ASSESSMENT ON HOST PLANT OF RAFFLESIA

KERRI IN LOJING HIGHLANDS, KELANTAN,

MALAYSIA

NASIHAH BT MOKHTAR

MASTER OF SCIENCE

2016

Assessment on Host Plant of Rafflesia kerri in Lojing

Highlands, Kelantan, Malaysia

by

Nasihah Bt Mokhtar

A thesis submitted in fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of

Master of Science

Faculty of Earth Science

UNIVERSITI MALAYSIA KELANTAN

2016

THESIS DECLARATION

I hereby certify that the work embodied in this thesis is the result of the original research

and has not been submitted for a higher degree to any other University or Institution.

OPEN ACCESS I agree that my thesis is to be made immediately available

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CONFIDENTIAL (Contains confidential information under the Official Secret

Act 1972)*

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where research was done)*

I acknowledge that Universiti Malaysia Kelantan reserves the right as follows.

1. The thesis is the property of Universiti Malaysia Kelantan.

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purpose of research only.

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SIGNATURE SIGNATURE OF SUPERVISOR

I/C/PASSPORT NO. NAME OF SUPERVISOR

Date: Date:

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

BISMILLAHIRRAHMANIRRAHIM…In the name of Allah Taala, The Most Gracious,

with the God’s help and His amazing grace, I’m finally completing this dissertation after

going through the two years of challenging. This work has been in its present shape with

considerable professional, financial, and material inputs. Therefore, it is an amazing

excitement for me to come to this final point and to express my deepest gratitude to all

individuals and organizations who contributed directly or indirectly to my study and the

production of this thesis.

First and foremost, I thank my main supervisor, Mr. Zulhazman bin Hamzah for his

professional and endless support and patience well from the planning stage of the

research work to the production of this thesis. This thesis research was formulated with

his support and encouragement. My appreciation also goes to Ms Siti Munirah Mat

Yunoh from FRIM for reading the manuscript and for serving as my co- supervisor.

I would like to address my sincere thanks to Prof. Emeritus Dato' Dr. Abdul Latiff

Mohamad from UKM for sharing ideas and comments. Therefore, he inspired me to

study about Tetrastigma indeed. He also guided me during identification and

confirmation of Tetrastigma sp. My study would never been possible without his help as

he is interested in Vitaceae study. May Allah give him good health to keep on

contributing for documentation of flora in Malaysia.

My heartfelt thanks go to all staffs from UMK especially lab assistants for lab

equipments. Moreover, I also would like to thank all staffs from FRIM especially Dr.

Wan Rasidah, Pn Nurnida Mohd Kamal, Mohamad Aidil Noordin and En Kamarudin

Saleh for offering me all possible helps in many aspects during identification of trees

species, sketching of Tetrastigma, anatomical laboratory work and soil chemical

analysis. Apart from that, I want to express my appreciation to the District Officer of

Lojing, Tuan Nik Ab Rahman b. Nik Yusof for accommodation during data sampling.

Besides that, Adun bin Sayang, the Temiar who give his guide unlimited contribution

from site selection all the way up to sample collection and security in the study site.

Last but not least, my parents, siblings and nieces for prayers, love, endless

encouragement, concern, patience, strength and sacrifices to go to this level of

education. Fellow friends, Qayyum, Izzah, Ziela, Wani, Zeti and Ain, graduate students

at UMK, deserve special thanks for their valuable contributions and encouragement. I

really appreciated our precious moment together at Ayer Lanas, Jeli. Similarly, Wan

