assessment schedule – 2007 history: examine a significant

NCEA Level 3 History (90658) 2007 — page 1 of 23

Assessment Schedule – 2007 History: Examine a significant historical situation in the context of change, in an essay (90658)

Achievement Achievement with Merit Achievement with Excellence

Through her / his response to the first part of the essay question, the candidate has described a significant situation in the context of change (See content guidelines for examples of relevant historical information that could be included in the candidate’s answer.)

Through her / his response to the first part of the essay question, the candidate has described in detail a significant situation in the context of change (See content guidelines for examples of relevant historical information that could be included in the candidate’s answer.)

Through the breadth, depth and / or range of the ideas in her / his response to the first part of the question, the candidate has comprehensively described a significant situation in the context of change. (See content guidelines for examples of relevant historical information that could be included in the candidate’s answer.)

Through her / his response to the second part of the question the candidate has described the influence of the situation on people. (See content guidelines for examples of relevant historical information that could be included in the candidate’s answer.)

Through her / his response to the second part of the question the candidate has evaluated the influence of the situation on people. This evaluation should involve analysis which may include weighing up the influences that this situation had on people. Eg positive influences weighed up against negative ones or one theory about the influence contrasted with another. (See content guidelines for examples of relevant historical information that could be included in the candidate’s answer.)

Through the breadth, depth and / or range of the ideas in her / his response to the second part of the question the candidate has comprehensively evaluated the influence of the situation on people. This evaluation should involve analysis and the comprehensive weighing up the influences that this situation had on people. Eg positive influences weighed up against negative ones or one theory about the influence contrasted with another. (See content guidelines for examples of relevant historical information that could be included in the candidate’s answer.)

The candidate has structured and organised her / his information using an appropriate essay format.

• Introductory paragraph.

• Relevant, structured and logically sequenced paragraphs.

• Conclusion.

The candidate has structured and organised her / his information using an appropriate essay format.



• Conclusion. The candidate has provided an argument, ie the candidate has stated a view and supported it with relevant and accurate evidence (probably most evident in the evaluative part of her / his essay).

The candidate has structured and organised her / his information using an appropriate and effective essay format.



• Conclusion. The candidate has provided a convincing argument, ie the candidate has a clearly articulated view and has supported it with sound reasoning and relevant, accurate and significant evidence (probably most evident in the evaluative part of her / his essay).


Content Guidelines Topic One: England 1558–1667 Topic One: Essay One

Describe the main features of family life between 1558 and 1667. Evaluate the influence of parents on the lives of their children in early modern English society.

The candidate’s response to the first part of the essay question could include:

• The nuclear family (parents and children) was the basic social unit for reproduction, upbringing, and old-age care. The term “family” could also include live-in servants and apprentices; however, the extended kinship group remained important as well.

• Families worked and played together. Religious activities within the family (eg grace, catechism, and Bible reading) were considered important. Most families looked after their own needy.

• The average number of children born was between three and four. Two or three usually survived to adulthood. The birth rate was reduced by the effect of late marriage, death during childbearing and breastfeeding. Children were seen as vital to carry on the family name, inherit family property, and fulfill emotional needs.

• The role of parents was to provide sustenance and education, training in work skills, exercise discipline and morality, and give emotional support. Later in the child’s life, they would assist in finding employment, be a guide to a suitable marriage partner, and support with contacts to ensure economic, social, and political success. Lastly, they would leave as great an inheritance to the child as possible. The patriarchal role encompassed setting standards and order, income, and legal rights. For the governing class, the role also covered property administration, marriage partners, education for boys and dowries for girls. The matriarchal role was to bear children, support the husband, look after the health and well-being of the family, groom children for marriage and attract selected spouses.

• Children were put to work at early ages on the farm, sowing seeds, chasing birds, and other rather unstrenuous activities. Boys were more likely to be put to work earlier, and girls to stay home a little longer to help their mother. Children who could be spared from the farm, or whose wages would not be missed, were often sent to school, to receive a form of elementary education. Most of these children, especially the girls, remained in school only for a short period, and would then be expected to work to help their family financially. Some children never attended school, but were taught by their mothers at home. Amongst the wealthier social groups, boys, and to a lesser extent girls, would be provided with private tuition, a school education, or education in someone else's house.

• Children left the household with the onset of puberty for apprenticeships or domestic service. The advisory role of parents continued after the children had left the house and the financial part of caring had ceased.

• The stability of society was enshrined in the expectation that the family unit would be self-sufficient from cradle to grave. Parish charity was very meagre by any standard.

The candidate’s response to the second part of the essay question could include:

• The extent to which parents influenced the lives of their children is subject to controversy. There is such little evidence it is difficult for historians to reconstruct the “experience” of being a child. What evidence there is in advice literature, journals, and letters, is so open to differing interpretations that historians are divided over major issues such as whether children were loved and wanted in the past, the way parents viewed their children, and the treatment they received.

• Lawrence Stone and Ralph Houlbrooke take a “progressive” approach to history, and conclude that the treatment of children by their parents improved considerably over time since at first there was no concept of childhood as a state different to adulthood. They point to the custom of the “blessing” being replaced with a “goodnight kiss”, a decline in swaddling and wet-nursing, and allegedly increased intimacy in letters between parents and children by the seventeenth century as indicators of change. However, Linda Pollock, after intensive study of over 400 diaries and journals, argued that there was no significant change in the quality of parental care, the amount of affection felt for infants or grief when they died. Rosemary O'Day and Mary Abbot assert there was continuity rather than evolution in the way that parents treated and reared their children.

