Relatad t itles from Routledge

THE CULTURAL STUDIES READER Edited by Simon During

THE LESBIAN AND GAY STUDIES READER

Editad by Henry Abelove, Michele Aína Barale, and David Halperin

THE NEW HISTORICISM READER Editad by Harold Veeser

--

[7h&

POST-C OLONIAL

STUDIES READER

Edited by

Bill Ashcroft, Gareth Griffiths and He/en Tiffin

London and New York

First published 1995 by Routledge

11 New Fetter Lane, London EC4P 4EE

Simultaneously published in the USA and Canada by Routledge

29 West 35th Street, New York, NY 10001

Reprinted 1995, 1997, 1999

~ 1995 Blll Ashcroft, Gareth Griffiths and Helen Tiffin for editorial and introductory material, individual extracts ~ 1995 the contributors

Designad and typeset in Garamond by Florencetype Ltd, Stoodleigh, Devon

Printed and bound in Great Britain by Clays Ltd, St lves pie

All rights reservad. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilizad in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter inventad, including photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without permission In

writing from the publishers.

British Library Cataloguing in Pub/ication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the Britlsh Llbrary

Library of Congress Cataloguing in Publication Data The Post-colonial Studies Reader/edited by Bill Ashcroft, Gareth Grltfiths,

and Halen Tiffin. p. cm.

lncludes bibliographical references and index. 1. Commonwealth literatura (English) - History and criticism. 2. Decolonization in literatura. 3. lmperialism in literatura.

4. Colonias in literatura. l. Ashcroft, Bill. 11. Griffiths, Gareth. 111. Tiffin, Halen.

PR9080.P57 1994 820.9'358-dc20 94- 17829

ISBN 0-415-09621-9 (hbk) ISBN 0-415-09622-7 (pbk)

Contents

List of 1/fustrations xiii

Preface xv

Acknowledgements xvi i

Generallntroduction

Part 1 lssues and Debates

1 ntroduction 7

1 The Occasion for Speaking 12 George Lamming

2 The Economy of Manichean Allegory 18 Abdul R. JanMohamed

3 Can the Subaltern Speak? 24 Gayatri Chakravorty Spivak

4 Signs Taken for Wonders 29 Homi K. Bhabha

5 Problems in Current Theories of Colonia l Discourse 36

Benita Parry

6 The Scramble for Post-colonialism 45 Stephen Slemon

Part 11 Universality and Difference

lntroduction 55

7 Colonialist Criticism 57 Chinua A che be

V

CONTENTS

8 Heroic Ethnocentrism: The Idea of Universality in Literature 62

Charles Larson

9 Entering Our Own lgnorance: Subject­Object Relations in

Commonwealth Literature 66 Flemming Brahms

10 Western Mathematics: The Secret Weapon of Cultural lmperialism 71

Alan J. Bishop

11 Jameson's Rhetoric of Otherness and the 'National Allegory' 77

AijazAhmad

Part 111 Representation and Resistance

lntroduction 85

12 Orientalism 87 Edward W. Said

13 A Small Place 92 Jamaica Kincaid

14 Post-colonial Literatures and Counter-discourse 95

He/en Tiffin

15 Figures of Colonial Resistance 99 Jenny Sharpe

16 Unsettling the Empire: Resistance Theory for the Second Worfd 104

Stephen Slemon

17 The Rhetoric of English India 111 Sara Suleri

Part IV Postmodernis m and Pos t-colonialism

fntroduction 117

18 The Postcofoniaf and the Postmodern 119

Kwame Anthony Appiah

19 Postmodern ism or Post-co lonia lism Today 125 Simon During

VI

CONTENTS

20 Circling the Downspout of Empire 130 Linda Hutcheon

21 The White lnuit Speaks: Contamination as Literary Strategy 136

Diana Brydon

22 The Politics of the Possible 143 Kumkum Sangari

Part V Nationa lis m

lntroduction 151

23 National Culture 153 Frantz Fanon

24 Fanon, Cabral and Ngugi on Nationa l Liberation 158

Chidi A muta

25 Nationalism as a Problem 164 Partha Chatterjee

26 The Discovery of Nationality in Australian and Canadian Literatures 167

Alan Lawson

27 The National Longing for Form 170 Timothy Brennan

28 Dissemination: Time, Narrat ive, and the Margins of the Modern Nation 176

Homi K. Bhabha

29 What lsh My Nation? 178 David Cairns and Shaun Richards

Part VI Hybridity

fntroduction 183

30 Fossi f and Psyche 185 Kirsten Holst Petersen and Anna Rutherford

31 Named for Victoria, Queen of Engfand 190

Chinua Achebe

32 Of the Marvellous Reafism of the Haitians 194

Jacques Stephen Aléxis

vii

CONTENTS

33 Marvellous Realism: The Way out of Négritude 199

Michae/ Dash

34 Creolization in Jamaica 202 Edward Kamau Brathwaite

35 Cultural Diversity and Cultural Differences 206

Homi K. Bhabha

Part VIl Ethnicity and lndigeneity

lntroduction 213

36 No Master Territories 215 Trinh T. Minh-ha

37 Who is Ethnic? 219 Werner Sollors

38 New Ethnicities 223 Stuart Hall

39 White Forms, Aboriginal Content 228 Mudrooroo

40 The Representation of the lndigene 232 Terry Goldie

41 The Myth of Authenticity 237 Gareth Griffiths

42 Who Can Write as Other? 242 MargeryFee

Part VIII Feminism and Post-colonialism

lntroduction 249

43 First Things First: Problems of a Feminist Approach to African Literatura 251

Kirsten Holst Petersen

44 Decolonizing Culture: Toward a Theory for Post-colonial Women's Texts 255

Ketu H. Katrak

45 Under Western Eyes: Feminist Scholarship and Colonial Discourses 259

Chandra Talpade Mohanty

viii

E

CONTENTS

46 Writing Postcoloniality and Feminism 264

Trinh T. Minh-ha

47 Three Women 's Texts and a Critique of lmperialism 269

Gayatri Chakravorty Spivak

48 Woman Skin Deep: Femin ism and the Postcolonial Condition 273

Sara Suleri

PartiX language

lntroduction 283

49 The Language of African Literatura 285 Ngugi wa Thiong'o

50 The Alchemy of English 291 Braj B. Kachru

51 Language and Spirit 296 Raja Rao

52 Constitutiva Graphonomy 298 Bi/1 Ashcroft

53 New Language, New World 303 W. H. New

54 Nation Language 309 Edward Kamau Brathwaite

55 Relexification 314 Chantal Zabus

Part X The Body and Performance

lntroduction 321

56 The Fact of Blackness 323 Frantz Fanon

57 Jazz and the West lndian Novel 327 Edward Kamau Brathwaite

58 In Search of the Lost Body: Redefining the Subject in Caribbean Literatura 332

Michael Dash

IX

CONTENTS

59 The Body as Cultural Signifier 336 Russe/1 McDouga/1

60 Dance, Movement and Resistance Politics 341 He/en Gilbert

61 Feminism and the Colonial Body 346 Kadiatu Kanneh

62 Outlaws of the Text 349 Gillian Whitlock

Part XI History

lntroduction 355

63 Allegories of Atlas 358 José Rabasa

64 Columbus and the Cannibals 365 Peter Hu/me

65 The Muse of History 370 Derek Walcott

66 Spatial History 375 Paul Carter

67 The Limbo Gateway 378 Wilson Harris

68 Postcolon iality and the Artífice of History 383 Dipesh Chakrabarty

Part XII Place

lntroduction 391

69 Unhiding the Hidden 394 Robert Kroetsch

70 Writing in Colonial Space 397 Dennis Lee

71 Naming Place 402 Pau/ Carter

72 Decolonizing the Map 407 Graham Huggan

X

CO NTENTS

73 Aborigina l Place 41 2 Bob Hodge and Vijay Mishra

74 Ecologicallmperialism 418 Alfred W Crosby

Part XIII Education

lntroduction 425

75 Minute on lndian Education 428 Thomas Macau/ay

76 The Beginnings of English Literary Study in British India 431

Gauri Viswanathan

77 On the Abolition of the English Department 438 Ngugi wa Thiong'o

78 The Neocolon ial Assumption in University Teaching of English 443

John Docker

79 ldeology in the Classroom: A Case Study in the Teaching of English Literatura

in Canadian Universities 447 Arun P. Mukherjee

80 Education and Neocolonia lism 452 Philip G. Altbach

81 The Race for Theory 457 Barbara Christian

Part XIV Production and Consumption

lntroduction 463

82 The Historiography of African Literatura Written in English 465

André Lefevere

83 Singapore: Poet, Critic; Audience 47 1 Peter Hyland

84 Postcolonial Culture, Postimperial Criticism 475

W J. T. Mitchell

X I

CONTENTS

85 The Book Today in Africa 480 S. l. A. Kotei

86 literary Colonialism: Books in the Third World 485

Philip G. Altbach

Bibliography 491

lndex 514

XII

I llustrations

1 Diagram representing the debate over the nature of co lonial ism 46

2 Theme of expedition 189

3 Mercator's world map 359

4 Ji/a Japingka by Peter Skipper 416

XIII

GENE RAL INTRODUCTION

) resistance as a simple binarism, articulate the ambivalent, complex and IJ:.rocessual natura of all imperial relations.

The readings we have assembled here are mainly from societies which employ forms of english 1 as a major language of communication. Clearly lt would be possible and even desirable to construct a text which addressed the wider polyphonic spectrum of the colonial past but this would require a project far beyond the scope of this one. The Reader also recogn ises, but does not directly address, the importance of the continuing body of work in indigenous languages. The 'silencing' of the post-colonial voice to which much recent theory alludes is in many cases a metaphoric rather than a literal one. Critica! accounts emphasising the 'silencing' effect of the metro­politan forms and institutional practices upon pre-colonial cultures, and the resulting torces of 'hybridisation' which work on the continuing practica of those cul tu res, make an importan! point. But they neg lect the fact that for many people in post-colonial societies the pre-colonial languages and cultures, although themselves subject to change and development, contin ua to provide the effective framewo rk for their daily lives. Failure to acknowl­edge this might be one of the ways in which post-colonial discourse could, unwittingly, become 'a coloniser in its turn' (Ashcroft et al. 1989: 218}. Without endorsing a naively 'nativist' position post-colonial theory needs to be aware that it is engaged in a project which supplements rather than replaces the continuing study and promotion of the indigenous languages of post-colonial societies.

In putting together th is Reader we have asked the question: how might a genuinely post-colonialliterary enterprise proceed? Our focus in addressing this problem is through the particular agency of literatura teaching in the academy. We recognise that this is only one limited avenue of address to the wider social and political issues affecting post-colonial societies, but it seems to us to be an important and worthwhile one, since literatura and literary study in the academy have been crucial sitas of political and cultural strugg le with the most far-rcaching results for the general history and prac­ticas of colonisation and de-colonisation. To define our pu rpose then: we have taken as our limitad aim th e provision of an effective text to assist in the revision of teaching practica within literary studies in english and so have sought to represent the impact of post·colonial literatures and criticism on the current shape of eng lish studies.

NOTE

This spelling reflects the fact that, as the editors argued in their earlier book The Empire Writes Back: Theory and Practice in Post-colonial Literaturas !Ashcroft et al. 1989: 8), there is a 'need to distinguish between what is proposed as a standard code, English (the language of the erstwhile imperial centre), and the linguistlc coda, english, which has been transformad and subverted into several distinctive varieties throughout the world.'

4

PARTI

Issues and Debates

Introduction

The extracts in this section indicate something of the historical provenance, the general theoretical directions and the important debates which have featured in post-colonial theory in recent times. West lndian novelist George Lamming expresses ín a personal way some of the enduring issues: ho~ a Britain without its Empire can still maintain cul tu ral authority in post­colonial societies, and the ways in which Eurocentric assumptions about race, nationalíty and literatura return time and again to haunt the production of post-colonial writing. Lamming's is a foundational text in post-colonial writing; its early date indicates how long post-colonial intellectuals have been grappling with the articulation of their own modes of cultural produc­tion . lt is important, too, in that it is a critica! essay which is written by an imaginativa wri ter, andas such represents the crucia l role played by creativa writers as diversa in time and place as Rabindranath Tagore, Raja Rao, Wole Soyinka, Chinua Achebe, Edward Kamau Brathwaite, Derek Walcott, Judith WriQ'ht, Tom !5ing, Margaret Atwood, Dennis Lee, Alan CurD.Q_w, Keri Hulme and many others in developing a critica! discourse in the post-colonial world. Whi le these writers have often functioned as critics in a formal sense their own creativa work has frequently been the site of critiques of imperial representation, language and ideological control. Thus, as Lamming argues here, the advent of the novel in the West lndies marks an important historical event as well as a formal cu ltu ral development.

D

This extract serves to remind us that the determining cond ition of what we refer toas post-colonial cultures is the historical phenomenon of colonialism, 0 with its ranQ_e_ of materia l practicas and effects, such as transportation, slavery, displacement, emigration. and racial and cultural discrimination. These material conditions and their relationship to questions of ide~d representation are at the heart of the most vigorous debates in recent post­colonia l theory. Even the claim that they may exist independently of the modas of representation wh ich allowed them to come into formation is to assert a point of considerable controversy.

Abdul R. JanMohamed stresses the importance, as does Lamming, of th e l iterary text as a site of cultural control and as a highly effective instrumen­tality for the determination of the 'native' by fixing him/her under the sign

7

ISSUES AND DEBATES

(

of the Other. JanMohamed also shows how these literary texts contain features which can be subverted and appropriated to the oppositional and anti-colonial purposes of contemporary post-colonial wri t ing. His essay analyses the literary text in quite specific ways as a means of bringing into

l being and modifying the controlling discourses of colonisation. Using Lacan's distínction of the imaginary and symbolic stages of development as a conceptual tool in this analysis JanMohamed emphasises the self­contradictions of bínary constructions. By recognising how the binarisms of colonial discourse operate (the self- other, civilised-native, us- them

1 manichean polari t ies) post-colonial critics can promote an active reading which makes these texts available for re-writing and subversion. lt is this process w hich brings into being the powerful syncretic texts of contem­porary post-colonial writing. In the rest of the book from which this short extract is taken JanMohamed illustrates how this process of re-inscription works by developing an analysis of the relationship between contemporary texts of post-colonial writing and the colonial texts to which they 'write back'. Such a process of 'writing back', far from indicating a continuing dependence, ís an effective means of escaping from the binary polarities implicit in the manichean constructions of colonisation and its practicas.

Gayatri Spivak questions whether or not the possibili ty exists for any recovery of a subaltern voice that is not a kind of essentialist f iction. A lthough she expresses considerable sympathy for the project undertaken in contemporary historiography to give a voice to ' the subaltern' who had been written out of the record by conventiona l historical accounts, Spivak raises grave doubts about its theoretical legitimacy. She is sympathetic but critica! in her response here to Ranajit Guha's subaltern studies project which seeks to obtain what Said termed the 'perm ission to speak' by goíng behind th e terms of reference of 'é lite' history to include the perspectiva of those who are never taken into account (the subaltern social groups). Recognising and applauding the project's endorsement of the heterogeneity of the colonial subject, and giving a qualified approval to the politics of the effort to speak a 'politics of the people', Spivak is nevertheless concerned to articulate what she sees as the difficulties and contradictions involved in constructing a 'speaking position' for the subaltern. Wanting to acknowledge the continuity and vigour of pre-colonial social practica, its ability to modify and to 'survíve' colonial incursions and definitional strateg ies and exclu­sions, she insists that the poststructuralist mode of the project only disguises what she seas as an underlying persistent essentialism. For her, one cannot construct a category of the 'subaltern' that has an effective 'voice' clearly and unproblematically audible above the persistent and multiple echoes of its inevitable heterogeneity. Her conclusion is that for 'the true' subaltern group, whose identity is its difference, there is no subaltern subject that can 'know and speak itself'. Thus the intellectual must avoid reconstructing the subaltern as merely another unproblematic field of knowing, so confining its effect to the very form of representation ('text for

8

INTRODUCT!ON

knowledge') the project sought to evade and lay bare. The conclusion is expressed, perhaps unfortunately, in a rather negativa way: 'Subaltern historiography must confront the impossibility of such gestures'. Spivak's negative, as José Rabasa has pointed out, does not 'necessarily exclude such instances of colonizad subjects defracting power as those Homi Bhabha has isolated in th e case of India' (Rabasa 1993: 1 1- 12). b

The emphasis is on the importance of the wrítten text asan instrument of • control (to wh ich Said and JanMohamed's work makes reference), and of the deep ambivalences locked into the apparent universal fixit ies of colonialist epistemology, are taken up by Homi Bhabha. For Bhabha the 'emblem of the English book' is one of the most important of the 'signs taken for wonders' by which the coloniser controls the imag ination and the aspirations of the colonised, because the book assumes a greater authoritv. than the experience of the colonised peoples themselves. But, as Bhabha argues, such authority simu ltaneously renders the colonial presence ambivalent, since it only comes about by displacing those images of identity already held by the colonised society. The colonial space is therefore an agon istic space. Despite the 'imitation' and 'mimicry' with which co lonised peoples cope with th e imperial presence, the relationship becomes one of constant, if implicit, contestation and opposit ion. lndeed, such mimicry becomes the very site of that conflict, a ' transparency', as Bhabha puts it, which is dependent for its fixity on the underlying negativa of imperial pres­ence which it seems to duplicate. For Bhabha 'mimicry' does not mean that opposition is rejected, but rather that it is seen to encompass more than overt opposition. Opposition is not simply reduced to intention, but is implícit in the very productíon of dominance whose íntervention as a 'dislo­catory presence' paradoxically confirms the very thing it displaces. The resulting hybrid moda lities also cha ll enge the assumption of the 'pura' and the 'authentic', concepts upon which the resistance to imperia lism often stands. lndeed hybridity, rather than indicating corruption or decline, may, as Bhabha argues, be the most common and effective form of subversiva opposition since it displays the 'necessary deformation and displacement of all sites of discrimination and domination'.