Nuur Fatiha from UNIMAS who kindly shared ideas, whenever required, is highly

appreciated.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

PAGE

THESIS DECLARATION i

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ii

TABLE OF CONTENTS iii

LIST OF TABLES vi

LIST OF FIGURES vii

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS viii

LIST OF SYMBOLS ix

ABSTRAK x

ABSTRACT xi

CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION 1

1.1 General 1

1.2 Objectives 4

1.3 Scope of Study 4

1.4 Justification 5

1.5 Research Questions 6

CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE REVIEW 7

2.1 Tetrastigma in General 7

2.1.1 Growth Strategies 9

2.2 Distribution of Tetrastigma 11

2.3 Host – Parasite Relationship 12

2.4 Economic Importance or Medicinal Value of Tetrastigma 15

2.5 An Overview of Tetrastigma Study in Malaysia 16

2.6 Description of Tetrastigma species in Peninsular Malaysia 17

2.6.1 Tetrastigma scortechinii (King) Gagnep. 17

2.6.2 Tetrastigma dubium (Laws.) Planch. 18

2.6.3 Tetrastigma cruciatum Craib & Gagnep 18

2.6.4 Tetrastigma latiffii Veldk. 19

2.6.5 Tetrastigma dichotomum (Blume) Planch. 19

2.6.6 Tetrastigma rafflesiae (Miq.) Planch. 20

2.6.7 Tetrastigma hookeri (Laws.) Planch. 21

2.6.8 Tetrastigma curtisii (Ridl.) Suesseng. 21

2.6.9 Tetrastigma pisicarpum (Miq.) Planch. 22

2.6.10 Tetrastigma pedunculare (Wall. ex Laws.) Planch. 22

2.6.11 Tetrastigma papillosum (Blume) Planch. 23

2.6.12 Tetrastigma pyriforme Gagnep. 24

2.7 Leaves of Tetrastigma 24

2.8 Growing Habit of Tetrastigma 25

2.9 Importance of Tetrastigma in Forest Ecosystem 26

2.9.1 Lianas and Gap Dynamics 26

2.9.2 Leaf litter Production by Lianas 27

2.9.3 Liana and Rainforest 28

2.10 Soil of the Humid Tropics 29

2.10.1 Soil Chemical Properties 30

2.10.2 Soil Texture 36

2.11 Anatomy of Tetrastigma 39

2.12 Effect of Parasitism on Host Plants 40

2.13 Rafflesia Eco-tourism 42

CHAPTER 3 METHODOLOGY 45

3.1 Study Area 45

3.2 Plot Set-Up 48

3.3 Identification of Tetrastigma 52

3.3.1 Sampling Procedures 52

3.3.2 Herbarium Specimens 52

3.3.3 Plant Anatomy 53

3.4 Ecology of Tetrastigma and its Relations with Soil Nutrients,

Soil Texture and Organic Matter

60

3.4.1 Soil Sampling 60

3.4.2 Soil Nutrient Analysis 61

3.4.3 Determination of Particle Size Distribution 69

3.4.4 Determination of Organic Matter Depth 72

3.4.5 Identification of Supporting Trees of Tetrastigma 73

3.4.6 Sampling Procedures 73

3.5 Data Analysis 74

CHAPTER 4 RESULT AND DISCUSSSION 75

4.1 Morphology of Tetrastigma 75

4.1.1 Morphological Characteristics 75

4.1.2 Morphological Characteristics Differences between

Tetrastigma Species

83

4.2 Anatomy of Tetrastigma 84

4.2.1 Anatomy of T. rafflesiae 84

4.2.2 Anatomy of T. hookeri 89

4.2.3 Comparative leaf anatomy of the two species of Tetrastigma 92

4.3 Ecology of Tetrastigma 93

4.3.1 Growing Habit of Tetrastigma from Ecological Observations 94

4.3.2 Identification of Tree Association with Tetrastigma 94

4.4 Relations of Tetrastigma with Soil Nutrients, Soil Texture and

Organic Matter

96

4.4.1 Correlation between Tetrastigma and Soil Nutrient 96

4.4.2 Correlation between Tetrastigma and Soil Texture 98

4.4.3 Correlation between Tetrastigma and Organic Matter 100

4.5 Conservation of Tetrastigma in Lojing Highlands 102

CHAPTER 5 CONCLUSION 104

REFERENCES 107

APPENDIX A 125

APPENDIX B 127

APPENDIX C 128

LIST OF TABLES

L

I

S

T

O

F

NO. PAGE

2.1 Presently Recorded Host Plant Species of Rafflesia 12

3.1 Duration for Clearing and Staining 56