• Most contemporary writers reinforced the notion of the head of the family in early modern England as the apex of a patriarchal system with clearly defined roles. Based on Pauline scripture, male dominance was a godly duty. Any hint of departure from the accepted order was seen as “misrule” or chaos. The head of the extended family (especially in the upper classes) exercised authority over children in issues such as physical provision and well-being, education, religious instruction, career advancement or employment, business, and marriage.

• Children were to be subject to their parents and had duties to them. They were expected to be respectful and obedient, carry on family traditions, consider the interests of all family members, and maintain or raise the status


of the family. Willful children were frequently sent away to relatives to avoid the public shame involved. Lack of parental authority, instability or incompatibility in families led to public arguments, lawsuits and social humiliation.

• Social class affected the parental influence on children. Upper-class children were dependent on and controlled by parents for longer than lower-class children. Marriages among the propertied classes were subject to greater controls than those of the poor. Parents frequently interfered to prevent unsuitable marriages with the most used penalty for disobedience being disinheritance.

• Maternal influences remained strong, especially over female children.


Topic One: Essay Two

Describe the main features of popular beliefs that were held by people in England between 1558 and 1667. Evaluate the influence of popular beliefs on the lives of people in Early Modern England.


• Popular beliefs arose from a traditional oral culture based primarily on early pagan superstitions generated from a fear of natural and spiritual forces.

• Popular beliefs in early modern England, however, contained an amalgam of aspects of Christianity with traditional pagan beliefs in magic, fortune telling, astrology, prophesy, witchcraft, and spirit beings.

• Popular beliefs were concerned more with the daily affairs of life, and the dangers and misfortunes of life than with salvation after death. A supernatural world was believed to exist alongside the natural everyday world and in almost everything there was a supernatural / spiritual explanation.

• There were blurred margins between traditional pagan (goblins, fairies, witches, sorcerers, vampires, and werewolves) and Christian (demons and angels) spiritual worlds.

• Magic and folklore took various forms (tokens, charms or flowers, divining rods, magic words, the power of healers and cunning men). King Charles II revived the Royal touch to ward off the “King’s Evil” – scrofula. Forms of magic were widely used and never really diminished in this period.

• Astrology and horoscope readings were seen as compatible with Christianity because God ruled the heavens, so stars and planets were his agents. Astrologers were consulted about important decisions because they were believed to be able to give some guidance about the future. Leading practitioners, like John Dee, advised the monarch. Astrological almanacs giving information about the luck associated with particular activities and days were very popular.

• Black witchcraft involved the surrender of one’s soul to the devil in return for certain powers and was most often associated with poorer women. Charges of maleficium (the causing of harm using invisible powers) were most common. Witches were popularly believed to have familiars (animals who did their bidding) that they suckled. White witches or cunning folk were usually men, who used magic or good spiritual powers to combat black witchcraft. Acts against witchcraft, making it a capital offence, were passed in 1563 and 1604.

• Belief in superstition, magic and witchcraft is considered to have declined during the period through the trickle-down effect of education, literacy, science and social controls. There was a continual war on religious rituals and festivity until at the end of the period separation was drawn between church and communal festivities. Magistrates began to express disbelief in black witchcraft, so it was increasingly difficult to get convictions.


• Popular beliefs encompassed all sectors of the population. It was not an entity but a range of changing beliefs in different regions where each community had its own customs. Few experienced a formal education or travelled beyond their home village to be exposed to other beliefs.

• They occupied an important place in the lives of people because there was an implicit belief by all in an unseen supernatural world of spirits competing for each human soul. Belief in the devil and the potential salvation or damnation of each soul was a part of popular consciousness.

• Popular beliefs were important in influencing each individual’s attitudes, values and perspectives on the vicissitudes of life. They seemed to have a stronger hold on the hearts and minds of people. To protect themselves from personal misfortune, a variety of charms, spells, prayers and herbal remedies were used. Their perceived potential to affect the seasons and weather had a significant influence on an individual’s well-being and survival. People worried about such things as the length and intensity of winter, harvest failure, the success of hunting and fishing ventures. A series of traditional rites and ceremonies were important in allaying these concerns, eg New Year’s Day was to encourage the return of spring, and fasting before Easter helped conserve food for the latter part of winter. Accusations of witchcraft increased in times of economic hardship when people were less willing to give charity.

• Taking part in festivals and ceremonies gave members of a community a sense of identity and were important times of fun and release from the rigours of daily life (eg giving gifts on New Year’s Day reinforced status and obligation ties).

• At all levels of society, people believed in some supernatural forces at work, had difficulty distinguishing between the influence of religion or magic, and proved reluctant to part with anything that gave them reassurance, protection, support or comfort in dealing with the dangers and misfortunes of life.

• Popular culture did become more secularised. Concerns about how revelry could disrupt public order and get out of hand caused many to stop sponsoring festivities in favour of organised entertainment such as races and displays. Popular amusements conducive to lust and sexual misdemeanour were frowned on, eg May Day celebrations.

• Some historians argue that traditional popular beliefs were, by the end of the period, becoming limited to the rural working class. Oral traditions passed into a kind of folklore and popular literature as society was exposed to greater secularisation.


