ARGUMENT

DEFINITION OF ARGUMENT

the presentation and defense or support of a specific thesis, assertion, or claim

can be a strongly held belief a critical view of an issue a presentation of an insight a search for the truth a description

To convince the reader to accept the position, the writer provides support using objective facts or logical evidence, and sometimes, even emotional appeals.

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN ARGUMENT AND PERSUASION

The goal of argument is to have you accept the writer’s thesis.

The goal of persuasion, after you’ve accepted the position of the writer, is to have you get moving and do something. EXAMPLES:

ARGUMENT: Walking is necessary for good health.

PERSUASION: I want you to walk every day for good health.

ARGUMENT QUESTION FORMAT

Most often, the exam will give you a prompt that might be: a brief excerpt a quotation a statement an anecdote

You will be directed to defend (agree with), challenge (disagree with), or qualify (agree with some and disagree with other parts of the text) the: author’s position statement’s main idea narrative’s main point.

Other types of argumentative prompts may ask you to: write an essay indicating which idea among a given set is more valid explore the validity of an assertion.

No matter which type of prompt is given, you should be able to: take a position on the issue or situation support your position using your own experience, reading, and/or

observations

CLASSICAL ARGUMENT FORMULA

Present the issue/situation/problem. State your (writer’s) assertion/claim/thesis. Support your claim.

Your support should be rational and logical, not emotional. It should be objective rather than biased (one-sided). It can be developed using any of the rhetorical strategies and

devices.

Acknowledge and respond to real or possible opposing views.

Make your final comment or summary of the evidence.

The order of your presentation can be varied. Any rhetorical strategies can be employed. Make certain that your support/evidence is appropriate

and effective.

TYPES OF ARGUMENTATIVE APPEALS YOU CAN USE

Ethical (Ethos) an appeal to the reader’s good sense, goodwill, and desire to “do the

right thing”

Emotional (Pathos) an appeal to the reader’s fear, patriotism, and so forth

Logical (Logos) an appeal to inductive and deductive reasoning

INDUCTION

forming a generalization from a set of specific examples moves from a given series of specifics to a generalization Example: Margo has 17 stuffed teddy bears, 3 stuffed cows, 11

monkeys, 4 camels, and 6 stuffed elephants. Margo loves to collect stuffed animals.

possible problems The generalization covers many unobserved persons, objects, etc. If the conclusion begins with ALL, any exception would invalidate the

generalization. Cited facts are incorrect. Assumed connections are incorrect. Assumption is a conclusion NOT supported by the evidence.

DEDUCTION

reaching a probable conclusion based on given premises A premise is a proposition that is taken for granted.

EXAMPLE: All high school seniors at this high school must write a research paper. Sean is a senior at this high school. Therefore, Sean must write a research paper.

The process moves from a general rule to a specific example. Conclusions can be drawn from implicit premises, such as:

universal truths

possibilities that the reader will readily accept

familiar sayings

facts that everyone, including the reader, knows

Deduction uses the syllogism.

SYLLOGISM A syllogism is the format of a formal argument that

consists of a major premise

Examples:

All A are C.

All lions are cats.

minor premise Examples:

B is A.

Leonard is a lion.

conclusion Examples:

Therefore, B is C.

Therefore, Leonard is a cat.

POSSIBLE PROBLEMS WITH DEDUCTION

Not all of the given A falls into the given B category. There are exceptions.

The given category B is incorrect. The second statement is not true or is incorrect.

Therefore, the conclusion is invalid. The truth of the third statement is in question. A logical fallacy has occurred.

LOGICAL FALLACIES Non sequitur argument

means “does not follow” in Latin conclusion does not follow from the premise

Ex.: Diane graduated from Vassar. She’ll make a great lawyer.

Begging the question The writer assumes in his/her assertion/premise/thesis something

that really remains to be proved. Ex.: Taking geometry is a waste of time. High school students should not

be required to take this course.

Circular reasoning restates the premise rather than giving a reason for holding the

premise. Ex.: I like to eat because I enjoy different foods and restaurants.

Straw-man argument The speaker/writer attributes false or exaggerated characteristics or

behaviors to the opponent and attacks him on those falsehoods or exaggerations.

Ex.: You say you support allowing people under eighteen to drive alone. I’ll never be able to understand why weak-willed drivers like you are willing to risk your life and the lives of all other drivers with these crazy teenagers on the road.

Ad hominem argument means to “argue against the man” attacks the person rather than dealing with the issue under discussion

Ex.: We all know Sam has several speeding tickets on his record. How can we trust him to vote for us on the issue of a trade agreement with Europe?

Hasty generalization draws a conclusion about an entire group based on evidence that is too

scant or insufficient Ex.: The veterinarian discovered a viral infection in five beagles. All beagles

must be infected with it.

Overgeneralization The writer/speaker draws a conclusion about a large number of people, ideas,

things, etc. based on very limited evidence. Also known as a stereotype. Words such as all, never, always, and every are usually indicative of

overgeneralization. Look for qualifiers (some, seem, often, perhaps, frequently, etc.) that indicate

the writer has awareness of the complexities of the topic or group under discussion.

Post hoc argument Cites an unrelated event that occurred earlier as the cause of the current

situation. Ex.: I saw a black cat run across the street in front of my car five minutes

before I was hit by a foul ball at the park. Therefore, the black cat is the cause of my bruised arm.

Either/or argument The writer asserts that there are only two possibilities, when, in reality, there

are more. Ex.: Tomorrow is April 15; therefore, I must mail in my tax return, or I will be

arrested.

ANALOGY

an argument based on similarities Possible Problems:

Accepting the totality of the analogy by never questioning that there are differences between/among the items being compared that could invalidate the argument or conclusion.

Exaggerating the similarities.