FriedrichNietzsche

RecognizedGodasaconstructforustohidefromsuffering.“Godisdead.Wehavekilledhim,youandI.”

Sawvalueinsuffering forustobecomestronger“Thatwhichdoesnotkillmemakesmestronger.”

DidnotbelieveinFreeWill;wearedetermined.

Strongwillv.WeakwillWearestrong ifweacceptourfate.Weareweakifweavoidsuffering.

Superman (Ubermensch). • Wearemoving pasttheeraofslavemorality,whichmakesvirtuesoutofourweaknesses.• Thenewhuman(Supermen) willcreateculturetoreplacereligion.• Supermen areindividuals whowillthinkforthemselves,andmakemorallawsforthemselves.• Supermenwillalsocarefor theweakandbuildupculture/societyoutofcompassion.• ThestrengthofSupermen liesintheirjoyfulacceptanceoffateandtheirsufferingbecauseofhowit

ennobles them.

Existentialism

Existentialistsbelievefundamentallyintheradicalfreedomofindividuals.Wehidefromourfreedombybelievinginrealitiesthatdonotexist.

Examples:moralrules,conventions,needforcertainmaterialthings,labels.

SartreandCamus,likeNietzsche,recognizeGodandmoralityasconceptsthatrestrictourfreedom.

ForSartre,beingobservedreducesthehumantoanobject.Anall-knowingGod,whodesignedusforaspecificpurpose,necessarilyrestrictsourfreedom.

Thenatureofradicalnotionoffreedomfortheexistentialistslieintherecognitionthatwehumansareverbs,notobjects.Wearenotdeterminedbywhatweare,butwedetermineourselvesbywhatwedo.

MauriceMerleau-PontyPhenomenology:Thestudyoftheappearanceofthings.Lessconcernedwithobjectiveexistence;oftendoesnotaddressexistence.

”IfGodexists,Iamnotfree.IfIamfree,Godcannotexist.”–Sartre

FellowexistentialistandphenomenologistMauriceMerleau-Ponty criticizedSartre’snotionoffreedom.

• ForMerleau-Ponty,Sartreignoredtheextenttowhichweashumansactuallydoexistintheworld.

• Thereisnoabsolutedistinctionbetweenobserverandtheobserved.• Wearefreeintheworld,butnotseparatefromit.• Ourfreedomisnotradicalbecauseweinevitiablyaffectthethingsweinteractwith

(ifonlybyobservation)andtheyaffectus.ObservingrealityislikehandlingHoney..

Phenomenology,Freedom,andGodTocalleveryactionradicallyfree,asSartredoes,makesnosense.Iftheactionofarebelliousslaveisthesameastheactionofanon-reflectiveworkingmanoranartistismeaningless.

Freedomcanexistonlyifthereareobstaclestofreedom.Merleau-Ponty,asaphenomenologist,talksaboutthephenomenonofGod,butavoidstalkingabouttheobjectiveexistenceofanything.

DoesMerleau-Ponty’s conceptionofFreedomallowfortheexistenceofGod?

WhatwouldGodbelikeinMerleau-Ponty’s understanding?

MoralRelativism

Theclaimthatquestionsofmoralitycanonlybeansweredrelativetothetimeandcustomsofthesocietyinwhichtheproblemarises.

Twomaintypes:DescriptiveMoralrelativism:holdsthatculturesdisagreeaboutmoralvaluesandsimplymakemoraljudgementsforeachculturerelativetoitsnorms.Meta-EthicalMoralRelativism:Holdsthatthetruthorfalsityofmoraljudgementsisnotabsoluteoruniversal,butisrelativetotradition.Moraldisputescannotberationallysolvedandshouldthereforebetolerated.

IsSartreamoralrelativist?Camus?Kierkegaard?WhatisSartre’sconceptionofethics?Whataretheweaknessesofthisconception?

AreMorallawsabsolute?WhatisthedifferencebetweenculturalcustomsandObjectivemorality?Whyhavesomanycultureengagedinpracticesthatweconsiderwrong?

WhatisGod?

