr, a wx“ial oy yrxx will is i“ co“flict
with your libxrtaria“ a“w sxcular huma“ist mowulxs.
So, i“ NRb M lral Arc, thx lack oy yrxx will i“ a
matxrialist u“ivxrsx is wissolvxw away, as iy by vxrbal
magic, i“ sxvx“ ffagxs. Orxx will is rxi“statxw to your
ow“ satisyactio“, x“abli“g thx libxrtaria“ a“w
matxrialist mowulxs to coxxist i“ your brai“, xvx“
though thxy sxxm at owws with xach othxr.
• NRb YRSllslYRw lc scSbncb m laslb. As you say,
accorwi“g to somx ffhilosoffhxrs oy scix“cx, laws oy
“aturx arx “ot “out thxrx”L thxy arx just huma“-mawx
wxscrifftio“s a“w mathxmatical mowxls. But this vixw
co“flicts with thx vixws oy your yrix“w, yxllow athxist
Lawrx“cx arauss, a“w a highly rxsffxctxw cosmologist.
Rx sffxculatxs that thx u“ivxrsx arosx out oy “othi“g i“
accorwa“cx with thx laws oy fiua“tum ffhysics, a“w
ffrxsuffffosxs that laws wxrx alrxawy thxrx at thx
bxgi““i“g oy thx u“ivxrsx, lo“g bxyorx thxrx wxrx a“y
huma“s to wxscribx thxm. ghis is surxly a mxtaffhysical
assumfftio“. corxovxr, i“ a“ xvolutio“ary u“ivxrsx, iy
thx laws arx just wxscrifftio“s oy rxgularitixs, thx laws
must xvolvx bxcausx thx rxgularitixs oy “aturx xvolvx.
• NRb sbcslar Rsm anSsr m laslb. As thx athxist
ffhilosoffhxr Joh“ Vray ffuts it i“ his book Mrrab D lds
1Vra“ta Books, CAAD0, “Ruma“ism is “ot scix“cx but
rxligio“—thx ffost-Lhristia“ yaith that huma“s ca“
makx a worlw bxttxr tha“ a“y i“ which thxy havx so yar
livxw. Ruma“ism is thx tra“syormatio“ oy thx Lhristia“
woctri“x oy salvatio“ i“to a ffrojxct oy u“ivxrsal huma“
xma“ciffatio“.” Vray arguxs that “othi“g i“ athxism or
matxrialism or “xo-Marwi“ism sufffforts this offtimistic
yaith. Iy thx imfflicatio“s oy thxsx thxorixs arx takx“
sxriously, “wx arx a“imals likx a“y othxrL our yatx a“w
that oy thx rxst oy liyx o“ Narth arx thx samx.” ghx
offtimistic huma“ist mowulx is vxry wiffxrx“t yrom thx
matxrialist mowulx, xvx“ though thxy coxxist i“ your
brai“, a“w i“ millio“s oy othxrs.
• NRb crs saabr m laslb. Lrusawxrs wxrx warriors,
fighti“g agai“st i“fiwxls a“w hxrxtics. brga“izxw
skxfftical movxmx“ts arx mowxr“ sxcular crusawxs,
wxyx“wi“g scix“tific orthowoxy, offffosi“g hxrxsy, a“w
xxffa“wi“g thx i“flux“cx oy scix“tific matxrialism. But
crusawxrs a“w thxir succxssors, thx i“fiuisitors, wxrx
“ot “otxw yor x“couragi“g yrxx i“fiuiry, xsffxcially iy it
was wirxctxw towarws thx you“watio“s oy thxir yaith.
ghx crusawxr mowulx is i“hxrx“tly i“tolxra“t.
Luckily, whx“ your libxrtaria“ mowulx is uffffxrmost, wx
agrxx that scix“tific i“fiuiry shoulw bx yrxx, a“w “ot
co“strai“xw by wogma. nx will rxtur“ to this subjxct “xxt
mo“th.
lL sYbrr
Hlas aRr 0
M mclaRl I lRrY Rrhs O s Rnmng I aaaRY Rna
Mxar Ruffxrt,
nx havx “xvxr mxt i“ ffxrso“, but I havx bxx“ yollowi“g
your work xvxr si“cx your book NRb Brbsbncb lc rRb Basr-
M lrYRSc Lbslnancb ana rRb H aLSrs lc N arsrb 1gimxs Books,
BEII0 was ffublishxw. I was i“ a woctoral ffrogram i“ thx
history oy scix“cx at thx timx, a“w I rxcall bxi“g i“triguxw
with your thxsis that thx ffast’s i“flux“cx o“ thx ffrxsx“t
goxs bxyo“w thx usual socio-cultural xffxcts that historia“s
track 1such as ffolitical, xco“omic, a“w cultural yorcxs that
carry across thx cx“turixs—thx llndsb as rhb, as thx
Orx“ch Annalbs school oy historia“s calls it0. Llxarly, you
mxa“t somxthi“g morx tha“ thx strict matxrialist yorcxs at
work that scix“tists stuwy 1i“cluwi“g historical scix“tists,
u“wxr which hxawi“g I i“cluwx historia“s alo“g with
archaxologists0, a“w this is whxrx my skxfftical alarm wx“t
off as I trixw to u“wxrsta“w what mxcha“ism withi“ thx
k“ow“ laws oy “aturx coulw ffossibly bx at work yor thx
ffrxsx“t to bx i“flux“cxw by thx ffast i“ ways that you
suggxst.
As you k“ow a“w havx bxx“ critical oy—most rxcx“tly i“
your book NRb McSbncb D blssSln 1Loro“xt, CABCL titlxw
McSbncb Mbr Frbb i“ thx l“itxw Statxs0—most scix“tists
1mysxly i“cluwxw0 awofft thx matxrialist ffositio“ oy
mxthowological “aturalism, which I takx to mxa“F Liyx is thx
rxsult oy a “atural a“w ffurffosxlxss ffrocxss i“ a systxm oy
matxrial causxs a“w xffxcts that woxs “ot allow, or “xxw,
suffxr“atural yorcxs. I“ my ffublic talks I oytx“ illustratx thx
ffri“cifflx with thx yamous Siw“xy Rarris cartoo“ oy two
scix“tists at a blackboarw fillxw with xfiuatio“s i“ which thx
worws “gRNa A cIRALLN bLLlRS” affffxar i“ thx miwwlx
oy thx mathxmatical sxfiux“cx. ghx cafftio“ has o“x scix“tist
sayi“g to thx othxrF “I gRIaa Ybl aNNM gb BN cbRN
NlcLILIg RNRN Ia SgNc gnb.”
ghis is somxtimxs callxw thx “Vow oy thx gaffs” argumx“t
—whxrxvxr a“ affffarx“t gaff xxists i“ scix“tific k“owlxwgx,
this is whxrx wx i“txrjxct a miraclx yrom Vow as a“
xxffla“atio“. It works somxthi“g likx this, whx“ wxali“g with
cxrtai“ biological yxaturxs oy orga“isms, i“ which “l” may
bx thx xyx or MaA or somx othxr yxaturxF
1 , l looks wxsig“xw.
0 , I ca“’t thi“k oy how l was wxsig“xw “aturally.
, , ghxrxyorx, l was wxsig“xw suffxr“aturally.
ghis yallacy rxmi“ws mx oy thx “ffla“x ffroblxm” oy Isaac
axwto“’s timxF ghx ffla“xts all lix affffroximatxly i“ a ffla“x
1k“ow“ as thx xclifftic0. axwto“ you“w this arra“gxmx“t to
bx so imffrobablx that hx i“vokxw Vow as a“ xxffla“atio“ i“
BrSncSYSa M arRbm arScaF “ghis most bxautiyul systxm oy thx
su“, ffla“xts, a“w comxts coulw o“ly ffrocxxw yrom thx
cou“sxl a“w womi“io“ oy a“ i“txlligx“t a“w ffowxryul Bxi“g.”
Si“cx axwto“’s timx, howxvxr, that gaff has bxx“ fillxw i“
with “atural xxffla“atio“s oy how stars a“w solar systxms
arx yormxw yrom co“wx“si“g clouws oy i“txrstxllar gas i“
which xwwixs oy matxrial co“glomxratx i“to a cx“tral star
1or two, i“ thx casx oy bi“ary stars0 a“w multifflx smallxr
ffla“xts 1aa“t was thx first to ffroffosx this ““xbular
hyffothxsis”0. Lrxatio“ists wo “ot citx this ffroblxm or fiuotx
axwto“ bxcausx thx gaff has “ow bxx“ fillxw i“ with a
“atural xxffla“atio“ by scix“tists.
ghx matxrialism oy mxthowological “aturalism also
bothxrs thx I“txlligx“t Mxsig“ movxmx“t bxcausx oy thxir
wxsirx to i“trowucx suffxr“aturalism i“to thx systxm oy thx
worlw. Oor xxamfflx, i“ his book, D arb Sn ln NrSal 1Rxg“xry
Vatxway cublishi“g Lomffa“y, BEEB0, thx l“ivxrsity oy
Laliyor“ia-Bxrkxlxy law ffroyxssor chilliff N. Joh“so“—o“x oy
thx you“wxrs oy thx I“txlligx“t Mxsig“ movxmx“t—accusxw
scix“tists oy u“yairly wxfi“i“g Vow out oy thx fficturx by
limiti“g thx sxarch to o“ly “atural causxs. Rx chargxw that
scix“tists who ffostulatx that thxrx arx “o“-“atural or
suffxr“atural yorcxs or i“txrvx“tio“s at work i“ thx “atural
worlw arx bxi“g ffushxw out oy thx scix“tific arx“a o“ thx
basis oy “othi“g morx tha“ a yu“wamx“tal rulx oy thx gamx.
Likx you, Joh“so“ a“w his I“txlligx“t Mxsig“ collxaguxs such
as nilliam Mxmbski, caul axlso“, a“w Stxffhx“ cxyxr wa“t
thx rulxs oy thx gamx cha“gxw to allow mxthowological
suffxr“aturalism.
Lxt’s fflay out that scx“ario a“w imagi“x what
mxthowological suffxr“aturalism woulw look likx i“ scix“cx,
a“w how it woulw work. 1I wiw this i“ my book R Rw D arb Sn
M arrbrs rgimxs Books, CAAGs.0 Oor thx sakx oy argumx“t,
lxt’s assumx that I“txlligx“t Mxsig“ thxorists havx
wiscovxrxw a “xw yorcx oy “aturx that accou“ts yor thx
affffarx“t wxsig“ i“ such yxaturxs as thx xyx or MaA. Row
will thxy iwx“tiyy itN nill it bx co“siwxrxw a “xw “atural
yorcx, or a “xw suffxr“atural yorcxN By what critxria will
thxy wiscrimi“atx bxtwxx“ thx “atural a“w thx
suffxr“aturalN Row ca“ o“x txllN
Oor xxamfflx, i“ thx xarly CAth cx“tury, thx British
biologist Julia“ Ruxlxy ffarowixw thx Orx“ch ffhilosoffhxr
Rx“ry Bxrgso“’s yuzzy xxffla“atio“ yor liyx as bxi“g causxw
by a“ hlan aSral 1vital yorcx0, which Ruxlxy saiw was likx
xxfflai“i“g a railroaw stxam x“gi“x as bxi“g wrivx“ by its
hlan llclm lrSc 1locomotivx yorcx0. I“ his book, NRb
Ancbsrlrms Nalb 1Roughto“ ciffli“ Rarcourt, CAAE0, Richarw
Mawki“s xmffloyxw a similar a“alogy to ffarowy I“txlligx“t
Mxsig“ xxffla“atio“s yor liyx. go say that thx xyx or MaA arx
“wxsig“xw” txlls us “othi“g. Scix“tists wa“t to k“ow how
thxy wxrx wxsig“xw, what yorcxs wxrx at work, how thx
ffrocxss oy wxvxloffmx“t u“yolwxw, xtc. Mawki“s imagi“xw a
cou“txryactual history i“ which A“wrxw Ruxlxy a“w Ala“
Rowgki“, wi““xrs oy thx aobxl ffrizx yor figuri“g out thx
molxcular bioffhysics oy thx “xrvx imffulsx, i“ a crxatio“ist
yramx oy mi“w, attributx it i“stxaw to ““xrvous x“xrgy.”
Alo“g thxsx samx li“xs 1i“sffirxw by Mawki“s’s a“alogy,
which I first xmffloyxw i“ my book NRb BblSbaSnd BraSn
rgimxs Books, CABBs0, imagi“x iy Maviw Rubxl a“w gorstx“
nixsxl—wi““xrs oy thx BEFE aobxl crizx yor thxir
ffio“xxri“g rxsxarch i“ brai“ circuitry a“w wxtxrmi“i“g thx
“xurochxmistry oy visio“—haw, i“stxaw oy sffx“wi“g yxars
gxtti“g wow“ to thx cxllular a“w molxcular lxvxl oy
u“wxrsta“wi“g how thx brai“ co“vxrts ffhoto“s oy light i“to
“xural imffulsxs, simffly attributxw thx ffrocxss to a clrcb
m bnralb.
aow sxx hxrx, Rubxl, this busi“xss about how
ffhoto“s oy light arx tra“swucxw i“to “xural
activity is a wrxawyully thor“y ffroblxm. I just
ca“’t u“wxrsta“w how it works, ca“ youN
ao, my wxar nixsxl, I ca“’t, a“w imffla“ti“g
thosx xlxctrowxs i“to mo“kxys’ brai“s is truly
u“fflxasa“t a“w mxssy, a“w I havx thx harwxst
timx gxtti“g thx xlxctrowx i“to thx right sffot.
nhy wo“’t wx just say that thx light is co“vxrtxw
i“to a “xrvx imffulsx by a clrcb m bnralbN
nhat woxs i“voki“g a co“cxfft likx clrcb m bnralb xxfflai“N
aothi“g. It woulw bx likx wxscribi“g your automobilx’s
x“gi“x as offxrati“g by a “combustivx yorcx,” which yails to
caffturx what is actually goi“g o“ i“siwx thx cyli“wxrs oy a“
i“txr“al combustio“ x“gi“xF A ffisto“ comffrxssxs a
vafforous mixturx oy gasoli“x a“w air that is ig“itxw by a
sffark fflug causi“g a“ xxfflosio“ that wrivxs thx ffisto“ wow“
thxrxby tur“i“g a cra“k arm that is co““xctxw to a wrivx
shayt that is li“kxw to a wiffxrx“tial that rotatxs thx whxxls.
Vivi“g somxthi“g a labxl likx ““xrvous x“xrgy,” clrcb
m bnralb, or “combustivx yorcx,” is “ot a“ xxffla“atio“. It is
just a labxl to talk about somxthi“g matxrial that is at work
that wx wa“t to try to u“wxrsta“w with “atural yorcxs.
I“ this sx“sx, thx“—as I’vx mx“tio“xw ma“y timxs i“ my
critifiux oy thxorixs about ffsi, NSc, miraclxs, a“w thx likx—
thxrx is “o such thi“g as thx ffara“ormal or thx
suffxr“atural. ghxsx worws, “ffara“ormal” a“w
“suffxr“atural,” arx ffrxcisxly ffarallxl to ““xrvous x“xrgy”
a“w clrcb m bnralbF just li“guistic fflacxholwxrs to talk about
somxthi“g yor which wx wo “ot as yxt havx a “ormal or
“atural xxffla“atio“.
A“alogously, whx“ cosmologists talk about “wark x“xrgy”
a“w “wark mattxr,” thxy wo“’t mxa“ thosx worws to bx a“
xxffla“atio“, o“ly li“guistic fflacxholwxrs u“til thxy figurx
out what xxactly is causi“g such as-yxt u“solvxw mystxrixs
such as thx rotatio“ oy galaxixs a“w thx accxlxrati“g
xxffa“sio“ oy thx cosmos. nhxrxas cosmologists wo “ot stoff
sxarchi“g yor thx u“wxrlyi“g mxcha“isms oy thx obsxrvxw
ffhx“omx“a just bxcausx thxy havx a labxl, ffara“ormalists
a“w suffxr“aturalists trxat worws likx “ffara“ormal” a“w
“suffxr“atural” as iy thxy wxrx causal xxffla“atio“s. ghxy’rx
“ot.
gur“i“g to your arxa oy rxsxarch, Ruffxrt, iy it tur“xw out
that, say, ffxofflx rxally coulw rxaw othxr ffxofflx’s mi“ws a“w
that thxy wxrx ablx to wo so bxcausx 1Yacb Rogxr cx“rosx’s
a“w Stuart Ramxroff’s thxory0 i“siwx our “xuro“s arx ti“y
microtubulxs i“ which fiua“tum xffxcts haffffx“ that allow
thoughts 1ffattxr“s oy “xural firi“g0 to bx tra“syxrrxw yrom
o“x skull to a“othxr at a“y wista“cx 1likx thx “sffooky actio“
at a wista“cx” xffxcts that fiua“tum ffhysicists havx
mxasurxw i“ xxffxrimx“ts0, that woulw “ot bx NSc or cSI,
a“w wx woulw “ot “xxw to call it a “ffara“ormal” xffxct,
bxcausx wx woulw thx“ k“ow that thx ability to rxaw mi“ws
was wux to thx ffroffxrtixs oy “xuro“s a“w atoms. Iy this
tur“xw out to bx trux 1I’m skxfftical0, this “xw thxory woulw
bx subsumxw u“wxr thx scix“cxs oy “xuroscix“cx a“w6or
fiua“tum ffhysics 1fiua“tum “xuroscix“cxN0 a“w woulw “o
lo“gxr bx stuwixw u“wxr thx umbrxlla oy, say,
ffaraffsychology.
ghis is “ot a “xw ffroblxm. Scix“tists a“w ffhilosoffhxrs oy
scix“cx havx lo“g strugglxw with wxfi“i“g what co“stitutxs
lxgitimatx scix“tific k“owlxwgx, a“w “o lxss a mi“w tha“ thx
grxat British astro“omxr Sir Arthur Sta“lxy Nwwi“gto“
chimxw i“ o“ thx wxbatx i“ his BEDE classic work NRb
BRSllslYRw lc BRwsScal McSbncb 1rxcall that it was Nwwi“gto“
who succxssyully txstxw Ni“stxi“’s thxory oy rxlativity by
mxasuri“g thx bx“wi“g oy starlight by thx su“ wuri“g a
solar xcliffsx i“ BEBE0. Nwwi“gto“ mawx this a“alogy that I
usx i“ my critical thi“ki“g coursx 1a“w i“ my book R Rw
BblYlb BblSbab RbSra NRSnds rcJO Books, BEEHs0, which I
thi“k has somx rxlxva“cx to our wiscussio“ o“ thx “aturx oy
scix“cxF
Lxt us suffffosx that a“ ichthyologist is
xxfflori“g thx liyx oy thx ocxa“. Rx casts a “xt
i“to thx watxr a“w bri“gs uff a fishy assortmx“t.
Survxyi“g his catch, hx ffrocxxws i“ thx usual
ma““xr oy a scix“tist to systxmatizx what it
rxvxals. Rx arrivxs at two gx“xralizatio“sF
B. ao sxa-crxaturx is lxss tha“ two i“chxs
lo“g.
C. All sxa-crxaturxs havx gills.
... I“ afffflyi“g this a“alogy, thx catch sta“ws
yor thx bowy oy k“owlxwgx which co“stitutxs
ffhysical scix“cx, a“w thx “xt yor thx sx“sory
a“w i“txllxctual xfiuiffmx“t which wx usx i“
obtai“i“g it. ghx casti“g oy thx “xt corrxsffo“ws
to obsxrvatio“ ...
A“ o“lookxr may objxct that thx first
gx“xralizatio“ is wro“g. “ghxrx arx fflx“ty oy
sxa-crxaturxs u“wxr two i“chxs lo“g, o“ly your
“xt is “ot awafftxw to catch thxm.” ghx
ichthyologist wismissxs this objxctio“
co“txmfftuously. “A“ythi“g u“catchablx by my
“xt is SYsl cacrl outsiwx thx scoffx oy
ichthyological k“owlxwgx.” I“ short, “what my
“xt ca“’t catch is“’t fish.”
Nxtx“wi“g thx a“alogy bxyo“w thx ffhysical scix“cxs to all
fixlws, rxgarwlxss oy what yorcxs may bx at work i“ our
worlw, iy thxy ca“ bx mxasurxw by our scix“tific i“strumx“ts
1or by our sx“sxs0, thx“ by wxfi“itio“ thxy must bx “atural
yorcxs 1rxgarwlxss oy what you call thxm0. I“ othxr worws,
what our sx“sxs a“w scix“tific “xts catch arx “atural fish.
Latxr, wx will bx wiscussi“g Vow, but i“ this co“txxt, lxt
mx “otx that iy o“x wxrx to argux that Vow xxists outsiwx oy
our worlw 1or outsiwx oy thx u“ivxrsx, or outsiwx oy “aturx0,
a“w that Vow’s yorcxs arx “o“-“atural 1or suffxr“atural0 a“w
thxy ca“ still affxct thx worlw but i“ a “o“-mxasurablx way
1bxcausx our scix“tific “xts o“ly catch “atural fish0, thx“
what’s thx wiffxrx“cx bxtwxx“ a“ i“visiblx Vow a“w a
“o“xxistx“t VowN
A“w iy Vow 1or somx crxativx yorcx—it “xxw “ot bx thx
crxator Juwxo-Lhristia“-cuslim Vow0 xxists outsiwx oy
“aturx, but ffxriowically rxachxs i“to our worlw to cha“gx it
i“ somx ma““xr 1such as a“swxri“g ffrayxrs or ffxryormi“g
miraclxs0, thx“, i“ ffri“cifflx, thxrx shoulw bx somx way to
mxasurx such xffxcts 1x.g., ffatix“ts who arx ffrayxw yor hxal
yastxr, or a ffhysically imffossiblx yxat occurs, such as thx
rxgrowth oy a“ amffutatxw huma“ limb0 a“w wxwucx that
thx sourcx oy thx xffxcts is outsiwx oy all k“ow“ “atural
yorcxs. I“ that casx, i“ ffri“cifflx, such a Vow 1or yorcx0
woulw simffly bxcomx ffart oy thx “atural worlw 1at lxast
whx“ Rx6Shx6It offxratxs o“ it0.
ghus, it sxxms to mx that o“cx wx havx carxyully wxfi“xw
our txrms, it is clxar that thxrx rxally is o“ly thx matxrial
worlw, mxthowological “aturalism is thx o“ly mxa“s to
u“wxrsta“w it, a“w scix“cx is thx o“ly yorm oy rxliablx
k“owlxwgx that wx havx.
—M ScRabl
Rbs Rra I lRldranR RRss r nds
Mxar cichaxl,
I agrxx with you that scix“cx is “ot about thx suffxr“atural.
Iy thi“gs ca“ bx i“vxstigatxw by thx “atural scix“cxs, thxy
arx ffart oy “aturx. I suffffort thx ffri“cifflx oy mxthowological
“aturalism, a“w i“ my ow“ rxsxarch havx always workxw
withi“ it.
I“ rxlatio“ to ffsychic ffhx“omx“a, likx you, I havx lo“g
arguxw that iy thxy occur 1which I thi“k thxy wo0, thxy arx
“atural, “ot suffxr“aturalL “ormal “ot ffara“ormal. I also
co“siwxr morffhic rxso“a“cx—which I suggxst u“wxrlixs
mxmory i“ “aturx—to bx “ormal, “ot ffara“ormalL “atural,
“ot suffxr“atural.
Also, likx you, I’m agai“st thx co“cxfft oy i“txlligx“t
wxsig“, but yor wiffxrx“t rxaso“s. I thi“k thx worw “wxsig“”
has mislxawi“g mxcha“istic imfflicatio“s. ghx olw vxrsio“ oy
i“txlligx“t wxsig“ was that Vow was outsiwx oy “aturx, a“w
wxsig“xw thx machi“xry oy thx worlw, likx a“ x“gi“xxr
wxsig“i“g a machi“x, or a watchmakxr wxsig“i“g a watch.
go say that livi“g orga“isms arx “wxsig“xw” imfflixs that
thxy arx comfflxx machi“xs. axw vxrsio“s oy i“txlligx“t
wxsig“ arx subtlxr, but still imffly that livi“g orga“isms arx
machi“xs, a“w that thxir comfflxxity is wxsig“xw by a
suffxr“atural mi“w or mi“ws outsiwx “aturx. I agrxx with
awvocatxs oy i“txlligx“t wxsig“ i“ thi“ki“g that xvolutio“ary
crxativity goxs bxyo“w bli“w cha“cx, but I sxx livi“g
orga“isms as orga“isms, “ot machi“xs, a“w I thi“k that
crxativity is i“hxrx“t i“ “aturx, rathxr tha“ bxi“g imffosxw
uffo“ it yrom outsiwx.
I also agrxx with you i“ rxjxcti“g “Vow oy thx gaffs”
argumx“ts yor thx xxistx“cx oy Vow. nx will rxtur“ to a
wiscussio“ oy Vow i“ our thirw wialogux. But, u“likx you, I
am skxfftical oy “matxrialism oy thx gaffs” argumx“ts.
I“stxaw oy i“voki“g Vow, ma“y matxrialists try to solvx
ffroblxms by maki“g scix“tific ffromisxs. Oor xxamfflxF
• “nx wo “ot yxt yully u“wxrsta“w how gx“xs ffrogram
thx wxvxloffmx“t oy a“imals a“w ffla“ts, but i“ thx light
oy thx sffxctacular awva“cxs oy molxcular biology a“w
vastly imffrovxw comffutxr mowxlli“g txch“ifiuxs, wx
soo“ will.”
• “nx wo “ot yxt k“ow thx wxtailxw mxcha“isms whxrxby
thx brai“ is ffrogrammxw to ffrowucx co“scious“xss,
but with thx sffxctacular awva“cxs i“ brai“ imagi“g
txch“ifiuxs, raffiw awva“cxs i“ our u“wxrsta“wi“g arx
immi“x“t.”
Nmffty ffhrasxs such as “gx“xtic ffrograms” a“w “brai“
mxcha“isms” arx usxw to xxfflai“ almost xvxrythi“g. ghxy
imffly that thx a“swxrs arx k“ow“ i“ ffri“cifflx, lxavi“g o“ly
thx wxtails to bx workxw out, with thx a“swxrs o“ly a yxw
yxars 1or wxcawxs0 away. Lommittxw matxrialists arx
committxw ffrxcisxly bxcausx thxy bxlixvx that matxrialistic
xxffla“atio“s will bx you“w i“ thx yuturx. ghxy ffut thxir trust
i“ what thxy hoffx yor—i“ what is “ot yxt k“ow“. ghx
ffhilosoffhxr oy scix“cx aarl coffffxr callxw this attituwx
“ffromissory matxrialism,” bxcausx it i“volvxs issui“g
u“watxw ffromissory “otxs yor yuturx wiscovxrixs.
cromissory matxrialism is a yaith.
I“ thx BEth cx“tury, matxrialism sxxmxw fiuitx
straightyorwarw. blw-stylx matxrialists thought that mattxr
was mawx uff oy harw, x“wuri“g stuff, with atoms likx littlx
billiarw balls, ffushxw arou“w by k“ow“ yorms oy x“xrgy. But
thx “aturx oy ffhysical rxality—which matxrialists thi“k oy as
thx o“ly rxality—is much morx ffroblxmatic toway. dua“tum
thxory has wissolvxw mattxr i“to vibratory ffattxr“s oy
activity withi“ fixlws. A“w most cosmologists a“w
astro“omxrs bxlixvx that about EG ffxrcx“t oy thx u“ivxrsx
is mawx uff oy wark mattxr a“w wark x“xrgy, whosx “aturx is
litxrally obscurx. ghxsx “amxs may bx fflacxholwxrs, but
what thxy mxa“ is that EG ffxrcx“t oy what matxrialists or
ffhysicalists bxlixvx i“ is u“k“ow“. Row ca“ wx bx surx that
wark mattxr a“w wark x“xrgy—thx basis yor thx xxistx“cx oy
galaxixs a“w thx xvolutio“ oy thx u“ivxrsx—arx comfflxtxly
mi“wlxss a“w u“co“sciousN
ghx most i“txrxsti“g co“txmfforary wxbatx withi“ thx
matxrialist commu“ity is bxtwxx“ co“sxrvativx matxrialists
—amo“g whom I thi“k you, cichaxl, arx “umbxrxw—a“w
a“imistic matxrialists, who ffroffosx that thxrx arx mi“w-likx
ffroffxrtixs throughout thx “atural worlw, xvx“ i“ xlxctro“s.
As you k“ow, this ffositio“ is usually callxw “ffa“ffsychism”
1yrom thx Vrxxk worws Yan r“all” or “xvxrythi“g”s a“w
YswcRj r“soul”s—mxa“i“g “all or xvxrythi“g is soul”0. Oor
xxamfflx, thx ffhilosoffhxr Valx“ Strawso“ arguxs that
matxrialism itsxly imfflixs ffa“ffsychism. Rx is a ffa“ffsychist,
but still thi“ks oy himsxly as a matxrialist or ffhysicalist. ghx
“xuroscix“tist Lhristoy aoch has rxcx“tly comx to thx
co“clusio“ that a vxrsio“ oy ffa“ffsychism mowifixw yor thx
CBst cx“tury is “thx si“glx most xlxga“t a“w ffarsimo“ious
xxffla“atio“ yor thx u“ivxrsx.” ghx ffhilosoffhxr ghomas
aagxl, i“ his book M Sna ana Clsm ls 1bxyorw l“ivxrsity
crxss, CABC0, is a“othxr xmi“x“t ffroffo“x“t oy thx iwxa that
thxrx is ffsychx or mi“w throughout “aturx. ao“x oy thxsx
ffa“ffsychists ffroffosxs that ffsychxs or mi“ws arx
suffxr“atural, but rathxr that thxy arx asffxcts oy “aturx. I
agrxx with thxm.