Topic One: Essay Three

Describe the ways in which the royal court operated under each monarch during the period 1558 to 1625. Evaluate the influence of the royal court on the relationship between each monarch and his or her subjects.


• The Royal Court was the centre of political power and culture. Great men at Court strove to gain the ear of the monarch through political argument, competent service, intellectual or cultural brilliance, feats of great daring or physical endurance, and the beauty of their person or their wives. Their patronage of writers, actors, musicians, theologians, and academics who might impress the monarch was also important. Royal favourites potentially could influence crown policy and the flow of patronage. Those who obtained favour at court might gain political office in central or local government, high military command, appointments to bishoprics, judgeships or academic posts, royal sponsorship, or grants of money, land or titles.

• The Court as the centre of English public life gave lesser men opportunities to meet powerful patrons and have themselves accepted as clients. This “second tier” of courtiers aimed to gain favour with the great men who had direct access to the monarch in return for loyalty and support. They sought positions in local and regional government and lower level positions in central government. A patron might also nominate them as MPs, gain them commissions in the armed service, or appointment to well-paid legal positions. These lesser men, in turn, would be cultivated by a lower level of clients, possibly from outside the Court.

• The Court operated wherever the Monarch happened to be. For example, Elizabeth would often go on a progress to the southern counties, but most of the time, she resided in one of the great royal palaces such as Whitehall. Over a thousand people generally attended court; and when it was not possible to house everyone, some had to lodge nearby.

• Everyone who was permitted to court had access to the Presence Chamber – a great hall in which the monarch would give audience and where all entertainment such as plays, masques, balls and general socialising took place. Access to other parts of the palace depended on status and relationship to the monarch. The Monarch had two private rooms, the Privy Chamber and the Bedchamber (although rarely, if ever, alone in either). Government officials and Ambassadors were entertained here.

• While all the men who frequented the court were technically courtiers, the role of the traditional courtier was very different to the role of the councillor or the politician. For example, Elizabeth expected courtiers, like Robert Dudley, to be handsome and athletic companions, flamboyant in dress and manner, who would charm her in the courtly love tradition with flattery, gifts, music, dancing, and words of love and devotion. Married men as well as single men played this game with the Queen. It was part of the courtly ideal and not meant to be taken to the personal level.

• Each monarch brought changes to the royal court. Elizabeth - On her accession, Elizabeth was a young woman at great risk because of religious conflict and the absence

of an heir. She used her gender to her advantage in both genuine and “game” courtships, making the Court a showpiece of personal monarchy.

- She sponsored a cult of Gloriana through display at tournaments, plays and masques and use of the tradition of courtly love.

- She spread patronage widely, but not lavishly, and was careful to balance the influence of favourites and ministers, eg Leicester v. Walsingham.

- She was not extravagant with rewards, eg created few peers. - She had the ability to pick and trust competent advisers, eg William Cecil. James - James was more extravagant than Elizabeth in grants of wealth and titles – his position as a foreigner may

have compelled him to act this way. His early court featured a large number of Scots hungry for favour and patronage.

- James’s court was more casual and lacking in dignity. He was coarse in manners, dress, and speech. Court life became notorious for drunkenness, frivolity, and immorality.

- James was much more exclusive than Elizabeth. He constantly referred to the divine right of Kings. - His favourites dominated access to his person and bedchamber. They brought corruption into central

government as factions competed for positions, honours, and influence. - His Ministers and Privy Council were less effective than Elizabeth’s.

The candidate’s response to the second part of the essay question could include: Elizabeth

• Elizabeth was successful in developing a positive relationship with her subjects by using competition at Court and distribution of patronage to play off one faction against another, but giving to all the hope that they might receive some favour.


• The courtly game of Gloriana was an effective tool of policy for keeping male ambition in check and maintaining a dignified and attractive court image to outsiders.

• Her court was famed for its splendour and ceremony.

• Her appointments to the highest levels of government remained few and well-balanced, permitting continuity and stability in government.

James

• James’s promotion of the Howards and obsession with favourites such as Robert Carr and George Villiers, created monopolies of patronage and led to bitter factional rivalry which drove natural allies of the Crown into opposition and created problems in Parliament.

• James’s extravagance in grants of wealth and titles caused resentment among the traditional ruling class. James’s debased and immoral court alienated “Godly Protestants”.

• The monopoly of patronage by the elite alienated the excluded majority of governing class.

• James’s promotion of the divine right of Kings caused his Court to appear to be like that of “tyrannical” and Catholic France and Spain.

• It became almost impossible for anyone to have both Court office and local County prestige.


Topic One: Essay Four

Describe the different ways in which the crown attempted to finance government in the period 1603–1629. Evaluate the extent to which these attempts influenced each monarch’s relationship with the governing class.

The candidate’s response to the essay question could include:

• The financing of government illustrates the antiquated and archaic nature of the state in early modern England. The Crown was always short of money because the state had no means to tap the wealth of the country.

• The Monarch was expected to rely upon regular or “Ordinary” sources of revenue in all but emergencies, when they could ask Parliament to vote taxes, or “Extraordinary” revenue, to meet additional costs. Social welfare programmes were not possible, nor war, without the support of Parliament.

Ordinary Revenue

• Crown Land: The Crown still owned large estates, and this generated an income in the form of rents. In addition, Crown Land could be used as collateral if the monarch needed to borrow money, or it could be sold.