Spivak's and Bhabha's analyses are important and very influential warni ngs of the complexities of the task faced by post-colonial theory. But they have also invited responses which see them and their approach as too deeply implícated in European intellectua l traditions, which older, more radical exponents of post-colonial theory, such as Frantz Fanon and Albert Memmi, had sought to dismantle and set asida. The debate is a strugg le between those who want to align themselves with the sub­altern and those who insist that this attempt becomes at best only a refined version of the very discourse it seeks to displace. All are agreed, in some sense, that the main problem is how to effect agency for the post-colonial subject. But the contentious issue of how this is to be attained remains unresolved.

9

o ISSUES AND DEBATES

Benita Parry's critique of contemporary 'colonialist discourse' theory (such as Bhabha's and Spivak's) argues that the effect of its insistence on the 'necessary' si lencing implicit in this mode of analysis has been to diminish the earlier intervention of critics like Fa non who stood much more reso lutely for the idea that de-colonisation is a proc'3ss of opposition to dominance. She also argues that colonialist díscourse theory supports readings of post­colonial texts which inadequately ascribe a native 'absence' to texts in which the 'native' has access as a profoundly disruptive presence. In a sense Parry's argument is a plea for an analysis of the 'politics' of the project of colonialist discourse theory itself, and seeks to resu rrect as a forgotten but vital element in the debate the voices of t he post-colonial intellectuals of the earlier, oppositional 'national liberation' phase of decolonisation. Subsequent response from Spivak has argued that such oppositional cate­gories as th e 'post-colonia l intellectual' avoid the fact that the concept of 'intellectual' and of ' theory' as a discourse is by definition imrl icated in the Europeanisation/hybridisation of all culture in the aftermath of imperialism, making the distinctive catego ry of 'post-co lonial intellectua l' as problematic as the ter m 'subaltern'.

The argument underpinning these positions, that there can be an engagement w ith the 'real' separata from its construction through what Barthes called 'reality effects', is put with great clarity by José Rabasa: 'cultural products should be taken as rhetorical artífices and notas deposi­tarías of data from which a factual truth may be construed' (1993: 9). Yet, of course, the avoidance of such a construing in practica may be to allow semiotic analyses of texts totally ' liberated' from any attempt or desire to understand the context of cultural production from which they emerge. The effect of this is, of course, to wipe out cultura l difference.

The debate between those who insist on the possibility of an effective alignment of position with the subaltern and those who insist that this, paradoxically, may serve only to construct a refinement of the system it seeks to dismantle, is taken up and expanded later in the Reader in the section on Representation and Resistance. There Jenny Sharpe's analysis of the problem of Resistance and Stephen Slemon's article on the crucial role of settler culture, or 'Second World' texts, in articulating the ambivalence at the heart of post-colonial resistance, continua and elaborate some of the issues raised in this section.

Stephen Slemon's overview of recent developments within the field of post-colonial studies includes, like Parry's, an analysis of the difficulty that 'colonialist criticism' has in confirming the agency of the post-colonial subject. A crucial question for post-colonial theory, given that contemporary thought has firmly fixed subjectivity in language, is 'how can one account for the capacity of the subject in a post-colonial society to resist imperialism and thus to intervene in the conditions which appear to construct subjectivity itself?' Slemon analyses the positions of some of the majar participants in the debates in a fresh and interesting way but also regards the debate itself

10

7

INT ROD UCT ION

h Oduct of the institutionalisation of post-colonial studies within the as t e pr . .

t. of the contemporary academy. Ouotmg Henry Lou1s Gates, Slemon prac ICBS . . . , • . warns that 'academic interest m th1s h1story and the d1scourse of colonlalism bids fair to become the ~ast bastio~ for the project of global t~eory a~~ for European universalism 1tself', forcmg us t~ c~oo~e ~etw~en oppos1t1onal

't' whose articulations of the post-colon1al mst1tut10nalise themselves as Crl ICS • agonistic strugg les over a thorough ly disciplinad terrain'. Slemon remmds his readers that the real contest (agon) post-colonial studies seeks to address is that between the conflicting participants in the imperial process and their residual legatees, not between contempora ry schools of theory. The real concerns of this oppositional subject are in danger of being reduced to merely another location in the academic institutionalised landscape, yet another mere invasive 'mapping' of the subdued and subjugated post-

colonial world.

11

r

1

The Occasion for Speaking

GEORGE LAMMING':·

IN ANY COUNTRY, during this century, it seems that the young will remain too numerous and too strong to fea r being alonc. lt is from this premise that 1 want ro consider the circumstances as well as the significance of certain writers' migration from the British Caribbean to rhc London metropolis ....

How has ir come about that a sma ll group of men, differenr in years and tcmperamenr and social origins, should !cave the respective islands they know best, even exchange life there for circumstances which are almost wholly foreign ro them? ... Why have rhey migrated? And what, if any, are the peculiar pleasures of exile? ls rheir journey a pan of a hunger for recognirion? Do rhey see such recognition as a confirmarion of rhe facr thar they are wrirers? What is the source of rheir insecuriry in the world of letters? And what, on the evidence of their work, is the range of their ambi­tion as writers whosc nourishmenr is now elsewhere, whose absence is likely to drag inro a state of permanenr separarion from their roots? ...

The exile is a universal figure. The proximity of our lives ro rhe majar issues of our time has demanded of us al! some kind of involvemenr. Some may remain neutral; but al! have, at least, ro pay artenrion ro what is going on. On the political leve!, we are often wirhout the right kind of informa­rían ro make argumenr effecrive; on the moral levcl we ha ve ro feel our way through problems for which we have no adequare reference of tradicional conduce as a guide. Chaos is often, therefore, the resu lt of our thinking and our doing. We are made to feel a sense of exile by our inadequacy and our irrelevance of function in a society whose past we can't alter, and whose future is always beyond us. Idleness can easily guide us inro accepring this as a condition. Sooner or later, in silence or with rhetoric, we sign a contraer whose epitaph reads: To be an exi le is to be alive.

When the exile is a man of colonial orienration, and his chosen resi­dence is rhe coumry which colonised his own hisrory, then there are certain

• From 'The Occasion For Speaking' The P/eas11res o( Exile London: Michael Joseph, 1960.

12

E

THE OCCASION FOR SPEAKING

complications. For each exile has not only got ro prove .his .worth ro the orher, he has co win the approval of Headquarrers, meamng 111 rhe case of the West lndian writer, England ....

In England he does not feel the need ro try to understand an Englishman, since al! relationships begin wirh an assumprion of previous knowledge, a knowledge acquired in the absence of rhe people known. This relarionship with the English is only another aspecr of the Wesr lndian's relation to rhe idea of England.

As an example of this, 1 would recall an episode on a ship which had brought a number of West Indians to Britain. I was talking toa Trinidadian Civil Servant who had come to rake some kind of course in rhe ways of bureaucracy. A man abour forty-five, inrelligent enough to be in the senior grade of rhe Trinidad Civil Service which is by no means backward, a man of some subsrance among bis own class of people. \Y/e were talking in a general way about li fe among rhe emigrants. The ship was now steady; the tugs were coming alongside. Suddenly there was consternation in the Trinidadian's expression.

'But ... but', he said, 'look clown there.' 1 looked, and since I had lived six years in England, I failed ro see

anyrhing of particular signi ficance. 1 asked him what he had seen; and then 1 realised what was happening.

'They do rhar kind of work, too?' he asked. He meanr the white hands and faces on rhe rug. In spite of films,

in spite of reading Dickens - for be would have had ro ar rhe school which rrained him for rhe Civil Service- in spite of all this received infor­mation, this man had never really felt, as a possibility and a fact, the existence of rhe English worker. This sudden bewilderment had sprung from his idea of England: and one clemenr in that idea was thar he was nor used ro seeing an Englishman working wirh bis hands in the srreets of Port

of-Spain. ~ This is a seed of his colonisation which has been subtly and richly

infused with myth. \V/e can change laws overnight; we may reshape images of our feeling. But this myrh is most difficult ro dislodge ....

I remember how pleased 1 was ro learn that my first book, !11 the Castle of My Skilt, had bcen bought by an American publisher .... lt was the money I was thinking of ro rhe exclusion of rhe book's critica! repura­tion in America. The book had had an important critica! press in England; its reputation here was substantial; so ir could make no difference what America rhoughr .... Th is is what 1 mean by the myt!J. lt has little to do with lack of intell igence. Ir has nothing ro do wirh one's origins in class. lt is deeper and more natural. lt is akin ro the nutritive function of milk which all sorts of men receive at birth. Ir is myth as rhe source of spiritual foods absorbed, and learnt for exercise in the fuwre. This myth begins in rhe West Indian from the earliesr srages of his education. But it is nor yet turned against America . In a sense, America does not even exist. It begins with the

13

GEOR GE LAMMI NG

fac t of Eng.land's supr~macy in rasre and judgemenr: a fact which can only have meamng and we1ghr by a calculated cutti ng clown ro size of al! non­England. The fi rst ro be cut clown is rhe colonial himsclf.

This is one of rhe seeds which much later bear such srrange fruit as rhe West lndian writers' deparrure from the very landscape which is rhe raw mate~ia l of al! .rheir books. These men had ro leave if rhey were going ro f.uncuon as wn ters since books, in rhat particular colonia l conception of hte~arure, were nor - meaning, too, are not su pposed ro be - written by na nves. Those among rhe narives who read also believed that; for all rhe books . rh~y had read, rheir whole inrroducrion ro somerhing called cul ture, al! of 1t, 111 rhe form of words, came from ourside: Dickens Jane Ausren Kipling and thar sacred gang. ' '

The West fndian 's education was imponed in much rhc same wa y rhar flour a~d burter are imponed from Canada. Since rhe cultural negoriation was srnctly ben~e~n E~gland and the narives, and England had acquired, somehow, the d1vme nght ro organise the native's re<lding, ir is ro be expected tl~a t Eng lan~'s expon of litera tu re would be English. Deliberare! y and exclus1vely Enghsh. And the funher back in time England went for the~e treasures, the sa fer was the English commodity. So rhc examinarions, wh1ch would determine that Trinidadian's fu ru re in rhe Civil Service imposed Shakespeare, and Wordsworrh, and j ane Ausren and Gcorge Elio: and rhe whole tabernacle of dead names, now come alive at rhe world's greatest summit of li terary expression . ...

In [American novelist, James Baldwin's) most perceptive and bri llianrly s rared.essa~s, Notes o( a Native Son, he tries ro examine and inrerpret his 0\~1~ snuanon as an American negro who is also a novelist drawing on rhe splfltual legacy of Wesrern European civilisarion . ...

1 know, in any case, rhar rhe most crucial time in my own developmenr came when 1 was forced ro recognise thar 1 was a kind of basrard of the West; when I followed the line of my pasr 1 did nor fi nd mysclf in Europe, but in Africa. And rhis meanr rhar in some subrle way, in a really profound way I broughr ro Sha kespcare, Bach, Rembrandr, ro rhe stones of Paris, ro rhe carhedral ar Charrres, and ro rhe Ernpire Srare ~uilding, a special attirude. These were nor rea lly my crearions, rhey d1d nor conrain my history; J might search in rhem in va in for cver for any refl ecrion of myself; J was an inrerloper. Ar rhe same rime 1 hacl no orher herirage which J could possibly hope ro use. 1 had ccrrainly been unfirred for rhe jungle or the tribe.

(Baldwin 1964: 14)

' J mighr search in vain for any reflection of myself. 1 had ccrrainly been unfi tted for rhe jungle or the rribe.'

We musr pause ro consider rhe source of Mr Baldwin's rimidity; for ir has a mo~t respectable ancestry. Here is the grear German philosopher Hegel havmg the last word on Africa in his Inrroducrion ro The Philosophy o( History:

T ll E OCCAS I O~ FO R SPEAK ING

Africa proper, as far as Hisrory goes back, has remained - . f~ r all rposes of connccrion wirh rhe resr of rhe world - shur up; 11 1s the

~l~ld- land cornprcssed wirhin irself - rhe land of childhood, which lying be)•oncl rhe days of self.conscious hisrory, is enveloped in rhe dark manrle of Nighr. . · ·

The negro as alrcady obscrvcd cxhibirs rhc natural man in his complcrely wild and unramcd srare. \Y/e mus~ lay ~s ide all rhou~ht of reverence and moraliry - all rhat we call feehng - 1f we would nghrly comprehend him; rhere is norhing harmonious wirh h~1manity ro be found in rhis type of characrer . . ..

At rhis point we lcave Africa never ro menrion ir again. For ir is no hisrorical part of thc world; ir has no movernent of development ro exhibir. Hisrorical movement in it - rhar is in irs norrhern part -bclongs ro rhc Asiatic or Emopean World. . . . .

What we properl y undcrstand as Africa, is the Unhisroncal, Undevelopcd Spirir, sri ll in volved in rhc condilions o{ mere nature and which had to be prescntcd hcre only as on rhe rhreshold of rhe World 's hisrory . ...

The History of the World rravels from East to Wcsr, for Europc is nbsolutely t!Je end o( 1/isiOI'Y, Asia is rhe beginning.

1t is importanr ro relate the psychology implied in Mr Baldwin's regrer to rhe kind of fa lsc confidence which Hegel represcnrs in the Europcan consciousness. For whar disqua lifies African man from Hegel's World of Hisrory is his apparenr incapaciry ro evolve with rhe logic of Languagc which is rhe only aid man has in capruring rhe Idea. African Man, for Hegel, has no parr in rhe common pursuir of rhe Universal. .. .

What rhe Wcsr lndian shares wirh rhe African is a common political pred icamenr: a predicament which we caL! colonial; but the word colonial has a deeper mcaning for rhe West Indian than ir has for the African. The African, in spirc of his modern ity, has never been wholly severed from rhe cradle of a conri nuous cu lture and rradirion. !-lis colon ialism mainl y rakes rhe fo rm of lack of privilege in organising the day ro day affairs of his cou nrry. This sra re of affairs is almosr at an end; and its end is rhe result of the African's persistenr and cffectivc dcmand for politica l freedom ....

Jt is the brevity of rhe Wesr Indian's hisrory and the fragmcnrary nature of rhe different cultures which have fused ro make somerhing new; ir is rhe absolure dependencc on the values in that language of his coloniser which have given him n spccial relarion ro rhe word, colonialism. It is nor merely a politica l dcñnirion; ir is not mere! y the result of cerrain economic arra nge­menrs. lt starred as rhcse, and grew somewhat deeper. Coionia lism is the very base and srrucrurc of thc West lndian cultural awareness. His reluc­tance in asking fo r complete, polirical freedom . .. is due ro the fear rhat he has never had ro stand. A fore ign or absenr Mother culture has always cradled his judgement. Moreover, the ... freedom from physical fear has created a srate of complacency in the \'<'esr Indian awareness. And the

GEORGE LAMMING

higher llp he moves in rhe social sca le, rhe more crippled his mind and impulses become by rhe resllltant complacency.

In order ro change rhis way of seci ng, the Wesr Indian must change rhe very structllre, rhe very basis of his vaiues . . . .

I am not much interesred in what rhe Wesr Indian writer has brollghr ro the English language; for English is no longcr rhe exclusive language of rhe men who livc in England. Thar sropped a long rime ago; and iris roday, among other rhings, a Wesr lndian language. \XIhar rhe \XIesr lndians do wirh ir is rheir own business. A more imporrant considerarion is whar the West lndian novelisr has brought ro rhe West Indies. That is the real qlles­rion; and its answer can be the beginni ng of an arrempr ro grapplc wirh rhat colon ial srrucrure of awareness which has determined West Indian vallles.

There are, for me, just rhree imporranr evenrs in British Caribbean history. 1 am usi ng rhe rerm, history, in an active scnse. Nor a succession of episodes which ca n easily be given some casual connecrion. What 1 mean by historica l event is the crearion ora situarion which offcrs anrag­onistic opposirions and a challenge of surviva l rhar had ro be mct by all involved.

The first event is discovery. That began, li ke mosr other discoveries, wirh a journey; a journey inside, or a journey out and across. Th is was rhe meaning of Colllmbus. The original purpose of rhe journey may somctimes have nothing to do wirh rhe results that attend upon ir. That journey rook place nearly five centurics ago; and rhe resll lt has been one of rhe world's mosr fascinaring communities. The nexr evenr is rhe abolirion of slavcry and rhe arrival of rhe Easr- India and China - in rhe Caribbean Sea. The world met here, and ir was at every levcl, cxcepr adminisrrarion, a peasanr world. In one way or anorher, through one upheaval afrer anorher, these pcople, forced ro use a common language which rhey did nor possess on arrival, have had ro make somerhing of rheir Sll rround ings ....