3.2 Duration for Dehydration 58

3.3 Temperature and time for sample to settle down with a depth of

20 cm

70

3.4 Soil Size According to Texture 72

4.1 The Differences of Morphological Characteristics between T.

rafflesiae and T. hookeri 83

4.2 Differences and Similarity between Species 92

4.3 List of Tree Associated with Tetrastigma 95

4.4 Soil Nutrient in Relation with Elevation 97

LIST OF FIGURES

NO. PAGE

2.1 Texture Triangle of Soil 37

3.1 Flow chart of methodology 46

3.2 The location of the study area 47

3.3 The signboard marking number 1 Rafflesia population is

completed with date and population or plot number

49

3.4 Location of Hutan Simpan Sungai Brok (in green). The study

sites are located outside forest reserve

50

3.5 The topography map of the study area 51

3.6 The 2.5 cm auger was used to collect the soil samples at

different soil depth 61

3.7 Measuring tape was used to measure the organic matter depth 73

4.1 Tetrastigma rafflesiae, Lojing Highlands, Kelantan 79

4.2 Tetrastigma hookeri, Lojing Highlands, Kelantan 80

4.3 Habit of T. rafflesiae, Lojing Highlands, Kelantan 81

4.4 Habit of T. hookeri with fruit, Lojing Highlands, Kelantan 82

4.5 Tetrastigma rafflesiae 85

4.6 Tetrastigma rafflesiae 87

4.7 Tetrastigma rafflesiae 88

4.8 Tetrastigma hookeri 89

4.9 Tetrastigma hookeri 90

4.10 Tetrastigma hookeri 91

4.11 The climbing habit of Tetrastigma in Lojing Highlands,

Kelantan

93

4.12a Correlation between elevation and sand contents (%) 99

4.12b Correlation between elevation and silt contents (%) 99

4.12c Correlation between elevation and clay contents (%) 100

4.13 The effect of elevation gain (ft) on depth (in) of the

O soil horizon 101

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

sp. Species

ha Hectare

CO2 Carbon Dioxide

pH Power of Hydrogen

K+ Potassium ion

TS Tranverse Section

NGOs A Non-Governmental Organization

DBH Diameter Breast Height

KCl Potassium Chloride

N Normality

F Frequency

CECt. Total Cation Exchange Capacity

UV Ultra Violet

SPSS Statistical Package for the Social Science

Vol. Volume

LIST OF SYMBOLS

oc Degree Celcius

cm Centimetre

m Meter

Mha Millihectare

cmolc/kg centi-mol per kg

< Less than

> Greater than

o Degree

’ Minute

ml Mililiter

mm Milimeter

mg Miligram

ppm Part per million

g gram

µm Micrometer

” Second

Penilaian terhadap Perumah Rafflesia kerri di Tanah Tinggi Lojing, Kelantan,

Malaysia

ABSTRAK

Pengetahuan secara menyeluruh tentang Tetrastigma sp., iaitu perumah bagi Rafflesia

kerri Meijer di Tanah Tinggi Lojing adalah penting untuk pengurusan dan

pemuliharaan spesis. Tetrastigma membekalkan makanan dan air kepada Rafflesia

untuk hidup di dalam hutan. Walau bagaimanapun, aktiviti semasa seperti pembukaan

tanah untuk pertanian, pembalakan dan lain-lain boleh memberi kesan kepada habitat

semulajadi Tetrastigma yang membawa kepada kajian ini dijalankan. Objektif kajian

adalah seperti berikut; (i) mengenalpasti perumah R. kerri Meijer dan (ii) menilai

ekologi perumah R. kerri. Dalam mengenalpasti spesis, ciri-ciri morfologi tumbuhan

dikenalpasti dengan menggunakan artikel Tetrastigma di Semenanjung Malaysia oleh

Latiff (1983). Kaedah Keratan Rentas Daun telah digunakan untuk menilai anatomi

tumbuhan. Manakala, Kaedah Pentitratan Laju Walkley dan Black (1934) telah

digunakan untuk menilai nutrisi tanah dan Kaedah BS1377:1975 Test 7 (B) telah

digunakan untuk menilai tekstur tanah. Berdasarkan ciri morfologi dan anatomi daun,

dua spesies Tetrastigma telah dikenalpasti, iaitu Tetrastigma rafflesiae (Miq.) Planch.