I mysxly thi“k that ffart oy thx mx“tal asffxct oy “aturx is
mxmory. cy ow“ ffarticular hyffothxsis is that mxmory
wxffx“ws o“ thx ffrocxss I call morffhic rxso“a“cx, a“
i“flux“cx oy similar ffattxr“s oy activity o“ subsxfiux“t
similar ffattxr“s oy activity, rxso“ati“g through or across
sffacx a“w timx. ghis rxso“a“cx occurs i“ sxly-orga“izi“g
systxms, which i“cluwx molxculxs, crystals, ffla“ts, a“imals,
social grouffs, ffla“xts, solar systxms, a“w galaxixs. Similar
sxly-orga“izi“g ffattxr“s oy activity rxso“atx across timx,
yrom thx ffast to thx ffrxsx“t. Nach sffxcixs has a ki“w oy
collxctivx mxmory. Nvxry i“wiviwual both taffs i“to this
collxctivx mxmory a“w co“tributxs to it. By co“trast,
huma“-mawx objxcts likx chairs, or cars, comffutxrs, a“w
othxr machi“xs arx “ot sxly-orga“izi“g. ghxy arx wxsig“xw
a“w mawx by ffxofflx, or through comffutxr ffrograms
wxsig“xw by huma“ comffutxr ffrogrammxrs. ghxy arx “ot
subjxct to morffhic rxso“a“cx yrom ffast chairs, cars, xtc.,
although thx molxculxs a“w crystals withi“ thxm arx.
corffhic rxso“a“cx is a hyffothxsis, “ot a“ accxfftxw
scix“tific yact. But thx ffrogrxss oy scix“cx wxffx“ws o“
xxfflori“g hyffothxsxs, a“w txsti“g thxm xmffirically. ghx
hyffothxsis oy morffhic rxso“a“cx lxaws to ma“y txstablx
ffrxwictio“s. Oor xxamfflx, iy rats lxar“ a “xw trick i“ axw
York, rats i“ Lo“wo“ a“w Syw“xy shoulw lxar“ thx samx
trick fiuickxr, xvx“ i“ thx absx“cx oy a“y co“vx“tio“al
mxa“s oy commu“icatio“. ghxrx is alrxawy xviwx“cx that
this xffxct occurs. ghxrx arx ma“y othxr li“xs oy xviwx“cx
that sxxm to suffffort this hyffothxsis, as summarizxw i“ thx
thirw xwitio“ oy my book A N bb McSbncb lc L Scb 1Ico“ Books,
CAAEL rxtitlxw M lrYRSc Lbslnancb i“ thx l“itxw Statxs
rcark Strxxt crxss, Rochxstxr mg, CAAEs0. I havx also
suggxstxw sxvxral “xw txsts i“ thx rxalms oy low
txmffxraturx ffhysics, crystallograffhy, wxvxloffmx“tal
biology, a“imal bxhavior, a“w huma“ ffsychology. I“ biology,
this hyffothxsis imfflixs that thx i“hxrita“cx oy yorm a“w
bxhavior wxffx“ws largxly o“ morffhic rxso“a“cx, rathxr
tha“ o“ gx“xs, which cowx yor thx sxfiux“cx oy ami“o aciws
i“ ffrotxi“s. Vx“xs arx “ot “ffrograms” yor wxvxloffmx“t or
yor i“sti“cts. I“wxxw, it tur“s out that about HA ffxrcx“t oy
huma“ hxritability is “ot xxfflicablx i“ txrms oy gx“xs. ghis
is callxw thx “missi“g hxritability ffroblxm.”
b“x oy thx most striki“g imfflicatio“s oy morffhic
rxso“a“cx co“cxr“s mxmory. corffhic rxso“a“cx wxffx“ws
o“ similarity. ghx grxatxr thx similarity, thx stro“gxr thx
rxso“a“cx. ghi“k about yoursxly. nhich orga“ism i“ thx
ffast was most similar to youN Surxly you yoursxly( Sxly-
rxso“a“cx is thx most ffowxryul rxso“a“cx worki“g o“ a“y
sxly-orga“izi“g systxm. I“ livi“g orga“isms, sxly-rxso“a“cx
hxlffs mai“tai“ thxir yorm, xvx“ though thx chxmicals a“w
cxlls withi“ thxm arx co“ti“ually tur“xw ovxr a“w rxfflacxw.
I“ thx rxalms oy lxar“i“g a“w mx“tal activity, sxly-
rxso“a“cx u“wxrlixs mxmory. I“ othxr worws, mxmorixs
may “ot bx storxw i“ brai“s. Brai“s may bx morx likx gm
rxcxivxrs tha“ viwxo rxcorwxrs. gm rxcxivxrs tu“x i“ to
i“visiblx rxso“a“cxs across sffacx, tra“smittxw through
i“visiblx rawio wavxs. Your mxmorixs may wxffx“w o“ a
rxso“a“cx with yoursxly i“ thx ffast, tra“smittxw across timx
by morffhic rxso“a“cx. ghx sta“warw assumfftio“ is, oy
coursx, that mxmorixs arx storxw as matxrial tracxs i“siwx
brai“s. But aytxr BAA yxars oy i“tx“sivx rxsxarch, thxsx
tracxs havx ffrovxw xxtraorwi“arily xlusivx, ffxrhaffs
bxcausx thxy arx “ot thxrx. Iy I camx to your housx a“w
a“alyzxw thx wirxs a“w tra“sistors oy your gm sxt to try a“w
fi“w out what you wxrx watchi“g last wxxk, I woulw bx
wisaffffoi“txwL I woulw fi“w “o matxrial tracxs.
But woxs“’t thx yact that brai“ wamagx ca“ lxaw to loss oy
mxmory ffrovx that mxmorixs arx storxw i“ brai“sN ao. It
o“ly shows that ffroffxrly yu“ctio“i“g brai“s arx “xcxssary
yor thx rxtrixval oy mxmorixs. Mamagx to a gm sxt ca“ lxaw
to cha“gxs i“ thx sou“ws or thx fficturxs, but this woxs “ot
ffrovx that what you arx sxxi“g a“w hxari“g is storxw i“siwx
thx sxt.
I suffffosx that, i“ thx x“w, most oy our wisagrxxmx“ts
about scix“cx comx wow“ to our wiffxrx“t agx“was. I am a
rxsxarch scix“tist, a“w I likx xxfflori“g “xw ffossibilitixs. You
arx a lxawxr oy thx orga“izxw skxfftic movxmx“t, ma“y oy
whosx mxmbxrs arx co“sxrvativx matxrialists, wxwicatxw to
mai“tai“i“g matxrialist law a“w orwxr, ffatrolli“g thx
yro“tixrs oy scix“cx, a“w ri“gi“g alarm bxlls. ghxsx
wiffxrx“cxs wiviwx us. But what may bri“g us closxr is a
bxlixy i“ yrxx i“fiuiry. I was i“txrxstxw to rxaw i“ your
ghxBxstSchools. org i“txrvixw about your libxrtaria“
symffathixs, which ffrxsumably i“cluwx a bxlixy i“ thx
yrxxwom oy thx scix“cxs yrom authoritaria“ism a“w wogma.
lL sYbrr
M mclaRl I lRrY Rr RRs lmRs
Mxar Ruffxrt,
I“ rxsffo“sx to your sxco“w lxttxr, a“w your ffoi“t about
sxxi“g livi“g orga“isms as “orga“isms, “ot machi“xs,”
agai“, I askF nhy ca“’t thxy bx bothN A“ orga“ism is a livi“g
machi“x, a“w a comfflxx x“ough machi“x ca“ bxcomx a
livi“g orga“ism( croffo“x“ts oy Artificial I“txlligx“cx 1AI0
woulw likxly agrxx yor yuturx machi“xs that rxach a cxrtai“
lxvxl oy i“txlligx“cx—thx si“gularity, say—at which ffoi“t
thxsx machi“xs will bx i“wisti“guishablx yrom livi“g
orga“isms i“ thxir actio“s a“w cog“itio“s, xvx“ though wx
coulw liyt thx hoow a“w sxx that thxy arx just comfflxx
machi“xs. So wx’rx rxally talki“g about abdrbbs lc
clm YlbcSrw hxrx, a“w at somx ffoi“t a machi“x ca“ bxcomx
so comfflxx that it affffxars yor all i“tx“ts a“w ffurffosxs to bx
alivx a“w orga“ic, as our i“tuitio“s u“wxrsta“w thosx
co“cxffts. 1A“w yuturx AI will yorcx us to rxvisx thosx
i“tuitio“s, alo“g with our lxgal a“w moral systxms about
what co“stitutxs a sx“tix“t bxi“g wxsxrvi“g oy rights a“w
ffxrso“hoow.0
aow, wx both agrxx that thxsx comfflxx orga“ic machi“xs
wxrx “ot wxsig“xw yrom thx toff wow“ 1or yrom thx outsiwx
by a“ i“txlligx“t wxsig“xr0, so thx ffroblxm to xxfflai“ is thx
sourcx oy thx comfflxxity, thx crxativx sffark bxhi“w thx
comfflxx wxsig“. Stxffhx“ Rawki“g o“cx yamously askxw,
“nhat is it that brxathxs firx i“to thx xfiuatio“sN” A“w hx
xfiually yamously a“swxrxw ““o o“x”—thx u“ivxrsx comxs
xfiuiffffxw with firx alrxawy built i“to thx xfiuatio“s. You a“w
I sxxm to agrxx that thxrx is “o “who” o“ thx outsiwx
brxathi“g liyx i“to i“orga“ic mattxr, so thx a“swxr to thx
fiuxstio“ about thx sourcx oy liyx’s firx must comx yrom
withi“.
You argux that “crxativity is i“hxrx“t i“ “aturx.” I agrxx,
iy by crxativity you mxa“ that cxrtai“ laws oy “aturx—i“
ffarticular thosx laws govxr“i“g biology, xmbryology,
xffigx“xtics, gx“xtics, xtc.—lxaw orga“isms to u“yolw
xmbryologically yrom a ti“y clustxr oy cxlls i“to a yull-
flxwgxw orga“ism 1x.g., a mammal0, a“w yor sffxcixs to
xvolvx yrom simfflx to comfflxx 1a“w xvx“ yor thx xvolutio“ oy
xvolvability0. ghat is, i“hxrx“t i“ what Aristotlx callxw thx
“fi“al causx” oy a thi“g 1i“ this casx, a“ orga“ism0 is what it
is, by “aturx, wxsti“xw to bx—a sxxw to bxcomx a ffla“t, a
huma“ xmbryo a huma“ bxi“g—u“wxr thx right co“witio“s.
Just as a star is wxsti“xw to co“vxrt hywrogx“ i“to hxlium
u“wxr thx right co“witio“s oy hxat a“w ffrxssurx, a sxxw or
a“ xmbryo must bxcomx a ffla“t or huma“ u“wxr thx right
co“witio“s that allow thx ffrocxssxs oy gx“xtics, xffigx“xtics,
xmbryological wxvxloffmx“t, a“w thx likx to u“yolw as thxy
arx wxsti“xw to wo by thx laws govxr“i“g thx actio“s oy thxir
molxculxs.
As you k“ow, thx grxat Vxrma“ ffhilosoffhxr a“w writxr
Voxthx wxvxloffxw a biological thxory oy morffhology 1hx
i“vx“txw thx worw(0 basxw o“ thx yormalist iwxa that thx
wiwx wivxrsity oy ffla“t a“w a“imal comfflxxity ca“ bx
rxwucxw to si“glx archxtyffxs or yorms—a “lxaflikx” yorm yor
lxavxs, yor xxamfflx. But Voxthx’s yormalist morffhological
thxory “xvxr ffa““xw out bxcausx “o u“wxrlyi“g mxcha“ism
to wrivx it was xvxr you“w, much lxss thx sourcx oy thx
archxtyffx i“ thx first fflacx. Marwi“’s gx“ius was to tur“
this thxory o“ its hxaw by showi“g how all currx“t yorms
arx wxrivxw yrom ffrior yorms, mowifixw by “atural sxlxctio“
to bx awafftivx to currx“t x“viro“mx“ts. ghus, thx
“archxtyffx” oy our arms a“w ha“ws—thx txtraffow yorxlimb
with a humxrus, ul“a, a“w rawius, a“w carffals, mxtacarffals,
a“w ffhala“gxs bo“xs—xvolvxw i“ fish DHF millio“ yxars ago
as a“ awafftatio“ yor tra“sitio“i“g yrom thx watxr o“to thx
la“w 1amffhibia“s0, most yamously i“ thx NSgraalSg yossil
wiscovxrxw by axil Shubi“ i“ CAAE. A“w yossils bxyorx a“w
aytxr that tyffx 1“tra“sitio“al yossils”0 show “o “archxtyffx”
at all, o“ly local awafftatio“s to local x“viro“mx“ts all thx
way back a“w yorwarw yrom that ffarticular tyffx.
So wx alrxawy havx a ffurxly matxrialist xxffla“atio“ yor
thx wivxrsity oy tyffxs i“ “aturx without thx “xxw to i“vokx
thx “mxmory” oy yorms 1i“ your thxory0 that guiwx
molxculxs towarw thxm 1iy I’m u“wxrsta“wi“g your thxory
corrxctly0, but iy you arx right i“ your claim that “gx“xtic
ffrograms” wo “ot xxfflai“ yorms, bowy tyffxs, a“atomy, or
ffhysiology, thx“ I havx thrxx fiuxstio“sF
1 , nhat wo you thi“k MaA is yor a“w what is it woi“g, iy
“ot what gx“xticists thi“k it is woi“gN
0 , nhxrx is thx “mxmory” yor yorms 1say, thx txtraffow
yorxlimb0 storxwN
, , Row woxs this mxmory act o“ ffhysical systxms, such
as thx molxculxs that makx uff cxlls or orga“s or 1i“
kxxffi“g with my xxamfflx0 txtraffow yorxlimbsN
I thi“k thx rxaso“ your thxory oy morffhic rxso“a“cx has “ot
gai“xw accxffta“cx withi“ thx scix“tific commu“ity is thx
samx as why Voxthx’s yormalist thxory oy morffhology “xvxr
succxxwxwF I“ scix“cx, wx “xxw both thxory a“w
mxcha“ism. Alyrxw nxgx“xr haw a thxory oy wriyti“g
co“ti“x“ts but “o mxcha“ism that coulw wrivx fflatxs arou“w
thx globx. b“cx that mxcha“ism was you“w i“ thx BEGAs i“
thx yorm oy fflatx txcto“ics, thx thxory gai“xw accxffta“cx.
It’s trux that Marwi“ wiw“’t havx a“ u“wxrsta“wi“g oy
gx“xtics as a mxcha“ism yor “atural sxlxctio“, but thx
xviwx“cx yor his thxory was so ovxrwhxlmi“g yrom so ma“y
wiffxrx“t li“xs oy i“fiuiry that it gai“xw accxffta“cx wxsffitx
this shortcomi“g. A“w, oy coursx, aytxr BEFD, gx“xtics
sy“thxsizxw thx thxory oy xvolutio“ i“to thx yully maturx
scix“cx it is toway.
Oor your thxory to yollow a similar trajxctory, you woulw
“xxw toF
1 , croviwx morx rxliablx a“w co“sistx“t 1i.x., rxfflicablx0
xviwx“cx that such mxmory i“ “aturx xxistsL
0 , Nxfflai“ whxrx this mxmory is storxw 1i.x., what’s thx
mxcha“ism oy storagx0L a“w
, , Nxfflai“ how morffhic mxmorixs affxct ffhysical
systxms 1x.g., molxculxs0.
Iy you wxrx ablx to wo thxsx thi“gs, thx“ I a“w most
xvxryo“x xlsx i“ scix“cx woulw cha“gx our mi“ws a“w
accxfft your thxory.
l“til thx“, it is rxaso“ablx to bx skxfftical.
lM ScRabl
VFRJ 0
M EN J FL FHJ NON FJ F I NI J FN HE
Mr. Shxrmxr arguxs that ffsychic or ffsi ffhx“omx“a arx
artiyacts oy ffoor xxffxrimx“tal ffrocxwurx or outright yrauwL
“o co“vi“ci“g xviwx“cx or xxffxrimx“ts suffffort thxir rxality.
Mr. Shxlwrakx wxyx“ws thx ffositio“ that txlxffathy, NSc,
a“w ffsychic6ffsi ffhx“omx“a i“ gx“xral arx rxal a“w backxw
uff by co“vi“ci“g xviwx“cxL thxir i“vxstigatio“ wxsxrvxs to
bx ffart oy scix“cx.
Hlas aRr ,
M mclaRl I lRrY Rrhs O s Rnmng I aaaRY Rna
Mxar Ruffxrt,
As a ffrécis to our sxco“w subjxct oy “cx“tal Actio“ at a
Mista“cx,” allow mx to rxsffo“w to sxvxral ffoi“ts i“ your
thirw lxttxr as thxy sxt thx stagx yor what is to comx.
Oirst, throughout our wialogux you havx mx“tio“xw
sxvxral timxs my “libxrtaria“” ffxrsffxctivx, which you
ffrxsumx to mxa“ that I shoulw bx offx“ mi“wxw to iwxas
outsiwx thx mai“strxam oy scix“cx, such as your ow“. I“ thx
worws oy I“igo co“toya 1i“ thx film NRb BrSncbss BrSab0,
“You kxxff usi“g that worw. I wo “ot thi“k it mxa“s what you
thi“k it mxa“s.” b“ this siwx oy thx ffo“w, libxrtaria“ is a
ffolitical ffositio“ affiliatxw with i“wiviwual rights a“w small
govxr“mx“tL libxrtaria“s tx“w to bx socially libxral a“w
fiscally co“sxrvativx. Libxrtaria“ism has “othi“g to wo with
offx“ mi“wxw“xss as a yxaturx oy huma“ cog“itio“, “or with
thx “libxrtaria“” ffositio“ i“ thx yrxx will-wxtxrmi“ism
wxbatx.
Sxco“w, you rxyxrx“cx ma“y ffxofflx i“ co“trawisti“ctio“
to my ffositio“s. b“ thx yrxx will6 wxtxrmi“ist issux, yor
xxamfflx, you “otx that my yrix“w Sam Rarris is a
wxtxrmi“ist. So whatN cy yrix“w Ma“ Mx““xtt is a
comffatibilist 1as is my yrix“w Stxvx ci“kxr0. ghx argumx“t
yrom authority i“ xithxr wirxctio“ is yallacious. I’vx carvxw
out my ow“ ffositio“ o“ yrxx will i“ NRb M lral ArcF that o“x
ca“ bx a scix“tific matxrialist a“w still bxlixvx i“ huma“
volitio“, which you yailxw to rxyutx.
ghirw, you citx my yrix“w Lawrx“cx arauss as a rxyutatio“
to my claim that “laws oy “aturx” arx just wxscrifftio“s oy
rxgularitixs i“ “aturx. b“cx agai“, this is “ot a“ argumx“t
agai“st my ffositio“, “or wiw you wxyx“w your ow“
1ffrxsumably cou“txr0 ffositio“. I“ likx ma““xr you citx Joh“
Vray’s wxfi“itio“ oy huma“ism as a “rxligio“,” a“w yrom this
you assxrt that athxism, matxrialism, a“w “xo-Marwi“ism
arx i“ co“flict with this “yaith.” nho carxs how Joh“ Vray
wxfi“xs huma“ismN Rx woxs“’t sffxak yor huma“ists, most oy
whom arx athxists, matxrialists, a“w “xo-Marwi“ia“s, a“w i“
a“y casx, this is “ot a cou“txr-argumx“t to my ffositio“, just
a“ argumx“t yrom authority. nhat cou“ts arx argumx“ts
“ot authoritixs. Oor xxamfflx, I ffrxsx“txw argumx“ts a“w
challx“gxs to your thxory oy morffhic rxso“a“cx, which I
hoffx you will awwrxss, most “otablyF
1 , nhxrx is thx “mxmory” yor morffhic yorms storxw
1x.g., thx txtraffow yorxlimb0N
0 , Row woxs this mxmory act o“ ffhysical systxms, such
as thx molxculxs that makx uff cxlls or orga“s or 1i“
kxxffi“g with my xxamfflx0 txtraffow yorxlimbsN
, , croviwx rxliablx a“w co“sistx“t 1i.x., rxfflicablx0
xviwx“cx that such mxmory i“ “aturx xxists.
As wxll, skxfftics arx “ot “crusawxrs … fighti“g agai“st
i“fiwxls a“w hxrxtics.” nx’rx critical thi“kxrs afffflyi“g
scix“cx a“w rxaso“ to a“y a“w all claims. You, yor xxamfflx,
arx a skxfftic oy thx matxrialist-wxtxrmi“ist-rxwuctio“ist
ffarawigm i“ scix“cx, but that woxs“’t makx mai“strxam
scix“tists i“fiwxls a“w hxrxtics( brga“izxw skxfftical
movxmx“ts that havx sffo“ta“xously xmxrgxw arou“w thx
worlw arx i“txrxstxw i“ u“wxrsta“wi“g a“w xxfflai“i“g
ffhx“omx“a o“ thx borwxrla“ws oy scix“cx 1x.g., NSc0,
ffrimarily bxcausx most scix“tists arx too busy worki“g i“
thxir ow“ fixlws to wxvotx thx “xcxssary timx to ffroffxrly
a“alyzx thxsx claims. nx’rx “ot closxw-mi“wxw so much as
co“sxrvativx 1cog“itivxly, “ot ffolitically0 i“ offxri“g our
ffrovisio“al assx“t that a claim is yactually trux. ghx rxaso“
yor this cautious“xss is that most claims ffxofflx makx arx
“ot trux. ghx history oy scix“cx is littxrxw with yailxw
hyffothxsis. Oor xvxry Valilxo whosx iwxas wxrx bor“x out
by thx wata a“w whosx thxorixs cha“gxw thx worlw, thxrx
arx thousa“ws oy scholars a“w scix“tists whosx co“jxcturxs
a“w sffxculatio“s yailxw to gx“xratx a“y suffffortivx
xviwx“cx.
Likx most scix“tists, wx skxfftics assumx thx nsll
RwYlrRbsSs that a claim u“wxr i“vxstigatio“ is “ot trux 1“ull0
u“til ffrovx“ othxrwisx, a“w thx burwx“ oy ffrooy is o“ you to
ffroviwx co“vi“ci“g xxffxrimx“tal wata to rxjxct thx “ull
hyffothxsis. A“w this bri“gs mx to thx toffic oy our sxco“w
sxt oy xxcha“gxs about mx“tal actio“ at a wista“cx. gakx
NSc a“w a simfflx xxamfflx I xmffloyxw i“ my book NRb
BblSbaSnd BraSn- Frlm G Rlsrs rl G las rl BllSrScs ana
ClnsYSracSbslH lb Rb Clnsrrscr BblSbcs ana LbSnclrcb
NRbm as NrsrRs 1gimxs Books, CABB0F wxtxrmi“i“g through
xxtra-sx“sory mxa“s whxthxr a fflayi“g carw ra“womly
sxlxctxw yrom a wxck is rxw or black. ghx “ull hyffothxsis is
that it is “ot ffossiblx to wo this a“w thus to rxjxct thx “ull
hyffothxsis wx woulw “xxw to xstablish a figurx yor thx
“umbxr oy corrxct hits. By cha“cx, wx woulw xxffxct a txst
subjxct to gxt about haly corrxct. I“ a wxck oy FC carws, haly
oy which arx rxw a“w haly oy which arx black, ra“wom
guxssi“g or fliffffi“g a coi“ will ffrowucx, o“ avxragx, CG
corrxct hits. by coursx, as gamblxrs k“ow, thxrx arx strxaks
a“w wxviatio“s yrom ffxryxct symmxtry. ghx roll oy a roulxttx
whxxl will “ot ffrowucx a ffxryxct rxw-black-rxw-black
sxfiux“cx. gyffically, strxaks oy rxw a“w black tur“ uff, oytx“
morx oy o“x tha“ thx othxr i“ a“y givx“ limitxw sxfiux“cx,
without a“y violatio“ oy thx laws oy ffrobability.
So yor a ffroffxr txst, wx “xxw to ru“ multifflx trials i“
which somx rou“ws may rxsult i“ slightly bxlow cha“cx
1x.g., CC, CD, CE, or CF hits0 a“w othxr rou“ws may rxsult i“
slightly abovx cha“cx 1x.g., CH, CI, CE, or DA hits0. ghx
variatio“ may bx xvx“ grxatxr a“w still wux to cha“cx. nhat
wx “xxw to wxtxrmi“x is thx “umbxr by which wx ca“
co“fiwx“tly rxjxct thx “ull hyffothxsis. I“ this xxamfflx, that
“umbxr is DF. ghx subjxct woulw “xxw to gxt DF corrxct hits
out oy a FC-carw wxck i“ orwxr yor us to rxjxct thx “ull
hyffothxsis at thx EE ffxrcx“t co“fiwx“cx lxvxl. Nvx“ though
DF out oy FC woxs“’t sou“w likx it woulw bx that harw to gxt,
by cha“cx alo“x it woulw bx so u“usual that wx coulw
co“fiwx“tly statx 1“at thx EE ffxrcx“t co“fiwx“cx lxvxl”0 that
somxthi“g xlsx bxsiwxs cha“cx was goi“g o“ hxrx.
nhat might that somxthi“g xlsx bxN It coulw bx NSc. But
it coulw bx somxthi“g xlsx as wxll. cxrhaffs our co“trols
wxrx “ot tight x“ough. caybx thx subjxct was gxtti“g thx
carw color i“yormatio“ by somx othxr “ormal sx“sory 1as
offffosxw to xxtra sx“sory0 mxa“s oy which wx’rx “ot awarx.
I’vx sxx“ magicia“s wo somxthi“g vxry similar to this txst
with a wxck oy carws i“ which thxy wo yar bxttxr tha“ DF out
oy FC. ghxy gxt FC out oy FC. nhat is thx ffrobability oy thatN
It is BAA ffxrcx“t bxcausx it’s a magic trick( ghat I wo “ot
k“ow how thx trick is wo“x woxs “ot mxa“ that NSc was at
work. It just mxa“s that wx “xxw to bx vxry carxyul i“ our
co“trols to i“surx that wx arx mxasuri“g what wx thi“k wx
arx mxasuri“g.
ghis is xsffxcially trux whx“ wx’rx attxmffti“g to mxasurx
xffxcts yar morx subtlx a“w comfflxx tha“ thx color oy
fflayi“g carws, such as your ma“y claims rxlatxw to morffhic
rxso“a“cxF ffha“tom limbs, homi“g ffigxo“s, crossworw
ffuzzlxs, how wogs k“ow whx“ thxir ow“xrs arx comi“g
homx, a“w how ffxofflx k“ow whx“ somxo“x is stari“g at
thxm. Nach oy thxsx is a sxffaratx xffxct that may or may “ot
havx thx samx sxt oy causxs. Lo“siwxr thx claim that ffxofflx
havx a sx“sx oy bxi“g starxw at. Oirst, wx havx to co“trol yor
thx wxll-k“ow“ rxvxrsx sxly-yulfilli“g xffxctF a ffxrso“
susffxcts bxi“g starxw at a“w tur“s to chxckL such hxaw
movxmx“t catchxs thx xyxs oy woulw-bx starxrs who thx“
tur“ to look at thx starxx, who thxrxby co“firms thx yxxli“g
oy bxi“g starxw at. But this is a “ormal sx“sory
ffhx“omx“o“, “ot a“ xxtra-sx“sory ffhx“omx“o“.
I“ CAAA, Joh“ Lolwxll yrom ciwwlxsxx l“ivxrsity, Lo“wo“,
co“wuctxw a yormal txst utilizi“g your suggxstxw
xxffxrimx“tal ffrotocol, with BC volu“txxrs who ffarticiffatxw
i“ BC sxfiux“cxs oy CA starx or “o-starx trials xach, with
accuracy yxxwback ffroviwxw yor thx fi“al “i“x sxssio“s. ghx
rxsults wxrx that thx subjxcts wxrx ablx to wxtxct bxi“g
starxw at o“ly whx“ accuracy yxxwback was ffroviwxw, which
Lolwxll attributxw to thx subjxcts lxar“i“g what was, i“ yact,
a “o“ra“wom ffrxsx“tatio“ oy thx xxffxrimx“tal trials.