Thc rhird importanc evenr in our hisrory is rhe discovcry of rhe novel by \XIesr lndians as a way of investigaring and projecring rhe inner experi­ences of rhc West Ind ian cornmuniry. The second evenr is abour a hundred

/ ancl fifry years bchind liS. The rhird is hardly rwo decades ago . . .. The 1

Wesr Indian writcr is the first ro add a new dirnension ro writing about the \wesr lndian community . ...

lf we accept that thc act of writing a book is lin ked wirh an cxpecta­rion, however modesr, of having ir rcad; then rhc situarion of a Wesr Indian writer, living and working in his own community, assumes intolerable difficu lries. The Wesr Indian of average opporruniry and inrelligence has not yet been converted to reading as a civiliscd activiry which justifies ítself in rhe exercise of his mind. Reading seriously, at any age, is still largely associatcd wirh reading for examinarions. In recent times rhe polirical fever has warmcd liS ro rhe newspapers wirh rheir gcnerous and diabolical welcome ro join in the correspondence column. Bur book readi ng has never been a scrious business wirh liS ...•

16

THE OCCAS JON FOR SPEAKING

An imporranr qllesrion, for rhe English cri tic, is nor whar rhe West Lndian novel has brought ro Engl ish wriring. lt woll ld be more correcr ro ask whar rhe Wcsr lndian novelisrs ha ve comribllted ro English reading. For the language in which these books are wrirten is English - which, I musr repear - is a Wesr Indian language; and in spire of the unfa miliarit)' of irs rhyrhms, ir remains accessible ro the readers of English anywhere in rhe world. The \XIesr lndian conrriburion ro English reading has been made possible by their relarion ro the rhemes which are ~san~ ....

That's a grear difference between the Wesr In tan novelisr and his conrérnporar in En l:md F2_r peasanrs simply don ... !_;!~pond...and see like 1111 dle-class people. The peasant rengue has its own rhythms '~re (Trinidadian nOveiiS'r Samuel] Selvon's and [Barbadian novelisr Vic] Rcid's rhythrns; and no artífice of rechnique, no sophistica ted gimmicks lcading ro rhe mlltilation of form, ca n achieve rhe specific raste and sound of Sclvon's prose.

For this prose is, rea lly, the people's speech, rhe orga nic music of rhe earth ....

This ma y be rhe dilcm ma of rhe West Indian writer abroad: rhat he hungers for nou rishmcnt from a soil which he (asa n ordinary ci tizen) could not at presenr endure. The pleasure and par~own exile is rhat I ~wherever I a m }!-fe e;-ir seems, has rarher ro da-,~irh rime and

. , 1 --,......._,_ --~ --....... -change rhan wtt 1 t 1e geography of ctrcumstances; and yet rhere tS always ~ére ófg'roun'CI'Iiitlle-Ne\V \~orld-;hich keeps growing echoes in my head. 1 ca n only hope that these echoes do nor die beforc my work comes ro an cnd.

17

2

The Economy of Manichean Allegory

ABDUL R. j ANMOHAMED::·

COLONIALIST LITERAT URE IS an exploration and a represenrarion of a world ar rhe boundaries of 'civilizarion ,' a world rhat has nor (yer) been domesricared by European significarion or cod ified in derail by irs ideology. Thar world is rherefore perceived as unrontroll ablc, chaoric, unarrainable, and ulri marely evi l. Morivated by his desire ro conqucr and dominare, the imperialisr configures the colonial rea lm as a confronration based on differences in race, language, social customs, cultural values, and modes of production.

Faced wirh an incomprehensible and rnu ltifacered alteri ty, the Europea n rheorerically has the option of rcsponding ro the Other in terms of idenriry or difference. If he assumcs rhat he and the Other are esscntially identical, then he would tend ro ignore rhe significanr divergences and ro judge the Other according ro his own culturai values. If, on the other hand, he assumes thar the Orher is irremediably different, then he would have linle incemive ro adopr rhe viewpoinr of that alreriry: he would again rend to tu rn ro the security of his own cultural perspective. Genuine and thor­ough comprehcnsion of Otherness is possible only if rhe self can somehow negare or ar leasr severely bracket rhe values, assurnprions, and ideology of his culture. As Nadi ne Gordimer's and Isak Dinesen's wrirings show, howcvcr, th is enrails in practice rhe virtually ímpossible rask of nega ring one's very being, precisely because one's cu lture ís what formed rhnt being. Moreover, rhe colonizers invariable assumption abour his mora l superioriry means thar he will rarely quesrion rhc va lidiry of cithcr his own or his socíety's formation and thar he will not be incl ined ro cxpend any energy in understanding rhe worthless alteriry of the colonized. By thus subverting the rraditional dialectic of self and Other rhat conremporary rheory considers so importanr in the formarion of self and culture, rhe assumption of moral superiority subverrs rhe very potenrial of colonialisr lirerature.

• From 'The Econom)' of Manichean Allegory: The Funcrion of Racial Difference in Colontalisr Literature' Criticallnquiry 12( 1), 1985.

18

T II E ECONO MY OF MAN ICHEAN ALLEGORY

Jnstead of being an explorarion of rhe racial Orher, such lireraturc merely affirms irs own ethnocenrric assumprions; insread of acrua lly depicríng rhc ourer Iimirs of 'civilizarion,' ir simply codifies and preserves rhe structures of irs own menra lity. While the surface of each colon ialisr tex t purporrs ro represenr specific encounrers wirh specific varieries of thc racial Orher, rhe subrexr valorizes rhe superioriry of European cultures, of the collecrive process rhar has med iared rhat representarion. Such lirerarure is essenrially specular: ínstead of seeing rhe narive as a bridge roward syncreric possibiliry, ít uses him as a mirror rhar reflecrs rhe colonia list's sclf-imagc.

Accordingly, 1 would argue rhar colonialist lirerature is divisible inro rwo broad caregories: thc 'imaginary' and rhe 'symbolic.' Thc cmorivc as well as rhe cognirive inrenrionalities of the ' imaginary' rexr are srructured by objecrification and aggression. In such works rhe native funcrions as an image of the imperia lisr self in such a manner that it rcvea ls rhc lartcr's self­alienation. Bccause of the subsequent projecrion involvcd in thís conrcxr, rhe 'imaginary' novel maps the European's incense interna! riva lry. Thc 'í magínary' represcnration of indigenous people rcnds to coa lescc the signifier with rhc signified. In describing the attributcs or acrions of the narive, issues such as inrenrion, causal ity, extenuaríng ci rcumsra nccs, and so forth, are complerely ignored; in the ' imaginar>'' colonialisr rca lm, ro say 'narive' is auromatica lly ro say 'evil' and ro evokc immediately rhe economy of the manichean allegory. The writer of such rcxrs rcnds ro ferishize a nondialecrica l, fixed opposi tion berween rhe self and rhe narive. Threarened by a meraphysical alterity tha r be has creared, he quickly retrears ro the homogeneity of his own group. Consequen tly, his psyche and rext tend ro be much closer ro and are ofren enrirely occluded by rhe ideology of hís group.

Wrirers of 'symbolic' texts, on the other hand, are more aware of rhe inevitable necessity of using thc native as a mediator of European desires. Grounded more firmly and securely in the egalirarian imperarives of Western socieries, rhese aurhors rend ro be more open to a modifying dialectic of sclf nnd Orher. They are willing ro examine thc spccific indi­vidual and cu ltu ra l differences between Europeans and nativcs ancl ro reflect on rhe cfficacy of European values, assumptions, and habits in contrast ro those of rhe indigenous cultures. 'Sym bolic' rexts, most of which thematize rhc problem of colonialist menrality and its encountcr wirh rhc racial Orhcr, can in ru rn be subdivided inro rwo categories.

The first type, rcprcscnted by novels like E. M. Forsrer's A Passage to India and Rudyard Kipling's Kim, artempts to find syncreric solutions ro rhe manichea n opposirion of the colonizer and the colonized. This kind of novel overlaps in some ways wirh the 'imaginary' texr: those portions of rhe novel organized ar rhe emorive leve! are strucrured by ' imaginary' idenríficarion, while rhose conrro lled by cognitive inrenrionaliry are struc­rured by rhe rules of rhe 'symbolic' order. lronically, rhese novels - which are conceivcd in rhe 'symbolic' real m of inrersubjecrivity, heterogeneiry, and

19

ABD UL R. JAN MO HAM ED

parriculariry but are seduced by rhe speculariry of ' imagi nary' Orherness­berrcr illustrate the economy and power of rhe man ichean allcgory rhan do rhe strictly 'imaginary' texrs.

The second rype of 'symbolic' ficrion, rcprcscnrcd by rhc novels of joseph Conrad and Nadine Gordimer, realizes thar syncrerism is impossible wirhin rhe power relarions of colonial sociery because such a conrexr traps rhe wrirer in the libidinal economy of rhe 'imaginaq•.' Hence, becoming reflexive about irs conrext, by confining irself ro a rigorous examinarían of rhe 'imaginary' mechanism of colonialisr menra liry, this rype of ficrion manages ro free irself from rhe manichean allegory ....

lf every desire is ar base a desire ro imposc oneself on anorhcr and ro be recogn ized by rhe Other, rhen rhe colonia l situarion provides an ideal conrexr for rhe fulfillment of thar fundamental drive. The colonialist's military superioriry ensures a complete projecrion of his self on rhc Other: exercising his assumed superioriry, he desrroys withour any significant qualms thc effecriveness of incl igenous economic, social, polirica l, legal, and moral systems and imposes his own versions of thesc srructures on rhe Other. By rhus subjuga ring rhe narive, the European setrler is a ble ro compel rhe Orher's recognition of him and, in rhe process, nllow his own idenrity ro become deeply dependent on his posi tion as a master. This enforced recogn ition from rhe Other in facr amoums ro rhe European's narcissistic self-recognition since rhe narive, who is considered roo degraded and inhuman ro be credired wirh any specific subjecriviry, is casr as no more rhan a recipienr of rhe negarive clemenrs of rhe sclf thar rhe European projecrs onro him. This rransirivit)' and rhe preoccupation wirh the inverted self-image mark rhe 'imaginary' relarions rhat characrerize the colonial encounrer.

Nevenheless, rhe grarificarion rhar rhis siruation affords is impaired by the European's alienation from his own unconscious desire. In rhe 'imagi­nary' rexr, rhe subjecr is eclipsed by his fixarion on and fe tishizarion of rhe Other: the self becomes a prisoncr of the projecrcd image. Even though the nari ve is negated by rhe projecrion of rhe in verted image, his presence asan absence can never be canceled. Thus the colonialisr's desire only enrraps him in the dualism of rhe ' imaginary' and fomenrs violent barred of the native. This desire ro exterminare rhe brurcs, which is themarized consciously and critica lly in 'symbolic' texts such ns J-leart of Darkness and A Passage to India , manifesrs irself subconsciously in ' imaginary' rexrs, such as those of j oyce Cary, rhrough rhc narra rors' clear rclish in describing rhe mutilarion of nati ves. 'lmaginary' re:·as, like fa nrf'lsies which provide na·ive sol urions ro rhe subjects' basic problems, rend ro cenrer thernselves on plots that end with the el imina rion of rhe offending narives.

The power of the 'imaginary' field binding the na rcissistic colonialist rexr is nowhere better illusrrared rhan in irs ferishizarion of rhe Orher. This process operares by su bstituti ng natural or generic caregories for those rhar are socially or ideologicf'llly derermined. All rhe evil characteristics and

20

T II E ECONOMY Of MANICHEA~ ALLEGO RY

habirs wirh which rhe colonialisr endows rhe narive are rhereby nor presenred as rhe producrs of social and cultural difference bur as charac­rerisrics inherenr in the race - in the 'blood'- of rhe narive. In irs extreme form, rh is kind of ferishization transmutes all specificit}' and difference inro a magical essence. Th us Dinesen boldly asserrs:

The Natives wcre Africa in flcsh and ... [The various culwrcs of Africa, the mounrains, rhe rrccs, thc animalsl were diffcrcnt cxprcs­sions of one ide,t, variations upon thc sarne rhemc. Ir wns nor a congenia! upheaping of heterogcncous aroms, but a hcrcrogcneous upheaping of congenia! arorns. as in rhe case of the oak-leaf nnd thc acorn ancl the objecr rnacle frorn oak.

(Di nesen 19.37: 1.1)

As rhis exam ple ill ustra tes, ir is nor rhe srereorypes, the denigra ring ' images' of rhe native (which abound in colonialist literarure), that are fe tishized . Carefu l scruriny of colonialisr texts reveals rhat such images are used at random and in a sclf-conrraclicrory fashion. For example, the narra tor of Cary's Aissa Saved ca n cla im that 'Kolu children of old-fashioned fami lies like Makunde's were remarkable for rheir gravity and decorum; ... rhey were srricrly broughr up and made ro behave themselves as far as possible like grown-ups' (Cary 1949: 33). He even shows one such child, Tanawe, behaving with great decorum and gravity. Yer the same narraror depicts Kolu ad ults who have convcrred ro Chrisrianüy as naughry, irresponsible children . Given rhe colonial isr menraliry, rhe sou rce of che conrradiction is quite obvious. Since Tanawe is roo young ro challenge colonia lism, she can be depicted in a benign manner, and the narrator can draw moral susre­nance from the generosiry of his porrrayal. But rhe adulr Kolus' desire ro become Chrisrians threarens ro eliminare one of rhc fundamental differences bcrween rhem and rhe Europeans; so rhe narraror has ro impose a difference. The overdetermined image he picks (Africans = children) allows him ro feel secure once again because ir restares rhe moral balance in favor of the ('adule') Christian conqueror. Such conrradicrory use of images abounds in colonialisr li terarure.

My point, then, is thar the imperialist is not fixared on specific imagcs or srereorypes of the Other but rather on the affecrive benefits proffered by the ma nichea n allegory, which generares rhe various srercorypcs. As 1

have argued, thc manichean allcgory, wirh its highly efficient exchange mechanism, permirs various kinds of rapid rransformarions, for example, metonymic displacernent - wh ich leads ro rhe essentialisr meronymy, as in the abovc quotation from Dinesen - and metaphoric condensarion - which accounrs for rhe structu re and characreriza tion in Carr's Mister jolmson. Exchange-value remains rhe centra l motivati ng force of borh colonia lisr material practice and colonialisr lircrary represenrarion.

~he ferishizing srra tegy and rhe allegorical mechanism not onlr permit a rap1d exchange of denigrating images which can be used ro mainrain a

21

ABDUL R. JANM.OHAM f.D

sense of moral difference; rhey also allow rhe wrirer to rransform social and historical dissimilarities inro universal, meraphysical clifferences. If, as Dinescn has done, African narives can be collapsecl inro African animals and mysrified srill further as some magical essence of rhe conrinenr, rhen dearly rhere can be no meeting ground, no identiry, berween rhe social, hisrorical crearures of Europe and the meraphysical alterit)' of rhe Calibans and Ariels of Africa. If rhe differences between che Europeans and rhe narives are so vasr, rhen dearly, as 1 srated ea rlier, rhe process of civilizi ng rhc narives can conrinue indefinirely. The ideological funcrion of rhis mechan ism, in addirion ro prolonging colonialism, is ro dchistoricize and desocialize rhe conquered world, ro prcscnt ir as a meraphysical 'facr of life,' befare which rhose who have fashioned rhe coloni al world are rhem­selves reduced co rhe role of passive spccrarors in a mysrery nor of rheir making.

There are many formal conscqucnccs of rhis denial of hisrorr and norma l social interaction. Whi le masquerading under rhe guise of rca list fi crion, rhe colonialist text is in fac r anragonisric w some of rhc prevai ling rendencies of realisrn. As M. M. Bakhtin has argucd, rhe temporal moclcl of rhc world cbanges radically with rhc risc of rhc rea lisr novel: 'For rhe first rime in arcisric-ideological consciousness, rime and rhe worlcl become hisrorica l: rhcy unfold as becoming, as an uninrerrupred movcmcnr inro a rea l future, as a unified, all-embracing ancl unconclucled process' (Bakhtin 1975: 30). But since the colonialist wanrs to maintain his privileges b)' prescrving rhe srarus quo, his represenrarion of the world conrains neirher a scnse of hisrorical becoming, nor a concrete vision of a furure differenr from rhe present, nor a teleology other rha n rhe infinire ly posrponed process of 'civilizing.' In shorr, it does nor conmin any S)•ncreric cultural possibili ry, which alone would open up rhe historie once more ....

This adamant refusa l ro ad rnit rhe possibi litf of syncrerism, of a rapprochement berween self and Orher, is rhe mosr imporranr factor disti nguish ing rhe ' imagi nary' from thc 'symbolic' colon ialist rexr. The 'syrnbolic' rcxr's openness toward rhe Orher is based on a grca rer awarencss of porential idenriry and a heightened scnse of the concrete socio-polirico­culrural differencr.s ben.veen sclf and Othcr. Alrhough rhc 'symbolic' wrirer's undersranding of rhe Other proceeds rhrough self-unclersranding, he is freer from rhe codes nnd morifs of rhe deeper, collecrive classificarion sysrem of his culture. In rhe fina l analysis, his success in comprehending or appreciating alterity will depend on his ability to bracker rhe values and bases of his culrure. He may do so very consciously ancl delibera rely, as Forstcr does in A Passage to India, or he may allow the emorions and values instillcd in him during his social formarion in an alíen cu lture ro inform his appraisals of rhe Orher, as Kipling does in Kim. These two novels offer rhe most inreresring atremprs ro overcorne the barriers of racia l difference ....