dan T. hookeri (Laws.) Planch. Selain itu, purata pH tanah untuk dua species tersebut

untuk hidup ialah 4.58 ± 0.36. Ini menunjukkan wujud perbezaan keberkesanan yang

signifikan pada nilai pH antara ketinggian, pH (F2,0.42 = 8.37, p <0.05). Populasi tunas R. kerri tertinggi ialah pada ketinggian 1200 m dari paras laut dengan purata tunas

setiap bulan adalah 9 ± 5.86. Ini disebabkan oleh wujud perbezaan keberkesanan yang

signifikan antara tunas dengan ketinggian, (t41 = 2.573, p <0.05, r = 0.59). Hasil

dapatan kajian juga menunjukkan jenis pertumbuhan Tetrastigma ialah memanjat. Di

samping itu, Myrtaceae and Ebenaceae adalah dua famili yang biasa didapati sebagai

pokok penyokong Tetrastigma di kawasan kajian. Kesimpulannya, kajian ini berjaya

merekodkan perumah baru T. hookeri, bagi R. kerri. Hasil dapatan kajian ini akan

berguna kepada agensi berkaitan untuk menguruskan kawasan pemuliharaan Rafflesia

yang telah diwartakan seluas 1000 hektar di Tanah Tinggi Lojing.

Assessment on Host Plant of Rafflesia kerri in Lojing Highlands, Kelantan,

Malaysia

ABSTRACT

A comprehensive information on Tetrastigma sp., the host plant of Rafflesia kerri

Meijer in Lojing highlands is crucial for the management and conservation of the

species. Tetrastigma supplies nutrients and water to Rafflesia for survive in the forest.

However, the current activities such as land clearing for agricultural practices, logging

and others may affect the habitat of Tetrastigma which lead this study to be conducted.

The objectives of the study are as follows; (i) to identify the host plant of R. kerri Meijer

and (ii) to assess the ecology of host plant of R. kerri. In order to identify the species,

morphological characteristics of plant was recognized using the article on Tetrastigma

in Peninsular Malaysia by Latiff (1983). Leaf Transverse Section Method was used to

assess the plant anatomy. Meanwhile, Walkley and Black’s (1934) Rapid Titration

Method was applied to evaluate soil nutrients and BS1377:1975 Test 7 (B) Method was

applied to evaluate soil texture. In this study, two species of Tetrastigma were identified,

these are, Tetrastigma rafflesiae (Miq.) Planch. and T. hookeri (Laws.) Planch. The

mean soil pH range of these two Tetrastigma is 4.58 ± 0.36. It shows the significant

differences found on pH at different elevation, pH (F2,0.42 = 8.37, p <0.05). The highest

number of bud populations is at 1200 m a. s. l with mean bud per month is 9 ± 5.86.

There is significant different between bud and elevation, (t41 = 2.573, p <0.05, r = 0.59).

The result also shows that the growing habit of Tetrastigma is climbing. In addition,

Myrtaceae and Ebenaceae are two common families as the host of Tetrastigma. As a

conclusion, this study was successfully recorded a new host plant T. hookeri, for R.

kerri. The results from this study will be useful to related agencies in order to manage

the gazetted 1000 ha of the Rafflesia Conservation Area in Lojing Highlands.

CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

1.1 General

Tetrastigma is a woody climber and usually polygamo-dioecious (Hui

& Wen, 2007). Old stems of Tetrastigma are usually terete; however, flattened

woody stems are frequently observed (Chen, 2009). Tetrastigma was first

described by Miquel (1861) as a section of Vitis, but was later recognized as a

genus by Planchon (1887) for its 4-lobed stigma (Yeo et al., 2012). The genus

is a well-supported clade with close affinity to Cayratia (Ren et al., 2011).

