Journal of Economics and International Finance Vol. 3(6), pp. 387-398, June 2011 Available online at http://www.academicjournals.org/JEIFISSN 2006-9812 2011 Academic Journals Full Length Research Paper A model for a sustainable energy supply strategy for the social-economic development of Togo Kossi Ayenagbo, Josphert Ngui Kimatu and Wang Rongcheng* 1College of Urban and Environmental Sciences, Northeast Normal University, No.5268 Renmin Street, Changchun, Jilin Province, Post Code 130024. P. R. China. 2Department of Biological Sciences, South Eastern University College, (A Constituent College of the University of Nairobi). P.O. Box 170-90200- Kitui, Kenya. Accepted 10 May, 2011 Sustainableenergysupplyisnecessaryfortheeconomicdevelopmentofacountry.Over80%ofthe populationsofAfricancountrieslackanaccesstosufficientandsustainableenergy.Moreover,3.5 billionpeoplearewithoutelectricity,henceasignificantnumberdependsonbiomassfuelssuchas charcoal,wood,dungandcropresiduesforlightingandcooking.Thishighdependencyonfuelwood andlackofefficientdeliveryofcleanenergyindicateaninfantstageofeconomicdevelopment condition. Togo is relatively rich in energy resources such as solar, biomass energy, hydroelectric and other renewable energy sources. However, it has experienced major political crises since the 1990s that havevirtuallyparalyzedthegrowthoftheeconomy.Whilethecountryiscurrentlyundertaking developmentandmodernizationreformsinallareasespeciallyineconomicmodernization,itis importanttoaddressthelinksbetweenenergyandsustainablesocial-economicdevelopment.Modern economiesareundoubtedlybeingdrivenbysustainableenergypolicies.Thispaperproposesa sustainableenergyutilizationmodelwhichcanbeusedtocauseaparadigmshiftintherefocusingof thestrategiesusedinplanningfutureenergypoliciesinTogo.Wediscusshow,properlyharnessed energy resources could lay a strong foundation for sustainable social economic development. Key words: Togo, economic development, energy, hydro electric power. INTRODUCTION Withouttheefficientsustainableplanningandstrategies foraconstantsupplyofcleanenergy,thesocial economiclongtermdevelopmentofacountrymightbe hampered. Many countries have beenlaying down these strategiesfortheenergysector;howevermostofthem have not been ableto stand the test of time. The energy strategiesinAfricancountrieshavefurthermorebeing complicatedbyerraticrains,politicalcrisesand undevelopedinfrastructures. Thisissurprising,regarding thattheAfricancontinentisrichinmanyenergy resources.Oneoftheultimategoalsforasustainable development is making energy available and cheaper for allhouseholdsandalsofortheeconomicsector (Chekete, 2007). There are three main sources of energy; *Corresponding author. E-mail: wrc@nenu.edu.cn. biomass,petroleumandelectricity.However,the challengewithrespecttoelectricityistoincreasethe capacityofproductionandreduceitscost.Developing countriesarefacingtworelatedcrucialproblemsinthe energysector.Firstistheinsufficientproductionand inefficient use of traditional forms of biomass energy such asfire-woodandagro-residues,posingtremendous socio-economic,environmentalandhealthhazards. Secondisthehighlyunevendistributionanduseof modernformsofenergysuchaselectricity,petroleum andliquidgas,wideningthedisparityinincomeand qualityof life (Barnes, 1990). Hence, an energy policyor strategyinthisregardshouldbedesignedforthese countriessothatthecountryisabletomaintainand promoteamoresustainableformofproductionand efficient use of his traditional energy. Togo is one of those developingcountrieswhicharestrugglingtohavea sustainable energy strategy. Hence, a comparativestudy 388J. Econ. Int. Financ. ofotherglobalstrategiesandthecurrentprojected energystrategiescouldbehelpfulinstabilizingthe energysectorforthenextdecadeandbeyond.Inthis waythecountrywillbeabletomeetallformsofsocio-economic transition for efficient and clean use of modern energy.Thiswillmaketheefficientproductionofgoods andservicestobepossibleandatamoderatecost. Furthermore,theaccruedexpensesduetoenergycosts in a product might make further research and exploitation ofresourcesnotviable.Moreover,withtheenvironment being locally and globally threatened by air pollution from greenhousegasemissionsandinefficientenergy productionandusage,thewelfareofespeciallywomen andchildrenisendangeredbylong-termexposureto heavyplumes.Thesehighhealthrisksandcommon householdlightingdeviceswhicharegrosslyinefficient assourcesoflightarecompoundingthehardshipsin these developing countries (Cecelski, 1996). Energy as a core resource for modernization Energywhichisoneofthecoreresourcesfor modernizationanddevelopmenthasvariousimplications inpovertyalleviation,populationgrowth,healthandthe environmentsustainabilitywhileitinvariablyinfluences thepaceofindustrial,agriculturalandsocio-economic developmentofanation.Efficientenergyproduction processes can enhance rural/urban and large/small scale industrial development, causing a more affordable means ofproductionofgoodsandservices(PearceandWebb, 1987). A nationwhichneglects its energy productionand use is at serious risk of being economically landlocked.Nationallyandinternationally,energyand environmentalpoliciesandstrategiesarebeingmodeled atthelevelofthebiomass,electricityandpetroleum financinginresponsetoawiderangeofissues.These issuesmayleadtobetterenergyefficiencysuchasin transportation,powergeneration,andinreducing pollutionwhicharerelatedtoenergy.Thoughlackof accesstoaffordableenergy,hasseriousimplicationson thedevelopmentofacountry,policiesonissuesof energyaremorerhetoricalthanrealisticinmostleast developedcountrieslikeTogo.Thesesocio-economic consequencesareoftenseverefordevelopingcountries ingeneralandespeciallyfortheleastdeveloped countries.Biasedfocusonindustry,transportandlarge-scaleenergysectorshasobscuredtherealityof developingcountrieswheremorethan90%ofthe populationcontinuestorelyontraditionalbiofuelslike wood.Theconsumptionofplantsresidueindeveloping countriesexceedsonebilliontonsofoilequivalence, whichismorethanthreefoldstheamountprovidedby coalconsumptioninEuropeandtwiceintheUnited StatesorChina(BarnesandFloor,1996).InTogo,the annualministerialbudgetsthatalwaysarestatementsof energy policies lack long-term strategiesforenergy production,includingsocio-economicdevelopment.The countryhasinsteadreliedonimportedpetroleum,which hasvirtuallyplungedthecountryintoachronicblackout condition. The institutional structureshave not experienced much change since the 1970s, posing formidable