As we have seen, colonialist ficrion is generared predomina ntl y by rhe idcological machinery of the rnanichean allegory. Yer rhc rclarion berween

22

F THE ECONQ ,viY OF MANICH EAN ALLEGORY

imperial ideology and ficrion is not unidireccional: rhe ideology does nor simply determine the ficrion. Rarher, rhrough a process of symbiosis, thc ficrion (orms rhe ideology by arricula ring and jusrifying rhe position and aims of rhe colonialisr. Bm ir does more rhan jusr define and elaborare rhc actual military and purative moral superioriry of the Europeans. Troubled by rhe nagging conrradicrion berween rhe rheorerical jusrification of exploirarion and rhe barbariry of irs actual pracrice, ir also atremprs ro mask rhe conrradicrion by obsessively porrraying rhe supposed in fer ioriry and barbarity of rhe racia l Orher, thereby insisring on rhe profound moral difference berween self and Orher. Within rhis symbioric relation, rhe manichean allegory funcrions as a rransformarive mecha nism berwecn rhe affecrive plcasure derived from the moral superioriry and material profit rhat motivare imperial ism, on the one hand, and rhe formal devices (gen res, stereotypes, and so on) of colonia lisr ficrion, on rhe other hand. By allowing rhe European to denigrare rhe native in a variety of ways, by pennitting an obsessive, fetishisric represenrarion of the narive's moral inferioriry, rhe allc­gory also enablcs rhe European ro increase, by conrrast, the srore of his own moral superiority; ir allows him ro accumulate 'surplus morality,' which is further invesred in rhe denigrarion of the native, in a self­sustaining cycle.

Thus rhe ideological funcrion of all 'imaginary' and some 'symbolic' colonialisr lirerarure is ro articulare and jusrify rhe moral aurhoriry of rhe colonizer and - by posiring rhe inferioriry of rhe narive as a meraphysical fact- ro mask rhe pleasure rhe colonizcr derives from rhat aurhoriry ....

Finally, we musr bear in mind rhar colonialist fiction and idcology do not exist in a vacuum. In order ro appreciare rhem rhoroughly, we musr examine rhem in juxra position ro domestic Engl ish ficrion and rhe anglo­phone fiction of thc Third World, which originares from British occuparion and which, during rhe cu rrenr, hegemonic phase of colonialism, is esrab­lishing a dialogic relarion wirh colonialist fiction. The Third World's literary dia logue wirh Wesrern cultures is marked by rwo broad character­istics: its attempt ro negare rhe prior European negarion of colonized cultures and irs adoprion and creative modificarion of Wesrern languages and artistic forms in conjuncrion wirh indigenous languages and forms. This dialogue merits our serious atrenrion for rwo reasons: firsr, in spite of rhe often studied attemprs by erhnocentric canonizers in English and orher (Western) language and li rerarure deparrmenrs co ignore Third World culture and arr, rhey wi ll nor go away; and, second, as th is analysis of colo­nialist lirerarure (a literarure, we musr remember, rhat is sued ro mediare between different cultures) demonsrrares, rhe domai n of literary and cultural syncrerism belongs nor ro colonialisr and neocolonialist writers bur increasingly ro Third World arrisrs.

23

3

Can the Subaltern Speak?

G AYATRI CHAKRAVORTY SPIVAK':·

SoME OF TH E most rad ical crítícism comíng out of che West today ís the result of an ínterested desire to conserve the subject of che West, or the West as Subject. The theory of pluralízed 'subject-effecrs' gíves an íllusíon of undermining su bjecrive sovereignty while ofcen providíng a cover for rhis subject of knowledge. Although che hisrory of Europc as Su bject is narra­tivízed by the law, political economy, and ideology of the Wcst, this concealed Subject prerends ir has 'no geo-polirical decerminations.' The much publicized cri tique of the sovereign subject rhus acntally inaugurares a Subject .. ..

Thís S/subjecr, curiously sewn together inw a rransparency by denega­tions, belongs ro rhe expJoicers' side of che internacional division of labor. lt is irnpossible for conremporary French ínrellecruals ro imagine che kind of Power and Desirc rhat would inhabit the unnamed subject of che Other of Europe. lt is not only rhat everything they read, critica! or uncrírical, is caught wirhin the debate of the producrion of rhar Ocher, supporting or critiquing che consrirution of the Subjecr as Europe. lr ís also rhar, in rhe constiturion of thar Other of Europe, grear care was raken to obliterare rhe textua l ingredients with which such a subject could cathect, could occupy (invesr?) its irinerary - noc only by ideological and scienrific production, bur a lso by the insritution of the law .... In rhe face of rhc possibili ty thac rhe inrellecrual ís complicit in the persisrenr constitutíon of Other as the Self's shadow, a possibilíty of political practice for che intel­lecrual would be ro put che economic 'under erasure,' rosee che economic factor as irreducible as ir reinscribes the socia l texr, even as ir is erased, however imperfectly, when it claims ro be rhe fina l determinan e or rhe tran­scendental signified.

The clearest available example of such cpisremic violence is the remorely orchesrrared, far-flung, and hererogeneous projecr ro consritute rhe colonial

.. From 'Can the Subaltcrn Speak?' in Cary Nelson and Lawrcnce Grossbcrg (eds) Marxism and the lnterpretation o{ Culture London: Macmillan, 1988.

24

CAN THE SUBALTE RN S PEAK?

b. e as Other. This projecc is also che asymetrical oblireraríon of che trace su ¡ec · b. · · 1 · 11 k h F 1 f h t Orher in its precanous Su ¡ecttvtry. r ts we nown t ar oucau r ~oc:t~ epistemic víolence, a complete overhau_l of rhe episteme, in the rede~-

• • 11

of sani ty ar che end of rhe European etghreenth century. Bur whar tf mtto f h . f h. . E that particular redefinirían was onl~ aparro r e n~rranve o . tsror_y m urope as well as in rhe colonies? Whar tf rhe rwo pro¡ecrs of eptsremtc over~aul worked as disloca red and unacknowledged pares of a vast two~hande~ eng111e? Perhaps ir is no more rhan ro ask that rhe subtexr of the pahmpsesnc narra­tivc of imperialism be rccognized as 'subjugared knowledge,' 'a whole ser of knowledges that have been disqual ified as inadequate ro their rask o~ insuffi­ciently elaborared: naive knowledges, locared low clown on rhe hterarchy, beneath rhe rcquired leve! of cognition or scienti fic ity' (Foucault 1980: 82).

This is not ro describe 'the way things really were' or ro privilege rhe narrarive of hisrory as imperíal ism as rhe besr version of hisrory. lt is, rather, ro offer an account of how an cxplanarion and narrarive of rea lity was esrablished as rhe normative onc ... .

Lec us now move ro consider che margins (onc can jusr as well say rhe silenr, silenced cenrer) of rhe circuir ma rked out by rhis episremic violence, men and women among rhe íllirerate peasanrry, the triba ls, the lowesr strata of rhe urban subprolcrariar. According ro Foucault ancl Deleuze (in rhe Firsr World, under che srandardization and regimemation of socialized capital, chough rhey do nor seem ro recognize chis) the oppressed, if given rhe chance (che problem of representation cannor be b)'passcd here}, and on the way co solidariry rhrough all iance politics (a Marxisr rhemaric is at work here) can speak and know their conditions. We musr now confronr rhe following quesrion: On che other side of rhe inrernariona l division of labor from socia lized capital, inside and ourside rhe circuir of rhe epistemic violence of imperialist law and educarion supplementing an carlier economic texr, can the subaltem speak? ...

The fi rsr pare of my proposirion - rhar rhe phased developmenr of thc subalrern is complicated by che imperia list project - is confronted by a collective of intellccrua ls who may be called the 'Subaltern Srudies' group. They must ask, Can the subalcern speak? Here we are within Foucault's own discipline of hisrory and wirh people who acknowledgc his influence. Their project is ro rerhink lndian colonial hístoriograph y from the perspecrive of the discontinuous chain of peasanr ínsurgencies during rhe colonial occuparion. T his is indeed rhc problem of ' rhe permission ro narrare' discussed by Said ( J 984 ). As Ranajir Guha argues,

The hisroriography of Indian narionalism has for a long rime been dominatcd by elitism - colonialisr clitism and bourgeois-narionalisr elitísm ... shar[ingj the prejudice rhar rhe making of the Indian natíon and the developmenr of rhe consciousness-nationalism which con­firmed rhis proccss were cxcl usively or prcdominanrly elite achicve­ments. In the colonialist and neo-colonialist hisroríographies thesc achievements are credíred ro British colonial rulcrs, administrators,

25

GAYATRI CHAKRAVO RTY SP IVAK

policies, insrirurions, and culture; in rhe narionalist and nco-nationalist wrirings- ro lndian elite pcrsonaliries, instirurions, acrivitics and ideas.

(Guha 1982: 1)

Cerrain varieries of che Indian elite are ar bese narive infonnants for firsr­world intellectuals interesred in rhe voice of rhe Orher. Bur one muse ncverrheless insist rhar che colonized subaltern subject is irretrievably hererogeneous.

Againsr che indigenous elite we may ser what Guha calls 'che politics of che people,' both ourside ('chis was an autonomous domain, for ir neither originated from elite polirics nor did its existence depend on che latter') and inside (' ir conrinued ro operare vigorously in spite of [colonialism], adjusti ng itself ro the conditions prevai ling under rhe Raj and in many respects developing entirely new srrains in borh form and contem') the circuir of colonial production (Guha 1982: 4). 1 cannot entirely endorse thís insistence on determínate vigor and full auronomy, for practica! historiographic exigencies will nor a llow such endorsements to privilege subaltern consciousness. Againsr che possible charge thar bis approach is essentialist, Guha constructs a definirían of che people (the place of thar essence) that can be only an idenrity-in-differentia l. He propases a dynamic srrarification grid describing colonial socia l production ar large. Even the rhird group on the list, the buffer group, as ir were, between che people and the great macrostrucrural dominanr groups, is irself defined as a place of in-betweenness, what Derrida has describcd asan 'antre' (1981):

l. {l. e tte l.

3.

Dominant foreign groups. Dominant indigenous groups on the all-India level. Dominant indigenous groups at rhe regional and local levels.

4. The terms 'people' and 'subalrern classes' [are] used as synony­mous throughour [Guha's definirionj. The social groups and elemenrs included in chis caregory rcprcscnr the demograpbic di((erence between the total Indian population and al/ those whom we have described as the 'elite.'

Consider rhe rhird ítem on chis lisc - che a11tre of sicuationa l inderer­minacy these careful hisrorians presuppose as rhey grapplc with the question, Can rhe subalrern speak?

Tnken ns a whole and in tbe nbstrnct rhis ... caregory ... was heterogeneous in irs composirion and rhanks ro rhc u neven characrer of regional economic and social developmcnrs, di((erent (rom aren/o aren. The same class or elemcnr which was dominant in one arca ... could be among rhe dominared in anorhcr. This could and did creare many ambiguities and conrradictions in arritudcs and alliances, especially among rhe lowesr srrara of the rural genrry, impoverished landlords, rich peasanrs and upper middle class peasanrs all of whom bclonged, ideal/y spenking, ro the carcgory of people or subalrern classes.

(Guha 1982: 8)

26

CAN THE SUBALTERN SPEAK?

'The rask of research' projected here is 'to investigare, idenrify and measure rhe specific na tu re and degre~ of rh~ de~inti~n of ~ t~1e] ele1~enrs ~ cons.ri ruri ng ítem 3] from che ideal and Sttuate 1t htstoncally. Invesngare, tdenttfy, and measure che specific': a program could hardly be more essentialisr and raxonomic. Yet a curious merhodological imperative is ac work. l have argued rhat, in the Foucau l c-:-D~leuze conversation, a postrep~esenrariona l isr vocabulary hides an essentlaltst agenda. ln su baltern srudtes, because of the violence of imperialist episremic, social, and disciplinary inscriprion, a project undersrood in essen.rialisr terms musr. rr.affic i~1 a ~adic~l textual prac­rice of differences.¡The ob¡ect of the group s mvesnganon, tn the case not even of che people as such but of the floating buffer zone of rhe regional elire-subalrern, is a deviation from an ideal- the people or subalcern- which ¡5 itself defined as a difference from che eli te. lt is toward th is strucrure thar rhe research is orienred, a predicamenr rather di fferenr from rhe self­diagnosed transparency of the first-world radical intellecrual. What raxonomy can fi x such a space? Whether or not they themselves perceive ir - in fact Gu ha sees his definition of 'the people' withi n che master-slave dialectic- rheir rext articulares the difficul t task of rewriti ng its own condi­tions of impossibi li ty as the conditions of irs possibil ity.

'At rhe regional and locallevels [the dominant indigenous groupsj ... if belonging ro social srrara hierarchically inferior ro those of rhe dominant all-Indian groups acted in the interests o( the latter and not in con(ormity to interests correspo11ding truly lo tiJeir own social bei11g.' When rhese writers spcak, in their essentializing language, of a gap berween interese and acrion in rhe intermediare group, their conclusions are closer ro ¡\llarx rha n to the self-conscious naiveré of Deleuze's pronouncemenr on rhe issue. Guha, like Marx, speaks of inrerest in rerms of che social rarher rhan rhe libidinal being. The Name-of-thc-Father imagery in The EigiJteentiJ Brumaire can help to emphasize rhar, on the level of class or group action, 'true correspondence ro own being' is as artificial or socia l as rhe patronymic.

So much for the intermediare group marked in ítem 3. For rhe ' true' subaltern group, whose idenrity is irs difference, rhere is no unrepresenra ble subaltern subject that can know and speak irself; the intellectual's solu rion is not to absrain from represenration. The problem is rhar the subjecr's itinerary has nor been traced so as ro offer an object of seduction ro rhe represenring intcllecrual. In the slightly dated language of rhc lndian group, the question becomes, How can we rouch che consciousness of rhe people, even as we investigare rheir politics? With what voice-consciousness Cóln rhe subaltern speak? Their project, a fter all, is ro rewrire the development of t~1e .consciousness of the Indian nation. The planned discontinuiry of impe­na~tsm ~igorous ly disringuishes this projecc, however old-fashioned irs aruculauon, from 'renderi ng visible rhe medica! and jurídica( mechanisms that su rrounded the story [of Pierre Riviere].' Foucau lr is correcr in suggesring that 'to make visible the unseen can also mean a change of level,

27

GAYATRI CH AKRAVORTY SPIVAK

addressing oneself ro a !ayer of material which had hitherto had no perci­nence for history and which had not becn recognized as having any moral, aesthetic or historical value.' lt is the slippage from rendering visible the mechanism to rendering rhe individual, both a voiding 'any kind of analysis of [ thc subject] wherher psychological, psychoanalyrical or linguistic,' rhat is consisrently rroublesome (Foucaulr 1980: 49-50) ....

When we come to rhe concomitam question of rhe consciousness of rhe subaltern, rhe noúon of whar rhe work cmmot say becomes importam. In rhe semioses of rhe social rext, elaborations of insurgency stand in the place of 'the utterance.' The sender- ' the pcasant' - is marked only as a pointer ro an irretrievable consciousness. As for thc receivcr, we must ask who is 'the rea l receiver' of an ' insurgency?' Thc historian, transforming 'insu rgency' into 'text for knowledge,' is on ly one 'receivcr' of any collec­tively intended social act. With no possibiliry of nosta lgia for that losr origin, rhe histo rian must suspend (as fa r as possible} rhc clamor of his or her own consciousness (or consciousness-effect, as operated by disciplinary training), so rhat rhe elaboration of che insurgcncy, packaged wirh an insurgcnr-consciousness, does not freeze inro ;~n 'objecr of invesrigarion,' or, worsc yer, a model for imitarion. 'The subjcct' implicd by rhe rexts of insurgency can only serve as a counterpossibility for rhe narrarive sancrions granred ro rhe colonial subject in thc dominant groups. The postcolonial intcllectuals learn rhat their privilege is rheir loss. In chis they are a para­digm of the inrellectuals.

1t is well known thar the notion of che feminine (rarher rhan the subalrern of imperialism) has been used in a similar way wirhin decon­srructive criticism and wirhin cenain varieties of feminist criticism. In rhe former case, a figu re of 'woman' is at issue, one whose minimal predi­carian as indeterminate is already avaílable ro the phallocentric tradition. Subaltern historiography raises questions of method that would prevent it from usi ng such a ruse. For the 'figure' of woman, che rclarionship berween woman and silence can be plotted by women themselvcs; race and class differences are subsumed under rhat charge. Suba ltcrn historiography must confront rhe impossibility of such gestures. The narrow cpisremic violence of imperialism gives us an imperfect allegory of rhc general violence that is rhe possibi liry of an episteme.

Wirhin rhe effaced itinerary of the suba lrcrn subject, the rrack of sexual difference is doubly effected. Thc qucstion is not of fema le partici­pation in insurgency, or the ground rules of rhe sexual division of labor, for borh of which there is 'evidence.' lt is, rather, rhar, both as object of colonialist historiography and as subject of insurgency, rhe ideological consrrucrion of gender keeps rhe male dominant. If, in the context of colonial producrion, rhe subalrern has no hisrory and c;~nnor speak, rhe subaltern as fcmale is even more deeply in shadow ....

28

r 4

Signs Taken for Wonders

H OMI K. BHABHA ':·

A remarkable peculiarity is that they (the English) always write the personaljHOIIOIIII lwith a capitalletter. May we 1101 consider this Great 1 as an 1mintended proof IJow much an Englishman thinks o( his ow11 consequence?