Tetrastigma belongs to the family Vitaceae (the grape family) which

represents the earliest diverging lineage within the rosids (Lu et al., 2013;

Wang et al., 2009). The Vitaceae consists of 14 genera and approximately 900

species primarily distributed in tropical regions (Wen, 2007; Wen et al., 2007).

According to Latiff et al. (1995), the family is one of the best represented at

the generic and species level besides Annonaceae, Euphorbiaceae, and

Rubiaceae in the tropical forests of Malaysia. The family is economically

important as the source for grapes, wine and raisins (Vitis vinifera L.); several

ornamentals (e.g. Parthenocissus quinquefolia (L.) Planch., P. tricuspidata

Planch. and Tetrastigma planicaule Gagnep.); and local medicines (e.g.,

Ampelopsis japonica Makino, Cissus quadrangularis L. and T. hemsleyanum

Diels & Gilg) (Wen, 2007). All the members of Vitaceae except Leea climb by

means of tendrils (Latiff, 1983).

Tendrils are unbranched or bifurcate, sometimes they are palmately

branched. Leaves of Tetrastigma are usually palmately 3– to 5-foliolate or

pedately 5– to 7-foliolate and they are rarely simple. The stems are striate and

terete when young and later they either remain terete as in T. pedunculare and

T. pyriforme or become flattened as in T. latiffii and T. cruciatum (Latiff,

1983). Another important feature is the production of lateral runners which are

also present to varying extents in a number of other Tetrastigma species, e. g.

T. quadrangulum Craib & Gagnep., T. obovatum Gagnep., T. laoticum, T.

rafflesiae, T. curtisii, T. hookeri, as well as other lianas such as Parvatia

brunoniana Decne. (Lardizabalaceae) (Banziger, 1995; Banziger, 1991).

Inflorescence is a polychasium, an umbel, or a compound cyme and its flowers

are described as 4-merous with its petals spreading free, usually hooded or

galeate and sometimes corniculate. The stamens are short and abortive in

female flowers whilst the disk is well developed in male flowers, but

inconspicuous in female flowers. Style is conspicuous or inconspicuous;

however, the stigma is usually 4-lobed and rarely irregularly divided. Berries

are globose, ellipsoid or obovoid and 1– or 4-seeded. The seeds are elliptic,

obovoid-elliptic, or obtriangular and have an abaxial surface with a linear to

orbicular chalazal knot, or have an adaxial surface with a linear raphe. The

cross-section of endosperm is T- or M-shaped.

Rafflesia is an endophyte holoparasitic plant that grows completely

embedded within its host and relies entirely on its host for all their nutrients

(Sofiyanti et al., 2008; Barkman et al., 2004). Parasitic plants can be classified

as hemiparasites, which are photosynthetic or holoparasites, which are

completely devoid of chlorophyll and thus obligately dependent on their host

plants for their nutrition (Thorogood et al., 2009). There are four major types

of parasitic plants based on whether they can photosynthesize (hemiparasite) or

not (holoparasite); and whether the parasite is attached to the host plant above

ground or below-ground (Goro & Masatsugu, 2012; Heide-Jorgensen, 2008).

Rafflesia and Tetrastigma are linked through haustorium-like structures

(Nais, 2001). Its specialized structures are produced from short branches,

which penetrate the phloem of their host (Rabeler, 2007). Haustoria may have

evolved from roots, serving similar functions such as absorption, anchorage

and storage (Nais, 2001). According to Pelser et al. (2013), it certainly seems

plausible that ants, attracted to a nutritious elaiosome, would transport these

seeds to their nest before infection occurred. Elaiosomes are characteristic oily

appendages on seeds of myrmecochorous plants, such as arils, crests, etc. that

offer food bodies to ants (Pelser et al., 2013; Jackson, 1960). This is obvious

after removing some of the decaying wall of Rafflesia, numerous ants were

seen amongst the disintegrating tissue. To our knowledge, direct observations

of seed dispersers were a squirrel and treeshrew (Pelser et al., 2013; Emmons

et al., 1991).