challenges to efficientsupplyofsustainableenergy.Neverthelessa numberofMinistriesinTogoareinvolvedinthe formulationofstrategiesandenergypolicieswhichoften lackthewilltoimplementandcoordinate.Despitethe countrybeingendowedwithrichnaturalenergy resources,Togoreliesonimportationofenergy resources. It is important to note that the inadequate and poorqualityelectricityserviceprovisionhasresultedin peopledependingheavilyonfuelwood.Fortheentire rural population of Togo, energy needs are largely met by biofuelsandagro-residues.Hence,thedesigningand implementationofholisticenergypolicies,whichinclude thegeneration,conservationandharnessingpotential energyresourcesinbothruralandurbanspaces,would haveaprofoundpositivechangeonsocio-economic development.Statedinorderwords,povertyalleviation cannottakeplacewithoutlocatingenergyatthecoreof developmentparadigms.Inaddition,Togocouldachieve theMillenniumDevelopmentGoals(MDGs)through sufficient success to affordable energy resources such as electricityandsolarpower.Onthelargerscale,the overallMDGaimsatreducingglobalpovertybyone-half by 2015. However, to realize this goal, we feel there must besufficientaccesstoaffordableenergy.Giventhat energyconstitutesasignificantportionofTogosgross domesticproducts(GDP)andevenagreaterfractionof householdexpenditure,energyefficiencymeasures includingenergyconservationshouldbeadoptedin energypolicyplanningandsupply.Theanalysisofthe energy sector starts with the identificationof the demand andsupply,whichinTogo,encompassesenergy requirementsofthehousehold,industry,commerce, mining, transport and agriculture. Energysupplycancomefromelectricity,oilandgas, petroleumproducts,energybasedmineralsand renewableenergyresources.Energypoliciesshouldbe carefullystructured,inclusiveandwellcoordinated,to minimizeunpleasantsideeffects.Forinstance,therural electrificationprojectalonecannotsolveruralenergy poverty,(TuntivateandBarnes,1995).Itshouldbe augmentedwithancillarypoliciesandprogramslike forestpreservation,educationandjobcreationtoa desiredeconomiceffect.Otheraspectsinclude affordabilityandbroadaccessibilityofmodernformsof energy.Asuccessfultransitiontomodernenergy requiresrespectableincomefortheruralandurban sectorsofthecountry.Suchgrowth,inturn,requires economicdevelopmentpoliciesthatsupportinnovative electrificationprograms,expandsoilandgasmarkets andincreasetheuseofrenewableenergy;theotheris sustainable useandrationalizationofbiofuelrequires afforestationpolicies,energyeducationandextension services,meansofeconomic/efficientproductionand managementandenvironmentalfriendlyuseofthis sourceofenergy.Useofbiofuelshouldbeexpanded becauseitisrelativelysustainable.However,studies have shown that even under the best transition scenario, biofuelwillstillbeareliableenergysourceforrural householdsindevelopingcountriesaccordingtoLeach and Mearns (1988). The aforementioned important links are addressed and modeledinthispaper(Figure1)andanalysesof sustainable energy strategies policies evaluated from the socio-economicdevelopmentviewpoints.Thiswill hopefullypresentaviableandcomprehensive recommendation to attenuate the negative repercussions on the future energy situation in Togo. A comparative energy situation analysis in Togo InalmostallcountriesofWestAfrica,energy consumptionismarkedbyahighuseofbiomass.It accounts for more than 80% in meeting people's needs in energy.Electricityconsumptionpercapitaisverylowin Togo.Itisonly125kWh(Enda-TM,SectoralReviewof Togo-Goldenmarket),whichisverylowascomparedto theaverageconsumptioninEurope,AmericaorChina whose current figures reach thousands of kWh. Although Togohasnoprovenreservesoffossilfuels,thefact remainsthatithasasignificantbutverypoorlyvalued potentialforrenewableenergy.Togoentirelydependent on not only imported oil but also electricity imported from Cted'Ivoire,GhanaandNigeriasoastosatisfyits enormousenergyneeds.Despitemultipleefforts, especiallyaftertheoilcrisisofthe70sinoilexploration, the resultswere not satisfactoryor encouraging. This led thecompanyUnocal,whichhadevendrilledoffshore wells,tostopitsactivitiesin1987.However,other surveysconductedin1997and1999haveproved potentiallyfavorablesitesforreservesofoilandgas. As forrenewableenergy,qualifiedasenergyfluxversus energy inventory mentioned earlier, the potential exists in Togo. The development of solar, wind, biomass and small hydroelectriccouldcontributepositivelytoenergy securityinTogo.Moreover,whatisevenbetteristhat operationdoesnotcreategreenhousegasemissions. Thesolarpotentialissignificantwithpowerexceeding 700W/m(Enda-TM,SectoralReviewofTogo-Goldenmarket)indryseasonwithclearskiesandlow humidity.Inthecoastalzonewind,poweristhelargest withwindspeedsupto3m/sonaverage.Asfor hydroelectricity,severalinterestingsiteshavebeen inventorised.However,lackofpoliticalwillhasledtothe underutilizationofpotentialsourcesofenergy.Thesolar power,however,hasemergedsincethe1980swiththe realizationofsolarwaterheaters.Thedevelopmentof sites listed as part of the technicalfeasibilitystudycould Ayenagbo et al.389 effectively contribute to reverse this trend. InTogoandanyothercountries,staffingenergyisa reliableindicatorthatmayaccountforitslevelof development. It is in itself a powerful engine of economic andsocialprogress.However,thesectorstillappearsin Togoasamajorconstrainttobusinessdevelopmentin growthdirectionandemployment.Energysecurityand people'saccesstoserviceswillconstituteamajor challenge,whosechangehastoinevitablyneed diversificationofresources.Morethantwooutofthree householdshavenoaccesstoelectricity.Thislackof electricity supply slows industrialization and the attraction of investors. The final consumption of commercial energy per capita remains low. Besides wood and other biomass products,energyresourcesofTogoaremadeupby hydroelectricpowerwhoseproductivityisestimatedat 600GWhperyear(Jacques,1994).Generallyinevery countrythequalityoflifeismeasuredbythelevelof energyconsumption,whichisassociatedwithincreased industrialandeconomicactivities.Asalreadymentioned energyservicesarecrucialtoprovideadequatefood, shelter,clothing,water,sanitation,medicalcare, educationandaccesstoinformation.Thementioned indicesareimportanttoolsaspectsforaddressing povertyreductionandeconomicgrowthinTogo.Energy use is closely linked to a range of socioeconomic issues, includingpovertyreduction,populationgrowth, urbanizationandopportunitiesforwomenandchildren according to Cecelski (1996). Togoisreasonablyendowedwithenergyresources, particularly