Roben Southey, Lelters (rom England

THERE IS A scene in the cultural writings of English colonialism which repeats so insistently afrer the early ninereenth century- and, through thar repetition, so triumphantly inaugurales a li terarure of empire - thar 1 am bound ro repe;tt ir once more. h is rhe scenario, played out in rhe wild and wordlcss wasres of colonial India, Africa, rhe Ca ribbean, of the sudden fortuitous discovery of the English book. Ir is, like all myths of origin, memorable for its ba lance between epipbany and enunciarion. The discovery of the book is, at once, a moment of originality and authority, as well as a process of displacement that, paradoxically, makes the presence of the book wondrous ro the exrenr ro which it is repeated, translated, misread, displaced. Ir is wirh the emblem of the English book- 'signs raken for wonders' - as an insignia of colonial authoriry and a signifier of colonial desirc and discipline, that I wanr ro begin rhis essay.

In the first week of May 181 7, Anund Messeh, one o f rhe earliesr Indian catechists, made a hurried and excired journey from his mission in Meerur ro a grovc of trees outside Delhi.

He found about 500 people, men, womcn and childrcn, seared under the shade of che crees, and employcd, as had been rclared ro him, in reading and conversarion. He wenr up ro an elderly looking man, and accosted him, and rhc following conversation passed.

• From 'Signs Taken for Wonders: Qucsrions of Ambivalence and Aurhoriry Under a Tree Oucside Delhi, M ay 18 1 7' Criticnllnquiry 12( 1 ), 1985.

29

HOMI K. BHAB HA

'Pray who are all rhese people? and whence come they?' '\Y/e are poor and lowly, and we read and !ove rhis book'- 'What is rhar book?' 'The book of God!'- 'Ler me look at ir, if you picase.' Anund, on opening rhe book, perceivcd ir ro be rhe Gospel of our Lord, rranslated imo rhe Hindoosranee Tongue, many copies of which seemed ro be in the possession of rhe party: some were PRINTED orhers WRllTEN by rhemselves from rhc printed ones. Anund pointed ro rhe name of Jcsus, and asked, '\Y/ho is rhar?' 'Thar is God! He gave us rhis book.' -'Wherc díd you obraín ir?' 'An Angel from heaven gave ir us, ar Hurdwar faír.'- 'An Angel?' ' Yes, ro us he was God's Angel: bur he was a man, a learned Pundír.' (Dou bdess rhese rranslated Gospels musr have becn rhe books disrríbured, fivc or six yea rs ago, ar Hurdwar by the Missionary.) 'The written copies we wrire ourselves, having no orher mcans of obtaining more of rhis blessed word.' - 'These books,' said Anund, 'reach rhe rel igion of rhc European Sahibs. lt is THEIR book; and rhey prinred ir in our languagc, for our use.' 'Ah! no'; repliecl rhc srranger, 'rhar cannor be, for rhey ear Ocsh.'- 'jesus Chrisr,' sa id Anund, ' reaches rhat it does nor signify whar a man ears or drinks. EATING is norhing bcfore God. Not tbnt wbicb entereth into aman's mouth de{iletb him but t/}(1/ which cometh out o( the mouth, this de{ileth n man: for vile rhíngs come forth from rhe heart. Out of the heart proceed evil thoughts, murders, adulteries, {omicntions, thefts; and these nre the things that de(i/e.'

'Thar is rruc; bur how can ir be rhc Europea n Book, when we believe rhar ir is God's gifr ro us? He sent ir ro us ar Hurdwar.' 'God gave ir long ago ro rhe Sahibs, and TI lEY scnr ir ro us.' The ignorance and simpliciry of many are very srriking, never having heard of a prinred book befare; and its very appearancc was ro rhem miraculous. A grcat srir was cxcited by the gradual increasing information hereby obrained, and all united tO acknowledge rhe superiority of rhc doctrines of this Holy Book ro every rhing which rhey had hirherro heard or known. An indifference ro the disrincríons of Casre soon manifesred irself; and rhe interference and ryrannical aurhoriry of rhe Brahmins became more offensivc and conremprible. Ar last, ir was dcrcrrnined ro separare rhemselves from rhe resr of rheir Hindoo Brcrh ren; and ro esrablish a parry of rhcir own choosing, four or five, who could read the besr, ro be rhe public reachers frorn rhis newly­acquired Book .. . . Anund asked them, ' Why are you all dresscd in whire?' 'The people of God should wear whitc raimenr,' was rhe reply, 'as a sign rhar rhey are clean, and rid of rheir sins.'- Anund observed, ' You oughr ro be BAPTIZED, in rhc name of rhe Farher, and of rhe Son, and of rhe Holy Ghost. Come ro Meerur: rhere is a Christian Padre there; and he will shew you whar )'OU oughr ro do.' They answercd, 'Now we must go home ro thc harvesr; but, as we mean ro meer once a year, perhaps rhe next year we may come ro Meerur.' 1 explaincd ro rhem the narurc of rhe Sacrament and of Baprism; in answer ro which, rhey replicd, '\"1/e are willing ro be baptized, but we will never rake rhe Sacrament. To all rhe orher cusroms of Christians wc are willing to conform, but not ro rhe Sacramenr, because rhc

30

SIGNS TAKEN FOR \"1/01'\DERS

Europeans ear cow's Oesh, and rhis will never do for us.' To this 1 answered, 'this WORD is of God, and nor of men; and whcn ir makes our hearts ro undersrand, rhen you will PROPERLY comprchend ir. ~hey replied, 'If all our country wíll receive this Sacmment, rhcn will we.' 1 rhen observed, The rime is at hand, when all thc counrrics will receive rhis \"1/0RD.' Thcy rcplied, 'True.'

(.Missionary Regísrer 18 18: 18-19])

Almost a hundred years later, in 1902, joseph Conrad's Marlow, traveling in the Congo, in the night of the first ages, without a sigo and no memories, cut off from the comprehension of his surroundings, desperarely ¡11 need of a deliberare belief, comes upon Towson's (or Towser's} lnquiry ¡1110 some Points o( Seamanship.

Nota very enrhralling book; bur ar rhe first glancc you could sce rhcre a singleness of inrenrion , an honcsr concern for rhe righr way of going ro work, which made rhese humble pages, rhoughr our so many years ago, luminous wirh anorhcr than a professional light .. .. 1 assure you ro ]cave off reading was like rearing myself away from rhc shelrcr of an old and solid fricndship ....

' Ir musr be rh is miserable trader - rhis inrruder,' exclaimed the manager, looking back malevolenrl)' ar rhe place we had lefr. 'He must be English,' 1 said.

(Conmd 1902: 71, 72)

Half a century later, a young Trinidadian discovers that S<lmc volume of Towson's in that very passage from Conrad and draws from it a vision of literature and a lesson of history. 'The scene,' writes V. S. Naipaul, 'answered some of the political panic I was beginning ro feel':

To be a colonial was ro know a kind of security; it was ro inhabir a fixed world. And 1 suppose rhar in my fantasy 1 had seen myself coming ro England as ro sorne purely lirerary region, where, unrram­meled by rhe accidenrs of hisrory or background, 1 could make a romanric career for myself as a wrirer. Bur in rhe new world 1 felr rhar ground move below me ... Conrad . .. had been everywhcrc before me. Nor as a man wirh a ca use, bur a man offering a vision of rhc world's half-made societies . .. whcrc always 'somerhing inherenr in rhc necessiries of successful acrion carried wirh ir rhe moral degmda­tion of rhe idea.' Dismal bur dceply fe lr: a kind of trurh and half a consolation.

(Naipaul 1974: 233)

Written as rhey are in the na me of the father and the author, these rexts of the civi lizing mission immediatcly suggest the tri umph of the colonialist momenr in early English Evangelism and modero English lirerature. The discovery of the book installs rhe sign of appropriarc representation: rhe word of God, trurh, art crea res the conditions for a beginning, a pracrice of history and narrarive. But rhe institution of the Word in rhe wilds is also

31

H OM I K. BHABHA

an Enstelltmg, a process of displacement, distortion, dislocation, repetition 1

- the dazzling light of lirerature shcds on ly areas of darkness. Still the idea of the English book is presenrcd as universally adequate: like rhe 'metaphoric writing of rhe West,' ir communicares ' rhe immediare vision of the thi ng, freed from the discourse thar accompanied ir, or even encumbered it' (Derrida 1981: 189-90) ... .

The discovery of the English book establishes both a measure of mimesis and a mode of civil authoriry and order. If rhese scenes, as J've narrared rhem, suggest the triumph of rhe writ of colonialist power, then ir musr be conceded that the wi ly letter of the law inscribes a much more ambivalcnt rexr of aurhority. For it is in berween the edict of Englishness and the assault of the dark unruly spaccs of rhe carrh, rhrough an act of repcrition, thar rhe colonial text emerges uncerrainly. Anund Messeh disavows rhe natives' disturbing questions as he rerurns to repeat rhe now quesrionable 'aurhoriry' of Evangelical dicta; Marlow rurns away from the African jungle ro recognize, in rerrospecr, the peculiarly 'English' quality of rhe discovery of rhe book; Naipaul ntrns his back on rhc hybrid half-made colonial world ro fix his e}'e on thc universa l domain of English lirerature. Whar we wirness is neirher an unrroubled, innocem dream of England nora 'secondary revision' of thc nighrmare of India, Africa, rhe Caribbean. What is 'English' in rhesc discourses of colonial power cannot be represenred as a plenitude ora 'full' presence; iris derermined by its belatedness. As a signi­fier of aurhority, thc English book acquires irs me::1t1ing a(ter rhe traumatic scenario of colonial differencc, cultural or racial, rerurns 1 he eyc of power ro sorne prior, archaic image or identiry. Paradoxically, however, such an image can neither be 'origi nal ' by virrue of rhe act of repetirían rhar consrrucrs it­nor 'identical' b}' virrue of rhe difference rhat defines ir. Consequently, the colonial presence is always ambivalent, split berween its appearance as orig­inal and authorirarive ami irs arricularion as repetition and difference . . ..

The place of difference and orherness, or rhe space of the adversaria!, within such a sysrem of 'disposal' as !'ve proposed, is never entirely on rhe ourside or implacably oppositional. lt is a pressure, and a presence, rhat acrs consran tly, if unevcnly, along the enrire boundary of authorization, rhat is, on rhe surface berween whar l've called disposal-as-besrowal and disposirion-as-inclination. The contour of difference is agonistic, shifting, splirring, rathcr like Freud's descriprion of rhe sysrem of consciousness which occupies a posirion in space lying on the borderline berween ourside and inside, a surface of prorection, receprion, and projection. The power play of presence is lost if its transparency is treared naively as the nostalgia for plenitude rhar should be nung repearedly into the abyss- mise en ab/me - from which its desire is born. Such theoreticisr anarchism cannor inter­vene in the agonisric space of aurhority where

rhe true and the falseare scparated and spccific cffects of power [are] attached ro the true, it being undcrstood also that it is not a marrer of

32

T SIGNS TAKEN FOR WONDERS

1 , b 1 Jf' of rhe rruth bm of a battle about the status of trllth

a batt e on e la . . , . and the economic and pohucal role tt plays.

(Foucault 1980: 132)

. · 1 · 1rervene in such a bartle for rhe status of rhe truth that ir lt ts prectse y ro n b k F . . h' · ¡ ro examine rhe presence of rhe English oo . or tt ts t ts becomes eructa , . . . . 1

l. t·· bilizes rhe agonisric colontal space; Jt ts trs afJpearallce t 1at surface t 1at s a 11 d' · 1· d

h b' valence berween origin and Entste tmg, tsctp me an regulares t e am t .. d 're 1111•111esis and repermon. est , f ·. ' b d bl · earances rhe rext o transparency mscn es a ou e Desptre app ' • ' . . h fi Id f che 'rrue' emerges as a visible effect of knowledge/power

VtStOn· t C e O 1 f 1 1

·f the reguhuory and displacing division of thc rrue and t 1e a se. on y a ter . . ' , . b d . h From rhis point of view, dtscurstve rranspar.ency tS esr rea tn .r e

h h·1c sensc in which a rranspa rency ts al.so always a nega ttve, p orograp d l

·nro visibility rhrough the rechnologies of reversa!, enlargemenr, processe f · ¡, s 1 lighting, editing, projecrion, nor. <~ sou.rc~ but a re-source o hg t. uc 1 a

b · · g ro light is never a prevtston; tt ts always a questton of rhe provt-

nngm 1 · . ¡ · sion of visibility as a capacity, a srra regy, an agen~~ bur a s? 111 t 1e sens~ tn

which rhe prefix pro(vision) might indicare an ehston of stght, dclegatton, substitution, contiguity, in place of .. . whar? .

This is che quesrion that brings us ro rhe ambtvalence of the presence of authority, peculiarly visible in its colonial articularion .. For if transparency signifies discursive closure - inrention, image, a~tthor- tt doe.s so r.hrough a disclosure of irs mies o( recognition - those soctal rexts of eptsremtc, e~hno­centric, nationalist inrelligibi liry which coherc in the address of authonty .as rhe 'present,' rhe voice of modernity. The acknowledgemenr of authonry depe~ds upon rhe immediate- unmedi~red ~ visibiliry.of its rules of recog­nition as the unmisrakable referent of htsroncal necesstty.

In rhe doubly inscribed space of colonial represenration where rhe presence of aurhoriry- rhe English book - is also a quesrion .of irs .r~p~~ition and displacement, where rransparency is teclmé, rhe immedtate vtstb t~tt y of such a régime of recogn.ition is resisted. Resistance is not n:cessanly an oppositional acr of política! intenrion, nor is ir rhe simple negarton .or exci L~ ­sion of rhe 'content' of an orher culwre, as a difference once percetved. Ir ts rhe effect of an ambiva lence produced withi n rhe rules of recognition of dominaring discourses as rhey articulare rhe signs of cultura! diJference and reimplicate rhcm within the deferential relations of colonta l power -hierarchy, normalization, marginalizarion, and so forrh. For dominarían is achieved through a process of disavowal that denies the di({érance of colo­nialist power - rhe chaos of irs inrervenrion as Entstellu11g, its dislocatory presence- in arder ro preserve rhe aurhoriry of irs idenrity in the universalisr narrative of nineteenrh-cenwry hisrorical and polirical evolurionism.

The exercise of colonialist aurhorit}', however, requires the producrion of differenriarions, individuarions, idenrity effects rhrough which discrimi­natory pracrices can map out subjecr populations rhat are tarred with rhe

33

HOMI K. BHABHA

visi ble and transparenr mark of power. Such a mode of subjection is distinct from what Fouca ult describes as 'power rh rough transparency': the reign of opinion, aftcr the late eighreenrh cenrury, which cou ld not tolerare areas of darkness and sought ro exercise power through rhe mere fact of things being known and people seen in an immedia te, collective gaze. Whar radically differentiares rhe exercise of colonial power is the unsuitabiliry of the Enlightenmenr assumption of collectiviry and rhe eye that beholds ir. For jeremy Bentham (as Michel Pcrrot poims out), the small group is representarive of rhe whole society- rhe pan is nlrendy rhe whole. Colonial aurhority requires modes of discrimination (cultural, racial, administrative .. . ) thar d isa llow a srable unitary assumption of collectivi ty. The 'pan' (which muse be the colonia lisr foreign body) must be representative of thc 'whole' (conquered country), but the righr of representation is based on its radica l difference. Such doublethink is made viable only th rough rhe strategy of disavowal jusr described, which requires a theory of the 'hybridization' of discourse and power rhar is ignored by Wesrern posr-srrucruralists who engage in rhe ba rtle for 'power' as rhc purists of difference.

The discri minarory cffccts of rhe discourse of cultura l colonialism, for insrance, do not simply or singly rcfer ro a 'person', o r ro a dialectical power struggle berween self and Orher, or to a discri mination between mother culture and alíen cultures. Produced through the strategy of disavowal, the re(erence of discriminarían is always ro a process of spl itting as the condi­tion of subjection: a discriminarían berween rhe morher culture and its basrards, rhe self and irs doubles, where the trace of wha t is disavowed is not repressed bur repeared as something di((erent - a murarion, a hybrid. Ir is such a partial and dou ble force that is more than the mimetic bur less than the symbolic, that disturbs the visibility of the colonial presence and makes rhe recognition of its aurhority problematic. To be authorirarive, irs rules of recognirion musr reflect consensual knowlcdge or opinion; ro be powerful, these rules of recognition must be breached in ordcr ro represem the exorbitam objects of discrimination that lie beyond its purview. Consequcntly if thc unitary (and essentialisr) refcrence ro racc, nation, or cultural tradition is essential ro preserve rhe presence of aurhoriry as an immediare mimetic effect, such essenrialism musr be exceeded in the articu­lation of 'differentiatory,' discrirninarory idenriries.