• Revenue from Trade: The Crown had the constitutional right to regulate trade. This was done by imposing tariffs, or customs duties, on imports and exports. The value of such duties varied according to the level of trade. Because there was no paid bureaucracy, collection of customs duties was sometimes rented out to customs farmers, who paid the Crown an annual sum for the right to collect duties and to pocket any surplus over and above what they paid the Crown. Customs duties included Tonnage and Poundage on wool and wine and impositions that were levied on a wide range of goods.

• Feudal Dues: The old feudal relationship of service in return for land had been superseded by one in which the Crown obtained money in lieu of feudal obligations. These included: - Purveyance – the right of the Royal Household to buy goods and services at below market prices. - Wardship – When the heir to an estate was a minor or a woman, the estate was taken over by the Crown

and guardianship was sold through the Court of Wards. All profits from the estate accrued to the guardian and the Crown until the male heir came of age or the female married.

- Entry Fees -– when an heir took over an estate, a fee was payable to the Crown. - Distraint of knighthood – all those with an income of £40 per year had the right to “take up” knighthood. Few

did and so paid a one-off fine or tax when their property was valued at this level. - Monopolies: The Crown could sell, or grant as patronage, monopolies of particular goods and services, eg

soap manufacture, importing sweet wines, the licensing of inns. Monopolies were unpopular because they increased prices and reduced the quality of goods and services.

• Income from the Church: The Crown had a right to “first fruits” and “tenths”. The former was the income derived from a clergyman’s first year’s income and the latter one tenth of his subsequent income. In some cases bishoprics were left vacant so the Crown could collect revenue from diocesan lands.

Extraordinary Revenue

• Taxes could be levied only with Parliament’s consent, as Parliament represented the communities that were being taxed. However, the monarch, in times of emergency, could require a forced loan equivalent to a subsidy from communities.

• Fifteenths and tenths were a tax on “movables” (chattels, livestock, and merchandise) and land. One-fifteenth of the value in rural areas and a tenth in urban areas was levied on counties.

• Subsidies were worth much more and were a direct tax on an individual’s income. The lack of a paid bureaucracy made tax assessment and collection unreliable. It was customary to evade tax by underestimating your income.

James I

• James inherited a ramshackle revenue system with a debt up to £400,000. The customs revenue was last revised in 1558, and reassessment of Crown lands was long overdue. He appointed competent Treasurers in Dorset, Salisbury, and Middlesex, but all had little success in curbing James’s spending. Parliament saw no need to vote subsidies in peacetime (four subsidies were granted in 1606 in reaction to the Gunpowder Plot and one in 1610, but no more till 1621). James’s extravagance (“a ‘foreign’ prince rewarding unworthy friends”) made MPs unsympathetic to pleas of royal poverty.

• Requisitioning officers for James’s court used purveyance, regularly over-supplying the royal households with discounted supplies and on-selling the surplus for personal profit. In 1606, the Crown’s right to impose (impositions) duties to regulate trade was confirmed by Bate’s case, but remained a sore point with the governing class. The 1608 revised Book of Rates added “new impositions” that were very unpopular with merchants. Both purveyance and impositions became ongoing grievances aired by the governing class in parliament.

• The Great Contract in 1610 was a major attempt at financial reform to fund government by taxation. It sought to replace the most hated feudal dues (wardship and purveyance) with an annual parliamentary grant based on a


property tax. It foundered because it was thought that the Crown was asking too much and the gentry realised they would find it difficult to evade a property tax.

• The Cockayne project of 1614, sponsored by the crown, collapsed the woollen cloth trade, bringing an economic downturn. There were no more attempts at economic reform, and Cranfield urged retrenchment with little success until his impeachment for corruption.

• James increasingly used feudal devices like wardship, purveyance, monopolies, and forest fines as the revenue from Crown lands declined. Salisbury devised a scheme for the sale of baronet titles, which raised a total of £90,000 1611–1614. These measures were increasingly vilified by the traditional governing class. Parliament was so angry it impeached two monopolists and passed a bill in 1624 restricting the Crown’s right to grant further monopolies.

• While the governing class resented paying for a Crown increasingly unable to live on its own, the Court increasingly felt Parliament was no longer fulfilling its role in supporting the Crown and this justified the use of extra-parliamentary measures to raise money such as the forced loans of 1622 and 1623. Even when a popular war with Spain was begun, Parliament granted subsidies only on the proviso that accounts and receipts were obtained to prove proper expenditure.

Charles 1625–1629

• Charles never succeeded in getting enough money out of Parliament, despite being involved in wars with both Spain and France, because he was never prepared to trade the settling of grievances for subsidies. The two subsidies voted in 1625 and the five voted in 1628 were never enough. A single subsidy yielded £120 000 in 1589, but only £55 000 by 1628.

• Charles therefore resorted to extra-parliamentary measures such as forced loans in 1625 and 1626 on all subsidy payers (in effect parliamentary taxation without parliamentary sanction), impositions and the technically illegal collection of Tonnage and Poundage (Parliament had granted it for one year only). The Commons later told Charles “there were never any monies demanded and paid with greater grief and general dislike of all your faithful subjects”. The loans were seen to be attacking the fundamental liberties of English subjects, but the Five Knights Case in 1627 upheld the Crown’s right to imprison non-payers of forced loans without trial.

• Charles also extracted loans from the City of London, but only by giving it the last major body of crown lands. This ended the traditional role of land as a major source of royal revenue. The Crown now had to rely almost exclusively on customs farmers.