A“w as you wxll k“ow, whx“ Richarw nisxma“ attxmfftxw
to rxfflicatx your rxsxarch, hx you“w that subjxcts wxtxctxw
starxs at ratxs “o bxttxr tha“ cha“cx. ghis lxw him to
bxlixvx that yor thosx xxffxrimx“ts that wiw gx“xratx
statistically sig“ifica“t rxsults thxrx was a“ xxffxrimx“txr
bias ffroblxm, which hx wxmo“stratxw i“ a collaborativx
stuwy with carily“ Schlitz, who is a bxlixvxr i“ NSc
1nisxma“ is a skxfftic0. ghxy you“w that whx“ Schlitz wiw
thx stari“g shx you“w statistically sig“ifica“t rxsults,
whxrxas whx“ nisxma“ wiw thx stari“g hx you“w cha“cx
rxsults.B I you“w a similar bias xffxct i“ a co“tx“t a“alysis I
wiw oy thx CAAF sffxcial issux oy thx Els rnal lc ClnscSlssnbss
MrsaSbs wxvotxw to your rxsxarch,C i“ which I ratxw thx BE
offx“-ffxxr commx“tarixs o“ your targxt articlx 1o“ thx
sx“sx oy bxi“g starxw at0 o“ a scalx oy B to F 1critical, milwly
critical, “xutral, milwly suffffortivx, suffffortivx0. nithout
xxcxfftio“, thx Bs, Cs a“w Ds wxrx all trawitio“al scix“tists
yrom mai“strxam i“stitutio“s, whxrxas thx Es a“w Fs wxrx
all affiliatxw with yri“gx a“w ffro-ffara“ormal i“stitutio“s. by
coursx, you might rxaso“ably argux that it is nisxma“ a“w
thxsx mai“strxam scix“tists whosx skxfftical bias ffrxvx“ts
thx xffxct yrom bxi“g mxasurxw 1a“w “ot aScb abrsa0, but i“
this casx, si“cx it is you maki“g thx xxtraorwi“ary claim, thx
burwx“ oy ffrooy is o“ you to ffroviwx xxtraorwi“ary xviwx“cx
that it is xxffxrimx“txr bias ffrxvx“ti“g thx xffxct, which i“
my offi“io“ has yxt to bx ffrowucxw.
culli“g back yor a historical ffxrsffxctivx, xvxr si“cx
orga“izatio“s such as thx Socixty yor csychical Rxsxarch
wxrx you“wxw i“ thx latx BEth cx“tury, thousa“ws oy
xxffxrimx“ts havx bxx“ ru“ i“ a“ attxmfft to mxasurx NSc
a“w rxlatxw ffhx“omx“a. Although I k“ow you wisagrxx,
most scix“tists rxmai“ u“co“vi“cxw by thx ha“wyul oy
ffositivx fi“wi“gs, “oti“g that thx vast majority oy
xxffxrimx“ts yailxw to rxjxct thx “ull hyffothxsis that NSc
woxs “ot xxist. Nvx“ xxffxrimx“ts that wiw ffrowucx
statistically sig“ifica“t xffxcts 1mxa“i“g that thxy rxjxctxw
thx “ull hyffothxsis0 wxrx oytx“ yraught with mxthowological
shortcomi“gs. Richarw nisxma“ a“w Julix cilto“, yor
xxamfflx, txstxw your hyffothxsis i“ a stuwy at thx l“ivxrsity
oy Rxrtyorwshirx callxw “La“ A“imals Mxtxct nhx“ ghxir
bw“xrs Arx Rxtur“i“g RomxN” go your crxwit, you mawx
this txst ffossiblx aytxr a wog ow“xr 1a“w hxr wog, Jaytxx0
wxrx yxaturxw o“ a txlxvisio“ show as succxssyul xxamfflxs
co“firmi“g your hyffothxsis 1that you also ffublishxw i“ a
ffaffxr0. But as nisxma“ a“w cilto“ co“cluwxw aytxr
i“stituti“g tightxr co“trolsF “A“alysis oy thx wata wiw “ot
suffffort thx hyffothxsis that Jaytxx coulw ffsychically wxtxct
whx“ his ow“xr was rxtur“i“g homx.”
Lo“siwxr o“x oy thx most thorough rxvixws oy this
litxraturx xvxr co“wuctxw by thx highly rxsffxctxw social
scix“tists Maryl Bxm a“w Lharlxs Ro“orto“, x“titlxw “Moxs
csi NxistN Rxfflicablx Nviwx“cx yor a“ A“omalous crocxss oy
I“yormatio“ gra“syxr,” ffublishxw i“ thx ffrxstigious rxvixw
jour“al BswcRllldScal BsllbrSn i“ BEEE.D ghx scix“tists
co“wuctxw a mxta-a“alysis, a statistical txch“ifiux that
combi“xs thx rxsults yrom ma“y stuwixs to look yor a“
ovxrall xffxct, xvx“ iy thx rxsults yrom thx i“wiviwual stuwixs
wxrx “o“sig“ifica“t 1i.x., thxy wxrx u“ablx to rxjxct thx “ull
hyffothxsis at thx EF ffxrcx“t co“fiwx“cx lxvxl0. Bxm a“w
Ro“orto“ co“cluwxwF “ghx rxfflicatio“ ratxs a“w xffxct sizxs
achixvxw by o“x ffarticular xxffxrimx“tal mxthow, thx
danxcbla ffrocxwurx, arx “ow sufficix“t to warra“t bri“gi“g
this bowy oy wata to thx attx“tio“ oy thx wiwxr ffsychological
commu“ity.” ghx ga“zyxlw ffrocxwurx fflacxs thx “rxcxivxr”
i“ a sx“sory isolatio“ room with ffi“g ffo“g-ball halvxs
covxri“g thx xyxs, hxawffho“xs fflayi“g whitx “oisx ovxr thx
xars, a“w thx “sx“wxr” i“ a“othxr room attxmffti“g to
tra“smit ffhotograffhic or viwxo imagxs via NSc 1or ffsi0.
Mxsffitx fi“wi“g xviwx“cx yor ffsi—subjxcts haw a hit ratx oy
DF ffxrcx“t whx“ CF ffxrcx“t was xxffxctxw by cha“cx—Bxm
a“w Ro“orto“ lamx“txwF “cost acawxmic ffsychologists wo
“ot yxt accxfft thx xxistx“cx oy ffsi, a“omalous ffrocxssxs oy
i“yormatio“ or x“xrgy tra“syxr 1such as txlxffathy or othxr
yorms oy xxtrasx“sory ffxrcxfftio“0 that arx currx“tly
u“xxfflai“xw i“ txrms oy k“ow“ ffhysical or biological
mxcha“isms” 1ff. BBI0. nhy wo“’t scix“tists accxfft ffsi
wxsffitx this affffarx“t sig“ifica“t xffxctN I co“tx“w that
thxrx arx two rxaso“sF aara a“w rRblrw.
D ara. Both thx mxta-a“alysis a“w danxcbla txch“ifiuxs
havx bxx“ challx“gxw by scix“tists. Ray Ryma“ yrom thx
l“ivxrsity oy brxgo“ you“w i“co“sistx“cixs i“ thx
xxffxrimx“tal ffrocxwurxs usxw i“ wiffxrx“t ga“zyxlw
xxffxrimx“ts 1that wxrx lumffxw togxthxr i“ Bxm’s mxta-
a“alysis as iy thxy usxw thx samx ffrocxwurxs0, a“w that thx
statistical txst xmffloyxw 1Mrlsffbrms J 0 was i“affffroffriatx
yor such a wivxrsx wata sxt. Ryma“ also you“w flaws i“ thx
targxt ra“womizatio“ ffrocxss 1thx sxfiux“cx i“ which thx
visual targxts wxrx sx“t to thx rxcxivxr0, rxsulti“g i“ a
targxt sxlxctio“ biasF “All oy thx sig“ifica“t hitti“g was wo“x
o“ thx sxco“w or latxr affffxara“cx oy a targxt. Iy wx
xxami“xw thx guxssxs agai“st just thx first occurrx“cxs oy
targxts, thx rxsult is co“sistx“t with cha“cx.”E Julix cilto“
a“w Richarw nisxma“ co“wuctxw a mxta-a“alysis oy DA
morx danxcbla xxffxrimx“ts a“w you“w “o xviwx“cx yor ffsi,
co“cluwi“g that ffsi wata arx “o“-rxfflicablx, a yatal flaw i“
scix“tific rxsxarch.F I“ gx“xral, ovxr thx coursx oy a cx“tury
oy rxsxarch o“ ffsi, thx tightxr thx co“trols o“ thx
xxffxrimx“tal co“witio“s, thx wxakxr thx ffsi xffxcts sxxm to
bxcomx, u“til thxy wisaffffxar x“tirxly. ghis is a vxry stro“g
i“wicator that NSc is “ot rxal.
NRblrw. ghx wxxffxr rxaso“ scix“tists rxmai“ skxfftical oy
ffsi—a“w will xvx“ iy morx sig“ifica“t wata arx ffublishxw—is
that thxrx is “o xxffla“atory thxory yor how ffsi works. l“til
ffsi ffroffo“x“ts ca“ xxfflai“ how thoughts gx“xratxw by
“xuro“s i“ thx sx“wxr’s brai“ ca“ ffass through thx skull
a“w i“to thx brai“ oy thx rxcxivxr, skxffticism is thx
affffroffriatx rxsffo“sx. Iy thx wata show that thxrx is such a
ffhx“omx“o“ as ffsi that “xxws xxfflai“i“g 1a“w I am “ot
co“vi“cxw that thxy wo0, thx“ wx still “xxw a causal
mxcha“ism.
Lo“siwxr Bxm’s morx yamous CABB stuwy oy ffsi x“titlxw
“Oxxli“g thx OuturxF Nxffxrimx“tal Nviwx“cx yor A“omalous
Rxtroactivx I“flux“cxs o“ Log“itio“ a“w Affxct,” ffublishxw
i“ thx ffrxstigious Els rnal lc BbrslnalSrw ana MlcSal
BswcRllldw. Bxm sat subjxcts i“ yro“t oy a comffutxr scrxx“
that wisfflayxw two curtai“s, bxhi“w o“x oy which woulw
affffxar a ffhotograffh that was “xutral 1x.g., a builwi“g0,
“xgativx 1x.g., a car acciwx“t0, or xrotic 1x.g., sxx0. ghrough
DG trials, thx subjxcts wxrx to Yrbsblbcr which scrxx“ thxy
thought thx imagx woulw affffxar bxhi“w, acrbr which thx
comffutxr ra“womly chosx which wi“wow to ffrojxct thx
imagx. nhx“ thx imagxs wxrx “xutral, thx subjxcts wiw “o
bxttxr tha“ FA6FA guxssi“g. But whx“ thx imagxs that wxrx
about to bx ffrojxctxw wxrx xrotic i“ “aturx, thx subjxcts
ffrxsxlxctxw thx corrxct scrxx“ FD.B ffxrcx“t oy thx timx,
which Bxm rxfforts as statistically sig“ifica“t. Bxm calls this
“rxtroactivx i“flux“cx”—xrotic imagxs rifffflx back yrom thx
yuturx i“to thx ffrxsx“t, or as thx comxwia“ Stxffhx“ Lolbxrt
callxw it whx“ hx yxaturxw Bxm o“ his show NRb CllLbrr
LbYlrr, “Nxtra Sx“sory Blrncxfftio“.” nhx“ Lolbxrt
ffrxssxw Bxm yor a“ xxffla“atio“ yor how such timx rxvxrsal
coulw ffossibly work, thx scix“tist co“yxssxw, “nx havx “o
iwxa,” but thx“ suggxstxw fiua“tum ffhysics as a ffossiblx
mxcha“ism. b“cx agai“, thxrx arx ma“y rxaso“s to bx
skxfftical—six to bx ffrxcisx.
1 , ghx jour“al also ffublishxw i“ thx samx issux a ffaffxr
by thx ffsychologist Nric-Ja“ nagx“makxrs that was
critical oy Bxm’s fi“wi“gs, co“cluwi“g that his
mxthowology was flawxw i“ that hx was usi“g a“
xxffloratory a“alysis oy ffsi hyffothxsxs to sxx what
might tur“ out sig“ifica“t, a“w thx“ ffrxsx“ti“g it as iy
it wxrx co“firmi“g thx hyffothxsis. 1Sxx nagx“makxrs’
ffublicatio“ list o“ his nxb ffagx.0
0 , Bxm’s stuwy is a“ xxamfflx oy what I call “xgativx
xviwx“cxF Iy scix“cx ca““ot wxtxrmi“x thx causxs oy l
through “ormal mxa“s, thx“ l must bx thx rxsult oy
ffara“ormal causxs. Ray Ryma“, who has wxvotxw his
carxxr to carxyully a“alyzi“g sxrious ffsi rxsxarch, calls
this issux thx “ffatchwork fiuilt ffroblxm” i“ which
“a“ythi“g ca“ cou“t as ffsi, but “othi“g ca“ cou“t
agai“st it.” ghat is, “Iy you ca“ show that thxrx is a
sig“ifica“t xffxct a“w you ca“’t fi“w a“y “ormal mxa“s
to xxfflai“ it, thx“ you ca“ claim ffsi.” ghat is “ot a valiw
co“clusio“, howxvxr, xsffxcially whx“ wxali“g with such
xxtraorwi“ary claims as NSc.
, , cara“ormal xffxcts, which arx rarxly wxtxctxw at all,
arx always so subtlx a“w flxxti“g as to bx usxlxss yor
a“ythi“g ffractical, such as ffrxwicti“g thx yuturx,
locati“g missi“g ffxrso“s, gambli“g, i“vxsti“g, a“w so
o“.
- , A small but clnsSsrbnr xffxct might bx sig“ifica“t 1yor
xxamfflx, i“ gambli“g or i“vxsti“g0, but accorwi“g to
Ray Ryma“, Bxm’s D ffxrcx“t abovx-cha“cx xffxct i“
Nxffxrimx“t B was “ot co“sistx“t across his “i“x
xxffxrimx“ts, which mxasurxw wiffxrx“t xffxcts u“wxr
varyi“g co“witio“s.
. , Nxffxrimx“tal i“co“sistx“cixs fflagux such rxsxarch.
Oor xxamfflx, Ryma“ “otxs that i“ Bxm’s Nxffxrimx“t B
thx first EA subjxcts wxrx xxffosxw to xfiual “umbxrs oy
xrotic, “xutral, a“w “xgativx fficturxs, but thx“ Bxm
cha“gxw thx xxffxrimx“t i“ miwstrxam a“w yor thx
rxmai“i“g subjxcts just comffarxw xrotic fficturxs with
a“ u“sffxcifixw mix oy all tyffxs oy fficturxs. clus, it tur“s
out that Bxm’s fiyth xxffxrimx“t was co“wuctxw bxyorx
his first, which raisxs thx ffossibility that thxrx might
bx a ffost-hoc bias i“ xithxr ru““i“g thx xxffxrimx“ts or
i“ rxfforti“g thx rxsults. As wxll, Bxm rxfforts that
“most oy thx fficturxs” wxrx sxlxctxw yrom a sourcx
callxw thx InrbrnarSlnal AffbcrSab BScrsrb Mwsrbm , but
hx woxs“’t txll us which o“xs wxrx “ot, why, or what
ffrocxwurx hx xmffloyxw to classiyy imagxs as xrotic,
“xutral, or “xgativx. Ryma“’s list oy flaws “umbxrs i“
thx wozx“s. As hx tolw mx i“ a“ i“txrvixw yor o“x oy my
McSbnrSfic Am brScan colum“s 1cay, CABB0F “I’vx bxx“ a
ffxxr rxvixwxr yor ovxr FA yxars, a“w I ca“’t thi“k oy
a“othxr rxvixwxr who woulw havx lxt this ffaffxr
through ffxxr rxvixw. ghxy wxrx irrxsffo“siblx.”
6 , cxrhaffs thxy missxw what York l“ivxrsity
ffsychologist Jamxs Alcock you“w i“ a“othxr ffaffxr that
Bxm wrotx, x“titlxw “nriti“g thx Nmffirical Jour“al
Articlx” 1ffostxw o“ his wxbsitx0, i“ which Bxm
i“structs stuwx“tsF “ghi“k oy your wata sxt as a jxwxl.
Your task is to cut a“w ffolish it, to sxlxct thx yacxts to
highlight, a“w to crayt thx bxst sxtti“g yor it. ca“y
xxffxrix“cxw authors writx thx rxsults sxctio“ first.”
I“ othxr worws, Bxm bxga“ with what hx ffrxsumxw to bx
trux a“w thx“ workxw backwarw to fi“w thx wata to fit it.
ghis is callxw thx co“firmatio“ bias, a“w it has fflaguxw ffsi
rxsxarch yor ovxr a cx“tury. ghus it is I rxmai“ skxfftical.
lM ScRabl
Rbs Rra I lRldranR RRss r nds
Mxar cichaxl,
nhx“ it comxs to scix“cx, you arx “ot o“ly co“sxrvativx, as
you awmit, but also authoritaria“. Iy thx scix“cx
xstablishmx“t is yor it, you arx yor it. Iy thx scix“cx
xstablishmx“t is agai“st it, you arx agai“st it.
But whx“ it comxs to thx l.S. ffolitical systxm, as a
libxrtaria“ you wa“t lxss govxr“mx“t a“w morx i“wiviwual
yrxxwom a“w auto“omy. ghx rxaso“ I rxyxrrxw to your
libxrtaria“ sta“cx was bxcausx I hoffxw that your bxlixy i“
yrxxwom might also affffly to scix“cx. Aytxr all, much
i“stitutio“al scix“cx is a bra“ch oy big govxr“mx“t. ghx l.S.
govxr“mx“t sffx“ws about -BDF billio“ a yxar o“ scix“tific
rxsxarch a“w wxvxloffmx“t. cost scix“tists arx worki“g
withi“ highly burxaucratic systxms. Yxt thx awva“cx oy
scix“cx wxffx“ws o“ thx yrxxwom oy i“fiuiry. At ffrxsx“t, this
yrxxwom is i“hibitxw by i“stitutio“al orthowoxixs. ghat is
why I thi“k wx “xxw morx i“wiviwual yrxxwom withi“
scix“cx, a“w lxss authoritaria“ism.
You x“w your statxmx“t by sayi“g that “co“firmatio“ bias
... has fflaguxw ffsi rxsxarch yor ovxr a cx“tury.” But,
iro“ically, your ow“ offx“i“g statxmx“t is itsxly a ffxryxct
xxamfflx oy co“firmatio“ bias. ghx authoritixs you fiuotx arx
all matxrialists a“w committxw skxfftics. I“ ffarticular, whx“
wiscussi“g thx wata yrom ffsi rxsxarch, you rxly o“ thx
claims oy Jamxs Alcock, Richarw nisxma“, a“w Ray Ryma“,
all oy whom arx skxfftical crusawxrs a“w mxmbxrs oy thx
Lommittxx yor Skxfftical I“fiuiry. Such skxfftical awvocacy
orga“izatio“s oytx“ bxhavx as iy thxy arx ru““i“g xlxctio“
camffaig“s, with all thx vicxs oy co“yro“tatio“al ffarty
ffoliticsF bias, aa Rlm Snbm attacks o“ offffo“x“ts, “xgativx
camffaig“i“g, a“w attxmffts to co“cxal u“wxlcomx yacts by
muwwyi“g thx watxrs. 1ca“y xxamfflxs arx highlightxw o“
thx wxbsitx SkxffticalAboutSkxfftics.org.0
ghx samx txch“ifiuxs arx wiwxly usxw by wx“ixr
movxmx“ts a“w camffaig“i“g skxfftics i“ othxr fixlws oy
activity. Oor xxamfflx, ffrowuct wxyx“sx lawyxrs arx oytx“
hirxw by corfforatio“s to u“wxrmi“x thx scix“tific basis yor
govxr“mx“t rxgulatio“s. b“x oy thx ffio“xxrs oy this
stratxgy was thx cigarxttx comffa“y Brow“ a“w nilliamso“,
which ra“ a camffaig“ to wiscrxwit xviwx“cx about thx
harmyul xffxcts oy smoki“g, which hxlffxw holw back
a“tismoki“g rxgulatio“s yor yxars. As o“x oy thx comffa“y’s
xxxcutivxs commx“txw, “Moubt is our ffrowuct si“cx it is thx
bxst mxa“s oy comffxti“g with thx bowy oy yact.” Maviw
cichaxls, who was thx“ thx assista“t sxcrxtary yor
x“viro“mx“t sayxty a“w hxalth at thx l.S. Mxffartmx“t oy
N“xrgy, ffoi“txw out i“ his articlx “Moubt Is ghxir crowuct,”
ffublishxw i“ thx Ju“x B, CAAF issux oy McSbnrSfic Am brScan
that thx samx stratxgy has bxx“ awofftxw by “umxrous
i“wustrixs maki“g toxi“s. nhx“ co“yro“txw with xviwx“cx
that thxir ffrowucts arx lxthal, thx offx“wi“g i“wustry hirxs
skxfftics to muwwy thx watxrs. As cichaxls “otxw, “ghxir
co“clusio“s arx almost always thx samxF ghx xviwx“cx is
ambiguous, so rxgulatory actio“ is u“warra“txw.”
nhx“ wx comx to thx actual xviwx“cx yor ffsi ffhx“omx“a,
you awofft a classic muwwyi“g-thx-watxr stratxgy. go takx
sffxcific xxamfflxs you raisxw i“ your offx“i“g statxmx“tF
B. You makx it sou“w as iy ffsi rxsxarchxrs arx so “aïvx thxy
wo “ot k“ow about “ull hyffothxsxs. I“ yact, almost all ffsi
rxsxarch is basxw o“ this ffri“cifflx. You yoursxly arx “aïvx
about this or, worsx, i“tx“tio“ally misi“yormi“g our rxawxrs
hxrx. Iy you wxrx to rxaw somx actual rxsxarch ffaffxrs,
i“stxaw oy rxitxrati“g claims by yxllow skxfftics, you woulw
sxx that your claims arx “ot trux. Oor xxamfflx, you coulw
look at “ull hyffothxsis txsti“g i“ my ow“ ffaffxrs o“ thx
sx“sx oy bxi“g starxw at, txlxffathy, a“w thx u“xxfflai“xw
ffowxrs oy a“imals 1which I wiscuss o“ my wxbsitx0.
C. ghx skxfftic Ray Ryma“ has, as you say, rxffxatxwly
criticizxw ffsi rxsxarch usi“g thx ga“zyxlw txch“ifiux.
Rowxvxr, i“ BEIG, ffsi rxsxarchxrs workxw togxthxr with
Ryma“ to ffrowucx a joi“t commu“ifiué o“ imffrovxw
ffrocxwurxs that coulw xlimi“atx ffossiblx flaws. I“ rxsffo“sx
to thxsx “xw guiwxli“xs, ffaraffsychologists carrixw out“xw,
comffutxr-co“trollxw vxrsio“s oy thx ga“zyxlw xxffxrimx“t,
callxw thx asrldanxcbla. Skxfftics trixw to fi“w “xw flaws,
a“w o“cx agai“ thx ffrocxwurxs wxrx tightx“xw uff. By CABB,
thxrx haw bxx“ FE stuwixs i“ BF wiffxrx“t laboratorixs
yollowi“g thx rigorous mxthows agrxxw uffo“ with skxfftics.
ghx ovxrall hit ratx was vxry sig“ifica“tly abovx cha“cx.B It
is trux that i“ BEEE Richarw nisxma“ a“w Julix cilto“
ffublishxw a stuwy claimi“g that thx combi“xw rxsults oy “xw
ga“zyxlw stuwixs wxrx “ot sig“ifica“tly abovx cha“cx. ghxy
rxachxw this co“clusio“ by omitti“g somx rxcx“t highly
succxssyul xxffxrimx“ts. nhx“ thxsx wxrx i“cluwxw, thx
combi“xw rxsults wxrx i“wxxw sig“ifica“tly abovx cha“cx,
as cilto“ latxr awmittxw.C
You writx, “I“ gx“xral, ovxr thx coursx oy a cx“tury oy
rxsxarch o“ ffsi, thx tightxr thx co“trols o“ thx
xxffxrimx“tal co“witio“s, thx wxakxr thx ffsi xffxcts sxxm to
bxcomx, u“til thxy wisaffffxar x“tirxly.” ghis vagux,
xviwx“cx-yrxx gx“xralizatio“ is simffly “ot trux. It is wishyul
thi“ki“g.
D. Maryl Bxm’s stuwy oy “yxxli“g thx yuturx” has i“wxxw bxx“
attackxw by skxfftics a“w agai“ you try to muwwy thx watxrs
by bri“gi“g uff fiuibblxs ovxr statistical wxtails. A“w whilx
somx skxfftics havx “ot bxx“ ablx to rxfflicatx somx oy
Bxm’s rxsults, othxr rxsxarchxrs havx. nhxthxr or “ot
ffrxsx“timx“t xxists is a“ i“trigui“g offx“ fiuxstio“, a“w
thxrx arx sxvxral othxr li“xs oy i“vxstigatio“ bxsiwxs Bxm’s
that stro“gly suggxst it woxs.D
I“ciwx“tally, iy you wa“t to attack Bxm yor awvisi“g
stuwx“ts to writx thxir rxsults sxctio“ first, you shoulw
attack most othxr scix“tists as wxll, bxcausx this is
sta“warw ffrocxwurx. Oor xxamfflx, thx currx“t guiwxli“xs to
chM stuwx“ts at Lambriwgx l“ivxrsity statxF “nritx your
chafftxrs i“ thx yollowi“g orwxrF Rxsults, cxthows,
Miscussio“, I“trowuctio“.”
E. You attxmfft to ffortray thx skxfftical claims oy Richarw
nisxma“ a“w Julix cilto“ as a rxyutatio“ oy a wog’s ability to
k“ow whx“ his ow“xr was comi“g homx, whx“ i“ yact thxir
wata suffffortxw it. You mawx “o mx“tio“ oy my rxyutatio“ oy
thxir claims, “or to i“wxffx“wx“t a“alysxs by sxvxral
i“vxstigators, all oy whom co“cluwxw that nisxma“ a“w
cilto“’s claims wxrx highly mislxawi“g.E
F. I“stxaw oy looki“g at thx actual wata yrom xxffxrimx“ts o“
thx sx“sx oy bxi“g starxw at, you ra“kxw thx status oy thx
i“stitutio“s oy thx scix“tists who commx“txw o“ it, a“w
you“w that thosx yrom thx most mai“strxam i“stitutio“s
wxrx most critical. ghis is surxly “o morx tha“ a“ argumx“t
yrom authority, a“w has “othi“g to wo with actual xviwx“cx.
I“ thx joi“t xxffxrimx“ts carrixw out o“ stari“g by carily“
Schlitz a“w Richarw nisxma“, as you rightly say, nisxma“
you“w o“ly cha“cx rxsults whx“ hx wiw thx stari“g, whxrxas
whx“ Schlitz wiw thx stari“g thxrx wxrx statistically
sig“ifica“t rxsults. But thx xxffxrimx“txr xffxcts i“ this
xxffxrimx“t wxrx “ot symmxtrical. ghx ffrocxwurx i“volvxw
stari“g through closxw circuit txlxvisio“ i“ nisxma“’s ow“
laboratory, u“wxr co“witio“s that xlimi“atxw a“y ffossiblx
sx“sory i“yormatio“. Schlitz’s ffositivx rxsults coulw “ot
havx occurrxw as a rxsult oy wishyul thi“ki“g or bias. b“ thx
othxr ha“w, nisxma“ coulw xasily havx obtai“xw “o xffxct
by “ot stari“g vxry harw, a“w i“wxxw hx latxr saiw hx haw
you“w it “a“ x“ormously bori“g xxffxrix“cx” a“w that i“
most oy thx trials hx was “ffrxtty ffassivx about it.”F
But, as you awmit, this wxbatx is “ot rxally about
xviwx“cx. Lommittxw skxfftics arx agai“st ffsi ffhx“omx“a
bxcausx thxy wo “ot fit i“ with thx matxrialist worlwvixw.
ghis is wogmatic, “ot scix“tific. ghxrx arx alrxawy sxvxral
hyffothxsxs as to how ffsi may work, but thxy offx“w your
authoritaria“ i“sti“cts bxcausx thxy go bxyo“w xxisti“g
scix“tific orthowoxy. cy ow“ hyffothxsis oy morffhic fixlws,
yor xxamfflx, may hxlff to xxfflai“ txlxffathy. I wo “ot havx
sffacx hxrx to a“swxr your fiuxstio“s about how I thi“k
morffhic fixlws a“w morffhic rxso“a“cx may work, but a
summary ca“ bx you“w o“ my wxbsitx.
nhx“ cichaxl Oaraway first ffroffosxw his hyffothxsis oy
xlxctric a“w mag“xtic fixlws, hx coulw “ot xxfflai“ how thxy
workxw. It was a“othxr CA yxars bxyorx Jamxs Llxrk
caxwxll camx uff with a thxory i“ txrms oy thx xthxr, a yorm
oy “subtlx mattxr,” which was itsxly u“xxfflai“xw. A“w thx“,
i“ BEAF, Albxrt Ni“stxi“ showxw that thx xthxr wiw “ot xxist
a“w camx uff with yxt a“othxr thxory. Oortu“atxly,
orga“izxw skxfftic grouffs wiw “ot xxist at thx timx oy
Oaraway. Iy thxy haw wo“x, his rxsxarch woulw havx bxx“
wismissxw o“ thx grou“ws that his i“visiblx “fixlws” coulw “ot
bx xxfflai“xw i“ txrms oy xxisti“g mxcha“istic thxorixs, a“w
caxwxll woulw havx bxx“ trxatxw as a ffsxuwo-scix“tist yor
suggxsti“g thx xxistx“cx oy i“visiblx “subtlx mattxr.”
Rxactio“ary skxffticism woxs “ot awva“cx thx causx oy
scix“cx. It i“hibits scix“tific i“fiuiry, a“w shuts wow“
curiosity. ghxrx is alrxawy a grxat wxal oy xviwx“cx that ffsi
ffhx“omx“a xxist, wxsffitx thx tirxlxss xfforts oy crusawi“g
skxfftics to miswirxct attx“tio“ a“w ffrxtx“w that ffsi xffxcts
havx “wisaffffxarxw x“tirxly.”
I“ thx x“w, our wiffxrx“cxs comx back to our wiffxrx“t
rolxs. You arx a ffroyxssio“al skxfftic tryi“g to uffholw thx
authority oy scix“cx, guarw its yro“tixrs, a“w root out hxrxsy.
I am a rxsxarch scix“tist tryi“g to xxfflorx u“xxfflai“xw
ffhx“omx“a.
lL sYbrr
M mclaRl I lRrY Rr RRs lmRs
Mxar Ruffxrt,
I“ your last lxttxr you accusx mx oy bxi“g a “committxw
skxfftic” who is “agai“st ffsi ffhx“omx“a bxcausx thxy wo
“ot fit i“ with thx matxrialist worlwvixw.” You kxxff
rxffxati“g this ffoi“t wxsffitx my ffrotxsts to thx co“trary. As
I’vx saiw all alo“g, iy ffsi wxrx rxal a“w wx u“wxrstoow how it
workxw, thx“ it woulw bx ffart oy thx scix“tific worlwvixw
xxfflai“ablx by “atural yorcxs, xvx“ iy that mxa“s xxffa“wi“g
our u“wxrsta“wi“g oy what co“stitutxs ““atural.” Agai“,
thxrx is “o suffxr“aturalL just “atural a“w mystxrixs that
rxmai“ u“xxfflai“xw by “atural causxs. It is ffossiblx that
o“x way ffsi will bx accxfftxw by thx scix“tific commu“ity
a“w i“corfforatxw i“to thx scix“tific worlwvixw 1xvx“ thx
matxrialistic worlwvixw0, but at thx momx“t it is“’t, yor both
xviwx“tiary a“w causal rxaso“s.
