art in social studies assessments

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A relatively new trend in assessment in American history

education offers interesting opportunities to inject the arts

into mainstream education in ways that could provide a catalyst

for engagement with social justice issues. Document-based

questions [DBQs] on statewide social studies assessments afford

art and social studies teachers interested in social justice issues

such opportunities. Long a staple of Advanced Placement exams,

DBQs are turning up on statewide elementary, middle, and high

school social studies assessments and have become an integral

part of social studies curricula and tests in New York. These

types of questions represent an authentic assessment, in that

students read and analyze passages and visual images and thensynthesize the information into a coherent essay. A pioneer in

creating DBQs, New York state suggests that documents should

include graphs, charts, maps, cartoons, photographs, artwork,

eyewitness accounts, and historical passages and requires that its

social studies assessment contain at least 2-3 visual documents

per DBQ (NYS Social Studies). The input of ar t teachers in the

creation and analysis of these exams (which are notconstructed

by a corporation but by New York teachers) is desirable if the

assessments are to realize their potential for fostering social

justice curriculum and instruction.

Why should art teachers committed to social justice issues care

about social studies assessment? The ar ts are now, and

historically, marginalized in American public education. In order

to graduate from high school in Germany, students need

7-9 credits of art; in Japan, they need 5; in American schools, 0-2

sufce (Fowler, 1996). The central role of psychology in

educational theory and its strong emphasis on language help

account for this de-emphasis of art in American education

(Crain, 1992; Cremin, 1976; Kliebard, 1995). Additionally, freedom

of expression, available to American artists, may engender a view

that educating for social justice is an endeavor that belongs to

the history teacher. Teaming with colleagues to select art images

for state assessments provides an avenue to place the arts on an

equal platform with text in childrens hearts and minds as they

engage in interpreting American culture and history.

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Art teachers engagement with the selection of images for

social studies assessment is also important because the arts

promote alternate perspectives on historical events. By

stimulating emotional connections to the past, art works

motivate young people to relate past issues to those in theirown lives and potentially make connections to events in the

present. Issues of power, the legacies of slavery and Japanese

internment, questions of legal justice, and justications for war

are some of the complex issues in American history that have

inspired artists to create provocative works. Adding images to

the teaching of history is an acknowledgment of the increasingly

visual world of our students. In our visually oriented culture,

where students knowledge of the contemporary world, and

even of history, is as likely to emanate from television and lm

as it is from reading, it is critical that educators assist students

in social studies assessments:An Untapped Resource for Socia l Just ice Educat ionart

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analysis of images. Art has the power to reframe public

debate about the past and help transform popular memories

and histories (Desai, Hamlin, & Mattson, 2010, p. 11).

Art that exemplies the complex contradictions of history can

be found in a series of 80 paintings created by Ben Sakoguchi

(2009) called Postcards from Camp (1999-2001). Studying family

photos to substantiate his childhood recollections of his time in

a Japanese internment camp in Rohwer, Arkansas, Sakoguchi

authenticated his recollections by examining military, civilian,

and internee photographs. Like an historian, this artist studied

media of the time, as well as writings by internees, military, and

governmental leaders, to reveal social, cultural, and political

perspectives. The painting Rohwer, Arkansas (Figure 1) (1999-

2001), shows children playing marbles outside their barracks.

The text on the painting belies the cheerful scene: IF IT IS A

QUESTION OF THE SAFETY OF THE COUNTRY (AND)

THE CONSTITUTION WHY THE CONSTITUTION ISJUST A SCRAP OF PAPER TO ME. JOHN J. McCLOY,

ASSISTANT SECRETARY OF WAR, 1942. Our current war

on terror was similarly promulgated in ways to justify a loose

interpretation of constitutional rights. This painting offers

tantalizing opportunities to stimulate empathic understanding

of people in history and today.

It would be extremely difcult to establish a direct causal link

between critical thinking skills resulting from the contextual

analysis of art images and an increased propensity for young

people to work toward social justice. However, we can posit

that the analysis of artworks provides opportunities to consider

issues of social justice. DBQs are designed to prepare students

to consider multiple perspectives, reconcile differing positions,

and evaluate the strength of particular arguments. Developing

critical thinking skills in children is a necessary rst step to

nurture an informed citizenry. Calls for social justice canemerge only from an informed population.

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Recent experiences in American educational policy provide

ample evidence that high stakes testing gets attention. The No

Child Left Behind legislation has only exacerbated this fact

(Chapman, 2004). How can ar t teachers, concerned with social

justice, make this reality work for us? First, we have to ask

ourselves whether all testing is negative. Leaders in the eld of

social studies education applaud the inclusion of DBQs, rst

introduced in 1973 (on Advanced Placement exams), because of

their potential in stimulating authentic assessment for informed

citizenry (Grant, Gradwell, & Cimbricz, 2004; Rothschild, 2000).