Effects of parasitism on the host is generally seen when the parasites

with strong negative effects on host fecundity tend to reduce their host

population densities and are more likely to cause host extinctions than are

parasites with little effect on host fecundity (Ebert et al., 2000). Somehow, for

Rafflesia, there are at least five possible effects of Rafflesia’s parasitism on the

host, that is, competition for water, competition for organic and inorganic

nutrients, disruption of host metabolism, disruption of the reproductive

potential of the host and loss of health of the host (Nais, 2001).

1.2 Objectives

The objectives of this study are as follows:-

i. To identify the host plant of Rafflesia kerri Meijer in Lojing Highlands,

Kelantan.

ii. To assess the ecology of Tetrastigma species that is host to Rafflesia

kerri.

1.3 Scope of Study

The study was conducted in Lojing Highlands, Gua Musang, Kelantan

where R. kerri occurs in high density within the area or hotspot. A hotspot is

defined as a specific site of R. kerri population that consists of blooming

flowers or buds and noticeable Tetrastigma host vines. The position of each

hotspot was taken by using Global Positioning System (GPS). Other physical

parameters also were measured such as elevation and slope gradients of the

hotspots. Then, the specimens of the possible host were collected for species

identification. Two biological parameters were also analysed, namely, soil

nutrients and soil texture. Each individual of Tetrastigma species was tagged

and numbered. The stem diameter of Tetrastigma species was also measured.

For soil analysis, the soil samples were used for various analyses including

total organic matter (OM), nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P), potassium (K), as

well as the cation exchange capacity (CEC) and exchangeable cations. All the

parameters taken from the soil nutrients and soil texture measurement were

analysed using excel and SPSS version 16.0.

1.4 Justification

To date, no study has been done on the taxonomy and ecology of the

Tetrastigma species in Lojing Highlands, Kelantan. However, studies on

Tetrastigma in Malaysia were intensively done by Latiff (1983) and Nais (2001,

2004). The current proliferation of the Tetrastigma species in the Lojing area

that influences the survival of R. kerri prompted this study to be conducted. The

morphological and ecological characteristics that indicated the health of

Tetrastigma species are assumed to play an important role on the survival of

Rafflesia buds. The possibility of R. kerri buds to grow may decrease if there is

insufficiency of nutrient uptake due to the competition between the host and the

parasitic plant. The nutrient uptake rate of the R. kerri bud is affected by the

morphology and ecology of the Tetrastigma species.

In Kelantan, a total of 865,017 ha or 57.60 % of the total land is still

covered with forests. From this, a total of 623,849 ha has been categorized as

permanent reserved forests and managed for the purpose of maximizing

economic, social and ecological benefits. Approximately 477,508 ha or 76.54 %

of the permanent reserved forests are production forest, with the remaining

146,341 ha or 23.46 % is for forest protection. In Lojing Highlands, the

permanent reserved forest which is 13,063 ha or 5.58 % is located in south

Kelantan. In Lojing, approximately 49.80 % or 116,584 ha of forest is under

protection as forest reserves (Anon., 2011b).

1.5 Research Questions

1) Is there any distinctive leaf anatomical similarity and difference between

T. rafflesiae and T. hookeri?

2) Is there any distinctive morphological characteristics between T.

rafflesiae and T. hookeri?

3) Do the soil properties and altitude affect the productivity of T.

rafflesiae and T. hookeri?

4) What is the dominant species of Tetrastigma in Lojing Highlands?

CHAPTER 2

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Tetrastigma in General

Rafflesia is a parasitic angiosperm with a specific host, Tetrastigma.