biomass (wood), hydroelectric and even solar energy.Theseresources,ifproperlyharnessedlikewe havealreadysaid,canplayapredominantrolein sustainingTogoseconomicdevelopment.However,the countryfacesdifficultieswithcommercialenergy supplies, particularly electricity supply, as it imports all its petroleum (Table 1). Thelinksbetweenenergystrategiesandpoverty reduction Therelationshipbetweenenergyservicesandpoverty reduction was explicitly identified by the World Summit on SustainableDevelopment(WSSD)intermsof implementationofJohannesburg(SouthAfrica).The Summit calledon the international community to conduct jointandconsistenteffortstointensifycooperationatall levelsinordertoimproveaccesstoaffordableand reliableenergyservicesandachieveasustainable developmentlevelhighenoughtofacilitatethe achievement of the MDG including the goal of halving the proportionofpeoplelivinginpovertyby2015.Thisalso servestogenerateotherimportantservicesthat contribute to poverty alleviation. Keep in mind that access toenergyfacilitatestheeradicationofpoverty(ESMAP, 2002a). Based on such recommendations, it is necessary390J. Econ. Int. Financ. Table1.Theelectricity situationoverviewin WestAfricainbillionkilowatt/hours,indicatinghow Togoisheavilydependentonpetroleum imports for electricity supply in the sub region. (Source: Energy Information Administration). Country Consumption 2001 Generation 2001 Installed capacity, 1/1/2001 (gig watts) Thermal capacity (total %) Hydroelectric capacity (total %) Benin0.630.270.09428.771.3 Burkina Faso0.260.280.12173.626.4 Cape Verde0.040.040.007100.00.0 Cote d'Ivoire2.984.610.89231.268.8 Gambia0.080.090.029100.00.0 Ghana8.848.801.20010.789.3 Guinea0.740.790.19573.326.7 Guinea-Bissau0.050.060.011100.00.0 Liberia0.440.470.330100.00.0 Mali0.450.480.11456.143.9 Mauritania0.150.160.10541.958.1 Niger0.330.240.063100.00.0 Nigeria14.5615.675.88867.132.9 Senegal1.411.520.235100.00.0 Sierra Leone0.230.250.12896.93.1 Togo0.610.100.03488.211.8 Regional total31.7833.829.44658.841.2 toimproveenergyservicesinTogoincludingformodern householdfuelslike;improvedstoves,theincreasein biomassproductionsustainable,andexpandingaccess toelectricityandmechanicalenergy.InTogo,energy serviceshaveadirectimpactonpovertyandother dimensionsofpoverty,suchasgenderinequality,poor health, inadequate education and poor access to services infrastructure.Electricityplaysavitalroleinproviding basicsocialservices,likeeducationandinhealth, wherebyenergyscarcityisoftenabarriertosterilization andpurificationofwaterandrefrigerationofessential medicines.Electricitycanalsorunmachinesthatserve assupportforincomegeneratingopportunities,suchas pumpingwaterinagriculture,foodprocessing,apparel manufacturing and light industries. InruralareasinTogo,lackofmodernenergyservices maydeterskilledworkerssuchasteachers,doctors, nursesandextensionagentstosettlethere,further limitingtheservicesandopportunitiesavailabletolocal people. Energy purchase trends of the electricity sector Theavailablegenerationcapacityfortheenergysector wasfarlessthantheinstalledcapacityduetopoor maintenance,shortageofsparepartsandinadequate and under-skilled technicians. The captive capacity in the minesandinstalledcapacityinthetownsvirtually degenerated during the past years. In spite of substantial investmentinthesectorthesituationcontinuedtobe desperate until recently, with the new government desperateaboutprovidingelectricityforatleastthe capitalcity.Todate,ruralelectricitysupplyislargely ignored.Thestateofthepowersectorindicatesa considerableimbalancebetweenpowerdemandand supplyinTogo.Energypurchasefollowedatrend identicalwiththatoftheGWhquantitiessold,averaging 50%oftotalchargesfrom1990to1992,beforegiving waytofinancialexpensesandallocationtoamortization andprovisioningwhichaccountfor45and10%of expenditures, respectively. To meet the production losses fromtheAkossombodam(Ghana)andtheNangbeto dam(Togo),theCEBsetuptwogasturbines(onein Lome,theotherinCotonou).Overthepastfiveyears, CEBenergyproductionpurchasesstandasshownto Table2.Hence,Togoisconsiderablysufficiently endowedwithpotentialenergyandshouldtherefore adoptappropriatepoliciesandstrategiesthatshould make it to meet the demand and supply for its population. Thehouseholdbiomassenergysupplypotentialin Togo Thebiomassenergysourceisthemostformofenergy usedinTogo.Itisusedmainlyintheformofwoodand charcoal. These represent almost 80% in the total energy consumptioninthecountry.Theseenergysourcesare usedinthedomesticsectorinmeetingnotonlythe cookingneedsbutalsoincraftslikesmokingfish, preparinglocaldrinkorpeanutoiletc.Thehousehold consumptionisestimatedatabout1.63milliontonsfor fuelwood and 0.27 million tons of charcoal.Asforcrafts, Ayenagbo et al.391 Table 2. The energy purchase trends as related to the production (Sources: CEB activity reports/ADB PPER mission). PurchaseCEB/Production Year/purchase VRACIETotalNangbetoTAGTotalNetwork totalPeak ( MW) 1997422.54262.44684.9888.36088.36773.34133.7 1998459.530459.53172.6065.92238.52698.05139 1999325.63201.65527.28198.84159.79358.63885.91139 2000391.90299.82691.72198.3649.57247.93939.65154.81 2001302.05577.23879.2891.7862.75154.531033.81162.56 consumptionisestimatedat27,600tonsforfuelwood and 9500 tons for charcoal (Enda-TM, Sectoral Review of Togo-Goldenmarket).However,irrationaluseofthisform of energy is one of the main causes of deforestation and environmentaldegradation.Inthisperspective,the outcomeoftheprojectmicro/minihydroelectricwill inevitably reverse that trend. Togo is richly endowed with avarietyofrenewableenergyresources,includingan abundantwoodandnon-woodbiomass,solar,windand waterresources.Withtheexceptionofbiomass,onlya meagerfractionofthecountryspresentrenewable energypotentialisexploited.However,Togohaslimited experienceonrenewableenergytechnologies(RETs). Thebiomass(firewoodandcharcoal)playsa predominant role in the electricity supply in Togo. 90% of householdenergyconsumptionisincookingand fuelwoodsupplies.Fuelwoodisfreeforthevastmajority of rural households, with most families getting their wood requirements from local forests/bushes, especially during land clearing for farming that is largely shifting cultivation. Percapitafuelwoodconsumptionintheruralareasis estimatedat700kgperannum,accountingforvirtually all household energy need and use. In urban areas (such asLome)wherethereisaflourishingmarketpricesand fuelwood consumption percapita can be much less. The approximate annual per capita consumption