IfGodisinfinite,Hecannotbedefined.IsitstillmeaningfultousethewordGodinconversationifwecannotdefinetheterm?

WhataretheattributesofGodasinferredbytheproofsoftheExistenceofGod?

Godaspureexistence:anactofexistingaccordingtoAquinas.IsthisthenotionofGoddeniedbyDawkinsorSartre?

AristotlePhilosophybeganwithSocrates,whowasthefirsttoconsiderhumansandthebestwaytoliveratherthantojuststudytheheavens.

ThefourCausesofathingtoexist:MaterialFormalEfficientFinal

Whatarethefourcausesof:ahouse,adog,apieceoffruit,ahuman?

Soul:Thefirstandenduringactofananimalbodywiththecapacityforlife.

SoulofananimalincludestheFormalcause,theefficientcause,andthefinalcause.

AristotleandNaturalLawHumansobserveconsistentlawsintheuniverseandarethereforeabletodeviseamethodforlivingwell.

Aristotledistinguishesbetweenthosecharacteristicsthatbenefitahumanandthosethathinderhappinessinoneselforinothers.

Iftheuniversewerenotmoreorlessconsistent,man’sreasonwouldbeofnouse,andhumanswouldbenobetterthananimals.

Aristotlebelievedthatmorallaws,orrulesofhumanconductdonotchangeinthesamewaythelawsofphysicsdonotchange.

Thedifferenceishumanshavethecapacitytounderstandtheirrelationshiptotheworldintheiractofbeingandtotherebylivewell.

NaturalLaw:Canmeandifferentthingsindifferentcontexts.Ingeneral,naturallawisknowntousbyourreason.

InCivillaw:naturalrelationshipsformthefoundationoflaw,andmuchofthisisnotarticulatedinlawdocuments,asopposedtolegalpositivismwhichholdssocietymakeslawsoutliningitsrelationships.

Inmoralphilosophy:referstoanaturalconceptionofmoralobligationandresponsibility.Wearecreatedthroughournaturetowardaparticularend.Actionsinaccordwiththatnatureandendaregood,thosewhichdrawusawayareevil.

Threenormsofnaturallaw(Aquinas):

Thediscriminatingnorm:humannature/biology/psychology

Theultimatenorm:theideal.ForAquinas,thisisderivedfromthenatureofGodandrepresentswhathumansshouldbe

Themanifestingnorm:determinesthemoralqualityofactions.Byweighingthediscriminatingnormandthemanifestingnorm,thishelpsusdetermineacourseofaction.

ThequalitiesofnaturalLaw:

Itisuniversal.

Itisunchangeable.

CivilLaworhumanderivesfromitandhasnoauthoritytochangeit.Humanlawhelpsusinterpretnaturallawinspecificcircumstances.

ProblemswithNaturalLaw

IsNaturalLawnecessaryifwearetobelievethereisarationalbasisforhumanconduct?

Istherearationalbasisforhumanconductorisrightandwrongultimatelyarbitrary?

WhatobjectionsmightpeoplehavetoNaturalLaw?

Istheuniverseultimatelyirrational?Isitpossiblethatanyorderweseeintheuniverseisimposedsimplybyourownminds?

Theproblemofpain:https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gjcpW_kPYq0

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=MPm6Y-pANYI

BultmannDe-Mythologization

Anthropology:IntheNewTestamentperiod,peoplethoughtofthemselvesaspossessedbyforcesofnatureanddemonicspirits.

• Modernpeoplerecognizeourradicalfreedomandresponsibility.• Wehavedominionovernatureandoverourselvesandcanrationally

organizeourlives.

• Ourthoughts,feelings,andwillbelongtous.

• Althoughweareconditionedbyourphysicalbodies,weknowourtrueselvestobeindependentofnature.

BultmannDe-Mythology

MythologycontainsstumblingblockstomodernthinkingJesus’ethicalteachingsshouldbemaintained

De-Mythologization:theprocessofinterpreting,notdismissing,elementsofNewTestamentworldview.

Mythsgiveworldlyobjectivitytothatwhichisnon-objective.Theygiveusametaphoricalwayoftalkingaboutrealitieswhichcannotbediscussedotherwise.