Consequently, Rafflesia is exclusively dependent on the host vine plant for its

protection and survival (Adam et al., 2013). According to Stamford Raffles

and Joseph Arnold, when Rafflesia arnoldii was encountered by them in 1818,

it was not thought to be a parasite. Rather, it was suspected to be the flower of

the liana, or even a type of giant fungus. It was not until the specimen was

shipped to Britain, dissected, and studied with the aid of William Jack’s field

notes and assertions that Robert Brown recognized it as a flowering plant, the

parasite of a vine (Nais, 2001). It is now known that these Southeast Asian

endemic holoparasites rely entirely on their host plants (exclusively species of

Tetrastigma, Vitaceae) (Barkman et al., 2004; Nais, 2001).

The diverse range of host species known so far include Tetrastigma

rafflesiae, T. diepenhorstii and T. quadrangulum. The main host for many

Rafflesia species is T. rafflesiae. The name for the common host of Rafflesias

in Malesia became confused when the name T. leucostaphylum had been

accepted though misapplied to the Indo-Malesian species, formerly named T.

lanceolarium. The nomenclatural confusion began when Mabberly (1977)

believed that both Cissus leucostaphyla and C. lanceolaria were conspecific,

as both were based on Vallia-tsjori-valli Rheede, Hort. Malab. 7 (1688): t. 8,

and hence proposed a new combination for it, T. leucostaphylum (Latiff,

2001). The discussion was followed by Shetty and Singh (1988, 1989) and

Nicolson et al. (1988). According to Latiff (2001), after a careful study of van

Rheede’s Hort. Malab. and the specimens at Kew and Leiden, he believed that

C. leucostaphyla (basionym for T. leucostaphylum) and C. lanceolaria Roxb.

non auct. (basionym for T. lanceolarium) are not conspecific. This also

happened in India when the C. leucostaphyla (basionym for T.

leucostaphylum) is a superfluous name misapplied to T. nilagiricum (Miq.) B.

V. Shetty, a south Indian-Sri Lanka species (Shetty & Singh, 2000). Latiff

(2001) regarded these as synonymous. He tried to clarify in his paper that the

right nomenclature for the species should be T. tuberculatum (Blume) Latiff

(Veldkamp, 2008).

Rafflesia (and Rhizanthes), however are exception in infecting only a

few species of Tetrastigma (Nais, 2001). Rafflesia is non-photosynthetic

holoparasite (Arunachalam et al., 2004). Establishing the identity of a Rafflesia

host plant can be difficult and past records need to be treated with caution. The

hosts plant for R. kerri from previous studies are erroneously identified as T.

lanceolarium (Roxb.) Planch., T. papillosum (Blume) Planch. and T.

quadrangulum Gagnep. & Craib (Nais, 2001).

Tetrastigma is a vine or liana (Nais, 2001) and lianas are woody

climbing plants that rely on other plants for mechanical support. Their stems

have reduced amounts of supporting tissue and they are highly light

demanding (Padaki & Parthasarathy, 2000). Recent investigations have shown

that lianas are a prominent component of tropical forests, where they play an

important role in ecosystem processes, including foliage and fruit production

and carbon sequestration (Parthasarathy et al., 2015).

Lianas are a conspicuous and characteristic life-form in tropical rain

forests and their high abundance is an important physiognomic feature

differentiating tropical from temperate forests (Oduoye & Ogundipe, 2013;

Gentry, 1991). There is an average ten-fold difference in liana density between

temperate and lowland tropical forests, with a three-fold difference between

the most liana rich temperate forests and the most liana-poor lowland tropical

ones (Padaki & Parthasarathy, 2000; Gentry, 1982). Forest locality and type

appear to influence the distribution of lianas (Padaki & Parthasarathy, 2000;

Balfour & Bond, 1993). Variations in reproduction, dispersal, climbing

methods or phenology strategies help in sharing gaps and permit efficient

resource partitioning between the liana species (Padaki & Parthasarathy, 2000;

Oldeman, 1990).