of other fuels inurbanandruralare:charcoal60and10kg;kerosene 20 and 5 L; electricity 50 and 5 kWh, respectively. AccordingtoBarnes(1998)theseestimatesarewithin therangeexperiencedinotherWestAfricancountries. The most notable exception is the low market penetration bycharcoalinurbanareas;forexample,Lome consumptionestimateis60perannumwhicharewell belowestimatedurbanuseinLiberia(141kg/year)and Senegal(230kg/year).OKeefeandMinslow(1989) arguedthatthelevelofdependenceonfuelwoodfor householdenergyneedsisdisturbing,projectedat4.2 millionmfor2004.Fuelwoodisobtainedfromcleared agriculturallands.Theregrowthoftreesduringfallow periods plays an important role in the regeneration of soil fertilityofsoilsandthesupportofthesoilstructureand moisture,whichreducerunoffandmanyotherfunctions ofconservationofsoilafterharvest.Thus,withthe worseningshortageoffuelwood,fellingoftrees prematurely became increasingly rampant; the shortening offallowperiods,leadingtotheirsharperdegradation. The production of fuelwood is usually during the period of landclearingforagriculture,takingcareofenergyneeds of rural agricultural. Fuelwood can also be a byproduct of forestmanagement.Theexampleillustratedbythe silviculturalandwoodwastefromloggingandsawmills. All varieties of mangrove trees or logs in Togo are used or exploitedforfuelwood.Mangrovedefinedasfuelwoodis widely and mainly used in most of all the coastal villages ofcommonsaltproductionandconservationoffish caughtlocally.Fuelwoodisalsoinmanycases,usedin the cultivation and food processing and preservation. It is usedforheatingduringthewetseason,cooking,crafts, andpossiblythenightlightingactivitiesofasocial.Coal productionfortheurbanmarketisconcentratedinthe reserveforestareasinNorthernTogointheforest villagesinthemountainousforests.Theessentialand most important perhaps, is the culture of wood under the systemofsubsistenceproduction.Theproductionof fuelwood for the urban market and urban sprawl have led to deforestation, which if not controlled will lead to serious shortageoffuelwoodforboththeruralandurbanpoor. Biomass, primary source of household energy represents almost three quarters of consumption of Togo. It is almost entirelyabsorbedbythecookingneedsofhouseholds and artisans. According to Barnes (1990) the total energy production fromvariousotherbiomasssourcesareinexcessof 2700GWh/year.Togo,likemostdevelopingcountries, hasenactedprogramstoimprovethesupplyanduseof biofuelthoughtheprogramsareexceedinglysmall comparedtoallocatedresourcesforelectrification. Thus, such programs can increase supply throughwoodlot and forest management, farm forestry programs and end-use efficiencythroughimprovedwoodstoveprograms. Severaltypesofactorsaredistinguishedinthissub-sectorsuchas:farmersproducingfuelwoodand charcoal,theprocessingandtimberservicecompanies; wholesalerswhoruntheruralproductionsitestobuy from farmers their production and transport them to urban centers that result in the sector market for wood products andenergy;wholesaletraderssettledinurbanareas wheretheyconstitutealargestockofwoodfireand charcoal,retailerssellingtheproductsofwoodenergy. Biomass energy plays a majorroleinenergysupplyin 392J. Econ. Int. Financ. Togobecauseofitscontributiontothetotalfinalenergy consumption.Thisismainlyfuelwood,charcoalandto some extent plantwaste.Except for theuse of waste for electricityproductionbysomeindustriesinplace,these energies are mostly consumed by households for cooking andintheserviceindustryforsmokingfish,craftbread, cookinginrestaurantsandscrub.Thebiomassenergy needsaremetfromleviesonforestresourcesincluding thestateofdegradationwhichisbecomingincreasingly worrying.Togopridesitselfinthestrengthsofthe biomass potential, however there is need to lay strategies andpoliciesthatwilloversee:therevisionoflawsand forest regulations for differential taxation which favors the planneduseofnaturalresourcescoupledwith reforestation;thesupportofthecreationofcontrolled woodenergy markets in rural areas and the organization ofcommoditytradeofwood-basedenergyblueprint supply.However,severalconstraintsofdifferentorders hamperagoodmanagementofthissub-conventional energylike:alowleveloforganizationofthebiomass energy sub-sector;lack of planning of loggingoperations exceptinmanagedforests;insufficientknowledgeofthe evolution of forest cover which we do not really know the land by type of training, much less the volume of wood in placeandsustainablelevelsofexploitation;taxation forestproductsremainlowincomparisonwiththose appliedinothercountriesofthesubregion;cooking habitscontributetolimitingthealternativetomodern energy; the problem of returns in consumption equipment most commonly used in Togo. Hence a candid, adequate andaccurateassessmentofenergypotentialofcrop residues should be strategized to perform collaboratively. Forest resources Itisestimatedthat85%oftheareaof Togo(56785km2) iscoveredwithnaturalforests.Fornaturalforests,areas ofclosedforest(semi-deciduousforest,denseforests anddrymountainforests)increasedfrom350,300hain 1990 to 286,500 ha in 2000 is a regression rate of about 6400ha/year.Theareasofopenforests(fallow agriculturalandgrazingexcluded)thatreached1.2 million hain 1990, did notexceed more than 800,000 ha in 2000 is a regression rate of about 40,000 ha/year. The reforestedarea(ha)from1900to1999isatotalof 37,629ha(Akakpo,2000).Regardingtheforest plantations,theevolutionofareasplantedfrom1990to 2000ispossibleonlyfromthecelldatafordevelopment of National Forestry Action Plan (NFAP), which estimated 34,724hatotalareareforestedinTogountil1995 (NationalReport,1998).FuelwoodinTogoisobtained directly from high dense forests and savannah woodland. Barnes(1990)estimatedthattheintroductionof woodstove will gain widespread adoption, hence increase energyefficiency.Consequently,mostearlyefforts focused onlyonthedisseminationofthetechnology, ignoringrelevantcrucialfactorsliketheeconomic settings and the availability and prices of alternative local biofuels of targeted population. Designed for use bylow-incomehouseholds,simpleandinexpensive,wood stovesmainlydoublingtheefficiencyofwoodenergy, reducingairpollutioninsideandwoodingcosts.Different types of stovesare made,in particular mud stove being theleastexpensivebecauseitcanbeeasilybuiltand repairedincaseofdeterioration.Theproducersargue thatmudstoneandwonderstovehave50and55% efficiencyovertheotherconventionalstoves.Onan independentinquiryintotheefficiency,qualityand simplicity of these