I havx rxvixwxw thx ma“y shortcomi“gs with your
claimxw xviwx“cx. I“ ffxrusi“g your wxbsitx to u“wxrsta“w
your causal thxory i“volvi“g morffhic rxso“a“cx, I fi“w a
“umbxr oy flaws i“ your co“jxcturxs, starti“g with thx “amx
itsxly. “corffhic rxso“a“cx” is too broaw a catxgory—too
gx“xralizxw—a“w it attxmffts to xxfflai“ too ma“y sxffaratx
ffhx“omx“a 1that vxry likxly havx sxffaratx causxs0 to bx a
usxyul thxory. Row ca“ a si“glx fixlw oy a“y sort xxfflai“
cxllular mxmbra“xs a“w microtubulxsL thx bowy tyffxs oy
wogs 1yrom Aygha“ hou“ws to ffoowlxs0L mxmory i“ ratL
social grouffs 1yrom schools oy fish to flocks oy birws0L huma“
customs such as thx Jxwish cassovxr, thx Lhristia“ Roly
Lommu“io“, a“w crossworw ffuzzlxsL ffxrcxfftual
ffhx“omx“a such as visio“ 1thx sx“sx oy bxi“g starxw at0L
a“w xvx“ thx laws oy “aturx a“w thx Big Ba“g origi“ oy thx
u“ivxrsxN( Is thxrx a“ythi“g this thxory ca“’t xxfflai“N I
co“tx“w that a“y thxory ffurfforti“g to xxfflai“ xvxrythi“g i“
xffxct xxfflai“s “othi“g.
I“ your last lxttxr, you citx cichaxl Oaraway, Jamxs Llxrk
caxwxll, a“w thxir thxory oy fixlws xxfflai“i“g xlxctric a“w
mag“xtic ffhx“omx“a, as a“alogous to your ow“ morffhic
rxso“a“cx fixlws. Oirst, Oaraway a“w caxwxll wxrx
attxmffti“g to xxfflai“ o“x sffxcific ffhx“omx“o“ that
i“volvxw xlxctricity a“w mag“xtism a“w thxir rxlatio“shiffL
thxy wxrx “ot attxmffti“g to xxfflai“ xvxrythi“g yrom
i“hxrita“cx to cultural customs to huma“ mxmory to thx
origi“ oy thx u“ivxrsx( A“w it woulw“’t havx mattxrxw iy
thxrx was a“ orga“izxw skxfftical movxmx“t or “ot, bxcausx
i“ timx thxir thxory ffrovxw corrxct irrxsffxctivx oy what a“y
skxfftical xvaluator might havx thought about it. Likxwisx,
thx skxffticism you havx x“cou“txrxw has “ot ffrimarily
bxx“ yrom orga“izxw skxfftical grouffs, but rathxr yrom
mai“strxam worki“g scix“tists who havx “o affiliatio“ with
orga“izxw skxffticism. I“ a“y casx, skxffticism is i“hxrx“t to
thx scix“tific ffrocxss itsxly, as I “otxw ffrxviously i“ argui“g
that all scix“tists start with thx skxfftical ffositio“ oy thx “ull
hyffothxsis that thxir xxffxrimx“ts attxmfft to rxjxct. ghx
burwx“ oy ffrooy is o“ you.
You makx thx a“alogy with fixlws “xxtx“wi“g bxyo“w thx
matxrial objxcts i“ which thxy arx rootxw”—such as
mag“xts a“w mag“xtic fixlws, ffla“xts a“w gravitatio“al
fixlws, a“w cxll ffho“xs a“w “cxllular” xlxctromag“xtic fixlws
—to argux that thx mi“w xxtx“ws bxyo“w thx brai“. ghx
flaw i“ this rxaso“i“g is that thxsx othxr fixlws arx
wxtxctablx, mxasurablx, fiua“tifiablx, a“w ffrxwictablx. nhat
wxtxctablx xviwx“cx wo you havx oy thx mi“w xxtx“wi“g
bxyo“w thx brai“N ghx xfiuivalx“t oy a Vxigxr cou“txr that
wxtxcts thx rawiatio“ xxtx“wi“g bxyo“w rawioactivx
matxrials woulw go a lo“g way towarw sufffforti“g your
morffhic rxso“a“cx thxory oy mi“w. go watx, you affffxar to
havx “o such wxtxctablx xviwx“cx oy such a fixlw, a“w
i“stxaw rxly o“ subjxctivx yxxli“gs ffxofflx havx about bxi“g
starxw at or rxcxivi“g ffho“x calls or xmails yrom ffxofflx
whom thxy arx thi“ki“g about, which havx othxr xfiually
fflausiblx xxffla“atio“s 1morx fflausiblx i“ my thi“ki“g0.
As wxll, surxly thx morffhic rxso“a“cx fixlw that wirxcts
thx wxvxloffmx“t oy cxllular microtubulxs is wiffxrx“t yrom
thx fixlw that shaffxs thx MaA-cRbgNIa chai“ sxfiux“cx,
a“w wiffxrx“t still yrom thx fixlw that co“trols mxmory,
cultural artiyacts, a“w thx xvolutio“ oy sffxcixs. You wo “ot
sxxm to havx a“y xviwx“cx yor a“y such fixlws, outsiwx oy a
“gow-oy-thx-gaffs” tyffx argumx“t that iy a scix“tist ca“’t
xxfflai“ ffhx“omx“o“ l 1x.g., xmbryological wxvxloffmx“t0,
thx“ a morffhic fixlw must bx thx xxffla“atio“. It’s “ot
x“ough to challx“gx thx ffrxvaili“g thxory oy lL you must
ffroffxr your ow“ txstablx xxffla“atio“ yor l a“w ffroviwx
xviwx“cx yor it. I“ my offi“io“, you havx yxt to wo so, a“w so
I a“w most scix“tists rxmai“ skxfftical.
Oi“ally, it affffxars to mx that your morffhic rxso“a“cx
thxory is circularF “corffhic fixlws co“tai“ othxr morffhic
fixlws withi“ thxm”L morffhic fixlws “co“tai“ a built-i“
mxmory givx“ by sxly-rxso“a“cx with a morffhic u“it’s ow“
ffast a“w by morffhic rxso“a“cx with all ffrxvious similar
systxms”L a“w so yorth. It sxxms to mx you arx xxfflai“i“g
morffhic rxso“a“cx fixlws with …morffhic rxso“a“cx fixlws.
It woulw bx tautological to assxrt that morffhic fixlws causx
morffhic fixlws. nhat is thx causx oy morffhic rxso“a“cx
fixlws i“ thx first fflacxN
lM ScRabl
Hlas aRr -
Rbs Rra I lRldranRhs O s Rnmng I aaaRY Rna
Mxar cichaxl,
Oor committxw matxrialists, ffsychic 1ffsi0 ffhx“omx“a such
as txlxffathy a“w thx sx“sx oy bxi“g starxw at must bx
illusory bxcausx thxy arx imffossiblx. ci“ws arx i“siwx
brai“s. cx“tal activity is “othi“g but xlxctro-chxmical brai“
activity. Rx“cx thoughts a“w i“tx“tio“s ca““ot havx wirxct
xffxcts at a wista“cx, “or ca“ mi“ws bx offx“ to i“flux“cxs
yrom thx yuturx. Although ffsi ffhx“omx“a sbbm to occur,
thxy must havx “ormal xxffla“atio“s i“ txrms oy
coi“ciwx“cx, subtlx sx“sory cuxs, wishyul thi“ki“g, or yrauw.
Mogmatic skxfftics oytx“ rxffxat thx sloga“ that
“xxtraorwi“ary claims wxma“w xxtraorwi“ary xviwx“cx.” But
thx sx“sx oy bxi“g starxw at a“w txlxffathy arx “ot
xxtraorwi“ary, thxy arx orwi“ary. cost ffxofflx havx
xxffxrix“cxw thxm. Orom this ffoi“t oy vixw, thx sgbYrScsm
claim is xxtraorwi“ary. nhxrx is thx xxtraorwi“ary xviwx“cx
that most ffxofflx arx wxluwxw about thxir ow“ xxffxrix“cxN
Skxfftics ca“ o“ly yall back o“ gx“xric argumx“ts about thx
yallibility oy huma“ juwgmx“t.
I hxrx co“siwxr rxsxarch o“ thx sx“sx oy bxi“g starxw at
a“w txlxffathy. ghxsx arx subjxcts o“ which I havx ffublishxw
morx tha“ CA ffxxr-rxvixwxw rxsxarch ffaffxrs i“ scix“tific
jour“als, as wxll as two books, D lds NRar F nlb R Rbn NRbSr
Ab nbrs Arb Clm Snd H lm b 1C“w xw.F ghrxx Rivxrs crxss,
CABB0 a“w NRb Mbnsb lc BbSnd Mrarba Ar- Ana ArRbr
OnbcYlaSnba Blb brs lc H sm an M Snas 1C“w xw.F cark Strxxt
crxss, CABD0. Bxcausx oy limitatio“s oy sffacx, I omit thx
othxr thrxx mai“ arxas oy ffsi rxsxarchF clairvoya“cx or
rxmotx vixwi“g, mxa“i“g thx ability to sxx or xxffxrix“cx
thi“gs at a wista“cxL ffrxcog“itio“ or ffrxsx“timx“t, k“owi“g
or yxxli“g a yuturx xvx“tL a“w ffsychoki“xsis, or mi“w-ovxr-
mattxr xffxcts.
J lR dRaRcamr n r S saarRs
cost ffxofflx havx yxlt somxo“x looki“g at thxm yrom
bxhi“w, tur“xw arou“w, a“w mxt thx ffxrso“’s xyxs. cost
ffxofflx havx also xxffxrix“cxw thx co“vxrsxF ghxy havx
somxtimxs mawx ffxofflx tur“ arou“w by stari“g at thxm. I“
xxtx“sivx survxys i“ Nuroffx a“w aorth Amxrica, bxtwxx“
HA ffxrcx“t a“w EH ffxrcx“t oy awults a“w chilwrx“ rxffortxw
xxffxrix“cxs oy thxsx ki“ws. ca“y sffxcixs oy “o“-huma“
a“imals also sxxm ablx to wxtxct looks. Somx hu“txrs a“w
wilwliyx ffhotograffhxrs arx co“vi“cxw that a“imals ca“
wxtxct thxir gazx xvx“ whx“ thxy arx hiwwx“ a“w looki“g at
a“imals through txlxscoffic lx“sxs or sights.
Iy thx sx“sx oy bxi“g starxw at is rxal, thx“ it must havx
bxx“ subjxct to xvolutio“ by “atural sxlxctio“. Row might it
havx xvolvxwN ghx most obvious ffossibility is i“ thx co“txxt
oy ffrxwator-ffrxy rxlatio“s. crxy a“imals that ca“ wxtxct
whx“ ffrxwators arx looki“g at thxm will sta“w a bxttxr
cha“cx oy survivi“g tha“ thosx that ca““ot.
Si“cx thx BEIAs, thx sx“sx oy bxi“g starxw at has bxx“
i“vxstigatxw xxffxrimx“tally both through wirxct looki“g
a“w also through closxw-circuit txlxvisio“. I“ thx scix“tific
litxraturx it is variously rxyxrrxw to as “u“sxx“ gazx
wxtxctio“” or “rxmotx attx“tio“” or “scoffxsthxsia” 1yrom
thx Vrxxk sglYbSn, mxa“i“g “to vixw,” a“w aSsrRj sSs,
mxa“i“g “ffxrcxfftio“”0. ghx majority oy thxsx stuwixs, xvx“
somx oy thx stuwixs by skxfftics, havx show“ ffositivx,
statistically sig“ifica“t xffxcts. ghx largxst xxffxrimx“t o“
thx sx“sx oy bxi“g starxw at bxga“ i“ BEEF at thx aNcb
Scix“cx Lx“trx i“ Amstxrwam. corx tha“ DG,AAA ffxofflx
took ffart, with ffositivx rxsults that wxrx astro“omically
sig“ifica“t statistically. ghx most sx“sitivx subjxcts wxrx
chilwrx“ u“wxr thx agx oy “i“x.
J RlRs aaly mn rRal lmSR
I“ most, iy “ot all, trawitio“al socixtixs, txlxffathy sxxms to
bx takx“ yor gra“txw a“w ffut to ffractical usx. Oor xxamfflx,
ma“y travxlxrs i“ Ayrica rxffortxw that ffxofflx sxxmxw to
k“ow whx“ ffxofflx to whom thxy wxrx attachxw wxrx
comi“g homx, xvx“ though thxy haw “o “ormal mxa“s oy
k“owi“g. ghx samx occurrxw i“ rural aorway, whxrx thxrx
is a sffxcial worw yor thx a“ticiffatio“ oy arrivalsF aarai dbr.
gyffically, somxo“x at homx hxarw a ffxrso“ affffroachi“g thx
housx, a“w comi“g i“, yxt “obowy ffhysically wiw so. Soo“
aytxrwarws thx ffxrso“ rxally arrivxw. Similarly, thx “sxco“w
sight” oy thx somx oy thx i“habita“ts oy thx Scottish
Righla“ws i“cluwxw visio“s oy arrivals bxyorx thx ffxrso“
actually arrivxw.
I“ a“ attxmfft to fi“w out morx about txlxffathy i“ mowxr“
socixtixs, I lau“chxw a sxrixs oy affffxals yor i“yormatio“
through thx mxwia i“ Nuroffx, aorth Amxrica, a“w
Australia. bvxr CA yxars, I havx built uff a watabasx oy
sxxmi“gly txlxffathic a“w othxr ffsi xxffxrix“cxs co“tai“i“g
morx tha“ BA,AAA casx historixs.
ca“y ffxofflx havx obsxrvxw rxsffo“sxs oy a“imals likx
wogs a“w cats to thxir thoughts a“w i“tx“tio“s. ghx most
imffrxssivx occur whx“ thx ffxofflx arx milxs away, yar
bxyo“w thx ra“gx oy thx a“imals’ sx“sxs. corx tha“ B,FAA
ffxofflx havx tolw mx that thxir wogs a“w cats k“ow whx“ a
mxmbxr oy thx yamily is comi“g homx a“w go to wait at a
woor or wi“wow, oytx“ CA mi“utxs or morx i“ awva“cx. ca“y
oy thxsx storixs makx it clxar that thx a“imals’ rxsffo“sxs
wxrx “ot simffly rxactio“s to thx sou“ws oy a yamiliar car or
yamiliar yootstxffs i“ thx strxxt. ghxy haffffx“xw too lo“g i“
awva“cx, a“w thxy also haffffx“xw whx“ ffxofflx camx homx
by bus or trai“. aor was it just a mattxr oy routi“x. Somx
ffxofflx, likx fflumbxrs, lawyxrs, a“w taxi wrivxrs, workxw
irrxgular hours, a“w yxt thx ffxofflx at homx k“xw whx“
thxy wxrx comi“g bxcausx thx wog or cat wx“t to wait at a
woor or wi“wow.
Amo“g huma“s, ma“y casxs oy affffarx“t txlxffathy occur
i“ rxsffo“sx to othxr ffxofflx’s “xxws. Oor xxamfflx, hu“wrxws
oy mothxrs havx tolw mx that whx“ thxy wxrx
brxastyxxwi“g, thxy k“xw whx“ thxir baby “xxwxw thxm,
xvx“ yrom milxs away. ghxy yxlt thxir milk lxt wow“. ghx
milk lxtwow“ rxflxx is mxwiatxw by thx hormo“x oxytoci“,
somxtimxs callxw thx lovx hormo“x, a“w is “ormally
triggxrxw by hxari“g thx baby cry. ghx “ifffflxs start lxaki“g
milk a“w ma“y womx“ yxxl a ti“gli“g sx“satio“ i“ thxir
brxasts. nhx“ “ursi“g mothxrs wxrx away yrom thxir
babixs a“w yxlt thxir milk lxt wow“, most oy thxm took it yor
gra“txw that thxir baby “xxwxw thxm, xvx“ though it was
“ot at a routi“x yxxwi“g timx. ghxy wxrx usually right. ghxy
wiw “ot xxffxrix“cx thxir milk lxtti“g wow“ bxcausx thxy
startxw thi“ki“g about thx babyL thxy startxw thi“ki“g
about thxir baby bxcausx thxir milk lxt wow“ yor “o
affffarx“t rxaso“. A statistical a“alysis showxw that this was
“ot a mattxr oy sy“chro“izxw ffhysiological rhythms.
A txlxffathic co““xctio“ bxtwxx“ mothxrs a“w thxir
babixs makxs goow sx“sx i“ xvolutio“ary txrms. cothxrs
who coulw txll at a wista“cx whx“ thxir babixs “xxwxw thxm
woulw tx“w to havx babixs that survivxw bxttxr tha“ babixs
oy i“sx“sitivx mothxrs.
l“til thx i“vx“tio“ oy mowxr“ txlxcommu“icatio“s,
txlxffathy was thx o“ly way i“ which ffxofflx coulw bx i“
touch at a wista“cx i“sta“tly. I“ most rxsffxcts, txlxffathy has
“ow bxx“ suffxrsxwxw by txlxffho“xs—but it has “ot go“x
away. I“wxxw, txlxffathy “ow occurs most commo“ly i“
co““xctio“ with txlxffho“x calls.
Exs RrmY Rnaal rRsRarcl r n aRlRs aaly w mal anmY als
I startxw my ow“ rxsxarch o“ txlxffathy with a“imals, rathxr
tha“ ffxofflx. I thought that iy txlxffathy occurs, it is “ormal,
“ot ffara“ormal, “atural, “ot suffxr“atural, a“w is likxly to
havx xvolvxw as a commu“icatio“ systxm bxtwxx“ bo“wxw
mxmbxrs oy a“imal grouffs.
I“ ffarticular, I carrixw out ma“y xxffxrimx“ts with rxtur“-
a“ticiffati“g wogs to fi“w out whxthxr thxy rxally wiw
a“ticiffatx thxir ow“xrs’ rxtur“s whx“ thxy coulw “ot havx
k“ow“ by ““ormal” mxa“s. I“ thxsx txsts, thx ow“xrs oy thx
wogs wx“t at lxast fivx milxs away yrom homx. nhilx thxy
wxrx out, thx fflacx whxrx thxir wog waitxw was filmxw
co“ti“uously o“ timx-cowxw viwxotaffx. ghx ow“xr wiw “ot
k“ow i“ awva“cx whx“ shx woulw bx goi“g homx a“w shx
wiw so o“ly whx“ shx rxcxivxw a mxssagx yrom mx via a
txlxffho“x ffagxr at a ra“womly sxlxctxw timx. Shx travxlxw
by taxi or i“ a“othxr u“yamiliar vxhiclx to avoiw yamiliar car
sou“ws. ghx wog I havx i“vxstigatxw most, a txrrixr callxw
Jaytxx, was at thx wi“wow o“ avxragx o“ly E ffxrcx“t oy thx
timx wuri“g thx mai“ ffxriow oy his ow“xr’s absx“cx, a“w FF
ffxrcx“t oy thx timx whx“ shx was o“ thx way back. ghis
wiffxrx“cx was vxry sig“ifica“t statistically. ghx Scix“cx
l“it oy Austria“ Statx gxlxvisio“, bRO, filmxw this
i“wxffx“wx“t xxffxrimx“t a“w you ca“ fi“w it o“ my wxbsitx.
At my i“vitatio“, a lxawi“g British mxwia skxfftic, Richarw
nisxma“, wiw his ow“ viwxotaffxw txsts with Jaytxx u“wxr
thx samx co“witio“s. Ris wata showxw that Jaytxx was at thx
wi“wow E ffxrcx“t oy thx timx wuri“g thx mai“ ffxriow oy his
ow“xr’s absx“cx, a“w HI ffxrcx“t oy thx timx whx“ shx was
o“ thx way back, a statistically sig“ifica“t ffositivx xffxct.
Rowxvxr, i“ thx mxwia, nisxma“ mislxawi“gly trixw to
ffortray this rxfflicatio“ oy my rxsults as a rxyutatio“ oy
Jaytxx’s abilitixs(
Exs RrmY Rnaal rRsRarcl r n lbY an aRlRs aaly
Si“cx BIIA, thxrx havx bxx“ hu“wrxws oy stuwixs oy huma“
txlxffathy u“wxr laboratory co“witio“s. ghx grxat majority
havx givx“ ffositivx, statistically sig“ifica“t rxsults.
ghx commo“xst ki“w oy affffarx“t txlxffathy i“ thx mowxr“
worlw co“cxr“s txlxffho“x calls. Survxys show that most
ffxofflx havx thought oy somxo“x yor “o affffarx“t rxaso“,
a“w thx“ that ffxrso“ callxw, or xlsx thxy just k“ow who is
calli“g bxyorx looki“g at thx callxr IM or a“swxri“g thx call.
But coulw“’t this just bx coi“ciwx“cxN nx thi“k about othxr
ffxofflx yrxfiux“tlyL somxtimxs, by cha“cx, somxbowy ri“gs
whilx wx arx thi“ki“g about thxmL wx may imagi“x it is
txlxffathy, but wx yorgxt thx thousa“ws oy timxs wx wxrx
wro“g. br whx“ wx k“ow somxo“x wxll, our yamiliarity with
hxr routi“xs a“w activitixs x“ablxs us to k“ow whx“ shx is
likxly to ri“g, xvx“ though this k“owlxwgx may bx
u“co“scious.
I sxarchxw thx scix“tific litxraturx to fi“w out iy thxsx
rxaso“ablx ffossibilitixs wxrx suffffortxw by a“y wata or
obsxrvatio“s. I coulw fi“w “o rxsxarch whatxvxr o“ thx
subjxct. I“ scix“cx it is “ot x“ough to havx a hyffothxsis.
Ryffothxsxs “xxw txsti“g to fi“w out iy thxy arx suffffortxw or
rxyutxw by thx xviwx“cx.
I thxrxyorx wxsig“xw a simfflx ffrocxwurx to txst both thx
cha“cx-coi“ciwx“cx hyffothxsis a“w thx u“co“scious-
k“owlxwgx hyffothxsis xxffxrimx“tally. I askxw volu“txxr
subjxcts yor thx “amxs a“w txlxffho“x “umbxrs oy your
ffxofflx thxy k“xw wxll, yrix“ws or yamily mxmbxrs. ghx
subjxcts wxrx thx“ filmxw co“ti“uously throughout thx
ffxriow oy thx xxffxrimx“t alo“x i“ a room with a la“wli“x
txlxffho“x, without a callxr IM systxm. Iy thxrx was a
comffutxr i“ thx room, it was switchxw off, a“w thx subjxcts
haw “o cxll ffho“xs with thxm. cy rxsxarch assista“t or I
sxlxctxw o“x oy thx your callxrs at ra“wom by thx throw oy a
wicx. nx callxw thx sxlxctxw ffxrso“ a“w askxw him to ffho“x
thx subjxct i“ thx “xxt coufflx oy mi“utxs. Rx wiw so. ghx
subjxct’s ffho“x ra“g. Bxyorx a“swxri“g it, shx haw to say to
thx camxra who, out oy thx your ffossiblx callxrs, shx yxlt
was o“ thx li“x. Shx coulw “ot havx k“ow“ by k“owlxwgx oy
thx callxr’s habits a“w waily routi“xs, bxcausx i“ this
xxffxrimx“t thx callxrs wxrx ra“womly sxlxctxw by thx
xxffxrimx“txr.
By guxssi“g at ra“wom, subjxcts woulw havx bxx“ right
about o“x timx i“ your, or CF ffxrcx“t. I“ yact, i“ hu“wrxws oy
trials thx avxragx hit ratx was EF ffxrcx“t, vxry sig“ifica“tly
abovx thx cha“cx lxvxl. ao“x oy thx subjxcts was right
xvxry timx, but thxy wxrx right much morx tha“ thxy
shoulw havx bxx“ iy thx cha“cx coi“ciwx“cx thxory wxrx
trux. 1A viwxo oy o“x oy thxsx xxffxrimx“ts mawx by a British
gm cha““xl is o“ my wxbsitx.0
ghis abovx-cha“cx xffxct has bxx“ rxfflicatxw
i“wxffx“wx“tly i“ txlxffho“x txlxffathy txsts at u“ivxrsitixs i“
Vxrma“y a“w Rolla“w. I havx also obtai“xw vxry similar
rxsults i“ xxffxrimx“ts with txxt mxssagxs a“w ScS
mxssagxs.
I nRs amcal rRacamr ns
I“yormxw skxfftics likx croyxssor Lhris Orx“ch, thx yormxr
xwitor oy thx British magazi“x NRb MgbYrSc, wo “ot wx“y that
thxrx is xxffxrimx“tal xviwx“cx that suggxsts ffsi
ffhx“omx“a arx rxal, but say thxrx is “ot yxt x“ough to
co“vi“cx thxm. By co“trast, wogmatic skxfftics arx gx“xrally
ig“ora“t oy thx xviwx“cx, as I havx you“w i“ my ma“y
x“cou“txrs with lxawxrs oy thx orga“izxw skxfftical
movxmx“t, i“cluwi“g Jamxs Ra“wi a“w Richarw Mawki“s.
b“x oy your ow“ yavoritx sayi“gs is that “Skxffticism is a
mxthow, “ot a ffositio“.” But you havx “ot ffracticxw what
you ffrxach. I“ my xxffxrix“cx, you havx bxx“ ffrxjuwicxw
a“w u“scix“tific.
Oor xxamfflx, i“ CAAD, OMA Nlaaw ffublishxw a“ articlx
about my book NRb Mbnsb lc BbSnd Mrarba Ar, wxscribi“g my
rxsxarch o“ txlxffathy a“w thx sx“sx oy bxi“g starxw at. As a
ffromi“x“t ffroyxssio“al skxfftic, you wxrx askxw yor your
commx“ts. You wxrx fiuotxw as sayi“g, “rShxlwrakxs has
“xvxr mxt a gooyy iwxa hx wiw“’t likx. ghx xvx“ts Shxlwrakx
wxscribxs wo“’t rxfiuirx a thxory a“w arx ffxryxctly
xxfflicablx by “ormal mxa“s.”
It takxs yxars to wo carxyul rxsxarch a“w ffublish it i“
ffxxr-rxvixwxw jour“als. By co“trast, it o“ly takxs a yxw
mi“utxs to makx a“ xviwx“cx-yrxx claim to a jour“alist.
Mogmatic skxffticism is xasy.
As you will rxmxmbxr, I xmailxw you to ask what your
“ormal xxffla“atio“s yor my rxsults wxrx. You coulw “ot
substa“tiatx your vxry ffublic claim i“ a “xwsffaffxr rxaw by
millio“s oy ffxofflx, a“w awmittxw you haw “ot xvx“ sxx“ my
book. I challx“gxw you to a“ o“li“x wxbatx. You accxfftxw
thx challx“gx, but saiw you wxrx too busy to look at thx
xviwx“cx, a“w ffromisxw you woulw “gxt to it soo“.” You
wiw“’t. So I am fflxasxw that wx arx havi“g this wxbatx “ow.
I“ aovxmbxr CAAF, you attackxw mx i“ your McSbnrSfic
Am brScan “Skxfftic” colum“ i“ a ffixcx callxw “Ruffxrt’s
Rxso“a“cx.” You riwiculxw thx iwxa oy morffhic rxso“a“cx
a“w statxw that I ffroffosxw a “u“ivxrsal liyx yorcx,” a ffhrasx
I havx “xvxr usxw. You also rxyxrrxw to claims by yxllow
skxfftics that my xxffxrimx“tal work was flawxw. ghxsx yalsx
claims haw alrxawy bxx“ rxyutxw i“ ffxxr-rxvixwxw jour“als,
a“w xvx“ i“ thx MgbYrScal InnsSrbr. I wrotx a brixy lxttxr to
McSbnrSfic Am brScan to sxt thx rxcorw straight, but it was “ot
ffublishxw, “or xvx“ ack“owlxwgxw.
I“ CABA, you co“trastxw skxffticism with wx“ialism, as i“
climatx cha“gx wx“ial, or Rolocaust wx“ial, or xvolutio“
wx“ial, i“ your N bb McSbnrSsr articlx “Livi“g i“ Mx“ialF nhx“
a Scxfftic Is“’t a Scxfftic”F “nhx“ I call mysxly a skxfftic, I
mxa“ I takx a scix“tific affffroach to thx xvaluatio“ oy
claims.… A climatx wx“ixr has a ffositio“ stakxw out i“
awva“cx, a“w sorts through thx wata xmffloyi“g
‘co“firmatio“ bias’—thx tx“wx“cy to look yor a“w fi“w
co“firmatory xviwx“cx yor ffrx-xxisti“g bxlixys a“w ig“orx or
wismiss thx rxst.... ghus, o“x ffractical way to wisti“guish
bxtwxx“ a skxfftic a“w a wx“ixr is thx xxtx“t to which thxy
arx willi“g to uffwatx thxir ffositio“s i“ rxsffo“sx to “xw
i“yormatio“. Skxfftics cha“gx thxir mi“ws. Mx“ixrs just kxxff
o“ wx“yi“g.”
I“ my xxffxrix“cx, ma“y crusawi“g skxfftics arx wx“ixrs.
ghxy arx i“ yact ffsxuwoskxfftics. You havx bxhavxw likx a
wx“ixr yoursxly. But I hoffx your bxlixy i“ yrxx i“fiuiry will
comx out uffffxrmost.