• From 1627–29, the Crown attempted an economy drive: spending was cut on the royal wardrobe, the royal household, and the armoury. The real problem, though, was the ruinously expensive wars with Spain and France and that Charles’s income was reduced by falling returns from customs duties because of the associated trade recession.

• Charles made his position plain when he said to the 1628 Parliament that if it failed to provide him with funds to meet the common danger then “I must … take those other courses which God hath put into my hands.” Parliament quickly offered five subsidies and to grant Tunnage and Poundage but wanted to safeguard the liberties of the subject in Charles’s acceptance of the Petition of Right. When, after the assassination of Buckingham, it became clear that despite the Petition of Right, Charles intended to continue resorting to extra-parliamentary taxation, the Three Resolutions were passed amid tumultuous scenes in the Commons. This made it clear Charles would no longer gain the co-operation of the governing class in Parliament without compromising his prerogative rights. He therefore decided to finance the state without recourse to Parliament.


Topic One: Essay Five

Describe the changing situation Charles I faced in ruling Scotland and Ireland during the period 1625 to 1642. Evaluate the influence that events in Scotland and Ireland had on the relationship between Charles I and his

English subjects during this time.


• Celtic society, law, and government were in marked contrast to those in England. The Scottish highlands and much of Ireland were organised into clans or septs, governed by chieftains who exercised considerable arbitrary power. Custom was often more important than the common and statute law which predominated in England.

Scotland

• The Stuart kings had limited power, which, geographically, was largely confined to the central lowlands between Glasgow and Edinburgh. Local government was dominated by the Scottish nobility and Presbyterian Church with extensive lands and power to administer law in the localities. A Scottish king could govern effectively only if he did not alienate both the nobility and Church.

• James had not challenged the power of the Scottish nobility in the localities, but did assert royal authority over the Scottish Kirk (Church) by appointing Bishops, and in 1618 through the Articles of Perth extending their authority.

• Charles rarely consulted with the Scots over decisions that affected their interests, eg when Charles went to war with France and Spain in the 1620s it was a commercial disaster for Scottish merchants. Charles conscripted Scottish manpower into his army for continental wars that were largely irrelevant to Scottish interests.

• In 1625 Charles issued a revocation (repossession of crown lands that had been gifted away) on lands granted in 1540. The Scottish landed elite were alienated by this attack on their property rights.

• Charles increased hostility and suspicion of his policies within the Kirk by increasing the powers of Bishops, insisting on Anglican-style white surplices being worn by ministers, banning fasting without royal permission and declaring the King’s authority over the Kirk’s in religious matters.

• In 1637, Archbishop William Laud imposed on the Kirk a prayer book and order of service closely modelled on the Anglican one. This brought Scottish fears to a head. The elite saw this as the action of an alien king, one who had attacked their property rights and disregarded their interests and who now sought to dictate how they worshipped and what they believed. Worse, to Scottish Presbyterian eyes, the Laudian reforms smacked of Catholicism. Nobility, gentry, and the Kirk were united in opposition. Riots greeted the new prayer book; a large portion of the nobility petitioned against its introduction. An alliance of the landed elite and the Presbyterian clergy was formed and a provisional opposition government set up in Edinburgh. A National Covenant was signed in 1638 by nobility, gentry, clergy, and merchants – the landed and urban elite were united against “ungodly rule and popery”. They protested their loyalty to the King but refused to accept the “innovations” of the Liturgy. Without the support of Scottish nobility or the Kirk, royal authority throughout Scotland ceased to exist.

Ireland

• The country was a hotbed of racial, social, and economic rivalry, conflict and antagonisms. These focussed on the competing interests of three power groups:

(i) The alien English administration whose control in Ireland was limited to the Pale. There were rigged parliamentary elections, confiscations of lands of those who opposed English rule, and military expeditions.

(ii) The Anglo-Irish: descendants of English migrants who had conquered, colonised, and intermarried with the native Irish and largely rejected the Anglican Church.

(iii) The native Irish: Celtic clan chieftains who ruled most of Ulster (North Ireland) and the centre / west of the country. Any attempt at assimilating the Gaelic chieftains was abandoned in favour of a policy of forceful repression. Loyalty to the Pope and the Roman Catholic Church were treasonable. Rebellious Gaelic chieftains were not above appealing to Catholic France and Spain for help.

• Conflict was inevitable. On one side there was the English conviction of racial superiority; the need to outlaw, punishl and suppress Roman Catholicism; and the growing awareness that there were fortunes to be made by exploiting what was a colony with a subject population. On the other side were powerful old English families and Celtic clan chieftains, whose independence and religion were threatened and who had powerful military resources.

• James had embarked on systematic plantations of Scottish Presbyterian settlers. This created a new political class of landowning Protestants, enabling the King to bypass the Anglo-Irish, whose allegiance to the Crown was qualified.

• Charles’s war with Spain reawakened English fears of a threat to their security in the event of Spanish troops landing in Ireland. Charles bought the loyalty of the Anglo-Irish by granting them concessions by the king’s “grace” (an end to recusancy fines and the removal of bans on Catholics in the legal profession and


appointment to public office) in return for military support. However, once the danger subsided, persecution of Catholics resumed. It was clear the King’s promises could not be trusted.