stoves, which is to value their products, it is nevertheless a general consensus that they are more energy efficient. In Togo, the most common gadget for the kitchen is the"traditional open-fire",witha low 10~ 20% thermal efficiency. These gadgets are widely used in rural areasandabout65%oflow-incomehouseholdsusein thecapitalLome.However,thepurchasingcostofthe stoveishigherthanthelowerenergy-conservingstoves, which is limiting its adoption. Theuseofimprovedstoveswillnotonlyreducethe costofcookingbutequallycutdownonfuelwood consumption.Beyondthesevisibleandapparent benefits,likeTogo,therearemanydevelopingcountries thathavefailedtoadoptimprovedwoodstoves.The broadcastprogramstovestartedinthe2000sandthey aresupportedbytheGovernmentofTogo,NGOsand privatedonorswithveryimpressiveperformanceif adopted.Costcomparisonsofdifferentstovesshow significant savings in switching to the more efficient stove gadgetsthatarecurrentlytested.Strategiestoplant mangrovetreeswillprovidepeoplewithmanybenefits duringtheenergytransitionstagebeforethecountries electricitydemandandutilizationefficiencybecomes sustainable.Moreoverthe,mangrovetreehasmany uses, including drugs and drink, energy, fisheries, leather, construction,textile,food,householditems,paper productsandothernaturalproducts.Highendcharcoals aremadefrommangrove,whichhavereportedgood earningstoalmostallthepeopleofTogo.Iffavorable conditionsaremet,mangrovesmaycreateavery productive vast forest area. Household petroleum energy consumption Petroleumproductsaremainlyusedinthetransport sector and industrial production units. They are especially consumedinruralareastomeetthelightingneeds (kerosene)andgrainmilling.Theirshareisjustabout 16%inthetotalenergyconsumptionofTogo:Itisall importedtothecountry.Theseimportsweighheavilyin thebalanceoftradeofTogo.Therefore,nearly15%of exportrevenuescanbespentonoilbill.Typically, kerosene and LPG are particularity usedby medium and high-end income families.Keroseneandliquefied petroleum gas (LPG), commonly for cooking, are lot more convenient, efficient and cleaner-burning than wood, farm residuesordung(FloorandVanderPlas,1991). KeroseneandLPGare3~5and5to10timesmore effectivethanwoodrespectively.Theuseofkerosene and LPG in cooking is also less harmful to health and the naturalenvironment.However,boththeruralandurban poorhavelimitedfinancialmuscletoaccesskerosene andLPG.TheshareofpetroleumproductsinTogois located at more than 90%. The energy demand in Togo is inconstantgrowthtomorethan90%byconventional highenergyemittingCO2.Twocategoriesofactors operateinthesub-sector.TheSocitTogolaise dentreposage (STE) (Togolese Company of Storage) and privatecorporationslicensedbythestatesincethe initiationofactivitiesofimportanddistributioninTogo, andimportersandunauthorizeddistributorswhohave created parallel market to market petroleum products and actingillegally.Inthesub-sector,Togohasseveral advantages such as relatively high hydrocarbon potential inthecoastalsedimentarybasin,largestoragecapacity of more than three months of consumption, and a storage capacity of approximately 80.000 m3 crude oil. Petroleum productsarepredominantlyusedbythetransportsector which is under the supervision the Ministry of Transport. The modern economy of Togo anyway depends heavily on imported petroleum products for fuel and power (Table 1). For several years, the country's economy faced many problems,itwasthereforeunabletoensureregular, adequate and proper, supplieswhich impair performance is of the economy of the country. The plight of the country in foreign currency is the fundamental and the immediate reasonwhythereissuchaninadequatesupply. Petroleumshortagesaswellastheirconsequencesare exacerbatedbydeficienciesinprocurement,price distortionsandthegovernmentsinabilitytomanage shortages. However, despite in the high cost of imports or the margin of excess payment for the supply of petroleum products or crude oil supply, delivery is the main problem. Theyalsocontinuetoexperiencedelays.The involvementofTogosMinistryofFinanceandEconomic inparallelmarketdealingshas,fromtimetotime,ledto delaysinpetroleumproductsdelivery,hencechronic shortagesandescalatedlandedcosts.InTogo,thelack offundsallocatedforthebudgetonoilimportsandthe shortage of foreign currency have contributed to a rush of encouragingchangesforeachshipment. Theequipment fortheefficientdistributionofpetroleumproductsinrural areas of the country is quite inadequate. The high cost of deliveryofpetroleumproductsandtheenormous difficulties of transport are that distribution companies are reluctant to extend or increase the facilities due to limited markets.Petroleumproductsmarketingandsalesare handledbytheMinistryofTradeandPrivateSector (MTPS).TheMinistryofFinanceandEconomic(MFE) alsoplaysaparallelroleintheimportandstorageof petroleum products. TheMinistryofMinesandEnergy Ayenagbo et al.393 (MME) deals with extraction of minerals, including energy related minerals. This Ministry develops also policies and programs for the systematic and economic exploitation of mineralresources.Italsoformulatesappropriate regulationsfor miningandrelatedindustriesto maximize benefits from the nations mineral resources. The country isexperiencingseriousdifficultieswiththebalanceof paymentsbecauseoftheescalatingcostsofoilimports andfluctuatingexchangerates.Currentlytheoil marketingandtradingsectorisdominatedbyfiveoil companies operating in the country. CapEsso,SunAgipandWandoarebyfarthemain playersincomparisonwithTotalandTexaco.However, muchremainstobedoneinthefightagainst malpracticesinthefalsificationoffraudulentproductsor illegalpractices.Theoilsectorisaverysensitivearea. Theproductconcernedisdelicate. Thesmallestmistake initsmanagementcanbeverycatastrophic.Withthisin mind,theactorsinTogosdistributionofpetroleum products have seen fit to streamline their field of action, to make it not only more professional, but also and above all secure(Redonko,2009).Tofightagainsttheseillegal practicesintheoilsector,theAssociationofDistributors of Petroleum Products ("GD2P") was formed in Togo. The industryisfacingmanydifficulties,includinglimited storage capacity. Fluctuations in exchange rates are only creatinganalreadyworsesituation.Despiteallthis,the factthattheregionsarecomposedmainlyoftherural poor,thesepeoplearepayingmoreforallcategoriesof petroleum products because of hightransportation costs. Supplydifficultiesareexperiencedfromtimetotime.In additiontotheseproblemstherearealsothoseof