To demonstrate such an 'excess' is nor rnerely to celebrare rhe joyous power of the signifier. Hybridiry is rhe sign of thc productiviry of colonial power, its shifring forces and fixiries; it is rhe name fo r the srrategic reversa( of rhe process of dominarían rhrough disavowa l (thar is, the production of discriminarory identities rhat secure the 'pure' and original identity of au rhority) . 1-lybridity is the revaluation of rhe assum prio11 of colonial iden tity through rhe repetition of discrirninatory idenrity effects. lr displays rhe 11ecessary deformarion and displacemenr of all sires of discri minarían and dom inarían . Ir unsettles rhe mimetic or narcissisric demands of colonial power but reimplicates irs identifications in srrategies of subversion thar

34

SIGNS TAKEN FOR WONDERS

turn che gaze of rhe discriminated back upon the eye of power. For rhe colonial hybrid is the aniculation of the arn biva lenr space where the rire of power is enacted 011 che site of desire, making irs objecrs at once discipl i­nary and disseminarory - or, in my mixed meraphor, a negarive transparency. lf discriminatory effects enable rhe aurhorities to keep an eye

011 them, rheir proli ferating difference evades rhat eye, escapes rhar surveillance. Those discriminated againsr rnay be instantly recogn ized, but they also force a recognirion of rhe immediacy and articulacy of au rhority­a disturbing effect rhar is familiar in rhe repeared hesitancy afflicring rhe colonialist discourse when it contemplares irs discriminated subjects: rhe inscrutnbility of rhe Chinese, rhe zmspenknble rites of the lndians, the indescribnble habits of rhe Horrentots. It is not rhar rhe voice of aurh ority is ata loss for words. lt is, rather, that rhe colonial discourse has rcached rhat point when, faced with rhe hybridity of its objecrs, rhc presence of power is revealed as something orhcr than what its rules of recognition asserr.

rf rhe effecr of colonial power is seen to be rhe production of hybridizarion rather than the noisy command of colonialisr aurhoriry or rhe silent repression of narive trad itions, then an imporrant change of perspec­tive occurs. le revea ls rhe ambiva le11ce ar the source of tradirional discourses on aurhority and ena bles a forrn of subversion, founded 011 that uncertainty, that rurns the discursive condirions of dominance inro the grounds of inrerven rion. lt is traditional academic wisdom that rhe pres­ence of aurhority is properly established through rhe nonexercise of privare judgmenr and the exclusion of reasons, in conflicr wirh rhe aurhoritarive reason. The recognition of aurhority, however, requires a valida tion of irs source rhat must be imrnediately, even inruitively, apparenr- 'You have rhat in your counrenance which 1 would fa in call master' - and held in common (rules of recognition). What is left unacknowledged is the paradox of such a demand for proof and the resulting ambivalence for posirions of authority. If, as Steven l. Lukes rightly says, the acceptance of aurhority excludes any evaluation of rhe content of an uttera nce, and if irs source, which must be acknowledged, disavows both conflicting reasons and persona l judgemenr, then ca n che 'signs' or 'marks' of aurhoriry be anything more rhan 'empry' presences of straregic devices? Need they be any rhe less effcctive because of that? Not less effeccivc but effcctive in a different form, wou ld be our answer.

NOTE

'Overall effect of the dream-work: the latent thoughts are transformad lnto a manlfest formation in wh ich they are not easily recognisable. They are not only transposed, as it were, into another key, but they are also distorted in such a fashion that only an effort of interpretation can reconstitute them' llaplanche and Pontalis 1980: 1241. See also Samuel Weber's excellent chapter 'Metapsychology Set Apart' (1982: 32-601

35

5

Problems in Current Theories of Colonial Discourse

BENITA PARRY ':·

TH E WORK OF Spivak and Bhabha will be discussed ro suggest rhe producrive capaciry and limitarions of their different deconstructive pracrices, and ro propose rhat rhe protocols of their dissimi lar methods act ro constrain the developmenr of an anri-imperialist critique. Ir will be argued that the lacunae in Spivak's learned disquisitions issue from a theory assigni ng an absolure power ro rhe hegemonic discourse in consrituting and disarticulating che native. Jn essays rhat are ro form a study on Master Discourse/Native informant, Spivak inspects 'the absence of a text that can "ans,ver one back" after thc planned epistemic violence of the imperialist projecr' (Spivak 1985a: 131), and seeks ro dcvclop a srrategy of reading that will speak ro the hisrorically-muted native subject, predominantly inscribed in Spivak's writings as the non-elite or subalrern woman. A refrain, 'One never encounters the testimony of the women 's voice-consciousness, ' 'There is no space from where che subalrern (sexed) subject can speak,' 'The sub· altern as female cannot be heard or read,' 'The subalrern cannot speak' (Spivak 1985b: 122, 129, 130), iterares a rheorerical dictum derived from srudying the discourse of Sati lwidow sacrificeJ, in which rhe Hindu patriarchal code converged with colonialism's narrarivizarion of Indian culture ro efface all traces of woman's voice.

What Spivak uncovers are insrances of doubly-oppressed narive women who, caught between the dominations of a native parriarchy and a foreign masculisr-imperialisr ideology, inrervene by 'unempharic, ad hoc, subaltern rewriring(s) of rhe social rexr of Sati-suicide' (Spivak 1985b: 129): a nine­teenth century Princess who appropriares- 'rhe dubious place of the free will of rhe sexed subjecr as female' (Spivak 1985a: 144) by signaling her inren­rion of being a Sati against the edict of rhe Brirish administration; a young Bengal girl who in 1926 hanged herself under circumstances d1at dcliberarely defied Hindu interdicts (Spivak 1985b). From che discourse of Sati Spivak

" From ' Problems in Current Theories of Coloni<ll Discourse' Ox(ord Literary Review 9 (1&2), 1987.

36

CURRENT THEOR IES OF COLONIAL DIS COU RSE

d · es large, general srarements on woman's subject constitution/objecr

env b 1 . . d 1 d f arion in which rhe su a rern woman 1s conce1ve as a 1omogeneous an c~~~:renr caregory,. and ~vhic~1 culm_in~re in a de~ laration _on the sl_tccess of

1 planned disawculanon. Even w1th111 the confines of ti11S same d1scourse, .1e:s significant rhat Lata Maní does find evidence, albeit mediared, of

•:oman's voice. As Chandra Talpade Mohanry argues in her critique \ f wesrern feminisr wrirings on 'Third World Women,' discourses of repre­oentation should not be confused wich material realiries. Since che narive ~voman is consrrucred within multiple socia l relationships and posirioned as the produce of different class, caste and cu ltural specificiries, ir should be possible to locate traces and testimony of women's voice on those sites where women inscribed themselves as healers, ascerics, singers of sacred songs, arrizans and artisrs, and by rhis ro modify Spivak's model of che si lent

subalrern. If ir could appear that Spivak is theorizing the si lencc of rhc doubly-

oppressed subalrern woman, her rheorem on imperialism's episremic violence exrends ro posting the narive, maJe and female, as an hisrorically­muted subject. The srory of colonialism which she reconsrrucrs is of an inreractive process where the European agenr in consolidaring the impcri­alisr Sovereign Self, induces the native to collude in its own subject(ed) formation as other and voiceless. Thus while proresring at the obliterarion of the narive's subject position in che text of imperialism, Spivak in her project gives no spea king pare ro the colonized, effecrively wriring out rhe evidence of native agency recorded in India 's 200 year struggle against British conquest and che Raj - discourses ro which she scarhingly refers as hegemonic nativist or reverse erhnocentric narrativization.

The disparaging of nationalisr discourses of resistance is marched by rhe exorbitation of the role allocred ro the post-colonial woman incellectual, for it is she who must plot a story, unravel a narra ti ve and give the subalrern a voice in history, by using 'rhe resources of deconsrrucrion "in the service of reading" to develop a straregy rather than a theory of reading that might be a critique of imperia lism' (Spivak 1986: 230). Spivak's 'alternative narrative of colonialisrn' rhrough a series of brilliant upheava ls of rexrs which expose rhe fabrications and exclusions in rhe wriring of rhe archive, is direcred at challenging the auchority of rhe received hisrorical record and restoring the effaced signs of na ti ve consciousness, and iris on rhese grounds thar her projecr should be esrimated. Her account, iris claimed, disposes of the old srory by dispersing the fixed, un icary categories on which this depended. Thus ir is argued rhac for purposes of adminisrrarion and exploitation of resources, rhe narivc was constructed as a prograrnmed, 'nearly-selved' other of the Europea n and not as its binary opposite. Furthermore, rhe carrography thar became che 'rea licy' of India was drawn by agenrs who were rhemselves of hererogeneous class origin and social s~atus and whose (necessarily) diversified maps distributed che native inro dJfferential posirions which worked in the interese of the foreign authoriry

37

BENITA PARRY

- for example, a fanras rnatic race-di fferentiared hi~torical demography resroring 'righrful' Aryan rulers, and a class discourse effecring rhe proro­proletarianizarion of the 'aborigines .'

lnsread of recouming a srruggle berween a rnonolithic, near-deliberarive colonial power and an undifferentiated oppressed mass, this reconsrrucrion displays a process more insidious rhan naked repression, since here rhe narive is prevailed upon ro inrernalize as self-knowledge, the knowledge concocred by the master: 'He {the European agenr) is worlding thcir own world, which is far from mere uninscribed earrh, anew, by obliging them ro domesticare rhe alíen as Master,' a process gencra ting rhe force 'ro make rhe "narive" see himself as "other"' (Spivak 1985a: 133). Whcrc military conqucsr, institu­tional compulsion and ideologica l inrerpellarion was, episremic violence and devious discursive negoriations requiring of thc native rhat he rewrite his posirion as objecr of imperialism, is; and in place of recalcitrance and refusal enacted in movements of resista nce and aniculated in opposirional discourses, a tale is rold of the self-consoliclating orher and thc disa rticulared subalrcrn.

This raw and selective summary of what are complcx and subde argu­ments has rried to cl raw out rhe polirical implicarions of a rheory whose axioms deny ro the native the ground from which ro uttcr a reply ro impe­rialism's ideological aggression or ro enunciare a different self:

No pcrspective critica/ of imperialism can turn thc Othcr in10 a self, because the project o( imperialism has always already historically refracted what might have been the absolutely Orhcr into a domcsti· cated Other that consolidares the imperialist sclf .... A full literary inscription cannor easily flourish in the imperialist fractu re or discon· tinuiry, col'ered over by an alíen legal sysrem masqucrading as Law as such, an alíen ideology esrablished as only trurh, and a ser of human sciences busy establishing rhe native 'as self-consoliciaring Othcr.'

(Spivak 1985c: 253, 254)

In bringing rhis thesis ro her reading of \Vide Sargasso Sea (Rhys 1968) as j ane Eyre's reinscription, Spivak demonstrares che pitfa lts of a rheory posrulating 1har rhe Master Discourse preemprs rhe (self) consticurion of the historical native subject. When Spivak's norion is juxtaposed ro the quesrion Said asks in Orienralism, 'how ca n one srudy orher cultures and peoples from a libertarían, or a non-repressivc and non-manipularive perspective?', and Jean Rhys' novel examined for irs enunciation (despite much incidental racism) of jusr such a perspectivc which faci li tares the transformarían of rhe Orher inro a Self, then ir is possible ro consrruct a rc-reading of Wide Sargasso Sea irerating many of Spivak's obse rvarions while dispuring her founding precepts.

Spivak argues rhat beca use rhe construction of an English cultural iden­tit)' was inseparable from orhering rhe native as its objecr, rhe articulation of the femalc subject withm the emcrging norm of fcmin isr individualism

38

CU RR ENT THEO RI ES OF CO LON IAL DIS COU RSE

. rhe age of imperialism, necessarily excluded the narive fe male, who dunng d b 1 d · 1 h b' irioned on rhe boun ary erween mman an an1ma as r e o JCCt was pos · · 1 k· 1 1 · l · · · f . rialism's social-miSSIOn or sou -ma 111g. n app y111g r 11s 1nteracnve

0 101pe · f \VI 'd S S S · k · S

ro her read111g o vr . e argasso ea p1va ass1gns ro proces f 1 d h . . An inetre/Berrha, daughrer o s avc-owners an c1rcss ro a posr-emanct-

~0 11

forrune, rhe role of rhe native female sacrificed in the cause of the pa~t·~c r-consrirur ion of rhe European female individualist. Alrhough Spivak ~~e~ acknowledge that \~id~ Sargasso Sea is 'a no.ve.l whic~ . rew~ires a

nonical English rexr Wlthlll the Europea n novellsnc tradltlon 1n rhe ~:rerest of rhe whire Creole rarher than the native' (Spivak 1985c: 253), and : ituares Antoinetre/Bertha as ca ught berween rhe Engl ish imperialist and rhe black Jamaican, her discussion does nor pursue the rexr's represenrarions of a Creole culture rhar is dependcnt on both yet singular, or its enuncia rion of a specific sertler discourse, distinct from the texrs of im peria lism. The dislo­cations of rhe Creole position are repea redly spoken by Anroinerre, the 'Rochester' figure and Chrisrophine; the nexus of inrimacy and hatred berween white settler and black servant is wrinen into the text in the mirror imagery of Antoineue and Tia, a trape which for Spivak funcrions ro in voke rhe orher rhar could not be sclved:

We had eatcn the samc food, slept side by side, barhed in thc samc river. As 1 ran, 1 rhought, 1 will live with Tia and 1 will be li ke hcr .... When 1 was closc 1 saw che jagged srone in her hand bur 1 did not sec her throw ir .... 1 lookcd at her and l saw her face crumble as she began ro cry. We srared at cach other blood on my face, tears on hcrs. Ir was as if 1 saw myself. Likc in a looking-glass.

Rhys 1968: 24)

But while themselves not English, and indeed outcastes, the Creoles are Masrers ro rhe blacks, and jusr as Brome's book invites the reader via Rochester ro see Bertha Mason as situared on the human/animal fronrier ('One night 1 had been awakened by her yells .... Ir was a fie rce Wesr lndian night ... rhosc a re the sounds of a bottomless pit,' quored in Spivak 1985c: 247-8), so does Rh ys' novel via Anroinette admit her audience to the regulation sertler view of rebetlious blacks: 'the same face repeated over and over, eyes gleaming, mouth half-open,' emitting 'a horrible noise ... like anima ls howling but worse.' (Rhys 1968: 32, 35)

The idiosyncrasies of an accounr where Antoinette plays thc part of 'the woman from rhe colonies' are consequences of Spivak's decree that imperia lism's linguisric aggression obliterares rhe inscription of a narive self: thus a black femalc who in \\'lide Sargasso Sen is mosr fully selved, must be reduced ro rhc status of a tangencia l figure, and a white Creole woman (mis)consrrued as rhe native female produced by the axiomarics of imperialism, her dcarh intcrpretcd as 'an allegory of the general epistemic violence of imperialism, the construction of a self-i mmolaring subjecr for the glorification of rhe social mission of rhe colonizer' (Spivak 1985c: 25 1 ).

39

BENITA PARRY

While allowing chat Christophine is boch speaking subject and interpreter co whom Rhys designares some crucial func tions, Spivak sees her as marking che limics of the cext's discourse, and not, as is here argued, disrupcing it.

What Spivak's srracegy of reading necessa rily blots out is Ch riscophine's inscription as che native, fe male, individual Self who defies the demands of the discriminacory discourses impinging on her person. Although an ex-slave given as a wedding-presenc ro Antoinette's mother and subsequently a caring servant, Christophine subvens the Creole address thac would conscitute her as a domestica ted Other, and assens herself as articulare antagonist of pacriarchal, sen ler and imperialisc law. Natural mother to children and surrogate parent to Ancoinette, Christophi ne scorns patriarchal auchority in her personallife by discarding her patronymic and refusing her sons' fathers as husbands; as Antoinette's protector she impugns 'Rochescer' for lcis economic and sexual exploitation of her fortune and person and as fema le individualisc she is eloquencly and frequently concemptuous of male conduce, black and whice . . . .

Christophine's defiance is noc enacted in a small and circumscribed space appropriated within che lines of dominant code, buc is a sca nce from which she delivers a frontal assault againsc ancagonists, and as such constitutes a counter-discourse. \Xfise ro che limics of post-emancipation justicc, she is quick to invoke che procection of its law when 'Rochescer' threatens her with retribution: 'This is free councry and I am free woman' (Rhys 1968: 131) - which is exactl y how she funcrions in the text, her retort to him condensing her role as che black, female individualist: 'Read and wrice 1 don't know. Other thi11gs l k11ou/ (Rhys 1968: 133; emphasis added) ....

Spivak's delibera red deafness ro the native voice where it is to be hea rd, is at variance with her acure hearing of the unsaid in modes of Western femi nist criticism which, while dismantli ng masculist conscwcrions, repro­duce and foreclose colonialist scrucrures and imperia lisr axioms by 'performing the lie of constituting a truth of global sisterhood wherc the mesmerizing model rema ins maJe and female spa rring partners of generaliz­able or universal izable sexualiry who are rhe chief protagonists in thar European concesr' (Spivak 1986: 226). Demanding of disciplinary standards that 'equal righcs of hisrorica l, geographical, linguistic specificity' be granted ro the 'thoroughly strarified larger thearre of the Third World' (238}, Spivak in her own writings severely resrriccs (eliminares?) rhe space in which the colonized can be writren back into history, even when 'interventionist possibilicies' are exploited through the deconstructive stra tegies devised by rhe post-colonia l intellecrual.

Homi Bhabha on the other hand, through recovering how rhe master discourse was interrogated by che nacives in their own accents, produces an autonomous position for the colonial within the confines of the hegemonic discourse, and because of this enunciares a very different 'politics.' The

40

CURRENT THEO RI ES OF COLO~ IAL DISCOURSE

ined effort of wrirings which initially concencrated on deconsrituting s~statructure of colonial discourse, and which latterly have engaged wirh t he ~ isplacement of rhis rexr by rhe inappropriate utterances of the colo­r. eed has been ro con test the notion Bhabha considers ro be implicir in JUZ ' 1 d. . 1 . ] b 1 S id's Orientalism, that 'power anc 1scou rse 1s possessec ent1re )' y e 1e aloniser.' Bhabha reiterares che proposition of anri-colonialist writing that

c~e objective of colonial discourse is co conscrue the colonizcd as a racially ~egenerate populat.ion in order . to justify conquest and ru le. However because he maimams that relanons of power and knowledge funcnon arnbivalently, he argues rhat a discursive sysrem splir in enunciation, constitutes a dispersed and variously positioned native who by (mis)appro­priating the rerrns of the dominant ideology, is a ble ro intercede against and resist this mode of consrruct1on.