• Wentworth was sent to Ireland as Lord Deputy in 1633. His mandate from the King was to make his control over Ireland effective by extending law and order and promoting the Church of England in Ireland. He was to reverse the situation by which expenditure on Ireland had outstripped income from it by £20 000 a year, by bringing in money from customs and the development of industry and trade. He had defeated his political opposition by playing off the “New English” against the “Old English”. The four Courts (High Commission, Wards and Livery, Castle Chamber, and the Commission for Defective Titles) pursued Laud’s church policies, regained impropriated tithes, exacted feudal revenue, hounded political opponents and pressed the royal claim to lands. Wentworth also had success in trebling the size of the Irish army and giving it better training and equipment, and developing the navy as a means of protecting maritime trade.


• Wentworth’s advocacy of Laud’s policy in Ireland secured the enmity of the New English, bolstered by the Scottish Presbyterian settlers, and had the undesirable effect of strengthening links between the New English and the Protestant opposition to Charles in England. Similarly, the English governing class felt sympathy for the Scottish cause against Charles’s imposition of the new Prayer Book and he had difficulty raising a willing and effective English army to suppress the Covenanters.

• The Scottish rebellion led to the recall and ennoblement of Wentworth (as Earl of Strafford), but his failure to put down the Scots forced the King to call the English parliament. The English governing class feared Strafford and saw his rule in Ireland as a blueprint for the kind of tyranny Charles would impose on them. The English parliament therefore impeached Strafford and forced the King to have him executed. Wentworth’s removal caused alarm in Ireland at the “hot” Protestantism of the English Parliament and at its sympathy for, and possible collusion with, the Scots. In October 1641, this instability fostered the Irish Rebellion and forced the issue on the English governing class of whether or not the King could be trusted with command of the armed forces. Conflict over this and Charles’s attempted coup by trying to arrest parliament’s leaders eventually led to the outbreak of Civil War in July 1642.


Topic One: Essay Six

Describe the changes brought about by the Restoration Settlement that allowed Charles II to return to the throne in 1660.

Evaluate the influence of Charles II’s return on English society between 1660 and 1667.

The candidate’s response to the first part of the essay question could include: Government

• The monarch’s traditional prerogative powers such as appointment of ministers and veto over parliament were restored. The Triennial Act, House of Lords, and House of Commons in Parliament and local autonomy of the traditional governing class in their counties returned. Prerogative courts such as Star Chamber and the Court of High Commission were not restored. The settlement represented a return to August 1641, making a revival of personal rule impossible. However, the balance of power between King and Parliament remained unclear (eg there was no machinery to implement the Triennial Act).

Civilian Rule

• Most of the New Model Army and navy disbanded. The militia was restored under royal control. Charles accepted the Coldstream regiment as a personal bodyguard, but there was to be no standing army.

Amnesty for former opponents

• “Pardon, Indemnity, and Oblivion”: a general indemnity with 30 exclusions. The amnesty was considered moderate and reasonable.

Land

• Church and crown lands restored. A Commission of Sales was set up to fix compensation for owners of ex-church land. Most royalist families retrieved their land. This left a significant minority aggrieved, but because Charles had left the issue to Parliament they bore the blame.

Religion

• At Breda, Charles promised liberty of Conscience; he hoped for a “comprehensive” church.

• An Anglican Church with King as head and including bishops and a Book of Common Prayer was restored.

• Bishops were restored to the House of Lords. Church courts revived. Anglican ministers dispossessed or ejected during the Interregnum were returned. MPs were required to take communion according to Anglican rite. Lay domination by gentry revived.

• The “Clarendon Code” ensured that the Church could act against dissent. - Corporation Act 1661 (all those holding municipal office to take oaths of allegiance and supremacy, receive

Anglican Holy Communion). - Act of Uniformity 1662 (all ministers to be ordained by Bishops and declare conformity to new prayer book

and 39 Articles; at least 1 800 failed to conform and were deprived of their livings). - Quaker Act 1662 (no more than five could meet). - Conventicle Act 1664. - Five Mile Act 1665.

• Charles had hoped for a more comprehensive and tolerant church and was disappointed. Any deviation from Anglican worship was seen as a threat to stability. Dissenters were driven underground by the Clarendon Code.

Finance

• Prerogative taxes used in the era of personal rule remained abolished. There were unsuccessful attempts to provide an income, eg the Hearth Tax. Royal finances remained insufficient for the king to live “of his own”. Parliament still had an unrealistic idea of his needs. The unpopular Hearth Tax of 1661 faced more evasion than subsidies had decades before. By 1665, annual royal income was between £850,000 and £1.1 million but annual expenditure was £1.25 million.


• Interregnum governments had failed to impose stability and order that was acceptable to the majority of the traditional ruling class. With the return of Charles, the ruling class recaptured central and local government. It was a restoration of the ancient constitution and a system of government based on co-operation between the King and the governing class. Although relations between the King and Parliament remained difficult at times, Charles – determined “not to go on his travels again” – tended to compromise. Parliament could frustrate Charles’s policy but could not replace it with its own policy.

• With Charles’s return, fears of continuing civil war and religious extremism were quelled. Twenty years of political and religious upheaval and unpopular military rule had ended. There was a wave of rejoicing and goodwill in mid-1660, with the deliberately orchestrated progress seeming to herald a return to a more normal, ordered, and stable world. The older generation looked forward to the restoration of a “natural ruler”, less expensive government and traditional customs.

• Charles II appeared different from his late father in important ways. He interfered less in the daily matters of government and avoided the problems created by his father, who made agreements then swiftly broke them.