For example, a recent New York State United States History

and Government examination administered to 11th-graders

(January 2009) contained a DBQ that asked students to

[D]iscuss how decisions of the Warren Cour t affected

American society. Two of the nine documents included in the

case were visual images. The rst, a photo (Figure 2), depicted

Mrs. Nettie Hunt explaining the signicance of the U.S. Supreme

Courts May 17, 1954 desegregation ruling to her daughter

Nikie, age 3. Two other powerful photographs depicting an

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aspect of the Civil Rights Movement appeared

on the June 2008 exam: (a) A mob surrounds

Elizabeth Eckford outside Central High School

in Little Rock, Arkansas on September 4, 1957.

(Figure 3); (b) On September 25, 1957 federal

troops escort the Little Rock Nine to their

classes at Central High School (Figure 4).

Requiring analysis and synthesis of textual and

visual documents on the tests, as opposed to

the familiar reproduction of information

required by multiple choice items, can give

classroom teachers the impetus to use more

thoughtful materials in their own teaching. Thus,

as Rothschild points out, DBQ[s] and

especially the emphasis on primary sources

have profoundly changed instruction at all

levels of American history (2000).

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Since the New York State Regents Examination

became a high stakes test whose passage is a

requirement for graduation from high school,

the state has archived all past examinations on

the New York State Department of Education

website. We were able to access all 24 exams

given from June 2001 through January 2009,

the period when the DBQ became one of the

two required essay questions on the exam.

Our analysis of these United

States examinations reveal

that there were 192

documents on the 24 tests,

each containing an average

of 8 documents. Out of

those 192 documents, 51

(26%) were visual

documents. Forty-two of the

51 visual documents could

be categorized as arts

documents. Thus, of the 192

total documents, 42 or 22%

could be labeled as arts

documents. Viewing the 42arts documents, there were

17 photographs, 17 political

cartoons, 7 advertisements

of some kind (posters, yers,

broadsides), and 1 illustration

(State Assessment History:

Social Studies Regents

Examinations).

This list of images is remarkable for what it

does not include: images generally considered

to be ne art. Most of the images are what

Rothschild refers to as informational images

(Rothschild, 2000, p. 555), the types of images

that art history tends to ignore. Working in

isolation from art educators, social studies

educators are the sole selectors of all DBQ

images, which helps to account for the dearth

of ne arts on these tests. Studies of secondary

teachers in New York have found that, since the

advent of DBQs on the state social studies

tests, teachers are more attentive to the use of

primary source documents, including images

(Grant, Derme-Insinna, Gradwell, Lauricella,

Pullano, & Tzeto, 2001, 2002; Schwartz, Blue,

Klemann, Kramerson, & Perielli, 2002).Standardized tests have become important

drivers of curriculum and instruction.

Classroom teachers are turning to art and

museum educators to assist them in preparing

students to interpret DBQs (Richner, N.,

personal communication, May 1, 2010). There is

no reason why social studies teachers should

not turn to their art teacher colleagues down

the hall as well.

Because social studies assessments in New

York State are created, piloted, and edited by

groups of teachers, it is entirely possible thatart teachers could be part of those groups.

Just because this has not occurred to date

(Larson, J., personal communication, April 12,

2010) does not mean it cannot be considered.

Even if no art teachers were included among

the test-creators, art teachers can still have an

effect on test construction and classroom

instruction, albeit from a slight remove. If art

teachers and their social studies colleagues

work together, students in U.S. History classes

can benet from analyzing images in lessons

and assessments.

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Studies of elementary assessment in New York

State in English Language Arts and Mathematics

have found that the tests, which require more

writing and problem solving, have driven

instruction and professional development

programs that also focus more on writing and

problem solving (Cizek, 2001; Cohen & Hill,

2000; Firestone & Mayorwetz, 2000; Dutro, Fisk,Koch, Roop & Wixson, 2002; Mathison &

Freeman, 2003). Thus, proponents of critical

thinking have concluded that the easiest way to

reform instruction and improve educational

quality is to construct better tests that

emphasize critical thinking (Yeh, 2001; Firestone

& Mayorwetz, 2000). Closely linking

professional development to analysis of

statewide assessments and the creation of

DBQs may become a means for teachers to

insert more documents, both textual and visual,

that encourage critical thinking into their

classroom instruction.

If well-constructed assessments and their

concomitant professional development

programs can foster critical thinking instruction,

there is every reason to believe that

assessments can also foster social justice

instruction through the opportunities to read

visual culture provided by DBQs. A critical

examination of social studies assessments in

New York State and the possibilities for the

intersections of social studies, art, and social

justice provide art educators with a signicant

opportunity to emphasize the critical role of art

to reect and shed new meaning on history and

culture. We invite art teachers to become

involved with selection of images that will require

students to analyze issues of power and social

justice for DBQs on state assessments and in

classroom lessons.