In dissenting from analysis ascribi ng an intentionality and unidirec­tionality ro colonial power which, in Said's words, enabled Europe co advance unmeraphorically upon the Orienc, Bhabha insisrs thar this not only ignores represenration as a concept articulating borh rhe hisrorica l and rhe fantasmatic, but unifies rhe su bject of colonial enunciation in a fixed position as che passive object of discursive dominarion. By reveal ing the multiple and contradictor)' articularions in colon ia lism's address, Bhabha as contemporary critic seeks ro demonstrate the limits of its discursive power and ro countennand its demand 'rhat irs discourse (be) non-dialogic, its enunciation unitary' (Bhabha 1985a: 100); and by showing rhe wicle range of stereotypes and che shifring subject positions assigned ro the colonized in the colonialisr text, he sers out ro liberare the colonial from its debased inscription as Europe's monolithic and shackled Other, ancl into an auconomous native 'difference.' However, this rea ppropriation although effected by rhe cleconstructions of che post-colonial inrellectual , is made possible by uncovering how rhe masrer-d iscourse had al ready been interroga red by the colon ized in native accencs. For Bha bha, the sub­altern has spoken, and his readings of rhe colonialisr rext rccover a nacive voice ... .

\XIhere Spivak in inspecting rhe absence of a cexc rhat ca n answer back after the planned epistemic violence of the imperia list projecr, finds pockets of non-co-operation in che dubious place of the free will of the (female) sexed subject' {Spivak l 985a: 144 ), Bhabha produces for scrutiny a discursive situation making for recurrent instances of transgression performed by the nacive from wirhin and agai nst colonial discourse. Here the autocolonization of che nacive who meets the requirements of colonialist address, is co-extensive with rhe evasions and 'sly civility' through which rhe native refuses to satisfy rhe demancl of the colonizer's narrative. This concepr of mimicry has since been furrher developed in rhe postulare of 'hybridity' as the problema tic of colonial discourse.

. Bhabha contends that when re-articulatcd by the native, the colonialist desl re for a reformed, recognizable, nearly-simi lar orher, is enacted as

41

BEN ITA PARRY

parody, a dramarization ro be disringuished from rhc 'cxercise of dependenr colonial relarions through narcissisric idenrificarion.' For in rhe 'hybrid momenr' whar rhe native rcwrites is not a copy of rhc colonialist original, but a qualirarively different ching-in-irself, where misreadings and incon­gruities expose che uncerrainries and ambiva lences of rhe colonialisr rexr and deny ir an aurhorizing presence. Thus a textual insurrecrion againsr rhe discourse of colonial auchority is located in che narives' inrerroga rion of che English book wirhin the rerms of rhei r own sysrem of cultural mcanings, a displacement which is read back from rhe record wricren by colonialism's agenrs and ambassadors:

Through rhc narives' strange quesrions it is possiblc ro see, wirh hisrorical hindsighr, whar rhey resisred in quesrioning the presence of the English - as religious mediation and as cultural and linguisric medium .... To rhe cxrcnr ro which discourse is a form of defensive warfare, rhen mimicry marks rhose momenrs of civil disobedience wirhin rhe discipline of civiliry: signs of spcctacular rcsistance. When rhc words of rhe master become rhc site of hybridity - rhe warlike sign of rhe native - then we may not only read bcrween rhe lines, but evcn seck ro chnnge the oftcn cocrcive rea lity that rhey so lucidly conrain.

(Bhabha 1985a: 10 1, 104)

Dcspice a flagranrly ambivalcnr presenrarion which leaves it vulnerable ro innocenr misconsrruction, Bhabha's theorizing succeeds in making visible rhose moments when colonial discourse already disturbed ac its source by a dou blcness of enunciation, is furrher subverred by the object of irs address; when che scenario written by colonialism is given a perfor­mance by rhe native that esrranges and undermincs the colonialisr scripr. The argumenr is nor rhar rhe colonized possesses colonial power, bur thac its fraccu ring of rhe colon ialist text by re-articularing ir in broken Engl ish, perverrs rhe mca ning and message of the English book ('insignia of colonial auth ority and signifier of colonial desire and discipline,' 1985a: 89), and rherefore makes an absolute exercise of powcr irnpossible.

A narra ti ve which dclivers rhc colonized from its discursive status as the illegitimate and refracrory foil ro Europe, inro a position of 'hybridicy' from which it is able ro circumvent, challenge and refuse colonial authority, has no place for a rora lizing norion of episcemic violence. Nor does che conflictual economy of rhc colonialist texr allow for rhe unimpcded opcracion of discursive aggression: 'Whar is arciculared in thc doublcness of colonial discourse is nor rhe violence of one powerfu l nation writing out anorher [bur] a mode of conrradictory uttcrance thar ambivalentl y re-inscri bes borh coloniser and coloniscd.' The effecr of chis rhesis is ro displace rhe traditional anri-colonialist represenrarion of anragonisric forces locked in srruggle, wirh a configuration of discmsivc transacrions: 'The place of di ffcrcnce and ocherness, or the space of the adversaria!, wirhin such a systern of "d isposal" as J've proposed, is nevcr entirely on rhc oursidc or implacably opposirional.' (95)

42

CURRENT THEORI ES OF CO LONIA L D!SCOU RSE

ho have been or are still engaged in colonial struggles againsr Those w ¡ ¡ · · f forms of imperialism could well read t 1e t 1eonz1ng o

ontemporary . h' e 1 ,5rs with considerable disbelief at rhe construcnon t ts puts discourse ana > · · 1 · h 1 . · n rhey are fighring agamM and rhe comest 111 w 11c t 1ey are

n rhe struauo 1 b 0 a ed. This is not a charge a~ainsr rhe .difficu lry of r.he. a na yses ut an eng g . rhar rhesc alcernattve narrattves of colontaltsm obscurc the observauon · ' F 1961

d and decisive struggle berween rwo procagontsts ( anon : 'mur erous . . . 1 l'b

d d·scount or wnre out rhe counrer-dtscou rses whtc 1 every 1 era-30) an 1 f . 1 . . 1 . . ' e 1r records. The significanr di ferences m t 1e cnttca practtces uon movem 1 d b

f S · k and Bhabha are submerged in a shared programme marke y o ptva . . . b 1 bl' h b·ration of discourse and a related mcunoSJty a our t 1e ena tng t e exor 1 . . . . . .

· 10111 ic and polinca l tnstttllttons and orher forms of soctal prax1s. SOCIOeCOI . . . F h more because rheir thescs admit of no pomr outstdc of cltscourse

urc er • . · · d from which opposirion can be engendered, rhetr prOJCCt 1s concerne . ro

1 ·111cendiary devices with in rhe dominanr srrucrures of represenranon p ace . el S . . k . . 1 d ot ro confront these wtth anorher knowle ge. For ptva , tmpena -~;m'snepistemic bellicosity decimated rhe old culture and lc.fc rhe colonized

·chour che ground frorn which rhey could urrer confronta nona! words; for ;l~abha, rhc srraragems and subterfuges ro which the narive resorted , des~a­bilized the effectivity of the English book bur did nor writc an alrcrna uve text _ with whose constitution Bhabha decl ines ro engagc, mainrai ning rhar an anti-colonialist discourse ' requires an alrernative set of quesrions, rech­niques and srraregies in a rder 10 cons.rruct ir' (~habha 1 9.8~a : 198).

Wichin another cri tica! mode whtch also reJCCts roraltz111g absrraccs of power as fa lsifying siruations of domination and subordinacion, rh.e notion of hegemony is inseparable from chat of a countcr-hegemony. In thts theory of power and contest, the process of procuring the consenr of the oppressed and the marginalized 10 rhe exisring srructme of relationships through ideological inducements, neccssa rily generares dissenr and rcsistance, since the subject is conceived as being constirured by mcans of incommensu rable solicitations and hecerogeneous social pracriccs. The ourcome of this agonistic exchange, in which those acldrcssed challenge rheir interlocutors, is that rhe hegemonic discoursc is ultimarely abandoned as scorched earch when a differenr discourse, forged in the proccss of disobedience and combar, occupying new, never-colonized and 'utopian' rerritory, and prefiguring orher rclationships, valucs and aspirati ons, is enunciared. At a time when dialectical rhink ing is nor the rage amongst colonial discourse theorisrs, ir is instrucrive ro recall how Fanon 's dia logical inrerrogation of European power and native insurrection reconsrrucrs a process of cultural resistance and cultural disruption, participares in writing a texc thar can answcr colonialism back, and <t ntici pates <t norher condition bcyond imperialism:

Facc to face wirh rhe white man, rhe ~cgro has a pasr ro legitimare, a vengeance ro extraer. ... In no way should 1 dedícate mysclf ro thc

43

BENITA PARRY

reviva! of an unjusdy unrecognizcd t\cgro 'ivi lization. 1 wi ll nm make mrsclf a man of rhe past. ... 1 am nora prisoner of history; ir is only b): going beyond rhe historical. instrumental hypothesis rhar 1 will iniciare the cp:le oi mr frccdom.

(F.mon 1952: 225-6, 229, 231)

The enabling condirions for Fanon's analysis are that an oppositional discourse born in polirica l struggle, and at rhe ourser invoki ng rhe pasr in proresr againsr capirularing ro rhe colonizer's denigrations, supersedes a commirmenr ro archaic native rradirions ar the same rime as ir rejects colonia lism's system of knowledge:

The colonialisr bourgeoisie had in facr deeply implanrcd in rhe minds of rhc colonised intellectual thar rhe cssential qualitics remain eterna! in spitc of all the blunders mcn may make: the csscntial qualiries of che Wcst, of course. The narivc inrellecrual acceprcd thc cogcncy of thcsc ideas and deep clown in his brain you could alwoys find a vigilant senrinel read)' ro defend rhe Greco-Latin pedestal. Now it so happcns that during the srrugglc for liberarion, tH thc momcnt rhat rhe narive inrellectual comes inro rouch ag<J in with hi~ pcoplc, thi !> artificia l senrinel is turned into dust. All the Mcditerranc<Jn va lues, - the triumph of the human individual of clarity and of bcauty - become lifeless, colourlcss knick-knacks. t\ ll rhose spccches sccm like collec­tions oi dead words; rhose values whJCh seemed t0 tlplift thc soul :1rc rc\'(:aled as worrhless, simply bccause rhey h:1ve nothing ro do wirh rhc concrete conflicr in which thc people is cng<1ged.

(F:1non 196 1: 37-8)

While conceding rhe necessity of defending rhe past in a movc away from unqualified assimilarion of the occupying powcr's culture, Fanon recogn izes the limirations on the writer and imellecrual who urilize 'rech­niques and language which are borrowed from thc trangcr in his country.' Such rransitional writing reinrerpreting old lcgcnds 'in rhc light of a borrowed aesrhericism and of a conception of the world which was discovered under orher skies,' is for Fanon bur a prcludc lO a literaturc of combar which \vil! disrupt lirera ry stylcs and rhcmes . . . creare a complerely ncw public' and mould the narional consciousness, 'giving it form and conrours and flinging opcn befare it new and boundless horizons.' Fanon's rheory projecrs a dcvclopmcnr insep<1rable from a w mmunity's engagement in combari vc social action, during which a narive contesr inirially enunciared in the invadcrs' language, culminares in a rejec· rion of imperialism's signifying sysrcm. This is a move which colonial discourse rheory has not raken on board, and for such a process to be inves· rigared, a carrography of impcrialist ideology more cxtensive rhan its address in the colonialist space, as well as a conceprion of rhc narive as historical subjecr and agenr of an oppositional discourse is needed.

44

6

The Scramble for Post-colonialism

STEPHEN SLEMON ::-

'POST-COLONIALISM', AS JT is now used in its various fields, de-scri bes a remarkably heterogencous ser of subject positions, professional fi clds, and critica! enterprises. Ir has been used as a way of ordering a critique of rotal­ising forms of Westcrn hisroricism; as a porrmanteau term for a reroolecl notion of 'class', as a subser of borh postmodernism and posr-srructu ra lism (and conversely, as thc condition from which those rwo srructures of cultural logic and cultural critique rhemselves are seen to emerge); as rhe name for a condition of nativist longing in posr-independence nacional groupings; as a cultural marker of non-residcncy for a rhird-world inrellectual cadre; as rhe inevitable underside of a fracrured and ambivalem discourse of colonialisr power; asan opposirional form of 'reading pracrice'; and - and this was m y first encounter with rhe rerm - as the na me for a category of 'lirerary' activity which sprang from a new and welcome polirical energy going on wirhi n what used ro be called 'Commonwealth' literary srudies. The obvious rendency, in the face of rh is hererogcnei ry, is ro understand 'posr-colonialism' mosrly as an objecr of desi re for cri tica( pracrice: as a shimmcring ra lisman thar in irself has the power ro confer pol itica l legi timacy onto specific forms of insti ru­tionalised labour, especially on ones rhar are troubled by rheir mediared position within the apparatus of institutional power. 1 rhink , howcvcr, rhar this heterogcneity in rhe concepr of the 'post-colonial' - and here l mea n within the university institution - comes about for much more pragmatic reasons, and these ha ve ro do with a very real problem in securing the conccpt of 'colonialism' itself, ns Wcsrern rheories of subjectification ancl its resis­tances continue to dcvelop in sophisricarion and complexity.

The nature of colonialism as an economic and politica l srructure of cross-cultural clomination has of course occasioned a ser of deba tes bur it . ' •s not rca ll y on this leve! rha r rhe 'question' of European colonialism has troubled the va rious post-colonial fields of study. The problem, rather, is

• From 'The Scramblc for Posr-colonialism' in Chris Tí ffin :1nd Alan Lawson {eds) De-Scribing Empire: Post-colonialism and Textuality London: Roudedgc, 1994.

45

STEPHEN SLEMON

wirh the concept of colonialism as an ideological or discursive formar · f • • IOn·

t 1at •.s, \~tth the. ways i~ .which colonialism is vicwed as an appararus fo; constttuttng sub)ecr posltlons through the ficld of represenrarion Jn a

d f . . . way - an o course thts ts an extreme oversimplification - rhe debate ove description of colonial is~'s multip!e srraregics for regulating Euro:e~ others can be expressed dtagrammaucall y (see Figure 1)

The gene~al ~mders~and~ng ~h~t colonial ~sm wo.rks on a left-to-right order of dommatton, Wtth lme A represennng vanous rheories of h

1 . ¡· ow ~o on:a t~m op~res.ses rhroug.h dir.ect ~olitical and cconomic control, and l m~s B~ and _DE re~resentmg dJffenng concepts of rhe ideological regu. latton ot colon~a l subJects, of_ subordi~1ation through rhe manufacture of consem. Theones that recogntse an rfficacy ro colonia lism rhat proc d 1 ¡· 'A' . ee s

a ong_ 1~1e are 111 essence 'brure force' or 'direct political' theories of colontahst oppression: .rhat is, they rejecr the basic thesis rhar power ma 11~?e~ soctal contradtction partly through rhe srrategic producrion of spectfic tdeas of the 'self' - which subordinated groups then internalise b · ' 1' TI · as etng re~ . . 1eon es, h.owever, thar examine the trajcctory of colonialist ~ower pnmanly along lme 'BC' - a line rcprescnring an ideological flank­m_g f~r the economic colonialism running along linc 'A'- focus on rhe con­stttuttve power of srate appararuses li ke educarion, and rhe constitutive

[nsriturion<~l regul.nors (colonialisr educat ional apparatuscs)

/ B

e

~ A • i ri

Colon iser .................................. 1 ................. ................. Colonised

D

~

The semiotic fle ld ('rcxtuality')

/ E

Figure 1 Diagram representing rhe debate over the narure of colonialism

46

THE SCRAMBLE FOR POST-COLONIALISM

f fessional fields of knowledge wirhin those apparatuses, in rhe power ~ proof colonialist relations. Along this line, Edward Said (1978) Producuon f . ¡· , . h' 1 . ¡· T 1 1 . he political efficacy o 'onenta tsm wtt 111 co onta tsm; 1a a examtnes t · 1 f h 1 · d (l973) and many orhers examme the ro e o ant ropo ogy m repro-Asa. 1onial relarions; Alan Bishop (1990) examines the deployment of ducmg co concepts of 'marhemarics' against African school-children, Wesrern · h h f · 1 fi Id f ' ¡· · 1

h Mitchell (1988) exammes ow t e pro ess10na e o po tttca limot y h E 1 . ¡· . h . , carne into being throug a uropean co onta tSt engagement wtt sctence · · th ( 989) · 1 f d · h Ir res of Egypt; Gaun Vtswana an 1 exammes t 1e ou n . attons recuu .

1. f

1 .

1. .

f 'English' Jirerary srudies w1t 1111 a strucrure o co o111a tSt managemenr tn 0

1 d' This work keeps coming in, and the lisr of radically compromised 11 ta. · h W JI b f '1 · · ' · fessiona l fields withtn t e estern sy a us o mmanmes opttons

pro · h f · ·¡ 1' ' O E' · h · d · ws daily Jonger. Theones t at ocus pnman y on me 111 t ts ta· gro · h. 1 ·¿ 1 d 1 · ¡· 1 · ram examine the ways 111 w tc 1 1 eo ogy repro uces co onta tSt re attons ~hrough rhe strategic deploymenr of a vast semiotic fi eld of representarions _ ¡11 li terary works, in adverrising, in scu1pture, in travelogues, in explo­ration documents, in maps, in pornography, and so on.