shippingandstoragelimits.Pricesarealsodifferentin variousregionsofthecountry.Thefollowingcomments explainthediversityofprices:alumpsumforthe PetroleumFundisnowperceivedbyeachgallonof gasoline,dieselandkerosene.Mostofthesefundsgo directlytotheoperationofpetroleumservices;aroad userchargeisleviedoneveryliterofpetrolanddiesel. ThesefundsarecollectedbytheServiceRoad Maintenance Fund of Togo. Road funds are used for road maintenance;theoilpricesaresignificantlyhigherinthe mostremotecitiesthaninrelationtothecapitalLom. However,weshouldnotlosesightofotherproblems suchas:Knowledgeofcertainformationsandstructures atCoastalSedimentaryBasinofTogoisinsufficientand no drilling has been doneon the onshore portion despite thestructuresthathavebeenidentified;despitethe liberalizationofimportandmarketingofpetroleum products and their derivatives, Togo has not improved the coverageofnationalterritorybytheconventional distribution network. Manylocalitieswithdifficultaccessaresporadically suppliedwith petroleum products; it should benotedthat informalsectoractivitiesinterferewithapproved companiesandtheadministrationcurrentlyhasno opportunity tocollectdataonquantitiesofpetroleum394J. Econ. Int. Financ. Involve all stake holders: Government and private sector participation Develop a self sustainable sector: environmental sustainability. Provide energy access for all: Affordability and choice Have energy conservation policies: to promote efficiency Sustainable Social-economic energy development Strategy Figure1.Theproposedhierarchicallinksofthefourbasiccomponentsinvolvedindevelopingasustainable energy development strategy in Togo. products in the informal sector, which also are of issue in this sub-sector. DISCUSSION Conflictsinthekeyenergystrategicformulation ministries EnergyisakeysectorinTogoseconomy.Itisamajor source of government revenue through fuel taxes, license feesandroyalties.Itisthereforeanabsolutenecessity forthegovernmenttosubsidizebasicutilitieslike electricity.Anumberofministriesareinvolvedinenergy policyformulationwhichoftenconflictandtherefore hinder energy coordination and harnessing. In Togo there areproblemsaboutmanagementofenergyresources amongtheministriesinvolved.Thus,thereare overlappingresponsibilitiesofthevariousministriesand coordinationamongtheministriesisgenerallypoor. Thereisnosinglecentralinstitutionforassessing potentialenergyresourceswithregardstodemandand supplyanddesigningofenergydevelopmentand investment plans in line with the needs of the nation. The Ministryof MinesandEnergy(MME)isthecustodianof minesandelectricityservicesinTogoandthereforefirst responsibleforchartingoutpoliciesandcoordinationof theseservices.Hence,apropercoordinationofthe ministries as shown in the model (Figure 1) could make a sustainable energy strategy feasible in the long run. Electricity sub-sector situation in Togo Studieshaveshownthatelectricitydemandwillsurpass biomassandpetroleumsourcesofenergyinmany developingcountries.However,Togosstrategyforthe electricitysectorstrategiesneedstobepolishedtobe sustainable.Anevidenceofthisisthenumerouspower interruptionswhichresultedinasignificanteconomic growthreductionin2007.Furthermore,theelectricity sectorofTogoisgovernedbycommonrulesbetween TogoandBeninwhichsetoutthetasksforkey stakeholders.Althoughthesectorhasbeenliberalized, the supply of electricity is almost exclusively monopolized andisprovidedbytheCompagniedEnergieduBenin (CEB)(EnergyCompanyinBenin).Thiscompany belongstobothTogoandBeninhasaverylimited productioncapacityandthereforeimportselectricityfrom Ghana,CotedIvoireandNigeria.Hencetheelectricity supplyin Togoremainsquiteunreliable,withanaverage of10poweroutagesayear.Thisiscompoundedby politicalcriseswhichresultedineconomicTogo sanctions. However, Togo has substantial assets that can promotethedevelopmentoftheelectricitysub-sector amongwhichinclude:thehydroelectricpotential estimatedat624MWthrougheconomicliberalization, administrativedecentralizationandsub-regional cooperation(WAEMU,ECOWASandNEPAD).Currently thereisconstructioninTogoofapowerplantContour GlobalbyAmericansinthecapitalLome.Thisplantis beingbuiltwiththeaimofstrengtheningthecapacityof providing electricity in Lomandindirectlyensuringthe workstosupplyotherneighboringlocalitiesandother countries (Togo Economy, 2010). The General Director of ContourGlobalTogo,YannBeuthler,statedthat"With thisplant,Togowillguaranteeaproductioncapacityof 100MWwhichwillsignificantlyimprovethereliabilityof distribution."Theoriginalityoftheplantistoenable operationwiththreedifferentfuels,diesel,heavyfueloil, muchcheaperandgas,relativelycheap.ContourGlobal shouldreceiveNigeriangasthroughpipelinefromWest Africa.Inthisperiod,theplantwouldoperateondiesel. ContourGlobalenableTogotoproduceitsownenergy resource.ConstructionofContourGlobalendedin August2010.ThisistogivesomeautonomytoTogoin thematteroftheprovisionandmanagementofenergy resource. The completion of Nangbeto and Adjarala Hydroelectric Project would also represent the nation's first substantive move towards reliable and affordable power supply that is indigenousandrenewable.Itwillenhanceeconomic developmentandwillprovideopportunitiesforimproving thelivingstandardsofthepeopleinTogo.While householdswillfinallyenjoyreliableandlow-cost electricitysupply,nationalindustriesandbusinesseswill alsobenefitfromreducedproductioncostsduetolower tariffs. Unemploymentwilldrop as the economy expands leadingtoareassuringandcivilizedsocialorder. Moreover,greenhouseemissionofgreenhousegases andotherpollutinggaseswillbereducedsignificantly. Finally,availabilityofenvironmentfriendlyelectricitywill enhancethepeopleshealthandeducationalstatus, povertyalleviationandsustainedeconomicgrowth. However,thereareobstaclesthatconfronttheelectricity sectorinTogo.Theseinclude;Corruptionand interferenceofgovernmentintheenergysector;the overallrateoflossrecordedintheelectricalsystem remainshigh.Theselossesincludetechnicallossesand non-technicallosses.Thetechnicallossesarerecorded duetothelackofstandardizationofthelengthofurban andruralnetworks,thelowvalueofthedistribution system,thetransitofreactivepower.Non-technical losses are due to illegal connections to the fraudulent use ofelectricalenergytodefectivemeters;Theinefficiency ofthesystemfortheperformanceofthermalgeneration isrelativelylow(below40%);Problemsofreturnon projects related to the weakness of the potential demand forelectricityisessentiallydomesticandwhose developmentisconditionedbythepurchasingpowerof