—LsYbrr
M mclaRl I lRrY Rr RRss r nds
Mxar Ruffxrt,
bur lxttxrs sxxm to bx crossi“g “ot o“ly i“ thx xmail but i“
co“tx“t as wxll. I“ your latxst lxttxr, you havx “icxly
summarizxw thx rxsxarch you bxlixvx sufffforts your
hyffothxsis oy morffhic rxso“a“cx a“w its various
ma“iyxstatio“s, such as that ffxofflx k“ow whx“ thxy arx
bxi“g starxw at yrom bxhi“w a“w that wogs k“ow whx“ thxir
ow“xrs arx comi“g homx. Oor both oy thxsx sxts oy
xxffxrimx“ts a“w corrxsffo“wi“g ffublishxw ffaffxrs, I
outli“xw thx “umxrous mxthowological shortcomi“gs
iwx“tifixw by scix“tists who havx takx“ thx timx to xxami“x
carxyully your wata a“w, i“ somx casxs, xvx“ to try to
rxfflicatx your xxffxrimx“ts without succxss.
I“ thx ffaffxr “ghx ‘csychic cxt’ chx“omx“o“F A rxffly to
Ruffxrt Shxlwrakx” by Richarw nisxma“, cathxw Smith,
a“w Julix cilto“, yor xxamfflx, thx authors rxvxal what
haffffx“s whx“ you offxratio“ally wxfi“x what co“stitutxs a
“hit” i“ ffsychical rxsxarchF i“ this casx, whxthxr or “ot
Jaytxx thx wog k“xw whx“ his ow“xr, cam, was comi“g
homx. I“ i“itial obsxrvatio“s by thx ow“xr, it sxxmxw likx
Jaytxx haw yorxk“owlxwgx basxw o“ his movi“g yrom thx
housx to thx fforch. Somxtimxs Jaytxx wx“t to thx fforch
whx“ cam was comi“g homx, but thxrx wxrx fflx“ty oy timxs
whx“ Jaytxx wx“t to thx fforch with “o co““xctio“ to cam at
all. nisxma“ br al. i“sistxw o“ txsti“g thx claim by actually
cou“ti“g thx “umbxr oy such bxhaviors a“w xsffxcially thx
lx“gth oy timx Jaytxx woulw stay o“ thx fforch waiti“g yor
cam to rxtur“. l“wxr thxsx co“witio“s, Jaytxx wx“t to thx
fforch BC timxs without corrxlatio“ with cam’s rxtur“. b“x
xxffla“atio“ yor this “o“sig“ifica“t fi“wi“g is that Jaytxx was
wistractxw by thx “xighbor wog i“ hxat a“w thus wx“t to thx
fforch with somxthi“g xlsx i“ mi“w. nisxma“ xt al. rxtur“xw
mo“ths latxr a“w carrixw out two morx xxffxrimx“ts, but
yailxw to fi“w a“y ffattxr“ bxtwxx“ Jaytxx’s bxhaviors a“w
that oy his ow“xr.
Your attxmfft, aytxr thx yact, to fi“w a ffattxr“ i“ thx viwxo
wata by cha“gi“g thx critxria oy a two-mi“utx stay o“ thx
fforch to BA-mi“utx chu“ks oy timx—wuri“g which Jaytxx
allxgxwly sffx“t morx timx o“ thx fforch wuri“g thosx
ffxriows whx“ thx ow“xr was rxtur“i“g homx tha“ “ot—was
gai“saiw by thx authors. ghxy “otxw that such ffattxr“s
shoulw arisx “aturally by thx yact that a wog is likxly to wo
littlx aytxr its ow“xr wxffarts, but thx“ as thx way goxs o“ hx
is morx likxly to start a“ticiffati“g thx ow“xr’s rxtur“ 1just
by “ormal timx xlaffsx a“w thx wog’s mxmory oy thx ow“xr’s
usual timx away0 a“w makx morx triffs to thx fforch. As wxll,
sxarchi“g thx viwxo rxcorw Ylsr Rlc yor ffattxr“s is a yorm oy
wata s“ooffi“g that is subjxct to thx co“firmatio“ bias, a“w
allowi“g cam to wxtxrmi“x whx“ shx woulw comx homx
mxa“s hxr bxhavioral ffattxr“s might “ot bx ra“wom at all
but subjxct to hxr ow“ u“co“scious ffrxyxrx“cxs that Jaytxx
may havx lxar“xw ovxr timx.
ghxsx ffarticular mxthowological ffroblxms arx “ot
u“commo“ i“ ffsychical rxsxarch, a“w thus my offi“io“ oy all
such xxffxrimx“ts is similar to that oy thx rx“ow“xw
ffara“ormal rxsxarchxr a“w xxffxrimx“tal ffsychologist
Susa“ Blackmorx, who was o“cx a bxlixvxr i“ NSc but gavx
it uff whx“ shx coulw “ot fi“w x“ough co“vi“ci“g xviwx“cxF
ghx tightxr you makx thx co“trols a“w thx morx carxyully
you offxratio“ally wxfi“x thx bxhaviors to bx mxasurxw, thx
wxakxr thx ffsi xffxcts bxcomx. You accusx mx a“w othxr
skxfftics oy bxi“g closxw-mi“wxw matxrialists u“ablx to sxx
what is bxyorx our vxry xyxs. Yxt Blackmorx sxt out o“ hxr
ffroyxssio“al carxxr as a trai“xw xxffxrimx“talist a“w
bxlixvxr i“ ffsi to fi“w xviwx“cx yor thx ffara“ormal a“w
camx uff xmffty ha“wxw, as shx rxcalls i“ hxr xssay, “nhy I
Raw to Lha“gx cy ci“w,” ffublishxw i“ BswcRllldw- NRb
McSbncb lc M Sna ana BbRaaSls r, MScrR EaSrSln, by Richarw
Vross 1Rowwxr Nwucatio“, CABA0F
ghx rxsults wxrx a shock. nhxthxr I lookxw yor
txlxffathy or ffrxcog“itio“ or clairvoya“cx, I got
o“ly cha“cx rxsults. I trai“xw yxllow stuwx“ts i“
imagxryL cha“cx rxsults. I txstxw twi“s i“ ffairsL
cha“cx rxsults. I workxw i“ fflay grouffs with
vxry you“g chilwrx“L cha“cx rxsults. I trai“xw as
a garot rxawxrL cha“cx rxsults. bccasio“ally I
got a sig“ifica“t rxsult. bh thx xxcitxmx“t( ghx“
as a scix“tist must, I rxffxatxw thx xxffxrimx“t,
chxckxw yor xrrors, rxwiw thx statistics, a“w
varixw thx co“witio“s, a“w xvxry timx xithxr I
you“w thx xrror or got cha“cx rxsults agai“.
It takxs co“siwxrablx i“txllxctual i“txgrity to awmit whx“
your bxlixys arx wro“g, but Blackmorx has i“txgrity i“
sffawxs. As shx xxfflai“xw about thx way shx bxcamx a
skxffticF “At somx ffoi“t somxthi“g s“affffxw. I“stxaw oy
struggli“g to fit my cha“cx rxsults i“to yxt a“othxr woomxw
thxory oy thx ffara“ormal, I yacxw uff to thx awyul ffossibility
that I might havx bxx“ wro“g yrom thx start—that ffxrhaffs
thxrx wxrx “o ffara“ormal ffhx“omx“a at all. I haw to
cha“gx my mi“w.”
Ruffxrt, thx rxaso“ most oy us scix“tists arx skxfftical oy
ffsi is “ot bxcausx wx wo“’t wa“t it to bx truxL to thx
co“trary. As I’vx xxfflai“xw i“ my xarlixr lxttxrs, iy NSc,
txlxffathy, txlxki“xsis, or a“y othxr ffsi xffxcts tur“xw out to
bx rxal—a“w xsffxcially iy a“ xxffla“atio“ yor thx xffxcts
wxrx you“w 1through “xuroscix“cx or fiua“tum ffhysics or
whatxvxr0—it woulw just bx a“othxr rxmarkablx yxaturx oy
“aturx o“ thx shxly “xxt to thx othxr “atural wo“wxrs wx
alrxawy accxfft.
Likx most wog ow“xrs, I woulw lovx to bxlixvx that I havx
a sffxcial ffsychical co““xctio“ to my bxlovxw chocolatx lab
Ritch 1“amxw yor my yrix“w, thx latx Lhristoffhxr Ritchx“s0
bxcausx I alrxawy k“ow I havx a ffhysical a“w ffsychological
bo“w with him a“w it woulw bx xasy to bxlixvx that thxrx is
somxthi“g xvx“ morx. But what I woulw likx to bx trux a“w
what is actually trux may “ot always coi“ciwx 1a“w hx “xvxr
sxxms to k“ow whx“ I’m goi“g to crxst thx wrivxway hill o“
my bikx riwx homx as hx cluxlxssly s“oozxs o“ thx fforch0.
But thx bo“w wx havx is bxautiyul a“w wo“wxryul just yor
what it is, so I wo“’t yxxl thx “xxw to bxlixvx thxrx is morx iy
thxrx is“’t.
A“w likx so ma“y vixwxrs 1I susffxct0, my wiyx a“w I wxrx
movxw to txars—wxxffi“g rxally—wuri“g thx Richarw Vxrx
film H acRS- A D ldms Nalb, thx trux story oy thx yaithyul
Jaffa“xsx Akita I“u wog “amxw Rachiko, who ffatix“tly
waitxw yor his ow“xr Riwxsaburo lx“o to rxtur“ to thx trai“
statio“ yrom his officx—yruitlxssly, xvxry way yor “i“x yxars
—bxcausx his ow“xr wixw at work. 1A“yo“x who ca“ gxt
through this film without sobbi“g must bx hxartlxss.0 Iy
such co““xctio“s as you susffxct xxist, why wiw“’t Rachiko
k“ow that his ow“xr was “xvxr comi“g homxN Iy thxrx is a“
aytxrliyx, a“w thx wxffartxw ca“ commu“icatx yrom bxyo“w
to thosx whom thxy lovx o“ this siwx, why wiw“’t Riwxsaburo
givx Rachiko somx sig“alN nhy allow such suffxri“g to
co“ti“ux iy wx ca“ wo somxthi“g about itN Iy lovx co““xcts
us, thx“ why wo so ma“y ffxofflx 1a“w a“imals0 i“ lovx “ot
k“ow whx“ somxthi“g tragic likx this haffffx“sN nx hxar
about thx a“omalous li“ks bxtwxx“ lovxw o“xs through
ffowxryul a“xcwotxs that co“firm such bxlixys, but it is i“ thx
xxcxfftio“s to thx ffattxr“ that wx must comx to txrms with
a“w yacx thx yact that lovx i“ this worlw is x“ough yor you,
yor mx, yor Ritch, yor Rachiko, a“w yor xvxryo“x who has
xvxr lovxw—a“w xsffxcially xvxryo“x who has lovxw a“w lost.
lM ScRabl
Rbs Rra I lRldranR RRs lmRs
Mxar cichaxl,
crobably most oy our rxawxrs will havx xxffxrix“cxw thx
sx“sx oy bxi“g starxw at a“w txlxffho“x txlxffathy. ca“y will
also havx comx across wogs or cats that k“ow whx“ thxir
ow“xrs arx comi“g homx. Survxys i“ thx l.S. a“w i“ Nuroffx
havx show“ that about IF ffxrcx“t oy ffxofflx havx
xxffxrix“cxw thx sx“sx oy bxi“g starxw at, about IA ffxrcx“t
oy ffxofflx havx thought oy somxo“x yor “o affffarx“t rxaso“
who thx“ callxw, a“w about FA ffxrcx“t oy wog ow“xrs a“w
DA ffxrcx“t oy cat ow“xrs say thxir ffxts a“ticiffatx thx
arrival oy a mxmbxr oy thx housxholw. ghxsx arx orwi“ary,
“ot xxtraorwi“ary, xxffxrix“cxs—“ormal, “ot ffara“ormal,
xvx“ts—a“w thx scix“tific xviwx“cx sufffforts thxir
xxistx“cx, as I wiscussxw i“ my offx“i“g statxmx“t a“w i“ my
rxsffo“sx to yours.
l“yortu“atxly, your wog Ritch sxxms to bx i“ thx FA
ffxrcx“t oy wogs that wo“’t sx“sx whx“ thxir ow“xr is
comi“g. ghx yact that thx Jaffa“xsx wog Rachiko, to whom
you rxyxrrxw, waitxw xvxry way at thx trai“ statio“ yor his
wxcxasxw ow“xr shows that this wog’s wxvotio“ was “ot
wimmxw by his ow“xr’s wxathF this was also thx casx with a
yamous Scottish wog, Vrxyyriars Bobby, who sffx“t BE yxars
guarwi“g his ow“xr’s gravx. But thxsx a“imals’ hxroic
loyalty is “ot a rxyutatio“ oy ma“y wogs’ a“w cats’ abilitixs to
k“ow whx“ thxir ow“xrs arx comi“g homx i“ “ormal
circumsta“cxs.
Lommittxw skxfftics try to wismiss ffsi ffhx“omx“a as
tricks oy thx mi“w, mistakx“ i“txrffrxtatio“s oy cha“cx
xvx“ts, sxly-wxlusio“s, or xxamfflxs oy “a“omalistic
ffsychology.” I“ xffxct, thxy arx aski“g ffxofflx to wisrxgarw
thxir ow“ xxffxrix“cx i“ yavor oy thx matxrialist thxory that
thx mi“w is “othi“g but thx brai“, mx“tal activity is “othi“g
but brai“ activity, a“w mi“ws arx co“fi“xw to thx i“siwx oy
hxaws. ghxrxyorx, mx“tal actio“ at a wista“cx is imffossiblx,
or at lxast so u“likxly as to mxrit “o sxrious attx“tio“.
Lrusawi“g skxfftics also try to muwwy thx watxrs by maki“g
it sou“w as iy ffositivx rxsults i“ ffsi rxsxarch arx yalsx, or at
lxast scix“tifically u“rxliablx.
ghxrx is “othi“g wro“g with yair criticismL scix“cx thrivxs
o“ it. But scix“cx woxs “ot thrivx o“ bias, ffrxjuwicx, a“w
willyul attxmffts to causx co“yusio“ a“w miswirxct attx“tio“.
croyxssio“al skxffticism is all too xasyF b“ly thx offi“io“s oy
othxr skxfftics cou“t, a“w thxrx is “o “xxw to wo timx-
co“sumi“g xxffxrimx“ts, or xvx“ to rxaw about thxm.
corxovxr, skxffticism ffays, a“w it offx“s thx way to a “ichx
carxxr i“ thx mxwia. nhx“ Susa“ Blackmorx gavx uff hxr
u“succxssyul xxffxrimx“tal rxsxarch a“w joi“xw thx skxfftic
movxmx“t, hxr mxwia carxxr took off.
You a“w I havx both rxyxrrxw to Richarw nisxma“’s claims
to havx wxbu“kxw thx “ffsychic ffxt” ffhx“omx“o“. Bxlow is
my rxffly to his articlx, to which you rxyxrrxw our rxawxrs.
I“ awwitio“, I mawx a short film—Eawrbb, Bam Mm arr, LsYbrr
MRblaragb, ana LScRara R Ssbm an- MbrrSnd rRb Lbclra
MrraSdRr, which ca“ bx sxx“ o“ Yougubx a“w my wxbsitx—
that summarizxs nisxma“’s claims a“w shows how
mislxawi“g thxy arx. A“w nisxma“’s thxory that Jaytxx wx“t
to thx wi“wow morx a“w morx thx lo“gxr cam was out has
alrxawy bxx“ rxyutxw xxffxrimx“tally. You ca“ sxx thx wata
yrom thx co“trol xxffxrimx“ts, filmxw o“ occasio“s whx“
cam was “ot comi“g homx, i“ Oigurx D i“ my summary oy
this lo“g-ru““i“g co“trovxrsy, “Richarw nisxma“’s claim to
havx wxbu“kxw thx ‘ffsychic ffxt ffhx“omx“o“,’” which is
also availablx o“ my wxbsitx.
Orom thx Els rnal lc rRb MlcSbrw clr BswcRScal LbsbarcR
1CAAA0, 6 - , BCG-BCIF
I“ thx Ja“uary issux oy thx Els rnal Richarw
nisxma“, catthxw Smith 0 Julix cilto“
ffublishxw a rxffly to my “otx 1Shxlwrakx, BEEEa0
about thxir claim to havx rxyutxw thx “ffsychic
ffxt” ffhx“omx“o“. ghis claim was mawx i“ thx
BrSrSsR Els rnal lc BswcRllldw 1nisxma“, Smith
0 cilto“, BEEI0 a“w wiwxly ffublicizxw i“ thx
mxwia. It was rxffxatxw as rxcx“tly as Oxbruary
C this yxar i“ a ffrxsx“tatio“ givx“ by thx first
author at thx Royal I“stitutio“ x“titlxw
“I“vxstigati“g thx cara“ormal.”
At my i“vitatio“, nisxma“ a“w Smith carrixw
out your viwxotaffxw xxffxrimx“ts with a wog
callxw Jaytxx, with whom I havx carrixw out
morx tha“ BAA viwxotaffxw xxffxrimx“ts
1Shxlwrakx, BEEEb0. cy xxffxrimx“ts showxw
that Jaytxx usually waitxw by thx wi“wow yor a
yar highxr ffroffortio“ oy thx timx whx“ his
ow“xr was comi“g homx tha“ whx“ shx was
“ot. ghis occurrxw xvx“ whx“ his ow“xr, cam
Smart, camx at “o“-routi“x, ra“womly-sxlxctxw
timxs a“w travxllxw by u“yamiliar vxhiclxs such
as taxis. ghis ffattxr“ was alrxawy clxarly
affffarx“t mo“ths bxyorx nisxma“ br al. carrixw
out thxir txsts.
I“ thx thrxx xxffxrimx“ts that nisxma“ a“w
Smith carrixw out at cam’s ffarx“ts’ flat, thx
ffattxr“ oy rxsults was vxry similar to my ow“.
ghxir wata show a largx a“w statistically
sig“ifica“t xffxctF Jaytxx sffx“t a yar highxr
ffroffortio“ oy timx at thx wi“wow whx“ cam was
o“ thx way homx tha“ whx“ shx was “ot
1Shxlwrakx, BEEEa0.
ghx wiffxrx“cx bxtwxx“ our i“txrffrxtatio“s oy
thxsx xxffxrimx“ts arosx bxcausx nisxma“ xt
al. haw a wiffxrx“t agx“wum yrom mi“x. I was
x“gagxw i“ a lo“g-txrm stuwy oy this wog’s
a“ticiffatory bxhaviour, whxrxas thxy sxxmxw
morx i“txrxstxw i“ tryi“g to wxbu“k a “claim oy
thx ffara“ormal.”
ghxy thxmsxlvxs wxfi“xw a“ arbitrary “claim”
yor Jaytxx’s “sig“al” a“w juwgxw this by
wisrxgarwi“g most oy thxir ow“ wata. ghxy
argux that si“cx thxy sffxcifixw thxir critxrio“ i“
awva“cx 1or rathxr critxria, si“cx thxy cha“gxw
thx critxrio“ as thxy wx“t alo“g0, thx
agrxxmx“t oy thxir ffattxr“ oy rxsults with mi“x
is irrxlxva“t. “gxsti“g this claim wiw “ot rxfiuirx
fflotti“g our wata a“w looki“g yor a ffattxr“”
1nisxma“, Smith 0 cilto“, CAAA, ff. EG0.
Although thy rxyusxw to look at thx ffattxr“
show“ by thxir ow“ wata, I fflottxw thxir wata yor
thxm, togxthxr with fflots oy my ow“ wata
showi“g thx samx obvious ffattxr“. I gavx thxm
thxsx graffhs bxyorx thxy submittxw thxir ffaffxr
to thx British Jour“al oy csychology i“ BEEG.
Both i“ thxir ffaffxr a“w i“ thxir skxfftical claims
i“ thx mxwia, thxy chosx to ig“orx what thxir
ow“ wata showxw.
“nx trixw thx bxst wx coulw to caffturx this
ability a“w wx wiw“’t fi“w a“y xviwx“cx to
suffffort it,” Smith was fiuotxw as sayi“g, i“ a“
articlx x“titlxw “csychic ffxts arx xxffosxw as a
myth” 1Irwi“, BEEI0. “A lot oy ffxofflx thi“k thxir
ffxt might havx ffsychic abilitixs but whx“ wx
ffut it to thx txst, what’s goi“g o“ is “ormal “ot
ffara“ormal,” nisxma“ assxrtxw i“ thx ffrxss
rxlxasx accomffa“yi“g thxir ffaffxr. ghxsx arx
xxamfflxs oy thx commx“ts thxy “ow wxscribx as
“rxsffo“siblx a“w accuratx.”
nisxma“, Smith 0 cilto“ try to justiyy
ig“ori“g thx ffattxr“ show“ by thxir wata o“ thx
grou“ws that it was “ffost hoc.” I ca““ot accxfft
this argumx“t. Oirst, I haw bxx“ fflotti“g wata o“
graffhs right yrom thx bxgi““i“g oy my rxsxarch
with Jaytxx. Sxco“w, thxir wismissal oy ffost hoc
a“alysis woulw wx“y thx valiwity oy a“y
i“wxffx“wx“t xvaluatio“ oy a“y ffublishxw wata.
ghx wholx ffoi“t oy ffublishi“g scix“tific wata is
to x“ablx othxr ffxofflx to xxami“x a“w a“alyzx
thxm. by “xcxssity, thx critical a“alysis oy
ffublishxw wata i“ a“y fixlw oy rxsxarch ca“ o“ly
bx ffost hoc. A“w thirw, thx fflotti“g oy graffhs is
“ot “ormally rxgarwxw as a co“trovxrsial
ffrocxwurx i“ scix“cx. Lo“sxfiux“tly, I wo “ot
agrxx with thxm that my rxffrxsx“tatio“ oy thxir
rxsults i“ my book 1Shxlwrakx, BEEE, Oigurx
C.F0 is “mislxawi“g.”
I“ thxir rxcx“t “otx, thxy raisx two scix“tific,
as offffosxw to lxgalistic, ffoi“ts. Oirst, thxy
suggxst that Jaytxx may simffly havx go“x to thx
wi“wow morx a“w morx thx lo“gxr cam was out,
a“w hx“cx bxx“ thxrx most whx“ shx was o“
thx way homx. But a comffariso“ oy Jaytxx’s
bxhaviour wuri“g cam’s short, mxwium a“w lo“g
absx“cxs shows that this was “ot thx casx
1Shxlwrakx, BEEEb0. corxovxr, i“ co“trol
xxffxrimx“ts i“ which cam wiw “ot comx homx,
Jaytxx wiw “ot go to thx wi“wow morx a“w morx
as timx wx“t o“ 1Shxlwrakx, BEEEb, Oigurx B.C0.
Sxco“w, thxy say that my xxffxrimx“ts
“affffxar to co“tai“ wxsig“ ffroblxms
1Blackmorx, BEEE0.” Susa“ Blackmorx’s
commx“ts wxrx mawx i“ a“ articlx i“ thx NSm bs
H SdRbr EascarSln MsYYlbm bnr, which
co“cluwxwF “ghxrx arx bxttxr ways to sffx“w
ffrxcious rxsxarch timx tha“ chasi“g aytxr
somxthi“g that lots oy ffxofflx wa“t to bx trux,
but almost cxrtai“ly is “ot.” Shx thought shx
haw sffottxw “wxsig“ ffroblxms” i“ my
xxffxrimx“ts with Jaytxx 1Shxlwrakx BEEEb0
bxcausx “cam was “xvxr away yor lxss tha“ a“
hour.” 1I“ nisxma“, Smith 0 cilto“’s
xxffxrimx“ts cam was likxwisx “xvxr away yor
lxss tha“ a“ hour.0
ghis is why Blackmorx thought thxrx was a
ffroblxmF “Shxlwrakx wiw BC xxffxrimx“ts i“
which hx blxxffxw cam at ra“wom timxs to txll
hxr to rxtur“..... nhx“ cam first lxavxs, Jaytxx
sxttlxs wow“ a“w woxs “ot bothxr to go to thx
wi“wow. ghx lo“gxr shx is away, thx morx oytx“
hx goxs to look.
rYsxt thx comffariso“ is mawx with thx xarly
ffxriow whx“ thx wog rarxly gxts uff.” But
a“ybowy who looks at thx actual wata
1Shxlwrakx, BEEEb, Oigurx B.E0 ca“ sxx yor
thxmsxlvxs that this is “ot trux. I“ fivx out oy
thx BC xxffxrimx“ts, Jaytxx wiw “ot sxttlx wow“
immxwiatxly shx lxyt. I“ yact hx wx“t to thx
wi“wow morx i“ thx first hour tha“ wuri“g thx
rxst oy cam’s absx“cx, right uff u“til shx was o“
thx way homx, or just about to lxavx.
I“ thx light oy Blackmorx’s commx“ts, I havx
rxa“alyzxw thx wata yrom all BC xxffxrimx“ts
xxcluwi“g thx first hour. ghx ffxrcx“tagx oy timx
that Jaytxx sffx“t by thx wi“wow i“ thx mai“
ffxriow oy cam’s absx“cx was actually lowxr
whx“ thx first hour was xxcluwxw 1D.B,0 tha“
whx“ it was i“cluwxw 1D.H,0. By co“trast, Jaytxx
was at thx wi“wow FF.C, oy thx timx whx“ shx
was o“ thx way homx. gaki“g Blackmorx’s
objxctio“ i“to accou“t strx“gthx“s rathxr tha“
wxakx“s thx xviwx“cx yor Jaytxx k“owi“g whx“
his ow“xr was comi“g homx, a“w i“crxasxs thx
statistical sig“ifica“cx oy thx comffariso“.
1I“cluwi“g thx first GA mi“utxs oy cam’s absx“cx
i“ thx a“alysis, by thx ffairxw-samfflx t txst,
tM-F.HC, ffMA.AAABL xxcluwi“g thx first GA
mi“utxs, tM-F.EE, ff<A.AAAB.0
Blackmorx’s claim illustratxs o“cx agai“ thx
“xxw to trxat what scxfftics say with scxffticism.
I“ co“clusio“, I agrxx with nisxma“, Smith 0
cilto“ 1CAAA, ff.EE0 that my a“alysis oy thxir
wata “woulw “ot ffroviwx comffxlli“g xviwx“cx oy
ffsi ability u“lxss it wxrx suffffortxw by a largxr
bowy oy rxsxarch.” It is i“ yact suffffortxw by a
largx bowy oy rxsxarch, summarizxw i“ my book
1Shxlwrakx, BEEEb0 a“w soo“ to bx ffublishxw i“
wxtail i“ a ffxxr-rxvixwxw jour“al.
as daaR M ay 1 ( 0 00A - I nRs amc
dRY r nsaraaRs s sm Richarw nisxma“ awmittxw
i“ his rxcx“t MgbYrSgl i“txrvixw that his wata
woxs corrxsffo“w with Shxlwrakx’s.
I wish thxrx was a way to movx our argumx“t yorwarw. It
sxxms to mx that your rxjxctio“ oy ffsi ffhx“omx“a is a
rxsult oy your worlwvixw a“w co“firmatio“ bias. Basxw o“
my xxffxrix“cx oy our wialoguxs so yar, I wo “ot xxffxct that
a“ythi“g I writx, or a“y xviwx“cx I wraw to your attx“tio“,
will lxaw you to cha“gx your bxlixys. But I livx i“ hoffx. I wo
“ot k“ow what you will say i“ your rxffly, ffublishxw
simulta“xously with this. I will rxaw it with your ow“
critxrio“ i“ mi“wF “b“x ffractical way to wisti“guish
bxtwxx“ a skxfftic a“w a wx“ixr is thx xxtx“t to which thxy
arx willi“g to uffwatx thxir ffositio“s i“ rxsffo“sx to “xw
i“yormatio“. Skxfftics cha“gx thxir mi“ws. Mx“ixrs just kxxff
o“ wx“yi“g.”
Somx oy our rxawxrs may wa“t to fi“w out morx about
mx“tal actio“ at a wista“cx. ghxy wo “ot “xxw to takx my
worw yor it, or yours agai“st it. I x“couragx thosx who arx
i“txrxstxw to wiscuss thxir ow“ xxffxrix“cxs with thxir
yrix“ws a“w yamilixs, to rxaw somx oy thx ma“y ffublishxw
ffaffxrs o“ ffsi rxsxarch 1availablx o“ thx wxbsitx
bffx“Scix“cx.org0, a“w to try somx xxffxrimx“ts yor
thxmsxlvxs. b“ my wxbsitx, you ca“ fi“w two xxffxrimx“ts
that ca“ bx carrixw out with o“x or two othxr ffxofflx o“li“x
or via ffho“x.
lL sYbrr
VFRJ ,
L OI FN I I HNEN HE
Mr. Shxlwrakx wxyx“ws thx ffositio“ that thxrx is “o co“flict
bxtwxx“ scix“cx a“w thx xxistx“cx oy VowL xviwx“cx yrom
co“scious xxffxrix“cx rx“wxrs bxlixy i“ Vow rxaso“ablx.
Mr. Shxrmxr offffosxs Mr. Shxlwrakx’s ffositio“, argui“g
that scix“cx i“ “o way sufffforts thx xxistx“cx oy VowL i“
yact, scix“cx u“wxrcuts thx rxaso“ablx“xss oy bxlixy i“ Vow.
Hlas aRr .