Charles was mature, shrewd, and a patron of science and learning. He restored the mystique of monarchy (healing scrofula). He inherited enormous goodwill, nostalgia, and hope for a better world from English society.

• French taste and elegance replaced Puritan austerity in English society. Elaborate decorative furniture, coaches, and pleasure boats became fashionable. Court life became merry and decadent, with prolific drinking, gambling, and the king carousing with mistresses.

• However, the initial period of social harmony and satisfaction soon faded. When war with the Dutch was restarted in 1665, the Dutch navy humiliated the English. 1665 and 1666 saw the Plague and Great Fire of London. Disenchantment spilled over with the widespread belief that God was punishing the English. Edward Hyde (Earl of Clarendon), the chief minister in Charles’s government, was blamed and brought down amongst bitter recriminations by factions opposed to him.


Content Guidelines Topic Two: New Zealand in the Nineteenth Century Topic Two: Essay One

Describe the developments between 1800 and 1840 that led to New Zealand being linked to the outside world. Evaluate the extent to which M ori societies were changed as a result of these links during this time.

The candidate’s response to the first part of essay question could include: The links between New Zealand and the outside world were centred mainly on the following areas:

• Whaling: Plenty of contact as M ori worked on whaling ships and travelled to London, Sydney, and Hobart. These M ori whalers weren’t always well treated, but they learned a great deal about the world outside New Zealand. Ngai Tahu ran its own whaling boats. The Bay of Islands was frequently the location of stopovers for whalers. Many negotiated for sex with M ori women. The whalers also wanted water, food, and timber. Kororareka became notorious and was known as the “hell hole of the South Pacific”. Along the east coast from Mahia all the way to Stewart Island there were shore-based whaling stations. Intermarriage between P keh whalers and M ori women was very common. M ori also became very involved in shore-based whaling.

• Sealing: There was some contact between sealers and M ori and some intermarriage especially in the Deep South around Stewart Island. Sealing ships came from Hobart, Sydney, Britain, and the United States. The majority of the sealers were American. M ori in Murihiku (Southland) and on Stewart Island and Ruapuke provided food and labour.

• The timber trade: This was concentrated largely in the far north, especially Hokianga. M ori benefited from ship building as capital was pumped into the hap associated with the ship builders. Thomas McDonnell’s shipyard at Te Horeke came under the mana of Te Taonui of Te Mahurehure (New Zealand Historical Atlas).

• Traders: Most of the traders that visited New Zealand during this period did so erratically, but some Europeans settled in New Zealand in order to be traders. Often they worked as agents of trading companies based in Sydney. Some came under pretty tight M ori control but they were important mediators between M ori and the outside world.

• Intermarriage: Many M ori women who had either permanent or temporary relationships with P keh men served as important links between the cultures.

• Missionary contact with M ori: As a result of a European evangelical revival, the Church Missionary Society (Anglican) established their mission in Rangihoua in the Bay of Islands in 1814. Their initial plan was to civilise M ori in order to evangelise them. The Methodist (or Wesleyan) mission began in Whangaroa in 1823 and the Catholic Mission was established at Kororareka in 1838 after the arrival of the Frenchman, Bishop Pompallier.

• The increasing involvement of the British Crown in New Zealand, despite their reluctance to be involved and the relationship between the crown and M ori. Early M ori links with NSW Governors; chiefs Hongi and Waikato met King George IV in 1820; the Elizabeth Affair, Busby and the Declaration of Independence; Captain Hobson as Lieutenant Governor.

• The growing importance of the musket and its impact on M ori warfare. The musket wars made M ori far more dependent on P keh traders than they had been initially. This was a significant change as M ori had initially had considerable control over the P keh traders.

• The changes that occurred to M ori warfare as a result of the musket wars and the changes that occurred to relations between M ori and P keh as a result. P keh became crucial to survival as a source of weapons for this new form of warfare.

The candidate’s response to the second part of essay question could include:

• Significant change in the lifestyles of many M ori as they embraced aspects of European life, marrying European men and adopting and adapting their tools, artefacts, and weapons etc. for their own use.

• M ori agency was at work during this period as M ori took P keh goods and ideas and used them for their own reasons and spread them amongst themselves.

• Many M ori in certain areas at certain times suffered from disease because of lack of immunity.

• The impact of Missionary Christianity on M ori. This was a significant impact as it changed the world views of many Maori. Initially, very few M ori converted to Christianity as Hongi Hika dominated the missionaries. (He may have protected the missionaries in order to give the Bay of Islands a reputation for peace, which might enhance the amount of trade that took place in the region.) In the 1830s, thousands of M ori converted to Christianity. (Candidates are likely to discuss the views of different historians concerning this issue. High-performing candidates will do so in a manner that focuses on the impact of Christianity on M ori rather than a long download of historiography. Some may discuss the importance of literacy in M ori conversion). By 1840, many M ori had begun to develop their own versions of Christianity, which in some cases rejected missionary interpretations of the Bible.


• Musket wars – 20 000 killed. A new type of warfare for the old reasons. This had a huge impact on M ori societies. In many cases, this led to migration from traditional lands.

• P keh involvement in inter-tribal affairs (eg Elizabeth Affair) had a very significant impact on the M ori world.

• There was an exchange of ideas and beliefs during this period. It was a two-way process, eg P keh imitated M ori medicine as well as vice versa.