people.Hence,apropermodeledstrategycangoalong way in reducing these conflicts for the electricity sector to thrive in the 21st century. The potential of renewable energy in Togo DespitetheconsiderablewealthofTogoindifferent energysources,themajorityofTogoleseheavilyrelyon fuelwood for domestic use. However, to meetthe Ayenagbo et al.395 challengesofenergysecurityandenergyaccess,other resourcesshouldbeexploited;theseincluderenewable energysourcesthatareinsensitivetofluctuationsin energymarkets. Amongsttherenewableenergyusedin Togoare;solarphotovoltaic,hydroelectric,biogasand wind. The advantages of this sub-sector are for example, TogoandBenin,havealargesolarfield(700KJ/cm2 global solar radiation, an average of 5,000 W/m2 per day) (UNDP, 2006); the rapid development of technologiesfor exploitationofwindenergy.Theidentificationofthe coastalzoneasanareawithgoodwindpotentialisan assetinrespectofprojectimplementationcapacity;the availabilityofenergyresourcesforthedevelopmentof biogas and the existence of the potentiality in the field of hydro-electricpower.Thedevelopmentanduseof renewableenergytechnologies(RETs)forgrowthand sustainabledevelopmentinthefaceofdifferent challenges is important, including the establishment of an institutionalandstrategicconditionsfornetworkand equal off-grid electrification, meetings of energy services, lackorabsenceofawarenessandlackoftechnical support. In Togo, there are very few companies that deal withotherformsofrenewableenergy.Solarenergyisin extremelylowproportionsorifnotlacking,whilewind power is just used as an alternative energy system. Many traditionalfundingagenciesorbodiesdealingwith problems of poor rural people have little or no knowledge ofprogramsinrenewableenergytechnologies.InTogo, the main renewable energy technologies, including micro-hydroelectric,biogas,wind,windpumps,solarenergy converters. However, these technologies and exceptional potentialinrenewableenergywereremainedvirtually untapped in the country. Regarding solar as example, the sunny Togo offers significantly hopefuldevelopment. The potentialestimatedtoanaveragebetween6and7 kWh/m2/dayfortheregionofWestAfricaremains available for operation as photovoltaic and thermal. Themicrohydroindustryappearstobeanother potential of new and renewable energy that is relevant for rural electrification, as part of a decentralized operation to promotegrassrootsdevelopmentandimprovementof beneficiarypopulationslifeconditions.Comparedto otheralternatives,windpowercouldbelimitedto economicallyviableareas.Theproblemsinthissub-sector are not exhaustive, however, the lack of a national energypolicyasabasisfordevelopingastrategyfor renewableenergy;thelackofoperationalstructures responsibleforpromotionofrenewableenergiesand finallythelackofacoherentpolicyforpromoting equipmentimplementationofrenewableenergies especiallyinisolatedcommunitiesremainontopofthe list.Furthermore,thevariousformsofrenewableenergy alsohavespecificproblemsforexample;inthefieldof solarenergy,thereisthelackofupkeepand maintenance of equipment and the relativelyhigh cost of initial investment; in the field of hydroelectric, there is the low minimum flow and the drying up of rivers; inthefield 396J. Econ. Int. Financ. ofbiogas,therearenon-masteryofbiogasproduction techniquesandtherelativelyhighcostfamilyfacilities andfinallythegreatvariabilityinproductionofwind energy.The Solar Energy Laboratory at the University of Lome isresponsibleforresearchinrenewableenergyandhas developedandexperimentedwaterheatersandsolar dryers as well as digesters. Theruralenergysupplymanagementstrategiesfor Togo In Togo, biomass, particularly fuelwood, constitutes more than90%ofruralenergyconsumption,which exacerbatesenvironmentaldegradation.Fuelwoodisthe mainsourceofenergyformostruralhouseholds,and accesstosustainableandsecuresupplyoffuelwoodis importantforthesurvivalofruralhouseholds.The economicactivitiesinruralareasincludingagriculture, businessandsocialservicesaregreatlyinfluencedby energy(BhatiaandDesai,1995).Henceanefficient provisionofenergyservicesmighthaveasignificant positiveimpactonruralwelfareandsustainable economicgrowth.ThisisbecausemajorityofTogolese liveinruralareasanditbehoovesanyenergyplanning strategytoseparatelyconsiderruralareas.Thedemand farexceedsthesustainablesupplyinseveralregionsof thecountryandthis,coupledwithagriculturaland settlementpressures,isresultinginthedenudationof natural wood land.Thebalanceofenergyneedsisprovidedbyother options,includingkerosene,gasolineandcandles. Interestingly,inTogoonlylessthan2%oftherural population has access to electricity. Economic growth and economic development are hampered by the low this low accesstocommercialenergy.Thisisreflectedbylow levelsofmechanizationofagricultureand industrialization.Thereishardlyanyinvestmentinrural energydevelopment.Thegrowthordevelopmentof commercialactivitiesinunderdevelopedareascanbea stimulatingfactorordeterminantfortheeconomic empowermentofpoorpeople.Anycommercialactivity usuallystartswithmicro-enterprisesandsmall businessessuchasshops,kiosksandagro-industrial activities. Themodernenergyservicesconstituteanimportant and essential element for the development of business or generatingincome.Sourceofenergy,electricityin particular,areaveryimportantelementforanybusiness activity.Becauseoftheimpracticalityofmainswhichis verycostlyorisaccompaniedwithlongdelays,other supplies of electricity are urgently needed. It is important, ifnotindispensable,toestablishinTogo,asinother developingcountries,aninstitutionalframeworkcapable ofmobilizing,coordinatingandfacilitatingpublicand private initiatives in renewable energy in rural areas. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS Wehaveanalyzedthatbiomassenergyespecially fuelwoodiscurrentlythemainsourceofenergy representingapproximately80%ofenergyconsumption. Theremaining20%issuppliedbypetroleumenergy sourceswhicharevirtuallywhollyimported.Hence,the traditionalformofenergyhasbeenfuelwoodwhichhas not been significantly abandoned. Itis almost exclusively usedbyhouseholdsforcookingandlightingactivities. However,inamoderneconomy,thelargestsustainable andefficientsourceofenergyiselectricityfollowedby petroleum energy sources. Nevertheless, in recent years, exchangedifficultieshavecausedsomeretentionofoil imports,whichhasledtoalimitationinenergy consumption. In Togo, the implication is that the increase or the future growth of consumption of biomass fuelwood isexpectedtoremainlongerifstrategicandpolicy measuresarenoturgentlycooperativelymadeand implemented.Comparativestudieshaveshownthatin developedcountriestheenergytrendhasbeenmoving fromBiomasstopetroleumenergyandfinallytoelectric energy. How ever the electricity sector in Togo is virtually remaineduntappedexceptinthelastfiveyears.Onthe other hand Togo is a country relatively well endowed with energyresources,particularlyforestryandhydroelectric. Largehydroelectricpowerlinescanbeinstalledwhere appropriate and a rational exploitation of the vast network of rivers and their tributaries undertaken. Several sites of mini-hydroelectricplantshavealsobeenidentified,but theirfeasibilityhasnotyetbeenfullyevaluated. Concerningoil,thereisapotentialoffshorereserve,but limited exploration is still hindering a full evaluation. Recent rises in oil price have unexpectedly taken place and Togo therefore struggles to cope with energy supply. Thecountrywasentirelydependentonimportedoil needs for alternative energy and could not develop clean energy resources in order to reduce import costs high. In Togo,asinmostdevelopingcountries,thereisvirtually no institutional structure, a lack of technical expertise and limitedresourcestomanagethisverycomplexproblem. Risingoilpricescameatatimewhenthecountrywas already facing many difficulties due to the sharper decline inexportsofmineralresources.Theimmediate consequenceofthesedevelopmentswasaserious shortageofenergysupplybusinesswithanauxiliary socio-economic disruption. Despite the severity of current problemsintheenergysectorinTogoandinmany developingcountries,basicallytherearereasonstobe optimistic. Firstly, with the current government and strong politicalcommitmenttopromotethelatter'seconomic developmentproject,theWorldBankagreedtoprovide funds for the energy sector in Togo. Thus the World Bank approvedadonationof$26.82millionU.S.dollarsto Togofortherehabilitationofinfrastructureandelectrical servicesinthecityofLome,thecapitalofthecountry, (Report oftheBrettonWoodsInstitutionreachedthe PANA).ThedonationispartoftheProjectforthe emergencyrehabilitationofinfrastructureandelectrical servicesLome(PURISEL).ItwillenableTogoto rehabilitate, restore, improve and expand in Lome access toseverelydegradedurbaninfrastructure,stressedthe TogoleseMinisterofEconomicandFinance(Ministryof EconomicandFinance,2010).Thegovernmentis devisingwaystomaximizeeconomicbenefitsinthe currentpricesystemofoil,whiledevelopingand implementingcoherentandadequatepoliticsforthe energy sector to avoid repetition of the problems currently facing the sector. Werecommendedthat,thegovernmentshould consider strategies or practices that may: (1) improve the sustainablecollaborativestrategyoftheutilizationof indigenousenergyresources,orwherenational economicreturnsareimportant;(2)encouragethe efficientandrationaluseofresourcesallocatedtothe variousenergysectorsbyfocusingonprojectswithhigh ratesofprofitabilityinsteadofthoseeconomieswithlow yields,(3)diversifythecountry'senergysourcesaway fromheavydependenceonoil,and(4)developa framework of incentives or stimulation and an institutional structuresabletoadaptandbenefitfromtherapidly changing conditions in international energy markets. Further recommendation TheTogolesegovernmentshoulddevelopenergy strategiesandpoliciestobeimplementedbyallenergy sectors.Theseshouldincludeandemphasize;the provisionofnecessaryenvironmentalmonitoring, predictivemodelsforenergyresourcesandthe accompanyingdatastorageandanalysistechnologies; establishalegalandinstitutionalframeworkwhichis conducivetoprivateinvestment;theMMEshould concentrate all its efforts on the adoption and formulation of policies for sound management of electricity resources andespeciallytoensureappropriatecoordinationofall the sectors. One task of the MS should be the description ofthegovernment'sstrategyforthesectorintheshort andlong term by outlininga sustainable energypolicy of developmentandlastlyIncreasingtheaccessrateto electricitybythecontinuedelectrificationoflocalitiesin thecountrywiththeobjectiveofincreasingthe electrificationrateto60%ifpossibleby2015.These shouldalsoincooporateandexpandtheuseof renewableenergyfromavailableenergyresourcesto target applications in remote areas. This is also the global targetof2050(UNNewYork,2004)inthecoming decades.Thistaskisperhapsthemostdauntingfacing theenergyindustryinitssocio-economicand environmental development. All thesediscussed types of investmentsareabletogeneratesatisfactoryrateof return, especially if satisfactory or suitable pricing policies for commercialization of energycanbedesignedor Ayenagbo et al.397 developedtobefinanciallyviable.Hence,future investmentinenergyresourcesislogicallyan inescapable economic venture for Togo. In this view the improvement of the quality of life of the population,bilateralandmultilateraldonorsshould continue funding projects related to energy and especially to develop suitable and sustainable production and use of electricityandbiofuelsthroughagriculturaldevelopment andnaturalresourcemanagementprojects.Although energyisthemaincatalystforthesocial-economic developmentofacountry,however,thestrategic sustainableenergyplanningshouldnotbedoneina sectoredbasisandbutshouldinvolveallstakeholders. Hence,therecentprogressesachievedbythecurrent governmentandthedisappointmentsofthepastyears shouldfavoroptionsandsmarterstrategiesforconcrete policies for investment. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS WethanktheChineseScholarshipCouncilandthe TogoleseGovernmentespeciallyBiosseykokouTozoun, MinisterofJusticeinTogoandJamesViwotoSossou, EmeritusConsuloftheRepublicofSlovakiainTogofor theirassistanceinthepreparationofthispaper.In addition, we are also grateful to contributors suggestions to improve this manuscript. REFERENCES AkakpoKM(2000).Evolutiondessuperficiesdesformations forestires, Ressources forestires naturelles et plantations au Togo, PROJETGCP/INT/679/EC,LignebudgtaireforttropicalB7-6201/97-15/VIII/FOR,ProgrammedepartenariatCE-FAO(1998-2002). www.fao.org/docrep/004/AB595F/AB595F04.htm. Barnes DF, Floor WM (1996). Rural Energy in Developing Countries: A Challenge for Economic Development.BarnesDF(1990).PopulationGrowthWoodFuels,andResource ProbleminSub-SaharanAfrica.Washington,DC:WorldBank,Ind. Energy Dept. Energy Ser. Pap., 26. BhatiaRK,DesaiN(1995).RuralenergyPlanning:Agovernment EnabledMarket-BasedApproach.KualaLumpa,Malaysia:Asian Pac. Dev. 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