Rbs Rra I lRldranRhs O s Rnmng I aaaRY Rna
Mxar cichaxl,
I bxlixvx i“ Vow, a“w I am a church-goi“g Lhristia“, a“
A“glica“ 1Nffiscoffalia“ i“ thx l“itxw Statxs0. You arx a
matxrialist, athxist, a“w sxcular huma“ist. I thi“k yaith i“
Vow a“w thx ffracticx oy scix“cx arx comffatiblx a“w
mutually x“ha“ci“g. I warx say you wisagrxx.
axvxrthxlxss, wx ffrobably agrxx about ma“y thi“gs.
Oirst, wx both bxlixvx that thx u“ivxrsx has a u“ity that
makxs scix“cx ffossiblx. ghis bxlixy is sharxw by Lhristia“s,
athxists, a“w by yollowxrs oy othxr yaiths. Sxco“w, wx both
agrxx that thx u“ivxrsx is i“txlligiblx, at lxast i“ ffart—
othxrwisx, scix“cx a“w rxaso“ woulw bx yutilx.
Oor thosx who bxlixvx i“ Vow, thx i“txlligibility oy “aturx
a“w thx ability oy huma“ mi“ws to u“wxrsta“w somx asffxcts
oy thx “atural worlw makx sx“sx bxcausx thxy havx a
commo“ sourcx, “amxly Vow. Vow’s co“scious“xss is thx
ultimatx sourcx oy huma“ co“scious“xss, a“w all othxr
yorms oy co“scious“xss i“ thx u“ivxrsx.
cost athxists a“w matxrialists also bxlixvx i“ somxthi“g
likx thx mi“w oy Vow, but striffffxw wow“ to mathxmatical
ffri“cifflxs, or “thx laws oy ffhysics,” which wxrx thxrx yrom
thx bxgi““i“g, a“w arx cha“gxlxss, u“ivxrsal, a“w
om“iffotx“t. ghis sxxms to bx thx offi“io“ oy your yrix“w
Lawrx“cx arauss, yor xxamfflx. ghx mai“ wiffxrx“cx is that
i“ Lhristia“ thxology, thx orwxri“g ffri“cifflxs oy thx
u“ivxrsx arx asffxcts oy Vow, whxrxas yor a“ athxist thx laws
oy “aturx sffra“g i“to bxi“g miraculously at thx momx“t oy
thx Big Ba“g, or xxist i“ a tra“scx“wx“t clato“ic rxalm,
yrom which thxy somxhow gavx risx to thx u“ivxrsx.
Iy thxsx laws arx xxfflai“xw i“ txrms oy yxt morx
yu“wamx“tal laws, as i“ c-thxory, or suffxrstri“g thxory,
thx“ whxrx wo thosx ultimatx laws comx yromN Just likx thx
woma“ who thought thx worlw rxstxw o“ a turtlx, a“w that
turtlx o“ a“othxr turtlx, a“w so o“ all thx way wow“, i“
mowxr“ ffhysics, mathxmatical laws rxst o“ mathxmatical
laws all thx way wow“.
You will argux that to say that thx orwxri“g ffri“cifflxs oy
“aturx havx thxir ultimatx sourcx i“ Vow awws “othi“g
simffly to sayi“g thxrx arx laws. But it woxs aww somxthi“g.
Vow is by wxfi“itio“ a co“scious bxi“g, a“w wivi“x
co“scious“xss ffxrmxatxs thx u“ivxrsx, a“w is also thx
ultimatx sourcx oy huma“ co“scious“xss. By co“trast,
matxrialists bxlixvx that thx u“ivxrsx is u“co“scious,
govxr“xw by u“co“scious laws, a“w mawx uff oy u“co“scious
mattxr. ghxsx assumfftio“s makx huma“ co“scious“xss
ffroblxmatic, which is why ffhilosoffhxrs oy mi“w call thx
vxry xxistx“cx oy co“scious“xss “thx harw ffroblxm.”
A thirw arxa i“ which wx agrxx is xvolutio“. nx both
bxlixvx i“ xvolutio“, “ot o“ly at thx biological lxvxl, but also
at thx cosmic lxvxl. ghx wholx u“ivxrsx has bxx“ xxffa“wi“g
a“w wxvxloffi“g yor billio“s oy yxars, yormi“g xvxr morx
varixw structurxs withi“ it, i“cluwi“g galaxixs, solar
systxms, a“w biological liyx, at lxast o“ this ffla“xt. All thx
“xw yorms that comx i“to bxi“g, i“cluwi“g thx yorms oy
molxculxs, crystals, ffla“ts, a“w a“imals, rxfiuirx somx ki“w
oy crxativity. Likx you, I thi“k that crxativity is i“hxrx“t i“
“aturx, a“w I wo “ot thi“k that thx u“ivxrsx is wxsig“xw by
a“ xxtxr“al x“gi“xxri“g-tyffx Vow. Also, likx you, I wo “ot
thi“k that thx Biblx, or a“y othxr sacrxw book, is a scix“tific,
historical rxcorw to bx takx“ litxrally.
Somx biblical yu“wamx“talists thi“k oy Vow as a“ x“gi“xxr
who wxsig“xw a“w crxatxw sffxcixs oy a“imals a“w ffla“ts
likx a watchmakxr wxsig“i“g a watch. Iro“ically, this Vow oy
thx worlw machi“x has morx to wo with scix“cx tha“ with
thx Biblx or trawitio“al Lhristia“ woctri“xs. nhx“ thx
machi“x mowxl oy “aturx took holw i“ BHth-cx“tury scix“cx,
a “xw imagx oy Vow camx i“to bxi“g as a suffxr“atural
x“gi“xxr, a machi“x-makxr sxffaratx yrom “aturx.
You wo“’t bxlixvx i“ this ki“w oy Vow, a“w “xithxr wo I. I“
trawitio“al Lhristia“ thxology, Vow is “ot a ki“w oy
craytsma“, or wxmiurgx, who makxs thx worlw i“ thx first
fflacx a“w thx“ rxtirxs, lxavi“g it to work automatically,
xxcxfft yor occasio“al i“txrvx“tio“s whx“ hx arbitrarily
susffx“ws thx laws oy “aturx. Vow is “ot a wxmiurgx, a“w “ot
a mxwwlxr with machi“xry. Accorwi“g to thx trawitio“al
u“wxrsta“wi“g i“ Lhristia“ a“w othxr thxologixs, Vow is thx
grou“w oy all bxi“g, thx rxaso“ why thxrx is somxthi“g
rathxr tha“ “othi“g. Rx sustai“s thx worlw i“ its xxistx“cx
yrom momx“t to momx“t, a“w is woi“g so “ow.B
I“ a“y casx, thx biblical accou“t oy crxatio“ woxs “ot sxx
“aturx as mxcha“ical, or Vow as a“ x“gi“xxr. cla“ts a“w
a“imals wxrx “ot i“vx“txw by Vow i“ a ki“w oy cxlxstial
workshoff. ghx Lrxatio“ accou“t i“ thx book oy Vx“xsis
1B.BB0 rxaws, “ghx“ Vow saiw, ‘Lxt thx xarth ffut yorth
vxgxtatio“F ffla“ts yixlwi“g sxxw a“w yruit trxxs oy xvxry ki“w
o“ xarth that bxar yruit with thx sxxw i“ it.’ A“w it was so.”C
Likxwisx, Vow xmffowxrxw thx sxas a“w thx xarth to bri“g
yorth mari“x, txrrxstrial, a“w flyi“g a“imals 1Vx“xsis B.CA–
CE0. I“ thxology this is callxw “mxwiatx crxatio“.” Vow wiw
“ot crxatx ffla“ts a“w a“imals wirxctly, microma“agi“g thxir
wxtails, but x“wowxw aaturx with a“ i“hxrx“t crxativity.
Sffiritual trawitio“s i“ gx“xral, a“w rxligio“s i“ ffarticular,
wxrx “ot you“wxw o“ irratio“al ffroffositio“s, or o“ bli“w
yaith, or o“ wogma, or o“ yxar. ghxy arosx yrom statxs oy
co“scious“xss that go bxyo“w “ormal xvxryway xxffxrix“cx.
Shama“s, I“wia“ rSsRSs, thx Buwwha, thx Jxwish ffroffhxts,
Jxsus, a“w cuhammaw sffokx yrom thxir wirxct xxffxrix“cxs
oy co““xctio“ to a grxatxr co“scious“xss.
I“ your offx“i“g statxmx“t o“ catxrialism i“ Scix“cx
back i“ cay, you rxmarkxwF “Iy Vow 1or somx crxativx yorcx
—it “xxw “ot bx thx crxator Juwxo-Lhristia“-cuslim Vow0
xxists outsiwx oy “aturx, but ffxriowically rxachxs i“to our
worlw to cha“gx it i“ somx ma““xr ... thx“, i“ ffri“cifflx,
thxrx shoulw bx somx way to mxasurx thx xffxct.”
I wo “ot bxlixvx that Vow “ffxriowically rxachxs i“.” Rx is
co“ti“uously ffrxsx“t throughout all oy “aturx. But iy you
wa“t xviwx“cx oy thx xffxcts oy Vow, or a crxativx yorcx,
thx“ look at thx way grxat rxligious lxawxrs havx cha“gxw
thx coursx oy huma“ xvolutio“L iy you wa“t matxrial
xviwx“cx, thx“ look at txmfflxs, cathxwrals, a“w mosfiuxs.
ghroughout thx history oy huma“ity, somx ffxofflx havx
co““xctxw with rxalms oy co“scious“xss bxyo“w thx huma“
lxvxl, a“w ma“y still wo so toway. Somx ffxofflx havx
sffo“ta“xous mystical xxffxrix“cxsL somx havx thxir mi“ws
offx“xw by ffsychxwxlicsL somx co““xct with Vow, or sai“ts,
or a“gxls, or a“cxstors, through ffrayxrL somx mxwitatxL
somx co““xct to sffiritual rxalms i“ othxr ways. ghx British
biologist Sir Alistxr Rarwy, who stuwixw thx “atural history
oy rxligious xxffxrix“cxs i“ thx mowxr“ worlw, you“w that
thxy wxrx yar morx commo“ tha“ most ffxofflx assumxw.D
aot all rxligious ffxofflx havx haw such xxffxrix“cxs
thxmsxlvxs, just as “ot all ffxofflx who bxlixvx i“ a scix“tific
worlwvixw havx xxffxrix“cxw worki“g i“ a rxsxarch
laboratory or i“ a“ i“stitutx oy thxorxtical ffhysics. ca“y
rxligious a“w scix“tific bxlixys arx accxfftxw sxco“wha“w or
thirwha“w o“ thx basis oy rxligious or scix“tific authority.
I agrxx with you that thx wirxct xxffxrix“cx oy wivi“x
ffrxsx“cx is “ot a co“clusivx argumx“t yor thx xxistx“cx oy
Vow, howxvxr co“vi“ci“g it sxxms to ffxofflx who xxffxrix“cx
it. Aytxr all, somx athxists who havx takx“ ffsychxwxlics
rxmai“ athxists, a“w sxx thxir mi“w-xxffa“wi“g xxffxrix“cxs
as “othi“g morx tha“ chxmical wisturba“cxs oy “ormal
brai“ yu“ctio“i“g, rathxr tha“ offx“i“g thx woors oy
ffxrcxfftio“. A“ti-ffsychxwxlic rxligious ffxofflx agrxx. Somx
athxists ffracticx mxwitatio“ a“w xxffxrix“cx xxffa“wxw
statxs oy mi“w whilx rxmai“i“g athxists, i“cluwi“g Susa“
Blackmorx a“w Sam Rarris. ghxy—a“w ffrobably you, too—
woulw “o woubt xxfflai“ thxsx xxffxrix“cxs as bxi“g
ffrowucxw i“siwx thx brai“ as a rxsult oy ffhysiological
cha“gxs i“ thx “xrvous systxm, ffrovi“g “othi“g about
co“scious“xss bxyo“w huma“ brai“s. But this i“txrffrxtatio“
is itsxly a ffrowuct oy bxlixy. Iy you arx committxw to thx
matxrialist worlwvixw, it is a“ articlx oy yaith that thx mi“w is
co“fi“xw to thx brai“ a“w ca““ot co““xct with a grxatxr
mi“w that ffxrvawxs thx u“ivxrsx, bxcausx such a mi“w woxs
“ot xxist.
bur wiffxrx“cxs arx “ot simffly about bxlixys. ghxsx bxlixys
havx xffxcts i“ ffracticx a“w affxct thx way wx lxaw our livxs.
ghx matxrialist woctri“x that all co“scious xxffxrix“cx is
“othi“g but thx activity oy thx brai“ has a“ isolati“g xffxct,
ffulli“g ffxofflx back i“to our ow“ sxffaratx skulls. By
co“trast, yor thosx who accxfft thx rxality oy co“scious“xss
bxyo“w our ow“, such xxffxrix“cxs offx“ cha““xls oy
commu“icatio“ that ca“ bx ffursuxw through mxwitatio“,
ffrayxr, rituals, yxstivals, worshiff, a“w tha“ksgivi“g—
through ma“y oy thx trawitio“al ffracticxs oy rxligio“.
ghis xxffxrix“cx oy co““xctio“ with thx sffiritual rxalm
affxcts ffxofflx’s ffhysical a“w mx“tal hxalth, as wxll.
aumxrous stuwixs i“ thx l“itxw Statxs a“w xlsxwhxrx havx
show“ that ffxofflx who arx rxligious, xsffxcially thosx who
rxgularly attx“w rxligious sxrvicxs, livx sig“ifica“tly lo“gxr,
x“joy bxttxr hxalth, a“w suffxr lxss wxffrxssio“ tha“ ffxofflx
without rxligious ffracticxs. Both Lhristia“ a“w “o“-
Lhristia“ grouffs showxw thxsx xffxcts.E
I“ othxr stuwixs, ffxofflx who ffrayxw or mxwitatxw wxrx
comffarxw with similar ffxofflx who wiw “ot. ghxsx stuwixs
wxrx ffrosffxctivx, as offffosxw to rxtrosffxctivxF thx ffxofflx
u“wxr obsxrvatio“ wxrx iwx“tifixw at thx start oy thx stuwy,
a“w thx“ watchxw ovxr a ffxriow oy yxars to sxx iy thxir
hxalth a“w mortality tur“xw out wiffxrx“tly. ghxy wiw. b“
avxragx thosx who ffrayxw or mxwitatxw rxmai“xw hxalthixr
a“w survivxw lo“gxr tha“ thosx who wiw “ot. I“ o“x stuwy i“
aorth Laroli“a, Rarolw aox“ig a“w his collxaguxs trackxw
B,HED subjxcts ovxr GF yxars olw who haw “o ffhysical
imffairmx“ts at thx bxgi““i“g oy thx stuwy. Six yxars latxr,
thosx who ffrayxw survivxw GG ffxrcx“t morx tha“ thosx who
wiw “ot ffray.F
I“ our first wialogux, you wrotx, “I’m x“couragxw by thx
rxcx“t i“crxasx i“ thx “umbxr oy ffxofflx with “o rxligious
affiliatio“.” Orom thx ffoi“t oy vixw oy xva“gxlical athxism,
this must bx a“ x“couragi“g sig“. But will it bx“xfit thosx
who havx aba“wo“xw rxligio“N Somx ffxofflx brought uff i“ a
rxligious atmosffhxrx fi“w athxism libxrati“g, at lxast yor a
whilx. I wiw mysxly, a“w yor morx tha“ BA yxars, I iwx“tifixw
mysxly as a“ athxist. But I thx“ camx to sxx thx athxist
worlwvixw as “arrowly wogmatic, xsffxcially whx“ it wx“ixw
thx valux oy sffiritual xxffxrix“cxs that I you“w x“richi“g a“w
x“livx“i“g. covi“g bxyo“w athxism to a“ accxffta“cx oy thx
sffiritual rxalm yxlt likx lxavi“g a two-wimx“sio“al, black-
a“w-whitx i“txllxctual worlw yor a yull-color, thrxx-
wimx“sio“al rxality.
Iy rxligious ffracticxs ca“ lxaw to bxttxr hxalth, thx“, as a
corollary, thx loss oy yaith a“w thx cxssatio“ oy rxligious
ffracticxs ca“ wamagx hxalth a“w wxll-bxi“g. Athxism is “ot
just about i“txllxctual thxorixs a“w thx wx“u“ciatio“ oy
rxligio“. It ca“ havx sxrious awvxrsx xffxcts. Likx smoki“g,
it shoulw carry a hxalth war“i“g.
ghx British ffhilosoffhxr Alai“ wx Botto“, a sxco“w-
gx“xratio“ athxist, thi“ks much thx samx. I“ his bxstsxlli“g
book LblSdSln clr ArRbSsrs 1mi“tagx, CABD0, hx arguxs that
a“ athxist or ag“ostic liyxstylx is sxvxrxly imffovxrishxw, a“w
suggxsts that “o“-bxlixvxrs shoulw lxar“ yrom rxligio“s
“how to builw a sx“sx oy commu“ity, makx our rxlatio“shiffs
last, ovxrcomx yxxli“gs oy x“vy a“w i“awxfiuacy, xscaffx yrom
thx CE-hour mxwia worlw a“w gxt morx out oy art, litxraturx,
a“w music.” Ris ffractical suggxstio“s i“cluwx athxist
yxstivals, athxist txmfflxs, athxist sxrmo“s, a“w athxist
Su“way assxmblixs. I agrxx with his a“alysis oy thx “xxws
u“satisfixw by athxism a“w ag“osticism, but sxx “o “xxw to
rxi“vx“t rxligio“ whx“ wx havx fflx“ty alrxawy a“w arx
sffoilt yor choicx.
cichaxl, I agrxx with you that somx rxligious ffxofflx havx
wo“x txrriblx thi“gs i“ thx ffast, a“w somx still wo so. A
“otorious xxamfflx was thx Sffa“ish I“fiuisitio“, which
offxratxw yrom BEHI to BIDE a“w was rxsffo“siblx yor as
ma“y as F,AAA xxxcutio“s.
ca“y a“ti-rxligious ffxofflx havx also bxhavxw
murwxrously, i“cluwi“g Stali“, cao nxwo“g, a“w col cot, all
oy whom wxrx athxists a“w bxlixvxrs i“ scix“cx a“w rxaso“,
yollowi“g aarl carx. gogxthxr, thxsx commu“ist rxgimxs lxw
to at lxast CA millio“ wxaths. I k“ow that you arx tryi“g to
rxbra“w commu“ism as a “yaux rxligio“” to avoiw
ack“owlxwgi“g that athxists havx causxw huma“ misxry o“
a vast scalx. But thx yact is that somx ffxofflx arx caffablx oy
woi“g vxry baw thi“gs to othxr ffxofflx usi“g rxligio“,
athxism, “atio“alism, iwxology, ffrofit, or xvx“ rxaso“ as
thxir justificatio“. Rxaso“ was a major i“sffiratio“ yor thx
Orx“ch Rxvolutio“, a“w i“ BHED, thx Lathxwral oy aotrx
Mamx i“ caris was co“vxrtxw i“to a gxmfflx oy Rxaso“, a“w
thx Lult oy Rxaso“ was ffroclaimxw thx statx rxligio“. At thx
samx timx, at lxast EA,AAA ffxofflx wxrx xxxcutxw i“ thx
Rxig“ oy gxrror 1BHED–E0, a“w thx guilloti“x bxcamx a
symbol oy thx rxvolutio“ary causx.
Oi“ally, you a“w I ffrobably agrxx that a grxat wxal oy
rxligio“ is culturally wxtxrmi“xw a“w subjxct to huma“
limitatio“s. You may sxx this as a“othxr rxyutatio“ oy
rxligio“, but I sxx it wiffxrx“tly. ghx corx oy all rxligio“s is
thx xxffxrix“cx oy co““xcti“g with thx grou“w oy bxi“g, or
thx mi“w oy Vow, or ultimatx co“scious“xss, but whx“ thxsx
xxffxrix“cxs arx talkxw about a“w i“txrffrxtxw, thxy arx
rxyractxw through huma“ la“guagxs a“w cultural trawitio“s
that arx “xcxssarily limitxw, a“w i“xvitably wiffxrx“t yrom
o“x a“othxr.
Iy I haw bxx“ bor“ to Si“halxsx ffarx“ts i“ Sri La“ka, I
woulw ffrobably bx a Buwwhist toway. Iy I haw bxx“ bor“ to
cuslim ffarx“ts i“ Ngyfft, I woulw ffrobably bx a cuslim. I“
yact, I was bor“ to Lhristia“ ffarx“ts i“ N“gla“w, a“w thx
yorm oy rxligio“ that I fi“w most co“gx“ial is thx Lhristia“
yaith, a“w i“ ffarticular thx A“glica“ yorm oy Lhristia“ity.
ghis woxs “ot mxa“ I bxlixvx othxr Lhristia“ churchxs arx
i“ xrror, a“w that othxr rxligio“s arx wro“g. It woxs “ot
mxa“ that I thi“k that ffxofflx who arx sffiritual but “ot
rxligious arx lost. ghxrx arx wiffxrx“t ffaths to Vow, or to
ultimatx rxality, a“w all havx thxir strx“gths a“w
wxak“xssxs.
I sxx yaith i“ Vow a“w thx ffracticx oy scix“cx as
comfflxmx“tary, “ot co“trawictory. Lo“flicts arisx yrom
wogmas o“ both siwxs. Rxligious a“w scix“tific
yu“wamx“talists arx still lockxw i“ olw battlxs, a“w somx
ffxofflx o“ both siwxs rxlish thx fighti“g. Oortu“atxly, thx
scix“cxs thxmsxlvxs arx movi“g bxyo“w thx wogmas oy
matxrialism, a“w “xw ffossibilitixs yor wialogux bxtwxx“ thx
scix“cxs a“w rxligious trawitio“s arx offx“i“g uff.
lL sYbrr
M mclaRl I lRrY Rr RRss r nds
Mxar Ruffxrt,
You arx corrxct, I wo “ot bxlixvx that “yaith i“ Vow a“w thx
ffracticx oy scix“cx arx comffatiblx a“w mutually
x“ha“ci“g.” I“ yact, whx“ ffhrasxw this way thxy arx
comfflxtxly wiffxrx“t thi“gsF “o“-ovxrlaffffi“g magistxria
1abcA0 i“ thx mxmorablx wxscrifftio“ oy my latx yrix“w
Stxffhx“ Jay Voulw. I“ “o way is scix“cx basxw o“ yaith—a“w
this yact ffuts thx lix to thx yatuous claim by a“ti-scix“tism
yolks that scix“cx is a rxligio“, or that it is just a“othxr way
oy k“owi“g, “o bxttxr tha“ a“y othxr. Oaith, i“ thx biblical
mxa“i“g, has “othi“g to wo with scix“cx. It is, as yamously
wxfi“xw i“ Rxbrxws BBFB, “thx assura“cx oy thi“gs hoffxw
yor, thx co“victio“ oy thi“gs “ot sxx“.”
Scix“cx rxsts o“ thx assura“cx oy thi“gs ffrxwictxw, thx
co“victio“ oy thi“gs ffrxviously sxx“. Although scix“tists,
bxi“g huma“, may hoffx that thxir u“sxx“ co“victio“s arx
suffffortxw by thx wata, as a systxm oy k“owlxwgx thx
ffracticx oy scix“cx has morx i“ commo“ with fflumbi“g tha“
it woxs rxligio“, i“ thx sx“sx that at lxast fflumbxrs txst
hyffothxsxs whx“ thxy attxmfft to wiscovxr a“w fix lxaky
ffiffxs, cloggxw toilxts, ffluggxw si“ks, a“w thx likx. Rxaso“,
logic, xmffiricism, mathxmatics, a“w xxffxrimx“tatio“—thx
corx tools i“ thx ffracticx oy scix“cx—arx thx xxact offffositx
oy yaith i“ thx biblical sx“sx. Ravi“g yaith i“ thi“gs is most
assurxwly a huma“ trait, but it is “ot a ffart oy thx scix“tific
mxthow bxcausx it is “ot a rxliablx xffistxmology.
You assxrtF “Vow’s co“scious“xss is thx ultimatx sourcx oy
huma“ co“scious“xss.” nhxrx is thx xviwx“cx yor this
claimN As I challx“gxw you ffrxviously with rxgarw to thx
rxsurrxctio“ oy Jxsus, whxrx’s your co“trol grouffN I“ a“y
casx, iy huma“ co“scious“xss comxs yrom Vow’s
co“scious“xss, what is thx sourcx oy Vow’s co“scious“xssN Iy
you argux that you havx to stoff thx causal chai“
somxwhxrx, why stoff at VowN Iy thxrx’s a chai“ oy bxi“g
yrom lowxr to highxr co“scious“xss, why woulw thxrx “ot bx
a“ übxr-Vow co“scious“xssN Iy you bxlixvx that
co“scious“xss is a ffroffxrty oy thx u“ivxrsx 1which you sxxm
to argux i“ your thxory oy morffhic rxso“a“cx0, thx“ why wo
you “xxw Vow at allN It sxxms x“tirxly rxaso“ablx to mx to
argux 1alo“g thxsx li“xs0 that iy co“scious“xss xxists itsxly
sxffaratx yrom a“y x“titixs, thx“ thxrx is “o “xxw yor Vow. Iy
Vow is “xcxssary yor thx xxistx“cx oy co“scious“xss, thx“
o“cx agai“ I woulw challx“gx you to go o“x stxff yurthxr i“
i“fiuiri“g i“to thx sourcx oy Vow a“w Vow’s co“scious“xss.
You ask whxrx thx laws oy “aturx comx yrom without
ffostulati“g Vow as thx sourcxL that is, i“ a ffurxly
matxrialistic “aturalistic worlwvixw. As you k“ow, this is o“x
oy thx biggxst fiuxstio“s i“ thx ffhilosoffhy oy scix“cx. ao
o“x k“ows yor surx, but I am x“couragxw by thx work oy
Stxffhx“ Rawki“g a“w Lxo“arw clowi“ow, outli“xw i“ thxir
book NRb G rana D bsSdn 1Ba“tam, CABA0, that cxrtai“
co“figuratio“s oy thx laws oy “aturx i“xvitably lxaw to thx
sffo“ta“xous crxatio“ oy u“ivxrsxs. ghxy show how thx laws
u“wxrlyi“g fiua“tum mxcha“ics a“w rxlativity, yor xxamfflx,
coulw lxaw to u“ivxrsxs bxi“g yormxw out oy “othi“g. ghxy
writxF
Bxcausx thxrx is a law such as gravity, thx
u“ivxrsx ca“ a“w will crxatx itsxly yrom “othi“g.
Sffo“ta“xous crxatio“ is thx rxaso“ thxrx is
somxthi“g rathxr tha“ “othi“g, why thx
u“ivxrsx xxists, why wx xxist. It is “ot “xcxssary
to i“vokx Vow to light thx blux touch ffaffxr a“w
sxt thx u“ivxrsx goi“g.
A“othxr xxffla“atio“ is thx multivxrsx thxory. I“ his book
G la- NRb FaSlba H wYlrRbsSs 1cromxthxus Books, CAAH0, thx
latx ffhysicist mictor Stx“gxr shows how thxrx coulw bx as
ma“y as BArFAA ffossiblx u“ivxrsxs. ghosx u“ivxrsxs with
thx laws oy “aturx that lxaw to thx ffrowuctio“ oy atoms a“w
molxculxs a“w liyx a“w sx“tix“t bxi“gs who i“fiuirx as to
thxir sourcx, will “aturally sxxm almost miraculously
wxsig“xw by thosx yortu“atx sx“tix“t bxi“gs, but with that
ma“y u“ivxrsxs thxrx was bou“w to bx somx co“figurxw
ffurxly by cha“cx to bx co“wucivx to thx xvolutio“ oy liyx a“w
sx“tix“t bxi“gs, but thxrx’s “othi“g wxsig“xw about it.
I“ a“y casx, scix“cx is you“g—just a yxw cx“turixs olw—
a“w thxrx is much wx wo “ot k“ow, so bxyorx wx sffxculatx
about such ultimatx fiuxstio“s as whxrx thx laws oy “aturx
camx yrom, lxt’s wait to sxx what scix“cx comxs uff with i“
thx “xxt coufflx oy cx“turixs bxyorx wx ffostulatx a wivi“x
bxi“g as thx sourcx. I“ thx mxa“timx, it’s okay to say “I
wo“’t k“ow” a“w lxavx it at that. Ruma“s havx always fillxw
i“ such gaffs i“ our k“owlxwgx with gows, a“w it “xvxr lxaws
to a“y usxyul or ffrowuctivx thxory. Lxt’s try to ovxrcomx
this ffsychological ffroffx“sity to fill i“ thx gaffs with
suffxr“atural yorcxs a“w yollow thx ffath oy scix“cx i“
sxarchi“g yor “atural yorcxs.
You writxF “Vow is by wxfi“itio“ a co“scious bxi“g.” Row
wo you k“owN nhosx wxfi“itio“N Sourcxs a“w xviwx“cx,
fflxasx.
You claim that “wivi“x co“scious“xss ffxrmxatxs thx
u“ivxrsx” a“w that wx matxrialists “bxlixvx that thx
u“ivxrsx is u“co“scious, govxr“xw by u“co“scious laws, a“w
mawx uff oy u“co“scious mattxr.” Oirst, whxrx is wivi“x
co“scious“xss i“ thx u“ivxrsxN I“ what way arx, say, stars
co“sciousN Stars arx massivx collxctio“s oy hywrogx“ atoms
bxi“g co“vxrtxw to hxlium atoms through “uclxar yusio“. I“
what way is this ffrocxss “co“scious”N Arx galaxixs
co“sciousN Is gravity co“sciousN Arx ffla“xts, moo“s, a“w
comxts co“sciousN nhat wo you mxa“ by co“scious“xss
hxrxN Llxarly this has “o rxsxmbla“cx to huma“
co“scious“xss—thx ffhx“omx“o“ oy bxi“g awarx a“w sxly-
awarx—so it woulw bx hxlffyul to offxratio“ally wxfi“x
co“scious“xss.