2.1.1 Growth Strategies

The Vitaceae, commonly known as the wild grape family which can be

found in the primary forests, at forest edges, river banks, secondary forests and

other exposed areas in Malaysia (Latiff & El-Taguri, 2013). Some genera of

lianas mainly consist of lianas (e.g., Vitaceae) whereas others include lianas as

well as shrubs and trees (e.g., Bauhinia, Embelia). Because lianas are favoured

by forest disturbances and are more diverse in warmer environments, human-

induced disturbances and global warming are likely to promote liana

abundance. These environmental modifications are already responsible for the

reported increase in the growth rates and abundance of large diameter lianas in

tropical forests (Cai, 2007; Wright et al., 2004), although more data are needed

to evaluate this trend and its possible causes. Furthermore, they have height

growth rates than can be seven times faster than trees (Cai et al., 2007;

Schnitzer, 2005). Centre stems of Tetrastigma have the fastest growth rate

compared to the basal part and the terminal end of Tetrastigma species (Lianah

et al., 2011). The inclusion of Tetrastigma or lianas in forest studies may yield

important new information on forest dynamics, which are crucial for a

comprehensive understanding of tropical forest ecology and the formulation of

effective management practices (Schnitzer et al., 2008; Perez-Salicrup et al.,

2004). However, the high growth rate of Tetrastigma nitens and its ability to

propagate vegetatively are a potential threat – for example trees can be shaded

out and branches broken. In addition, the vines grow from the ground and high

into trees, suggesting that they could act as a fire ladder and allow ground fires

to become tree crown fires (Morisawa, 1999).

2.2 Distribution of Tetrastigma

The genus Tetrastigma Planch. comprises of about 95 species

distributed in tropical and subtropical Asia, primarily in Southeast Asia, and

extending to Australia, (Kochaiphat et al., 2014; Chen et al., 2011; Latiff,

1983). Tetrastigma is much more widely distributed than Rafflesia, and there

seems to be no relationship between the distribution of the host plant and

Rafflesia (Nais, 2001).

In Malesia there are a total of 35 species of Tetrastigma (Latiff, pers.

comm., June 24, 2015). The Malesian region, defined as the floristic region

incorporating the nation states of Indonesia, Malaysia, Singapore, Brunei, the

Philippines and Papua New Guinea, has long been recognised as a region of

great biogeographic interest (Gower et al., 2012; Wallace, 1869).

According to Latiff (1983), there are 12 species of Tetrastigma in

Peninsular Malaysia, while T. voinierianum is a rapidly growing vine endemic

to Vietnam (Morisawa, 1999). In Australia, Tetrastigma nitens is distributed

from northern New South Wales to North Queensland (Morisawa, 1999).

According to Laidlaw et al. (2011), Tetrastigma nitens is found in the

Lamington National Park, south-east Queensland at 700 m a. s. l.

2.3 Host – Parasite Relationship

Previous studies recorded 8 species of Tetrastigma (Vitaceae) that are

associated with Rafflesia, as shown in Table 2.1. These species are T.

diepenhorstii (Miq.) Latiff, T. rafflesiae (Miq.) Planch., T. papillosum (Blume)

Planch., T. quadrangulum Gagnep. & Craib, T. loheri Planch., T. pisicarpum

(Miq.) Planch., T. coriaceum (DC.) Gagnep. and T. harmandii Planch.. All

Rafflesia host species are from the South-east Asian region. Only two Rafflesia

host plants, T. rafflesiae (Miq.) Planch. and T. diepenhorstii Miq. are found in

Malaysia.

Table 2.1: Presently Recorded Host Plant Species of Rafflesia

No Tetrastigma sp. Host plant for

Rafflesia

Region Site References

1 T. rafflesiae

(Miq.) Planch.

[= T.

leucostaphylum

(Dennst.) Alston

ex Mabb.]

R. pricei Borneo Sabah Nais, 1997

R. tengku-adlinii Borneo Sabah Nais, 1997

R. kerri Peninsular

Malaysia

Gunung

Chamah

Qayyum et.

al., 2013

R. arnoldii &

R. atjehensis

Sumatra Mount

Leuser

Nais, 1997

R. manillana &

R. cumingii

Luzon Mount

Leuser

Nais, 1997