This pattern, as !'ve laid it out so far, does not seem especia lly controversia! or problematic, bur rhe difficu1ties arise at the moment of conceptualising the relation between colonialist professional fi elds and institutions (at the rop of rhe diagram) and rhe who1e field of representation (at the bottom of rhe diagram)- the field of ' rexrua1ity' and irs investmenr in reproducing and naturalising rhe srructures of power. To take up one example of this paradigmatically: in Edward Said's work on Orientalism, colonialisr power is seen ro operare through a complex relationship between appararuses placed on line 'F', where in the first instance a schol­arly educational appararus called 'Oriemalism' - at the top of the line -appropriates textual representations of 'rhe Orient' in order ro consolidare itself as a discipline and ro reproduce ' che Orient' as a deployable unir of know1edge. So, in rhe first instance, co1onialist power in Said's argument runs not just through rhe middle ground of rhis chart but rhrough a com­plex ser of relations happening along line 'F'; and since Said's rhesis is rhat a function at the rop of this line is employing those represenrations creared at the bottom of the li ne in order to make up 'knowledges' that have an ideo1ogica l fu nction, you can say that the vector of motion along line F is an upward one, and that th is upwa rd motion is part of the whole com plex, discursive strucrure whereby 'Orientalism' manufactures the 'Orient' and thus helps to regulare colonialisr relations. That is Said's first position - that under Orienralism the vector of line 'F' is upward. But in Said's analysis, colonialist power also runs through li ne F in a downward movement, where the scholarly apparatus of Orientalism is understood ro be at work in the producrion of a purely fantasric and entirely projected idea of the 'Orienr'. The point is rhat in rhe process of understanding rhe multivalenr nature of colonialist discourse in rerms of the historical specific of 'Orientalism', Said's model becomes srructurally ambivalent - under

47

STEPH EN SLEMON

'Orientalism', the 'Orient' turns out to be something produced borh asan object of scholarly knowledge and as a location for psychic projecrion _ and !'ve tried ro graph this ambivalence as a double movement or vector along line 'F'. For Said, rhe mechanism thar produces rhis 'Orienr', then , has ro be undersrood as something capable of deploying an ambivalent structure of relations along line 'F', and deploying thar srrucrure towards a unilied end. And so Said (and here I'm followi ng Robert Young's (1990) analysis of rhe problem) ends up referring the whole strucrure of colonial­ist discourse back ro a single and monolirhic originating inrenrion within colonialism, rhe intention of colonialist power ro possess the rerrain of its Orhers. Thar assumprion of intenrion is basicall y where Said's theory has proven to be most controversia!.

Said's rext is an important one here, for as Robert Young has shown, Said's work stands at rhe headwarers of colonial discourse theory, and this ambivalence in Said 's model may in fact initiate a (owrdational ambiva­lence in the critica! work which comes out of this lield. This ambivalence sets the rerms for what are now the two centra l debates within colonial discourse rheory: the debate over hisrorical specificity, and the debate over agency.

The li rsr debate- the debate over the problem of historical specificity in the model - concerns the inconclusive relation berween actual historical moments in rhe colonialist enrerprise and rhe larger, possibly trans­historical discursive formation that colonial discourse rheory posits in its artempt to understand the mulrivalent straregies ar work in colonialist power. Can you look at 'colonial discourse' only by examining what are rakcn ro be paradigmatic moments within colon ialisr history?

lf so, can you extrapolare a modality of 'colonialism' from one hisrorical momenr ro rhe nexr? Does discursive colonialism always look srructurally rhe same, or do rhe specifics of irs textual or semiotic or representational manoeuvres shift registers ar different historical times and in different kinds of colonia l encounters? And what wou ld ir mean ro think of colonial discourse as a ser of exchanges rhar funcrion in similar ways for all sorrs of colonialisr strategies in a vastly differenr ser of cultural locations? These questions of hisrorical spccilicity, though always a problem for social theory, are especiall y diflicult ones for colonialist discourse rhcory, and rhe reason for this is thar this rheory quite appro· priately refuses ro articulare a simplistic strucrure of social causal ity in rhe relation between colonialist instirutions and rhe field of represenrarions. In orher words, colonial discourse rheory recognises a radical ambivalence at work in colonialist power, and that is rhe ambivalence 1 have attempted to show in Fig. 1 as a double moment in vector at the leve! of line 'F'.

To clarify rhis 1 wanr ro rnake use of Gauri Yiswanarhan's important work on Britain's ideological control of colonised people through the deploymenr of colonialist educational srrategies in ninereenrh-cenrury India. Obviously, the question of what happens along line 'F' can only be

48

T H E. SCRA MBL E. FOR POST-COLONIA LISM

dd ssed by specific reference to imrnediate hisrorical conditions, and a re piece of archaeologica l work on colonialisr power will want ro for-every f · 1 · h · 1 · · · 1 1 1 late rhe vector o acnon 1ere Wlt parr1cu ar sensmv•ty ro t 1e oca con-;.t~ ns under analysis. Viswanarhan researches this part of the puzzle with e~~~plary attention. ro his~OC)', and at hear~ her argu~1cm is. that colonial­. ducarion in India (wh1ch would stand m as rhe Ideolog•cal apparatus ISt t~e rop of rhe diagram) srraregically and imemionally deployed rhe vasr ~:Id of ca nonical English 'l irerarure' (rhe lield of represenrarions ar rhe botrom of rhe diagram) in order ro consrruct a cadre of 'native' mediators between rhe Brirish Raj and rhe actual producers of wea lth. The poi nt hcre is that Viswanathan's analysis employs a purely upward vector of rnorion ro characrerisc rhe specilics of how power is ar work along line 'P in rhe diagram, and what secu res rhis vector is Yiswanarhan's scrupu lous arten­tion ro the immediate cond irions rhat apply within British and lnd ian colonial relarions.

The problem, though - and here I mean the problem for colonial discourse theory- is rhat rhe foundarional ambivalencc or clouble movcment rhat Said's work inserrs into rhe model of colonia list discourse ana lysis always seems to rerurn ro rhe field; and it does so through critica! work rhat on its own terms suggesrs a counrer-flow along li ne 'F' at the sarnc moment of colonialist history. Thar is, the residual ambivalence in the vector of line 'F' wirhin colonial discourse theory seems ro invite rhe fusion of Yiswanathan's kind of analysis wirh critica! readings rhat would articulare a downward movement ar rhis place in rhe diagrarn; and one of rhe areas such work is now enrering is rhe analysis of how English li terary acriviry of the period (at rhe bottom of line 'F') suddenly turned ro the representation of educational processes (at the rop of rhe line), and why this lircrarure should so immediately concern irself wirh rhe invesrmenrs of educacional represen­tations in the colonialist scene. In examining rhe place of English lirerary activity within rhis momenr of colon ialisr hisrory, that is, a critic such as Patrick Brantlingcr would want ro argue for the va lency of texts such as jan e Eyre or Tom Broum's Schoo/ Days within colonialist discursive powcr, and colonialist discourse rheory would wanr ro undersrand how both kinds of ?iscursive regulation, both vecrors of movernent along line 'F', are at work 111 a specific hisrorical momenr of colonialisr relations. Beca use of Sa id 's amb~va lencc in charring our the complex of Orientalism a long line 'f', 1 arn argumg, the fielcl of colonial ist cliscourse rheory carries rhar scnse of ambiva­~ence ~orward, and looks ro an cxtraordinary valency of movement wirhin Its articulation of colonialisr power. The ambiva lence makes our under­~tand ing of colon ial operarions a great deal clearer for historical periods bur It ~ lso upsets the posirivism of highly specific analyses of colonialisr power gomg on within a period. , , The basic projecr of colonial discourse rheoq· is to push out from line A • and try ro define colonialism both as a ser of polirical relations

and as a signifying sysrem, one with ambivalenr srrucrural relarions. 1t is

49

STEPHEN SLE MON

remarkably clarifying in its articulation of the producrive relarions between seemingly disparate momenrs in colon ialist power (the strucrure of literary educa tion in India, rhe li terary practice of represcnring educarional control in Brirain ), but because it recognises an ambivalence in colonial isr power, colonial discourse rheory results in a concepr of colonialism rhat cannot be hisroricised modally, and that ends up being tiltcd rowards a description of all kinds of social oppression and discursive control. For some critics, this ambivalence bankrupts the field. But for orhers, rhe concepr of 'colonialism' - like the concept of 'patriarch>' ' for feminism, which shares this strucrure of transh istoricality and lack of specificity - remains an indis­pensable conceptual category of critica! analysis, and an indispensable too! in securing our understanding of ideologica l domination under colonialism ro the leve! of political economy.

The first big debate going on within colonialist discourse theory, then, is a debate over what happens when a modcl of 'colonia l discourse' is carried beyond its scattered moments of archaeologicnl research and is taken up as a general strucrure of oppression. r wanr now to turn to the second big debate going on between rheorisrs of colonialisr discourse; and rhat is rhe debate over the question of agency under colonialist power. Basica lly, the question of agency can be resra tcd as a question of who or what acrs oppositionally, when ideology or discoursc or psychic processes of some kind construct human subjecrs, and rhe quesrion of specifying agency is becoming an extreme! y complex one in all forms of critica! rheory at presenr. Again, however, rhis debate has especial urgency wirh in colon ial discourse rheory, and, again, thar is because this theory recognises founda­tionally that rhe vector of line 'F' in Fig. l remains ambivalenr at eveqr momenr of colonialist discursive control. ...

I wanr ro stress rhe presupposirional locarion of this post-colonial scramble - 1 wanr ro articulare its foundarions wirhin the problemaric of colonial d iscourse rheory and wirhin an unresolved debate within the Western humanities institution - because 1 suspect rluH at times workers in various orders of post-colonial analysis are made ro fee l a disempowering energy at work in their field - a disempowenncnr which srems from thei r sense rhat these debates oughr ro be resolved wirhin post-colonia l scudies itself. And 1 also raise the quesrion of an effccr ro thcsc debates, not beca use 1 wanr ro suggest they are anything other tha n cruci¡:¡ J oncs for rhe fie ld, but because 1 rhi nk rhe terrain of post-colon ial studies remains in danger of becoming colonised by compering academic merhodologies, and being reparcelled into insritutional pursuirs th<l t have no abiding inrerest in the specifics of either colonialisr hisrory or post-coloni al agency. One of the mosr exci ting resea rch projecrs now going on in colonia l discourse analysis, for example, is Homi Bhabh¡:¡'s theorising of colonia list ambivalence, and his attempr ro carry rhar ana lysis forward ro a wholesa le cri tique of Western modernit}'· Ir is possibly insrrucrive, rherefore, rhat in rhe process of expressing admiration for his work, rhe posr-structuralist criric Roberr

50

TH E SCRAMBLE. FOR POST-COLONIALISM

Young inserts Bhabha 's projecr in ro a narra ti ve of unpackaging whose rerms of reference are enrirely European in origin: rhe radical resrruccuring of European hisroriography, and rhe allocarion of alterity ro the rhea rre of rhe European posrmodern.

Along parallel lines, ir is also insrrucrive rhar Henry Louis Cates Jr. notes in Spivak's deconsrrucrive brilliance a remarkable conflarion berween colonial discourse and Derrida's concepr of writing itself- an argument, rhar is, rhat rhere is 'nothing outside of (rhe discourse of) colonialism', and rhat all discourse musr be norhing orher than colonial discourse irself. Cates warns of a hidden consequence in rhis elevation in ascendency of the colonial paradigm by quesrioning whar happens when we elide, for example, 'rhe disrance between political repression and individual neurosis: rhe positional disrance berween Sreve Biko and, say, Woody Allen?' (Cates 1991: 466) His argumenr is thar academic inrerest in th is history and rhe discourse of colonialism bicis fair to become rhe lasr basrion for rhe project of globa l theory and for European universalism itsel f, and he asks us whether we really nccd to choose berween opposirional critics whose arriculations of thc post-colonial institutionalise rhemselves as agonisric struggles over a rhoroughly disciplined rerrain.

1 would like ro echo Gares' sentiments in rhe face of rhis balka nisarion¡ and in the absence of any real solurions ro rhis crisis in the fie ld I'd like ro offer a two-parr credo rowards post-colonial work as it rakes place wirhin rhe Wesrern ac¡:¡demic insrirurion. First, 1 rhink, post-colonial srudies, if norhing else, needs ro becomc more rolerant of merhodological difference, ar leasr when rhar difference is articulared rowards emanciparory anri­colonialisr ends. 1 am reminded thar the gre<'lt war wirhin rhe Wesrern 'humaniries' is carried on rhc back of critica! merhodology and its competing orders, ¡:¡nd thar in many ways rhe subjecr-making funcrion of rhe humaniries is effecred precisely in rhat debate. I have seen no evidence thar rhe humanirics c¡:¡ rry any special brief for rhe global projecr of decolonisarion, and so 1 would desperately want ro preserve rhis funcri on of decolonising commitmenr for post-colonial studies, despite irs neccssary invesrmenr in and ironic reJ¡:¡rion ro rhe humanities complex. I am suspi­cious of thc kind of argument thar would insisr on the necessary conflation of rhe diagram 1 pur forwa rd in this paper wirh a colonia list allegorical function, bur 1 can sce how rhe argumenr could be rnade. The rools for conceput:'l l disempowermcnr in rhe struggle over rnerhod are going ro remain available wirhin post-colonial srudies, but r remain suspicious of ahi~torica l and 1 rhink intolerant calls for homogeneiry in a field of study wh1ch embraces radica lly differenr forms ¡:¡nd functions of colonialist oppression and radica lly differenr notions of <'lnti-colonialist agency. . ~olerance is never simply passive, and, ironically, the arca of instiru-

ttonallsed post-colonial srudies is fi nding irself increasingly invesred in an academic srar sysrem of asronishing proportions, and rhrough rhar srar sysrem ir is learning ro seek irs insrrucrion in opposirional racrics along lines

5 1

STEPH EN SLEMON

that run increasingly and monolirhically backward towards the centres of Western power. 1 cannot help noticing, for examplc, that in what Hortense Spillers calls the politics of mention, ou r thcoretical masters in Paris or Oxford or New Haven are read and referenced by exemplary theorists of the local- the critic J. Michael Dash at the Mona campus in Jamaica is an example - but those metropolitan theorists seldom reference these cultural and theor~tical mediators in return. Post-colonial srudics should have an investmem in open talk across cu ltural locations, however, and across methodological dynasties; and 1 think we do damage ro the idea of posr­coloniality at an immediate political leve! when that invesrmem in cross­talk runs only one way.

As for the second part of this credo, 1 believe that post-colonial studies nceds always to remern ber that its referent in rhe rea l world is a form of political, economic, and discursivc oppression whose name, first and last, is colonialism. The forms of colon ialist power differ radica ll y across cultura l locations, and its intersections with other orders of oppression are always complex and multiva lent. But, wherever a globalised theory of rhe colonial might lead us, we need to remember rhat resistances ro colonialist power always find material presence at the leve! of the loca l, and so che research and training we carry out in rhe field of posr-colon ialism, what­ever else it does, must always find ways ro address the loca l, if only on the order of material applications. If wc overlook the local, and rhe political applications of the research we produce, we risk turning thc work of our field imo the playful operations of an academic glass-bcad game, whose project will remain ar best a descriprion of global rclations, and nota script for their change. There is never a necessary polirics to the study of politi­cal actions and reactions; bur at the leve! of rhc local, and at rhe leve! of material applications, posr-colonialism musr address the material exigen­cíes of colonialism and neo-colonialism, including the neo-colonialism of Western academic institutions themselves.

52

PART II

Universality and

Difference

PJIILIP G. ALTBACH

permitted developing coumries to reprint and/or translate educarional marerials more freely rhan befare andar modesr cosr (Unesco 1973). Th changes, made when rhe industrialized narions bcgan ro real ize thar co es~ . 1 b . . 1 d . 1 . . f py ng 1t agreemems were emg VIO ate w1r 1 mcrcasmg requency, will

dou br help the developing coumries ro obrain rhe prinred marerials thno need at prices rhey can afford. . . . ey

The following suggestions are intended ro provide some ideas which can be easily implememed and which rnay help ro arneliora re the existing inequalities in the worid of books and publishing ....

As a fi rst step, communications between Third World narions should be improved so rhat common problems and issues can be discussed directly wirhout being mediared through institutions and publica tions in the indus­trializcd nations. This is particularly importanr on a regional basis, for example, among the narions of Francophone i\ frica ancl of Southeast Asia. As a part of communications development, Third World counrries must also crea re viable means of book distribution among rhemselves, and between themselves and rhe indusrrialized nntions.

With rhe strengthening of indigenous publishing and interna! distribu­rion facilities in rhe Third World, inrellecruals need not publish their work abroad. Such an effort should include financia ! and rechnica l assisra nce from rhe public sector when necessary. Foreign scholars work ing in developing nations shou ld publish rheir findings in the countries where rhey conducr rheir research. ln this way local publishing will be srrengrhened and relevant research will be avai lable ro local audienccs. The imellccrual infrasrrucrure in many Third World countries needs ro be strengrhened in orher ways. Libraries, journals which review books, and bibliographical and publiciry rools for publishing should be supported.

In addirion, rnajor national policy quesrions which relate directly ro books, including rhe language of insrrucrion in rhe educarional sysrem, levels of lireracy and the ownership of rhe publishing appararus, must be solvcd by Third \XIorld governrnents wirh an understanding of their irnpli­ca rions for rhe balance of intellecrual production. Part of any language reform effort should be assisrance ro publishing in indigcnous languages. Fi nally, Third World leaders must carefull y evaluare foreign aid programs to ensure thar their nations benefit wirhout loca l publishing industries or intellectual autonomy being undermined.

490

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