Your iwxa about what Vow is sxxms to wiffxr wramatically
yrom that oy most Lhristia“s 1a cosmic x“gi“xxr or wivi“x
craytsma“0, a“w you rxjxct thx iwxa that Vow rxachxs i“to
thx worlw to stir thx ffarticlxs “ow a“w thx“. I“stxaw, you
i“vokx thx u“hxlffyul ffhrasx “grou“w oy bxi“g” as your
wxfi“itio“ oy Vow, a“w you claim that “hx sustai“s thx worlw
i“ its xxistx“cx yrom momx“t to momx“t, a“w is woi“g so
“ow.” I ffrxsumx you mxa“ that Vow woxs so through thx
laws oy “aturx—hx yorms solar systxms through thx yorcx oy
gravity, hx yorms stars through thx “uclxar yorcxs, xtc. I yail
to sxx how this is a“y wiffxrx“t yrom just sayi“g that thx
u“ivxrsx itsxly is thx “grou“w oy bxi“g” a“w that it sustai“s
itsxly yrom momx“t to momx“t through thx laws oy “aturx.
nhat’s thx wiffxrx“cx bxtwxx“ a“ i“visiblx Vow that is
i“wisti“guishablx yrom “aturx a“w a “o“xxistx“t VowN
—M ScRabl
Rbs Rra I lRldranR RRs lmRs
Mxar cichaxl,
You bxlixvx that a“ u“co“scious, ffurffosxlxss u“ivxrsx
ffrowucxw mi“ws i“ huma“ brai“s aytxr about BE billio“
yxars oy mi“wlxss mxcha“ical activity. You trust that scix“cx
will xvx“tually justiyy this bxlixy. I bxlixvx that co“scious“xss
comxs first, a“w is thx sourcx oy “aturx a“w oy mi“ws withi“
“aturx.
You ask mx how I k“ow that Vow is co“scious, a“w ask yor
“sourcxs a“w xviwx“cx.” ghxrx arx ma“y rxligious sourcxs.
I“ thx blw gxstamx“t, yor xxamfflx, i“ Nxowus DFBE, cosxs
asks Vow yor his “amx a“w Vow rxfflixs, “I am who I am”
1N“glish Sta“warw mxrsio“0. Vow wxfi“xs himsxly as
subjxctivx co“scious bxi“g, i“ thx ffrxsx“t. As I mx“tio“xw
ffrxviously, o“x oy thx I“wia“ “amxs yor ultimatx rxality is
sarcRSrananaa, bxi“g-co“scious“xss-bliss, agai“
xmffhasizi“g co“scious bxi“g. Nviwx“cx comxs yrom
mystical xxffxrix“cxs a“w through momx“ts oy illumi“atio“,
i“ which ffxofflx yxxl thxmsxlvxs i“ thx ffrxsx“cx oy a grxatxr
co“scious“xss tha“ thxir ow“. Nviwx“cx oy co“scious“xss
comxs through co“scious xxffxrix“cxs, “ot yrom ffhysical
mxasurxmx“ts.
You ffroffosx that thx sourcx a“w sustai“xr oy all thi“gs is
“ot Vow, but thx “laws oy “aturx.” Rowxvxr, this co“cxfftio“
oy “atural laws is “ot as athxistic as it sxxms, bxcausx it
builws o“ thx bxlixy that thx laws oy “aturx arx asffxcts oy
thx mi“w oy Vow, a bxlixy sharxw by thx you“wi“g yathxrs oy
mowxr“ scix“cx i“ thx BHth cx“tury, i“cluwi“g Valilxo,
axfflxr, Mxscartxs, a“w axwto“. But laws arx iwxas rathxr
tha“ matxrial objxcts, a“w thxy makx “o sx“sx without a
mi“w to thi“k thxm.
You x“worsx thx sffxculatio“s oy Stxffhx“ Rawki“g a“w
Lxo“arw clowi“ow that “Lxrtai“ co“figuratio“s oy thx laws
oy “aturx i“xvitably lxaw to thx sffo“ta“xous crxatio“ oy
u“ivxrsxs.” Somxhow, thxsx laws “coulw lxaw to u“ivxrsxs
bxi“g yormxw out oy “othi“g.” ghis is agai“ vxry likx BHth-
cx“tury thxology, but lxss cohxrx“t, bxcausx you imagi“x
that timxlxss laws xxist i“ a yrxx-floati“g, tra“scx“wx“t
rxalm—Vow’s mi“w without Vow—a“w gx“xratx a u“ivxrsx
without a sourcx oy x“xrgy or activity. I“ thx BHth cx“tury,
Vow was sxx“ as thx sourcx oy all activity, as wxll as thx
basis oy cosmic law a“w orwxr.
axvxrthxlxss, you oytx“ co“trawict yoursxly. I“ our first
wialogux you wrotx, “‘Laws’ arx thx li“guistic a“w
mathxmatical wxscrifftio“s wx huma“s givx to “aturally
occurri“g rxffxati“g ffhx“omx“a. ghxrx arx “o laws oy
“aturx ‘out thxrx.’” But iy thxy arx mxrxly wxscrifftio“s oy
thx rxgularitixs oy “aturx, how ca“ laws ffrxcxwx thx
u“ivxrsx a“w givx risx to itN Bxyorx thx origi“ oy thx
u“ivxrsx thxrx wxrx “o rxgularitixs oy “aturx a“w “o
huma“s to wxscribx thxm.
A“w why arx thxsx hyffothxtical laws just right yor our
u“ivxrsx, x“abli“g it to ffrowucx liyx a“w ultimatxly huma“sN
Rxrx, you yall back o“ thx sffxculatio“s oy mictor Stx“gxr,
who arguxs that wx haffffx“ to bx i“ thx o“ly u“ivxrsx just
right yor us, out oy BArFAA u“ivxrsxs. Rx a“w othxr
cosmologists avoiw awkwarw ffroblxms by fiua“titativx
xasi“g, co“juri“g uff myriaw u“ivxrsxs, just as thx Oxwxral
Rxsxrvx Ba“k co“jurxw uff trillio“s oy wollars. It may bx
xasixr to ffroliyxratx u“ivxrsxs tha“ to rxco“siwxr thx
xxistx“cx oy Vow. But, as ffhilosoffhxrs ffoi“t out, a“ i“fi“itx
Vow coulw bx thx Vow oy a“ i“fi“itx “umbxr oy u“ivxrsxs.
ghx multivxrsx gambit yails to gxt riw oy Vow, a“w it is thx
ultimatx violatio“ oy bckham’s Razor, thx ffri“cifflx that
“x“titixs shoulw “ot bx multifflixw u““xcxssarily.”
You co“trawict yoursxly agai“. I“ somx ffaragraffhs, you
sxx scix“cx “as thx co“victio“ oy thi“gs ffrxviously sxx“,”
a“w thx ffracticx oy scix“cx likx fflumbi“g, fixi“g lxaky ffiffxs
a“w cloggxw toilxts, basxw o“ harw yacts. You sxx this as
“thx xxact offffositx oy yaith i“ thx biblical sx“sx.” But a
bxlixy i“ BArFAA u“obsxrvxw u“ivxrsxs is “ot a harw yact.
aor is ffromissory matxrialism. Iy scix“cx ca““ot xxfflai“
somxthi“g, “o ffroblxm( Just givx us timx, you say, “Lxt’s
wait to sxx what scix“cx comxs uff with i“ thx “xxt coufflx oy
cx“turixs bxyorx wx ffostulatx a wivi“x bxi“g as thx sourcx.”
ghis is yaith as wxscribxw i“ Rxbrxws BBFB, “thx assura“cx
oy thi“gs hoffxw yor, thx co“victio“ oy thi“gs “ot sxx“.”
I thi“k Vow is withi“ “aturx, a“w “aturx withi“ Vow. You
thi“k thx u“ivxrsx is ffurffosxlxss a“w u“co“scious, a“w that
it origi“atxw yrom mi“wlxss yxt immatxrial laws.
Oor mx, Vow comxs bxyorx huma“ityL yor you, as a sxcular
huma“ist, huma“ity comxs bxyorx Vow, who is a wxlusio“ i“
huma“ mi“ws, a“w hx“cx i“ huma“ brai“s.
bur bxlixys affxct our livxs. ao o“x ca“ wait CAA yxars to
makx a choicx.
lL sYbrr
Hlas aRr 6
M mclaRl I lRrY Rrhs O s Rnmng I aaaRY Rna
Mxar Ruffxrt,
Oor our fi“al thrxx rou“ws o“ thx xxistx“cx 1or “ot0 oy Vow, I
will bx xsffxcially curious to k“ow how you arrivx at
orthowox Lhristia“ity out oy your u“orthowox thxory. As you
tolw my McSbnrSfic Am brScan collxagux Joh“ Rorga“F
I bxlixvx i“ Vow. I am a ffractici“g Lhristia“,
sffxcifically a“ A“glica“ 1i“ thx l.S.,a“
Nffiscoffalia“0. I wx“t through a lo“g athxist
ffhasx, a“w bxga“ to fiuxstio“ thx matxrialist
orthowoxy oy scix“cx whilx I was still a“ athxist.
I latxr camx to thx co“clusio“ that thxrx arx
morx i“clusivx yorms oy co“scious“xss i“ thx
u“ivxrsx tha“ huma“ mi“ws.
Alrxawy, I’m susfficious—a“w skxfftical. Row co“vx“ix“t that
thx Vow you bxlixvx i“ haffffx“s to bx thx samx Vow that
most oy your yxllow cou“trymx“ 1a“w, morx broawly, your
yxllow nxstxr“xrs0 bxlixvx i“. Vxograffhy, i“ yact, is thx
“umbxr o“x ffrxwictor oy a“yo“x’s rxligio“—whxrx thxy
haffffx“ to havx bxx“ bor“ a“w raisxw. Raw you bxx“ bor“
a“w raisxw i“, say, I“wia, it woulw bx yar morx likxly that you
woulw wxyx“w Ri“wuism as thx b“x grux Rxligio“, thx gow
Va“xsha as your wxity oy choicx, a“w xmffloy morffhic
rxso“a“cx thxory to xxfflai“ rxi“car“atio“ a“w aarma
1mxmory oy ffast livxs a“w wxxws0.
But lxt mx “ot ffrxsumx too much, a“w await your
statxmx“t—a“w i“ thx mxa“timx, i“fiuirx why bxlixy i“ thx
suffxr“atural 1as you havx wxfi“xw a“w wxyx“wxw it0 a“w
bxlixy i“ Vow shoulw bx co“flatxw at all. Ristorically
sffxaki“g, most commx“tators havx lumffxw thx two
togxthxr, but it sxxms to mx x“tirxly ffossiblx that thx two
coulw bx sxffaratx. Although I wo “ot bxlixvx this mysxly,
assumi“g yor a momx“t that you arx corrxct that thxrx is a
worlw bxyo“w thx “atural worlw 1or, iy you agrxx with mx
that thxrx is o“ly thx “atural worw, thx“ yorcxs hxrxtoyorx
u“accxfftxw by mai“strxam scix“cx such as ffsi rxally wo
xxist0, such a worlw coulw co“tai“ “o Vow, o“x Vow, or a
multituwx oy Vows. I“ ffri“cifflx, ffsi-likx yorcxs coulw xxist
whxthxr or “ot thxrx’s a Vow. You coulw bx a suffxr“atural
athxist i“ this sx“sx.
Likxwisx, thxrx coulw bx a Vow a“w “o suffxr“atural
yorcxs. Vow coulw just usx thx k“ow“ yorcxs oy “aturx 1or
ffxrhaffs somx hxrxtoyorx u“k“ow“ yorcxs oy “aturx0 to
ffxryorm miraclxs. A“w iy thxrx is a Vow, why “ot multifflx
gowsN ghxrx is “othi“g i“hxrx“tly sffxcial about
mo“othxism, savx yor its historical triumffh as a rxligio“—
ffxrhaffs suffxrior at u“iti“g tribxs agai“st othxr tribxs or
fflayi“g a ffromi“x“t rolx i“ thx first civilizatio“s to rxi“yorcx
grouff cohxsio“ a“w act as a“ x“yorcxr oy morals a“w
ultimatx ffu“ishxr oy violators. ghis is, i“ yact, my thxory oy
thx origi“ oy rxligio“ 1wxvxloffxw i“ my books H lb Rb
BblSbab rn.R. Orxxma“ 0 Lo., BEEEs a“w NRb BblSbaSnd
BraSn rgimxs Books, CABBs0, which I wxfi“x as a social
i“stitutio“ to crxatx a“w ffromotx myths, to x“couragx
co“yormity a“w altruism, a“w to sig“al thx lxvxl oy
commitmx“t to cooffxratx a“w rxciffrocatx amo“g mxmbxrs
oy a commu“ity. ghxrx arx multifflx li“xs oy xviwx“cx that
huma“s crxatxw gows, “ot aScb abrsa.
Oirst, thxrx arx ma“y huma“ u“ivxrsals that
a“throffologists havx wiscovxrxw amo“g all ffxofflxs oy thx
worlw rxlatxw to rxligio“ a“w bxlixy i“ wxitixs, such as
sacramx“ts surrou“wi“g wxath, suffxr“atural bxlixys about
yortu“x a“w misyortu“x, a“w xsffxcially wivi“atio“, yolklorx,
magic, myths, a“w rituals. nith such u“ivxrsals wx ca“
ffrxsumx that thxrx is a gx“xtic ffrxwisffositio“ yor thxsx
traits to bx xxffrxssxw withi“ thxir rxsffxctivx culturxs, a“w
that thxsx culturxs, wxsffitx thxir co“siwxrablx wivxrsity a“w
varia“cx, “urturx thxsx “aturxs i“ a co“sistx“t yashio“
towarw bxlixy i“ gows a“w rxligious rituals.
Sxco“w, twi“ stuwixs havx co“sistx“tly you“w a stro“g
gx“xtic comffo“x“t to rxligiosity a“w bxlixy i“ Vow—roughly
sffxaki“g, about EA ffxrcx“t to FA ffxrcx“t oy thx varia“cx is
accou“txw yor by gx“xtics. Vx“xs, oy coursx, wo “ot makx
o“x a Jxw, Latholic, cuslim, or a“y othxr rxligio“. Rathxr,
gx“xs cowx yor cog“itivx a“w bxhavioral tx“wx“cixs that
makx o“x morx or lxss likxly to bxlixvx i“ suffxr“atural
agx“ts 1Vow, a“gxls, wxmo“s0 a“w morx or lxss likxly to
commit to cxrtai“ rxligious ffracticxs 1church attx“wa“cx,
ffrayxr, rituals0.
ghirw, thx comffarativx stuwy oy rxligio“s lxaws to this
back-oy-thx-x“vxloffx calculatio“F ovxr thx ffast BA,AAA
yxars oy history huma“s havx crxatxw about BA,AAA
wiffxrx“t rxligio“s a“w about B,AAA gows. nhat is thx
ffrobability that your Vow, Yahwxh, is thx b“x grux Vow,
a“w Amo“ Ra, Affhrowitx, Affollo, Baal, Brahma, Va“xsha,
Isis, cithras, bsiris, Shiva, ghor, mish“u, nota“, nxus, a“w
thx othxr EIG gows arx yalsx gowsN As skxfftics likx to say,
xvxryo“x is a“ athxist about thxsx gows—somx oy us just go
o“x gow yurthxr.
Oourth, si“cx you arx a Lhristia“, I must ffoi“t out that
xvx“ withi“ thx thrxx grxat Abrahamic rxligio“s thxrx is
much wisagrxxmx“t. Lhristia“s bxlixvx Jxsus is thx savior
a“w that you must accxfft him to rxcxivx xtxr“al liyx i“
hxavx“. Yxt, both Jxws a“w cuslims rxjxct this cx“tral tx“xt
oy your rxligio“. I“ yact, o“ly roughly two billio“ oy thx
worlw’s six billio“ bxlixvxrs accxfft Jxsus as thxir ffxrso“al
savior. cost Lhristia“s bxlixvx that thx Biblx is thx i“xrra“t
gosffxl ha“wxw wow“ yrom thx wxity. cuslims bxlixvx that
thx aora“ is thx ffxryxct worw oy Vow, a“w yxt Lhristia“s wo
“ot. As wxll, whilx most Lhristia“s bxlixvx that Jxsus was
thx last ffroffhxt, cuslims bxlixvx that cuhammaw is thx
last ffroffhxt, whilx cormo“s bxlixvx that Josxffh Smith is
thx last ffroffhxt. nho’s to say which o“x is rightN By what
critxrio“ is o“x to juwgx amo“g thxsx comffxti“g claimsN
A“w whilx thxy arx usually callxw “yaith-basxw” bxlixys,
bxlixvxrs i“ yact holw thxsx tx“xts oy thxir rxligio“ to bx
rxally trux—actually a“w yactually corrxct—“ot just
rxlativxly or ffsychologically trux. Vivx“ that yact, Ruffxrt,
how wo you wxciwx which amo“g thx ma“y worlw’s rxligio“s
is thx right o“xN You’rx a scix“tist—iy you bxlixvx Jxsus was
rxsurrxctxw yrom thx wxaw thrxx ways aytxr bxi“g crucifixw,
whxrx’s your co“trol grouffN
Oiyth, thx stuwy oy comffarativx mythology lxaws to thx
rxcog“itio“ oy commo“alitixs amo“g floow myths, virgi“
birth myths, a“w rxsurrxctio“ myths, all oy which co“vxrgx
to thx stro“g i“yxrx“cx that thxy arx “ot u“ifiux to your
rxligio“ but wxrx—likx Vow—i“vx“txw by huma“s.
Fllla m wrRsF ghx aoachia“ floow story is ffrxwatxw by thx
Nffic oy Vilgamxsh by about your cx“turixs. nar“xw by thx
Babylo“ia“ Narth-gow Na that othxr gows wxrx about to
wxstroy all liyx by a floow, lt“affishtim was i“structxw to
builw a“ ark i“ thx yorm oy a cubx BCA cubits 1BIA yxxt0 o“
all siwxs, i“to which hx was i“structxw by gow to ffut o“x
ffair oy xach livi“g crxaturx.
VSrdSn LSrrR m wrRsF Amo“g thosx co“cxivxw sa“s a
biological yathxr wxrx Mio“ysus, cxrsxus, Buwwha, Attis,
arish“a, Rorus, cxrcury, Romulus, a“w, oy coursx, Jxsus.
ghx Vrxxk Vow Mio“ysus, yor xxamfflx, was bor“ yrom a
virgi“ mortal mothxr imffrxg“atxw by thx ki“g oy hxavx“.
Rx was saiw to bx ablx to tra“syorm watxr i“to wi“x 1hx
was, aytxr all, thx Vrxxk gow oy wi“x0, a“w it was hx who
i“trowucxw thx iwxa oy xati“g a“w wri“ki“g thx flxsh a“w
bloow oy thx crxator, “ot thx Latholics cx“turixs latxr.
Lbss rrbcrSln m wrRsF ghx a“cix“t Ngyfftia“ gow oy liyx,
wxath, a“w yxrtility, bsiris, first affffxars i“ thx ffyramiw txxts
arou“w CEAA B.L. niwxly worshiffffxw u“til thx comffulsory
rxffrxssio“ oy ffaga“ rxligio“s i“ thx xarly Lhristia“ xra,
bsiris was “ot o“ly thx rxwxxmxr a“w mxrciyul juwgx oy thx
wxaw i“ thx aytxrliyx, hx was also li“kxw to yxrtility, most
“otably thx floowi“g oy thx ailx a“w growth oy croffs. ghx
ki“gs oy Ngyfft thxmsxlvxs wxrx i“xxtricably co““xctxw with
bsiris i“ wxath, such that whx“ bsiris rosx yrom thx wxaw,
so woulw thxy i“ u“io“ with him. By thx timx oy thx axw
ai“gwom, “ot o“ly ffharaohs but commo“ ffxofflx bxlixvxw
that thxy coulw bx rxsurrxctxw by a“w with bsiris at wxath—
iy, oy coursx, thxy ffracticxw thx corrxct rxligious rituals.
Si“cx you arx a Lhristia“, I ffrxsumx that you bxlixvx Vow
to bx all0Ylb brcsl (lm nSYlrbnr-, all gnlb Snd (lm nSscSbnr-,
ana all dlla (lm nSLbnballbnr-. b Rl crbarba lsr lc nlrRSnd
rRb snSabrsb ana babrwrRSnd Sn Sr. b Rl Ss sncrbarba ana
brbrnal, a nln0clrYlrbal sYSrSr b Rl crbarba, llabs, ana can
dranr brbrnal lScb rl Rsm ans. I wo “ot bxlixvx i“ this Vow.
ghat makxs mx a“ athxist. Yxs, I k“ow, txch“ically sffxaki“g,
I ca““ot ffrovx a “xgativx—I ca““ot ffrovx Vow woxs “ot
xxist. But “xithxr ca“ I ffrovx that nxus woxs “ot xxist, a“w
yxt I wo“’t bxlixvx i“ him, xithxr. A“w as I showxw abovx, I
ca“ ffroviwx stro“g xviwx“cx i“wicati“g that it is vxry likxly
Vow woxs “ot xxist xxcxfft i“ thx mi“ws oy ffxofflx. 1ghat Vow
is vxry ffowxryul i“wxxw, as hx ca“ gxt ffxofflx to fly ffla“xs
i“to builwi“gs a“w to blow thxmsxlvxs uff i“ crowwxw
sfiuarxs.0
As wxll, I ca“ show that thx trawitio“al argumx“ts yor
Vow’s xxistx“cx arx rxyutablx—a“w havx bxx“ rxyutxw,
starti“g with Rumx’s wxvastati“g critifiuxs. ghx first causx,
ffrimx movxr, a“w cosmological argumx“ts, thx argumx“t
yrom thx fi“x-tu“i“g oy thx u“ivxrsx, thx argumx“t yor thx
origi“ a“w i“txlligx“t wxsig“ oy liyx, thx moral origi“
argumx“t, thx origi“ oy co“scious“xss argumx“t, a“w thx
likx, all havx xfiually fflausiblx 1a“w i“ most casxs morx
ffrobablx0 xxffla“atio“s yrom scix“cx, a“w i“ a“y casx
co“stitutx what is callxw thx “gow oy thx gaffs” stylx oy
rxaso“i“g—a“ythi“g that scix“cx ca““ot currx“tly xxfflai“
1a gaff i“ our k“owlxwgx0 is bxst fillxw with Vow as thx
xxffla“atio“.
ghxrx arx sxvxral yallacixs with this li“x oy rxaso“i“g.
Oirst, thx xithxr6or yallacy, or thx yalsx wilxmma, is thx
tx“wx“cy to wichotomizx thx worlw such that iy you wiscrxwit
o“x ffositio“ it mxa“s thx othxr ffositio“ must bx corrxct.
aot so. It is “ot x“ough to call out thx wxak“xssxs i“ a
thxoryL you must also ffroviwx xviwx“cx that your
altxr“ativx thxory is suffxrior—that is, it xxfflai“s morx wata
tha“ thx altxr“ativx.
Sxco“w, scix“cx is you“g a“w thxrx is much wx still wo “ot
k“ow. Bxyorx wx say somxthi“g is out oy this worlw, lxt’s
first makx surx that it is “ot i“ this worlw. nx havx somx
cogx“t “atural xxffla“atio“s yor thx origi“ oy thx u“ivxrsx,
liyx, co“scious“xss, a“w morality, but much rxmai“s
u“k“ow“.
ghirw, what will haffffx“ to thx Vow hyffothxsis that rxlixs
o“ thxsx gaffs whx“ thx gaffs arx fillxw by scix“cxN
Oi“ally, thxrx is o“x Vow I coulw bxlixvx i“ basxw o“ a
ffurxly “aturalistic worlwvixw. I“ ho“or oy Arthur L. Llarkx
a“w his yamous thrxx laws, I havx callxw this Shxrmxr’s Last
LawF a“y sufficix“tly awva“cxw Nxtra-gxrrxstrial
I“txlligx“cx 1NgI0 is i“wisti“guishablx yrom Vow. 1Llarkx’s
ghirw Law statxsF “A“y sufficix“tly awva“cxw txch“ology is
i“wisti“guishablx yrom magic.”0
cy gambit is basxw o“ thrxx obsxrvatio“s a“w thrxx
wxwuctio“sF
• ALsbraarSln I. Biological xvolutio“ is glacially slow
comffarxw to cultural a“w txch“ological xvolutio“.
• ALsbraarSln II. ghx cosmos is vxry big a“w sffacx is
vxry xmffty, so thx ffrobability oy maki“g co“tact with
a“ NgI is rxmotx.
• D bascrSln I. ghx ffrobability oy maki“g co“tact with a“
NgI who is o“ly slightly morx or lxss awva“cxw tha“ us
is virtually “il. A“y NgIs wx woulw x“cou“txr will xithxr
bx way bxhi“w us or way ahxaw oy us.
• ALsbraarSln III. Scix“cx a“w txch“ology havx cha“gxw
our worlw morx i“ thx ffast cx“tury tha“ i“ thx
ffrxvious hu“wrxw cx“turixs. coorx’s Law oy comffutxr
ffowxr woubli“g xvxry BC mo“ths afffflixs to wozx“s oy
othxr txch“ologixs. Iy Ray aurzwxil is right i“ his book
NRb MSndslarSrw Ss N bar 1miki“g, CAAF0, thx“ thx worlw
will cha“gx morx i“ thx “xxt cx“tury tha“ it has i“ thx
ffrxvious thousa“w cx“turixs.
• D bascrSln II. Nxtraffolatx thxsx trx“w li“xs out tx“s oy
thousa“ws, hu“wrxws oy thousa“ws, or xvx“ millio“s oy
yxars—mxrx xyx bli“ks o“ a“ xvolutio“ary timx scalx—
a“w wx arrivx at a rxalistic xstimatx oy how yar
awva“cxw a“ NgI will bx.
• D bascrSln III. Iy toway wx ca“ x“gi“xxr gx“xs, clo“x
mammals, a“w ma“iffulatx stxm cxlls with scix“cx a“w
txch“ologixs wxvxloffxw i“ o“ly thx last FA yxars, thi“k
oy what a“ NgI coulw wo with FA,AAA yxars oy
xfiuivalx“t ffowxrs oy ffrogrxss i“ scix“cx a“w
txch“ology. Oor a“ NgI who is a millio“ yxars morx
awva“cxw tha“ wx arx, x“gi“xxri“g thx crxatio“ oy
ffla“xts a“w stars may bx x“tirxly ffossiblx. A“w iy
u“ivxrsxs arx crxatxw out oy collaffsi“g black holxs—
which somx cosmologists thi“k is ffrobablx—it is “ot
i“co“cxivablx that a sufficix“tly awva“cxw NgI coulw
xvx“ crxatx a u“ivxrsx by triggxri“g thx collaffsx oy
star i“to a black holx.
nhat woulw wx call a“ i“txlligx“t bxi“g caffablx oy
x“gi“xxri“g liyx, ffla“xts, stars, a“w xvx“ u“ivxrsxsN Iy wx
k“xw thx u“wxrlyi“g scix“cx a“w txch“ology usxw to wo thx
x“gi“xxri“g, wx woulw call it a“ Nxtra-gxrrxstrial
I“txlligx“cxL iy wx wiw “ot k“ow thx u“wxrlyi“g scix“cx a“w
txch“ology, wx woulw call it Vow.
Nithxr that Vow alrxawy xxists, or wx arx bxcomi“g that
Vow. Nithxr way, thx mxrx co“txmfflatio“ oy thx ffossibilitixs
simffly blows o“x’s mi“w. Iy you wa“t to bx awxstruck by a
rxligious-likx xxffxrix“cx, tur“ to scix“cx.
lM ScRabl
Rbs Rra I lRldranR RRss r nds
Mxar cichaxl,
bur most yu“wamx“tal wisagrxxmx“t is about co“scious“xss
bxyo“w thx huma“ lxvxl. As a matxrialist a“w athxist, you
rxgarw it as imffossiblx or at lxast highly u“likxly, u“lxss it
takxs thx yorm oy Nxtra-gxrrxstrial i“txlligx“cx i“ a
civilizatio“ with txch“ologixs yar morx awva“cxw tha“ our
ow“. nhat you call “Shxrmxr’s Last Law” is that “a“y
sufficix“tly awva“cxw Nxtra-gxrrxstrial I“txlligx“cx is
i“wisti“guishablx yrom Vow.” You imagi“x huma“oiws that
havx bxcomx om“iffotx“t through scix“cx a“w txch“ology
“x“gi“xxri“g thx crxatio“ oy ffla“xts a“w stars” a“w “xvx“
crxati“g a u“ivxrsx by triggxri“g thx collaffsx oy a star i“to
a black holx.” A“w aytxr wxvxloffi“g your ya“tasy scx“ario,
you co“cluwx, “Iy you wa“t to bx awxstruck by a rxligious-
likx xxffxrix“cx, tur“ to scix“cx.” But this is scix“cx fictio“,
“ot scix“cx.
axvxrthxlxss, wx havx sxvxral arxas oy agrxxmx“t. Likx
you, I wo “ot thi“k that ffsychic ffhx“omx“a such as
txlxffathy arx xviwx“cx yor Vow or a suffxr“atural rxalm. As
I ffoi“txw out i“ our last wialogux, I sxx ffsi ffhx“omx“a as
ffart oy thx “atural worlwL thxy havx xvolvxw i“ ma“y
sffxcixs oy social a“imals. ghx xxistx“cx or “o“-xxistx“cx oy
Vow is a sxffaratx fiuxstio“. ca“y ffsi rxsxarchxrs a“w
rxligious ffxofflx agrxx with us. Sxvxral lxawi“g
ffaraffsychologists arx athxistsF ghxy accxfft thx xxistx“cx oy
ffsi but “ot oy Vow. cxa“whilx, somx bxlixvxrs i“ Vow
wisbxlixvx i“ ffsi ffhx“omx“a, or wisaffffrovx oy thxm. b“x oy
thx you“wxrs oy orga“izxw skxffticism i“ thx l.S., carti“
Varw“xr, was a thxist who was vxhxmx“tly offffosxw to
rxsxarch i“ ffaraffsychology bxcausx hx thought it was
“txmffti“g Vow” a“w sxxki“g “sig“s a“w wo“wxrs.”
nx also agrxx that thxrx arx similar yxaturxs i“ wiffxrx“t
rxligious trawitio“s, i“cluwi“g storixs oy floows, virgi“ births,
a“w rxsurrxctio“s. I sxx thxsx thxmxs as archxtyffal,
rxflxcti“g yu“wamx“tal ways oy u“wxrsta“wi“g thx worlw, or
as cultural mxmorixs. Oloow myths may wxll bx rxlatxw to
thx actual floows that haffffx“xw at thx x“w oy thx last icx
agx whx“ sxa lxvxls rosx wramatically. b“x asffxct oy virgi“
birth myths is thxir xmffhasis o“ thx crxativx ffowxr oy thx
liyx-givi“g mothxr. ao woubt thx cult oy thx Blxssxw mirgi“
cary i“ thx Roma“ Latholic a“w brthowox churchxs
i“hxrits asffxcts oy ffrx-Lhristia“ gowwxss worshiff, i“ which
thx Vrxat cothxr gavx birth to gows. I wo “ot sxx this as a
ffroblxm. I“ yact, I sxx it as a strx“gth oy thx Lhristia“
trawitio“ that it i“cluwxs ffrx-Lhristia“ xlxmx“ts such as
ffilgrimagxs a“w sxaso“al yxstivals. ca“y Lhristia“ sacrxw
fflacxs wxrx sacrxw to olwxr rxligio“s firstF Oor xxamfflx, thx
shri“x oy bur Lawy oy Vuawaluffx i“ cxxico was built ovxr
thx txmfflx oy thx Aztxc mothxr gowwxss. Rxligio“s xvolvx,
likx xvxrythi“g xlsx.
ghx thxmx oy wxath a“w rxsurrxctio“ is commo“ to ma“y
trawitio“s, a“w is a“ archxtyffal yxaturx oy ritxs oy ffassagx.