Teachers of global histor y may be more

accustomed to showing works of art than their

counterparts who teach American History. Thestate core curriculum has many more references

to works of art through the Renaissance, though

few in the most recent centuries, as written

works come to dominate the suggested

documents list in the 20th century (NYS social

studies Core Curr iculum). In New York States

United States History core curriculum, there are

many fewer references to art documents; the

emphasis of K-12 education is for students to

understand the structure and function of

governments and to learn how to take on their

roles as citizens (NYS social studies Core

Curriculum). Indeed, the only overt references to

art are found in the Gilded Age with Thomas

Nast cartoons, the Progressive Era with Jacob

Riis photographs, and in the culture of the

Depression/New Deal time period (NYS social

studies Core Curriculum). The scarcity of

artistic documents may be attributed to the fact

that New York States U.S. History course

emphasizes the Constitution and its effects

throughout history, with little emphasis on what

is revealed through cultural production.

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Rohwer, Arkansas, Ben Sakoguchi, 1999-2001

(Figure 1) See pages 3-4 for a discussion of this painting.

Sakoguchi, born in California, has created several series

of paintings that include the subjects of Japanese

internment, slavery, baseball and race, and other aspects

of American culture. A prolic ar tist who has chronicled

controversial historical and cultural issues, Sakoguchis

series of 80 paintings, Postcards from Camp, portrays life

before, during and after Japanese internment.

Sacco and Vanzetti, Ben Shahn, 1931-32

Following World War I, nationalistic zeal was reected in

an emerging artistic style that produced many potent

images, stimulated calls for social and economic justice,

and came to be known as Social Realism. A Jewish

refugee from Lithuania, Shahn examined his ethnic roots

while the Depression developed, which reinforced a

concern for the plight of workers. Shahn is particularly

known for his series on the Sacco and Vanzetti case that

grappled with the trial and execution of Italian

immigrants. In addition to chronicling the central issue of

his time, Shahns art suggests compelling comparisons to

issues confronting todays immigrants and other working

class Americans.

Midnight Ride of Paul Revere, Grant Wood, 1931

Reared in a small shack in Iowa, Wood is considered a

Regionalist painter who claimed that his best ideas came

while on a farm. The painting conveys a fable-like quality;

the dwellings look like doll houses with a rocking horse.

The artist presents the vantage point of the viewer in a

way that makes the viewer feel omniscient, as we look

down on the monochromatic, dramatic scene. Patriotic

fervor can turn history into a fable that ignores

inconvenient truths.

The Migration of the Negro,

Jacob Lawrences Migration series, 1940

In 1941, at a time of pervasive and legalized segregation,

Lawrence was the rst African American to be

represented by a major New York City gallery. Lawrence

confronted contemporary themes affecting the lives of

African Americans, such as migration, work, and family,

with powerful, simplied shapes and color in a way that

included strong social commentary.

Slavery, Slavery, Kara Walker, 1997

(Figure 5) Motivated by her love of history painting,

Walker strives to move from the pomposity and

inaccuracy endemic in historical paintings to a brutal and

meticulous kind of art that explodes racial stereotypes in

disturbing images. (Desai, et. al., 2010). Inspired by the

antebellum South and 18th- century silhouettes, this

installation commands an entire room with images of

blacks and whites of all ages, some engaged in disturbing

poses. Drawing from slave narratives as well as her

imagination, her research of Southern life, and even the

novel Gone with the Wind, Walkers artwork compels

the viewer to engage with history in a visceral, wrenching

way (Desai, et. al., 2010).

The Death of General Wolfe, Benjamin West, 1771

The compelling story of this tenth child of an innkeeper

includes that he was taught to mix paints by Native

Americans in the region. The depiction of the Native

American warrior is an idealization of the concept of

the noble savage. In opposition to the images in

twentieth century cowboy lms, Wolfe por trayed the

main Native American embodying deep thought. This

painting was extremely controversial at the time, as it

ignored the convention of dressing gures in classical

attire. Wolfe has re-written the actual event as no Native

Americans were present; they were ghting for the

French against the British.

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Analyzing images, including ne ar ts, can support the growth of

basic historical literacy abilities by stimulating students to analyze

artistic ideas, take positions and defend them, examine the world

of visual images they live in, and ask new questions and produce

historical information in novel ways (Desai, et al., 2010). Here

are some possible examples by American artists that reveal

volumes about their subjects. The rst image reveals the bias and

role of story in historical painting, the purpose of which has

been largely usurped by photography today. Other artworks

that offer rich possibilities are noted on the previous page.