Metaphorspervadeallformsofhumanthoughtandspeech.• Modernsciencemakespervasiveuseofmetaphors,e.g.“Stringtheory.”Justasthe

metaphorofstringshouldnotbeunderstoodliterally,neithershouldmythology.

BultmannInterpretationoftheNewTestament

Inordertounderstandatext,onemusthavesomerelationshiptoit• Inordertounderstandamusicalscore,onemustbemusical.• Inordertounderstandahistoricaltext,onemusthavean

understandingofselfinhistory.

HowdoweunderstandtheBibleifwerejectmythology?Onwhatbasiscanweunderstandit?• WehaveanunderstandingofGodinadvance.• Wehaveanunderstandingofwhatitmeanstoexistandtoface

existentialistquestions.

BultmannDe-Mythologization oftheCrossandResurrection

JesushimselfwasaPharisee,andbelievedintheResurrectionoftheDead.Jesus’followersthoughthewouldbethefirsttoberaisedandothersimmediatelyafter.TheResurrectionanditsworldviewwasdisprovedwhentherewasnogeneralResurrection.

TheMeaningoftheResurrectioncomesfromtheCross.TheCrossrepresents:

theremissionofoursinsbyGodourexistentialfreedomfromsintheachievementoffreedombyself-sacrifice(ofdesires)

Existentialistresponsetosuffering

Theuniverseisirrational.Aristotlewaswronginrecognizingahumansoulwhichalignshumanswithnature.Theuniverseisirrational,andsowecannotultimatelyknowitbyreason.ThereisnoNaturalLawbindinghumanactivity.

AtheisticExistentialists:Sartre,Camus,Nietzsche:Inthefaceofanabsurd,irrationalworld,wemustmakeourownlaws.Theselawsarebasedonnoobjectivefoundation,butarearbitrary.

TheisticExistentialists:Kierkegaard,Bultmann:Wecannotultimatelyknowtheuniversebyreason.However,Godrevealstoushowtolivewell.FaithandtrustinGodoverhumanreasonistheultimatewisdom.

RudolfBultmannGermantheologianduringWWII.CriticoftheNazis.

WroteNewTestamentandMythologyand JesusChristandMythology,claimingthatChristianchurchesaresocaughtupindogmaaboutJesusChristthattheyhavelosthisoriginalmessage

DeniestheResurrectionandmiraclesasliteralevents.Instead,theyaremyths.

Myth:theattempttoexpressanon-objectiverealityinsymbolic,objectiveterms.

RudolfBultmann

Twoinfluences:• TheExistentialismofJean-PaulSartre• theliberaltheologyofFriedrichSchleiermacher

TwoImportantbooks:• NewTestamentandMythology(1941)• JesusChristandMythology(1958)

Existentialism influencedBultmann byitsemphasisonthebasicfactsofhumanexistence,particularlyanxietyinthefaceofdeathandmeaninglessness.

• Bultmann wasfrustratedbytheobsessionofChristianchurcheswithdoctrinethathadlittlebearingonthethinkingofmodernpeople.

• SawtheCrossasaneventwhichteachessalvationthroughtheremissionofsinsandtheimportanceofself-sacrifice.

RudolfBultmann

InfluencedbyFriedrichSchleiermacher(1768- 1834)

• FounderofLiberalTheology• Post-Enlightenmentthinker,pre-AmericanCivilWar• Consideredcertainreligiousclaimsasanti-scientific:• Christwasdivine• Christrosefromthedead

Adoptedananthropology*whichdescribedhumansasamicrocosmoftheuniverse.Ineveryhumantheuniverseitselfismarriedtoreason.

*anthropology:thestudyofwhatitmeanstobehuman

RudolfBultmannDe-Mythologization

WecannotuseelectriclightsandmodernmedicineandthenadoptaNewTestamentWorldview

WecannotbelieveHeavenisaboveandHellisbelow.HeavenrepresentsfreedomandaworldoflightHellrepresentsdeath,darkness,allthatisfearful.

Christdidnotascendordescend,becausethisisdependentona“three-story”viewoftheuniverse.