But wyi“g a“w bxi“g bor“ agai“ is morx tha“ a myth or
symbolF it is a“ actual xxffxrix“cx yor ffxofflx who havx haw a
“xar-wxath xxffxrix“cx.
I thi“k that Joh“ thx Bafftist was a wrow“xr. A ffxrso“
bxi“g bafftizxw i“ thx Jorwa“ Rivxr, iy hxlw u“wxr watxr just
lo“g x“ough, woulw havx haw a “xar-wxath xxffxrix“cx
through wrow“i“g. I“ othxr worws, bafftism by total
immxrsio“ coulw havx bxx“ a simfflx, raffiw, a“w xffxctivx
way oy wxlibxratxly i“wuci“g a “xar-wxath xxffxrix“cx.
Myi“g a“w bxi“g bor“ agai“ woulw havx bxx“ a liyx-
cha“gi“g ffxrso“al xxffxrix“cx. Joh“ may somxtimxs havx
go“x too yar, a“w somx ffxofflx may “ot havx comx back. But
that was bxyorx liability litigatio“.
nx “xxw myths, a“w scix“cx crxatxs its ow“. ghx Big
Ba“g thxory, yor xxamfflx, is a vxrsio“ oy thx a“cix“t
crxatio“ myth oy thx hatchi“g oy thx cosmic xgg. As thx
ffrimal xgg crackxw offx“, thx u“ivxrsx xmxrgxw yrom it,
just as it xmxrgxw yrom thx ffrimal si“gularity oy thx Big
Ba“g.
I agrxx with you that o“x oy thx major ffrxwictors oy
ffxofflx’s rxligio“ is whxrx thxy wxrx bor“ a“w thx yamily
a“w culturx thxy wxrx bor“ i“to. ghx samx goxs yor athxists.
I“ commu“ist cou“trixs, chilwrx“ wxrx i“woctri“atxw i“to
athxism, a“w ma“y bxlixvxw what thxy wxrx taught. I“ thx
Sovixt l“io“, thx statx-sffo“sorxw Lxagux oy thx cilita“t
Vowlxss haw F.F millio“ mxmbxrs by BEDC, a“w camffaig“xw
yor thx closurx oy churchxs, a“w yor thxir bxlls to bx mxltxw
wow“ yor i“wustrializatio“. carx“ts wxrx war“xw, “Rxligio“
is ffoiso“, ffrotxct your chilwrx“(” Such ffroffaga“wa
camffaig“s wxrx vxry xffxctivx. By BEEA, CF rxgio“s oy thx
Sovixt l“io“ wxrx wxclarxw comfflxtxly churchlxss, a“w
yxwxr tha“ B,AAA churchxs, chaffxls, a“w mo“astxrixs
survivxw, comffarxw with FE,AAA at thx timx oy thx
Rxvolutio“ i“ BEBH.B I“ Nast Vxrma“y, whxrx thx
commu“ist statx vigorously ffromotxw athxism yrom thx
BEEAs to thx BEIAs, a“ abRL l“ivxrsity oy Lhicago survxy
—“‘Bxlixys’ About ‘Vow’ Across ‘gimx’ a“w ‘Lou“trixs,’”
co“wuctxw i“ CAAI, BE yxars aytxr thx yall oy thx Bxrli“ nall
—showxw that FC ffxrcx“t oy thx ffoffulatio“ wxrx athxists,
comffarxw with BA ffxrcx“t i“ nxst Vxrma“y. Llxarly, ffxofflx
xwucatxw to bx athxists arx morx likxly to bxcomx athxists
tha“ thosx with a “o“-athxist xwucatio“.
ao woubt somx Lhristia“s, cuslims, Ri“wus—a“w athxists
—thi“k that thxirs is thx b“x grux Oaith, but i“ ffracticx thx
vast majority wo “ot. I livxw yor sxvx“ yxars i“ I“wia, whxrx
Ri“wus, cuslims, Jai“s, carsxxs, Sikhs, Lhristia“s,
Buwwhists, a“w tribal a“imists coxxist a“w havx wo“x yor
cx“turixs. cost I“wia“s simffly accxfft that wiffxrx“t ffxofflx
yollow wiffxrx“t rxligious ffaths, without yxxli“g thx “xxw to
co“vxrt xvxryo“x xlsx to thxir ow“ rxligio“. Likxwisx, i“
aorth Amxrica a“w i“ Nuroffx, ma“y rxligio“s coxxist, as wo
ma“y Lhristia“ churchxs. Somx arx bigotxw, but most arx
“ot. I“ Britai“, whxrx I livx, I harwly xvxr x“cou“txr
rxligious ya“atics, although I somxtimxs comx across
zxalous athxists.
cost ffxofflx who yollow a rxligious ffath accxfft that othxr
ffxofflx havx wiffxrx“t ffaths, just as sffxakxrs oy N“glish,
gurkish, gamil, or ca“wari“ accxfft that othxr ffxofflx sffxak
wiffxrx“t la“guagxs. ghxy wo “ot bxlixvx that othxr
la“guagxs arx yalsx. ghx xxistx“cx oy wiffxrx“t rxligio“s
woxs “ot rxyutx rxligio“ i“ gx“xral, a“y morx tha“ thx
xxistx“cx oy wiffxrx“t la“guagxs rxyutxs la“guagx i“
gx“xral.
You rightly ffoi“t out that rxligio“s sxrvx imfforta“t social
yu“ctio“s, i“cluwi“g cooffxratio“ bxtwxx“ mxmbxrs oy a
commu“ity. But this woxs “ot ffrovx that thxy arx “othi“g
but huma“ i“vx“tio“s. Rxligio“s havx arisx“ “ot through
ffhilosoffhical argumx“ts or ffrixstly wxcxfftio“s, but bxcausx
ma“y ffxofflx xxffxrix“cx a co“scious“xss grxatxr tha“ thxir
ow“.
corxovxr, thx yact that somx yxaturxs oy rxligio“ arx
you“w i“ ma“y wiffxrx“t culturxs woxs “ot mxa“, as you
suggxst, that “wx ca“ ffrxsumx that thxrx is a gx“xtic
ffrxwisffositio“ yor thxsx traits to bx xxffrxssxw withi“ thxir
rxsffxctivx culturxs.” I“ his book, BrbagSnd rRb MYbll
1miki“g, CAAG0, Ma“ixl Mx““xtt ffroffosxw a similar a“w morx
wxtailxw hyffothxsis. Rx ffroffosxw that whx“ ffxofflx i“
a“cix“t culturxs wxrx sick a“w wx“t to sxx shama“s yor a
curx, thx most crxwulous woulw havx haw thx biggxst
fflacxbo xffxct a“w thxrxyorx woulw havx tx“wxw to survivx
morx. Rx“cx, “atural sxlxctio“ woulw yavor gx“xs yor
crxwulity a“w thxy woulw bx ffassxw o“ to subsxfiux“t
gx“xratio“s, i“crxasi“g thx yrxfiux“cy oy crxwulity gx“xs i“
thx ffoffulatio“, thus ffromoti“g rxligious bxlixy. But all this
is xviwx“cx-yrxx sffxculatio“. ao crxwulity gx“xs havx bxx“
you“w.
Oi“ally, wx wisagrxx about gows a“w Vow. I thi“k you
wro“gly co“flatx thxm. I“ ffolythxistic socixtixs, gows havx
sffxcific rolxs, likx thx gow or gowwxss oy thx su“, thx gow or
gowwxss oy thx sxa, a“w so o“. ao o“x imagi“xs that a“y o“x
oy thxsx gows or gowwxssxs or sffirits is thx ultimatx
suffrxmx rxality, ffrxcisxly bxcausx thxrx arx ma“y oy thxm.
I agrxx with you that thxy arx ffxrso“ificatio“s or cultural
i“txrffrxtatio“s oy wiffxrx“t ffowxrs oy “aturx, or oy
archxtyffal ffattxr“s oy xxffxrix“cx. But thxrx is a wiffxrx“cx
bxtwxx“ thx multifflx ffowxrs rxffrxsx“txw by gows,
gowwxssxs, sffirits, or a“gxls, a“w thx u“ifixw sourcx oy all
thi“gs. Nvx“ i“ thx most ffolythxistic oy co“txmfforary
rxligio“s, Ri“wuism, ma“y Ri“wus agrxx that thxrx is a
u“ifixw sourcx, a suffrxmx co“scious rxality, o“x I“wia“
“amx yor which is sarcRSrananaa, bxi“g-co“scious“xss-bliss.
ghx u“ifixw sourcx a“w sustai“xr oy all thi“gs is “ot just
“o“x gow yurthxr,” but is morx yu“wamx“tal tha“ thx ma“y
gows a“w sffirits rxcog“izxw i“ wiffxrx“t rxligious trawitio“s.
N“xrgy ffroviwxs a scix“tific ffarallxl. ghxrx arx ma“y ki“ws
oy x“xrgy i“ thx u“ivxrsxF thx x“xrgy i“ firx, i“ glucosx
molxculxs, i“ light, i“ yalli“g rocks, i“ lithium battxrixs, i“
flashxs oy light“i“g, a“w so o“. ghxy arx all wxrivxw yrom thx
yu“wamx“tal x“xrgy oy thx u“ivxrsx, which ca“ takx ma“y
yorms, i“cluwi“g thx wark x“xrgy that ffroffxls thx xxffa“sio“
oy thx u“ivxrsx a“w thx xvolutio“ oy thx cosmos. Orom a
rxligious ffoi“t oy vixw, this u“ivxrsal x“xrgy is a
ma“iyxstatio“ oy wivi“x ffowxr. I“ thx Lhristia“ trawitio“, it
comxs yrom a“w is sustai“xw by thx ffowxr oy Vow. I“ thx
I“wia“ trawitio“, it is callxw sRagrS.
catxrialists sharx with rxligious ffxofflx a bxlixy i“ a u“ity
u“wxrlyi“g all thx ffhx“omx“a oy “aturx. ghx wiffxrx“cx is
that rxligious ffxofflx bxlixvx this ultimatx u“ity is co“sciousL
athxists bxlixvx it is u“co“scious.
lL sYbrr
M mclaRl I lRrY Rr RRs lmRs
Mxar Ruffxrt,
Oor my fi“al xffistlx I woulw likx to ffull back a“w co“siwxr
thx biggxr fficturx across both sffacx a“w timx. nx arx i“
thx miwwlx oy thx C,ABFth yxar oy thx Lommo“ Nra, a slivxr
oy timx that amou“ts to a mxrx o“x-BFA,AAAth oy thx
liyxsffa“ oy our sffxcixs, o“x-BA,AAAth oy thx xffoch oy our
civilizatio“, o“x-FAAth oy thx Agx oy Scix“cx, a“w o“x-BAAth
oy thx Agx oy Ni“stxi“, who wiscovxrxw that sffacx a“w timx
arx i“wivisiblx. go thi“k that you or I or a“y oy thx othxr
sxvx“ billio“ ffxofflx alivx toway, or a“yo“x amo“g thx BAA
billio“ ffxofflx who livxw bxyorx us, has 1or haw0 x“ough
k“owlxwgx to k“ow whxrx thx u“ivxrsx camx yrom, how liyx
bxga“, thx “aturx oy co“scious“xss, thx xxistx“cx oy Vow,
thx aytxrliyx, a“w thx soul, or what thx yuturx holws yor
huma“ity, woulw bx RsLrSs x“ough to makx a Vrxxk gow
blush.
crxsumi“g that our sffxcixs woxs “ot go xxti“ct a“ytimx
soo“ through wxaffo“s oy mass wxstructio“, global climatx
cha“gx, ovxrffoffulatio“, ffa“wxmics, a “a“otxch grxy-goo
fflagux, a“ xvil AI or Ng, a suffxr–volca“o xrufftio“, or a
rogux mxtxor strikx o“ thx orwxr oy thx sto“x that killxw thx
wi“osaurs, wx ca“ ffrojxct oursxlvxs i“to thx yuturx by a“
amou“t comffarablx to thxsx ffast milxsto“xs a“w imagi“x
what ffxofflx will k“ow about thxsx grxat mystxrixs a
cx“tury yrom “ow i“ thx yxar CBBF, or i“ haly a millx““ium
i“ thx yxar CFBF, i“ BA thousa“w yxars i“ BCABF, or
BFA,AAA yxars yrom “ow i“ thx yxar BFCABF. l“imagi“ablx.
Litxrally. Vivx“ thx currx“t accxlxrati“g ratx oy cha“gx i“
which thx worlw has tra“syormxw morx i“ thx ffast cx“tury
tha“ it wiw i“ thx ffrxvious BA cx“turixs, a“w will cha“gx i“
thx CBst cx“tury morx tha“ it wiw i“ thx ffrxvious BAA
cx“turixs, it is imffossiblx to k“ow what ffxofflx “i“ thx yxar
CFCF” will k“ow 1to fiuotx a o“cx ffoffular so“g0, much lxss
our wxscx“wa“ts i“ thx yxar EFEF—thx bclraSsm br
rbrm Snss oy this civilizatio“al jour“xy.
A brixy survxy oy thx history oy scix“cx alo“x shoulw
humblx us i“to ack“owlxwgi“g that thx a“swxrs to thxsx
xxistx“tial fiuxstio“s may “ot bx yorthcomi“g a“ytimx soo“,
a“w that our currx“t bxst thxorixs—as wxll suffffortxw as
somx oy thxm arx—may o“x way go thx way oy Aristotxlia“
ffhysics, ctolxmaic astro“omy, thx flat-xarth thxory, thx
hollow-xarth thxory, thx xxffa“wi“g-xarth thxory, ffhlogisto“
thxory, thx miasma thxory oy wisxasx, thx your bowily
humors thxory oy mxwici“x, ffhrx“ology, ffrxyormatio“ism,
crxatio“ism, alchxmy, astrology, thx lumi“iyxrous axthxr, thx
Ruthxryorw mowxl oy thx atom, thx stxawy-statx thxory oy
thx cosmos, a“w vitalism. Amo“g thx ma“y goow rxaso“s to
wa“t to livx a lo“g a“w hxalthy liyx, or xvx“ bx cryo“ically
yrozx“ a“w brought back to liyx cx“turixs yrom “ow, woulw
bx to fi“w out what wx wxrx wro“g about i“ thx CAth a“w
CBst cx“turixs. As wx look back o“ thxsx xrro“xous
scix“tific thxorixs yrom cx“turixs ffast with wiswai“yul
wismissal, what will scix“tists i“ thx CGth—or thx CGAth—
cx“tury thi“k about our currx“t mowxls oy thx cosmos, liyx,
a“w co“scious“xssN nill thxy look wow“ uffo“ us as wx wo
mxwixval ffhysicia“s who bxlixvxw that thx your bowily
humors 1black bilx, ffhlxgm, bloow, a“w yxllow bilx0 wxrx
li“kxw to thx your xlxmx“ts oy “aturx 1xarth, watxr, air, a“w
firx0 that causxw thx your ffxrso“ality txmffxramx“ts
1mxla“cholic, ffhlxgmatic, sa“gui“x, a“w cholxric0, all oy
which wxrx li“kxw to thx zowiacal sig“s i“ thx hxavx“sN
ghat saiw, whx“ I am ill I offt yor thx bxst mxwici“x
availablx i“ CABF, “ot BFBF, bxcausx wx rxally havx lxar“xw
somxthi“g about thx huma“ bowy ovxr thx ffast haly
millx““ium. ghx samx assumfftio“ oy cumulativx ffrogrxss i“
scix“cx afffflixs to cosmology, ffhysics, biology, a“w
ffsychology—our currx“t mowxls rxally arx bxttxr tha“ our
ffast mowxls, a“w thx yact that somx oy thxsx thxorixs wxrx
wro“g woxs “ot mxa“ all currx“t o“xs arx mistakx“ 1a“w
thus xvxry altxr“ativx thxory must bx takx“ sxriously0. Your
altxr“ativx thxorixs about thx huma“ mi“w a“w
co“scious“xss may i“ cx“turixs hx“cx tur“ out to bx right,
but thx owws arx lo“g agai“st it.
Still, as I wocumx“t i“ NRb M lral Arc, o“x oy thx grxatxst
wiscovxrixs oy thx Scix“tific Rxvolutio“ a“w thx
N“lightx“mx“t is that yrxx xxffrxssio“ a“w thx offx“
markxtfflacx oy iwxas whxrx xvxryo“x is wxlcomx to ffroffxr
thxir bxlixys without statx cx“sorshiff has bxx“ o“x oy thx
wrivi“g yorcxs bxhi“w both scix“tific a“w huma“ ffrogrxss.
I’m skxfftical oy your thxorixs, Ruffxrt, but I wxyx“w your
right to ffublish a“w ffrxsx“t thxm i“ ffublic yorums such as
this, whxrx thxy ca“ bx xxffosxw to thx bright light oy
scix“cx—thx most imfforta“t i“vx“tio“ xvxr mawx i“ thx
history oy our sffxcixs.
lM ScRabl
F r r anr aRs
N r aRs Sr r Rbs Rra I lRldranR NnaRrcmRw
B
Joha““ nolyga“g vo“ Voxthx 1BHEE–BIDC0, thx author oy
NRb Mlrrlb s lc I lsnd RbrrRbr, ElbcrSab AffSnSrSbs,
R SlRblm M bSsrbr, Blbrrw ana NrsrR, Easr0Rbsr D Saan,
Fas sr 1carts I a“w II0, a“w ma“y othxr works i“ ffrosx a“w
vxrsx. Voxthx was vxry i“txrxstxw i“ thx “atural scix“cxs,
co“wucti“g his ow“ obsxrvatio“s a“w xxffxrimx“ts. Rx
ffublishxw ma“y works o“ scix“tific subjxcts, i“cluwi“g
NRb M bram lrYRlsSs lc Blanrs 1BHEA0 a“w NRblrw lc Clllr
1BIBA0, as wxll as “umxrous shortxr scix“tific stuwixs.
C
l“ivxrsity oy Lhicago crxss, BEGC.
D
Sxx Mo““a J. Raraway, Crwsrals, FaLrScs, ana FSblas-
M braYRlrs lc ArdanScSsm Sn Nb bnrSbrR0Cbnrsrw
D babllYm bnral BSllldw, Yalx l“ivxrsity crxss, BEHGL a“w
Nrik cxtxrso“, “ghx Lo“fiuxst oy mitalism or thx Ncliffsx oy
brga“icismN ghx BEDAs Lambriwgx brga“izxr crojxct a“w
thx Social axtwork oy ciw-gwx“tixth-Lx“tury Biology,”
British Jour“al yor thx Ristory oy Scix“cx, CABE, EHF CIB–
DAE.
E
l“ivxristy oy cichiga“ Library, BIEG.
F
Blo“w 0 Briggs, BEIB. Oirst l.S. xw.F J.c. garchxr, BEICL
sxco“w l.S. xw.F cark Strxxt crxss, BEEEL thirw l.S. xw.
1rxtitlxw M lrYRSc Lbslnancb- NRb N arsrb lc Flrm arSab
Cas sarSln0F cark Strxxt crxss, CAAE.
G
Mxxffak Lhoffra, CABDL ff. ED.
H
bxyorw l“ivxrsity crxss, CABCL ff. B
I
‘Scix“tism’ is a txrm that occurs rxffxatxwly throughout
this txxt. ghx authors wisagrxx as to its yu“wamx“tal
wxfi“itio“, a“w i“ yact, thxir wisagrxxmx“t about this
si“gular worw’s wxfi“itio“ goxs to thx hxart oy thxir
wisagrxxmx“t about thx “aturx oy scix“cx. Accorwi“g to
Mr. ShxrmxrF scix“tism is a scix“tific worlw vixw that
x“comffassxs “atural xxffla“atio“s yor all ffhx“omx“a,
xschxws suffxr“atural a“w ffara“ormal sffxculatio“s, a“w
xmbracxs xmffiricism a“w rxaso“ as thx twi“ ffillars oy a
ffhilosoffhy oy liyx affffroffriatx yor a“ Agx oy Scix“cx.
Accorwi“g to both Mr. Shxlwrakx a“w thx cxrriam
nxbstxr Mictio“ary, scix“tism is ra“s “xxaggxratxw trust
i“ thx xfficacy oy thx mxthows oy “atural scix“cx afffflixw
to all arxas oy i“vxstigatio“ 1as i“ ffhilosoffhy, thx social
scix“cxs, a“w thx huma“itixs0.”
N r aRs Sr r M mclaRl I lRrY Rr NnaRrcmRw
B
Rx“ry Rolt a“w Lo., CABF. ghx titlx alluwxs to a yamous
li“x yrom o“x oy Mr. carti“ Luthxr ai“g, Jr.’s, sffxxchxsF
“ghx arc oy thx moral u“ivxrsx is lo“g, but it bx“ws
towarws justicx.”
C
“Ruffxrt’s Rxso“a“cx,” McSbnrSfic Am brScan, bctobxr CE,
CAAF.
D
ghx xxact rxlatio“shiff bxtwxx“ thx xarlixr ““atural law”
a“w thx latxr ““atural rights” trawitio“s is co“volutxw a“w,
i“ ffart, co“txstxwL howxvxr, thxrx is “o woubt oy thx wxxff
co““xctio“ bxtwxx“ thx two trawitio“s. Oor thx
ffhilosoffhical issuxs i“volvxw, sxx Joh“ Oi““is, N ars ral
L ab ana N arsral LSdRrs, bxyorw lc, BEIA. Oor thx history,
sxx c.B. Lrowx, NRb CRandSnd Brlfilb lc rRb N arsral L ab ,
carti“us aijhoff, BEHH, a“uw Raako“ssx“, N arsral L ab
ana M lral BRSllslYRw- Frlm G rlrSs s rl rRb MclrrSsR
EnlSdRrbnm bnr, Lambriwgx lc, BEEG, a“w Bria“ gixr“xy,
NRb Iaba lc N arsral LSdRrs- MrsaSbs ln N arsral LSdRrs,
N arsral L ab, ana CRs rcR L ab, 1BBFA–BGCF0, Scholars
crxss, BEEH.
E
miki“g, CABB.
F
Josxffh Butlxr, FSab Mbrm lns BrbacRba ar rRb Lllls CRaYbl
ana a D SssbrrarSln sYln rRb N arsrb lc VSrrsb, xw. by
Stxffhx“ L. Marwall, Rackxtt cublishi“g Lo., BEIDL
origi“ally ffublishxw as a grouff oy BF sxrmo“s i“ BHCG.
Sxx, xsffxcially, thx first thrxx sxrmo“s, which arx
collxctivxly x“titlxw “lffo“ Ruma“ aaturx.” ghis iwxa a“w
somx oy its history havx bxx“ bxautiyully wxvxloffxw i“ a
wo“wxryul littlx book callxw NRb Innbr CRbcg, N. nright,
BEHE, by thx latx Swxwish ffhilosoffhxr Oolkx Lxa“wxr,
which wx rxcommx“w to xvxryo“x.
N r aRs ar I lRrY Rrhs O s Rnmng I aaaRY Rna r n , a,
M Rnaal F camr n aa a I msaancR
B
nisxma“, Richarw a“w carily“ Schlitz 1BEEH0
“Nxffxrimx“txr Nffxcts a“w thx Rxmotx Mxtxctio“ oy
Stari“g,” Els rnal lc BaraYswcRllldw 6 1 F BEH–CAH.
C
Orxxma“, A“tho“y, xw. 1CAAF0 “Shxlwrakx a“w Ris LriticsF
ghx Sx“sx oy Bxi“g Vlarxw At,” Els rnal lc ClnscSlssnbss
MrsaSbs, 1 0 1G0.
D
BBFF E–BI.
E
Ryma“, Ray 1BEEE0 “A“omaly or ArtiyactN Lommx“ts o“
Bxm a“w Ro“orto“,”BswcRllldScal BsllbrSn, 1 1 . F BE–CE.
F
cilto“, Julix a“w Richarw nisxma“ 1BEEE0 “Moxs csi
NxistN Lack oy Rxfflicatio“ oy a“ A“omalous crocxss oy
I“yormatio“ gra“syxr,” BswcRllldScal BsllbrSn, BCFF DIH–
DEB.
N r aRs ar Rbs Rra I lRldranRhs RRss r nsR r n , b,
M Rnaal F camr n aa a I msaancR
B
nilliams, B.J. 1CABB0 “Rxvisiti“g thx Va“zyxlw NSc MxbatxF
A Basic Rxvixw a“w Assxssmx“t,” Els rnal lc McSbnrSfic
EcYllrarSln, 0 . F GDE–GGB 1Mow“loaw cMOF
Mxa“Rawi“.com6xviwx“cx6nilliamsCABBVa“z.ffwy0
C
cilto“, J. 1BEEE0 “Shoulw ga“zyxlw rxsxarch co“ti“ux to bx
crucial i“ thx sxarch yor a rxfflicablx ffsi xffxctN” Els rnal
lc BaraYswcRllldw, 6 , F DAE–DDD.
D
cossbriwgx, xt al. 1CABC0 “crxwictivx ffhysiological
a“ticiffatio“ ffrxcxwi“g sxxmi“gly u“ffrxwictablx stimuliF a
mxta-a“alysis,” FrlnrSbrs Sn BswcRllldw , F B–BG
1Mow“loaw cMOF
Mxa“Rawi“.com6xviwx“cx6cossbriwgxCABCcrxsx“timx“t.ff
wy0
E
Lartxr, L. 1CABA0 “’Rxaws I losx, gails you wi“,’ or, Row
Richarw nisxma“ “ullifixs ffositivx rxsults a“w what to wo
about it,” Els rnal lc rRb MlcSbrw clr BswcRScal LbsbarcR,
A- F BFG–BGHL ccLuha“, R. LanaSms BrSxb- R Rar MgbYrScs
Maw ALlsr rRb Baranlrm al, R Rw NRbw Arb Rrlnd ana R Rw
Ir M arrbrs. catawor, CABA. Storr, n. NRb OnYbrssaaaLlbs-
Aaabnrsrbs b SrR rRb Enbm Sbs lc McSbncb. bvxrlook crxss,
CABE.
F
natt, L., R. nisxma“, a“w c. Schlitz 1CAAC0 “gacit
i“yormatio“ i“ rxmotx stari“g rxsxarchF ghx nisxma“-
Schlitz i“txrvixws,” Baranlrm al LbaSbb 0 - F BI–CF.
N r aRs ar Rbs Rra I lRldranRhs O s Rnmng
I aaaRY Rna r n . F , L r d and I cmRncR
B
Oor a“ illumi“ati“g wiscussio“ oy thx trawitio“al
u“wxrsta“wi“g oy Vow i“ thx Lhristia“ a“w othxr rxligious
trawitio“s, sxx Maviw Bx“tlxy Rart, NRb EcYbrSbncb lc
G la- BbSnd, ClnscSlssnbss, BlSss. Yalx l“ivxrsity crxss,
CABD.
C
axw Rxvisxw Sta“warw mxrsio“ 1aRSm0.
D
Alistair Rarwy, NRb MYSrSrsal N arsrb lc M an. bxyorwF
bxyorw l“ivxrsity crxss, BEHE.
E
Rarolw V. aox“ig, M baScSnb, LblSdSln ana H balrR- R Rbrb
McSbncb ana MYSrSrsalSrw M bbr. gxmfflxto“ Oou“watio“
crxss, CAAI.
F
ILSa.L ff. BED.
F N r aR ar Rbs Rra I lRldranRhs RRss r nsR r n 6 G ,
L r d and I cmRncR
B
aick Sffx“cxr, ArRbSsrs- NRb ArSdSn lc rRb MYbcSbs.
Lo“wo“F Bloomsbury Acawxmic, CABEL Lhaff. E.