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The small sample of artworks above reveal glorication of the

past, the impact of slavery on its victims, and the injustice faced

by Americans. Art stimulates emotional connections to the past

and understanding in unique and profound ways that can never

be duplicated by mere words or graphs. DBQs should includeworks of contemporary and traditional artists, as their creations

offer alternate perspectives on historical events.

Art teachers strive to teach children how to read the visual

signs of past and present cultures. DBQs offer art teachers

intriguing openings to extend their inuence beyond their own

classrooms to those of their social studies colleagues. If art

teachers contribute to the creation of social studies assessments

and instruction, they will have greater opportunities to challenge

social studies teachers and students to analyze artworks for

what they reveal about societal values and power structures. In

the process, they may nurture students to become more visually

literate and help create informed citizens who have the tools

to analyze and critique their society.

References

Cizek, G. J. (2001). More unintended consequences of high stakes testing.

Educational Measurement 20(4), 19-27.

Chapman, L. (2004). No child left behind in art.Arts Education Policy Review,

106, 2, 3-20.

Cohen, D. K., & Hill, H. C. (2000). Instruction policy and classroom

performance: the mathematics reform in California. Teachers College

Record, (102) 2, 294-343.

Crain, W. (1992). Theories of development. NJ: Prentice Hall.

Cremin, L. (1976). Traditions of American education. New York: Basic Books.

Desai, D., Hamlin, J., Mattson, J. (2010). History as art, art as history. New York:

Routledge.

Dutro, E., Fisk, M. C., Koch, R., Roop, L .J., & Wixson, K. (2002). When state

policies meet local district contexts: standards-based professional

development as a means to individual agency and collective ownership.

Teachers College Record, (104), 4.

Firestone, W. A., & Mayorwetz, D. (2000). Rethinking high-stakes: lessons

from the United States and England and Wales. Teachers College Record,

(102) 4, 724-749.

Fowler, C. (1996). Strong arts, strong schools. New York: Oxford University

Press.

Grant, S.G., Derme-Insinna, A., Gradwell, J., Lauricella, A.M., Pullano, L., & Tzeto,K. (2001). Teachers, tests, and tensions: Teachers respond to the New York

State global history exam, International Social Studies Forum, 1(2), 107-125.

Grant, S. G., Derme-Insinna, A., Gradwel l, J., Lauricella, A. M., Pullano, L., & Tzeto,

K. (2002). Juggling two sets of books: A teacher responds to the New

York State Global History Exam,Journal of Curriculum and Supervision,

17(3), 232-255.

Grant, S. G., Gradwell, J.M., Cimbricz. S. K. (2004). A question of authenticity:

The document-based question as an assessment of the students

knowledge of history.Journal of Curriculum and Supervision, (19)4, 309-337.

Kliebard, H. M. (1995). The struggle for the American curriculum 1893-1958.

New York: Rout ledge.

Mathison, S., & Freeman, M. (2003, September 24). Constraining elementary

teachers work: dilemmas and paradoxes created by state mandated

testing. Education Policy Analysis Archives, 11(34). Retrieved September 24,

2003, from http://epaa.asu.edu/epaa/v11n34/.

New York State Social Studies. Learning Standards and Core Curriculum: Global

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gov/ciai/socst/pub/sscore2.pdf.

New York State Social Studies. What are document-based questions and why

are we doing them?Retrieved March 28, 2006, from http://www.emsc.

nysed.gov/ciai/ dbq/iione.html.

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NY: New York State Education Department. Retrieved May 25, 2009

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Rothschild, E. (2000). The impact of the document-based question on the

teaching of US history, The History Teacher, (33)4, August, 495-500.

Sakoguchi, B. (2009). http://www.bensakoguchi.com/series_postcards_from_

camp.phpSchwartz, S., Blue, S. Klemann, M., Kramerson, A., & Perielli, J. (2002). Using

document based questions (DBQ) as a research tool for the teaching and

learning about young adults. Paper presented at the annual conference of

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State Assessment: Social Studies Regents Examinations - U. S. History, http://

www.nysedregents.org/testing/socstre/regentushg.html

Yeh, S.S. (2001). Tests worth teaching to: constructing state-mandate tests that

emphasize critical thinking. Educational Researcher, (30)19, 12-17.

Susan Goetz Zwirn is the Graduate Director and Associate Professor

of Art Education at Hofstra University. Her research areas include

the marginalization of the arts in American education, arts

integrated curriculum, and the artist teacher. In addition, she is a

painter and arts program evaluator. E-mail: [email protected]

Andrea S. Libresco is Associate Professor and Graduate Director of

Social Studies Education and Associate Director of the Center for

Teaching and Scholar ly Excellence at Hofstra University. She has

written on a variety of topics, including citizenship, current events,

and gender and conducts ongoing research on the effects of the

New York State elementary and secondary social studies tests on

instruction. E-mail: [email protected]

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