• Pan-tribalism developed during this period (eg the Declaration of Independence) as some M ori began to unite in response to outside influences. This was to become much more significant in the post-Treaty period.


Topic Two: Essay Two

Describe the different methods through which M ori provided resistance to P keh colonisation and land acquisition between 1860 and 1900.

Evaluate the effectiveness of these methods on the retention of M ori land and authority during this time.

The candidate’s response to the first part of essay question could include: M ori military resistance in the 1860s

• Resistance led by Wiremu Kingi of Te Ati Awa in 1860–61 in order to defend tribal land and sovereignty in Taranaki from attacks from Governor Gore-Browne and British troops. Initially this resistance involved obstructing surveyors and then both a defensive and offensive war. The defensive war involved building and defending purpose-built pa and the offensive war involved raids on P keh and their possessions.

• Kingitanga’s resistance in order to protect the King’s territory from the invasion of the British Army in 1863 and 1864. Waikato M ori believed that the Treaty of Waitangi guaranteed their rangatiratanga over their land. Kingitanga was able to rally the support of at least 15 of the 26 major tribal groupings in the North Island. M ori resistance began with attacks on the builders of the Great South Road and on settlers and their property. It involved the building of a defensive line centred upon the Meremere pa. When this was abandoned, the Kingites built a major fortification at Rangiriri and after defeat there, they concentrated their efforts on the development of the Paterangi Line of defence. General Cameron bypassed this line and attacked Rangiaowhia. The final resistance of this war was led by Rewi Maniapoto of Ng ti Maniapoto, who suffered defeat at Orakau. Although Kingitanga survived the War, the Crown confiscated one million acres of land as Tawhiao and his followers sought refuge on the south side of the Puniu River in what became known as the King Country.

• Some iwi in the Bay of Plenty had supported Kingitanga in the Waikato War and continued resistance near the Tauranga Harbour in 1864. Rawiri Puhirake of Ngai te Rangi and his supporters fought two major battles, winning a famous victory at Gate Pa before losing at Te Ranga.

• M ori resistance at this stage was carried on by M ori prophet leaders and guerrilla fighters such as Te Ua Haumene, Riwha Titokowaru and Te Kooti Arikirangi. Titokowaru’s campaign concentrated on the return of confiscated land in South Taranaki. Te Kooti’s war started when he escaped from the Chatham Islands and led raids on his M ori and P keh enemies on the East Coast of the North Island and then further inland.

• Candidates may emphasise the changing nature of M ori military resistance, drawing on the work of Belich about the development of the “modern pa”.

P keh did not win the battles in the New Zealand Wars as easily as they had expected, but the laws that followed the wars enforced political dominance over M ori and legislated for the confiscation of large tracts of North Island M ori land. M ori resistance to their continued marginalisation took on new forms in the 1870s and onwards. These included:

• M ori independence. M ori in Tuhoe territory and in the King Country isolated themselves from P keh and established totally independent zones of tribal authority. The Pai Marire and Ringatu faiths continued to develop during this period and presented M ori with another forum through which they could express their independence.

• Other M ori maintained and pursued mana through seeking unity or kotahitanga in order to have their grievances heard. In the 1890s, Ng Puhi organised Te Kotahitanga o te Tiriti o Waitangi (the Unity of the Treaty of Waitangi). The first Kotahitanga parliament met in Hawke’s Bay in 1892.

• The King Movement also attempted to establish a parliament in the 1890s. Its first meeting was held in 1892.

• M ori who sought unity attempted to have their grievances dealt with using the court system (eg Matua’s Repudiation Movement).

• There were two major attempts to petition Queen Victoria to have the promises of Te Tiriti of Waitangi reinstated and for forms of M ori government to be legitimised. One delegation was led by Ng Puhi chiefs in 1882 and the other by King Tawhiao in 1884.

• The most famous example of non-violent resistance was led by Te Whiti o Rongomai and Tohu Kakahi at Parihaka in Taranaki. In 1881, the Native Minister led 1500 Armed Constabulary and volunteers to arrest the leaders and partially destroy the settlement.

The candidate’s response to the second part of essay question could include: Candidates might evaluate the success of different forms and examples of M ori resistance. They could also refer to some of these ideas:

• M ori resistance in the period 1860–1900 ultimately failed to prevent the establishment of P keh sovereignty over New Zealand and the alienation of M ori land. The main examples of military resistance in Taranaki and especially in the Waikato were unsuccessful because M ori were outnumbered and were unable to cope with the technological advantages that their enemies had. The attempts that M ori made to use the P keh system to make petitions and take court cases concerning their situation largely fell on deaf ears. By the end of the nineteenth century, many iwi were more marginalised and impoverished than they had ever been.


• M ori fought on both sides in some of the conflicts of the New Zealand Wars, so for some M ori resistance led to division and hurt within iwi.

• M ori resistance was the key to pan-tribalism. James Belich goes as far as to say that the need for M ori to pull together led to the creation of a M ori nation for the first time. The creation of a “them” he argues, led to the need for an “us”.

• M ori resistance was important for cultural survival. Iwi who resisted the most and remained the most autonomous were in many cases the most prominent and strongest iwi by the end of the century.


Topic Two: Essay Three

Describe developments in New Zealand’s gold industry between 1861 and 1900. Evaluate the social, political and economic impact of gold on the lives of nineteenth-century New Zealanders.

The candidate’s response to the first part of essay question could include:

• There were rumours of gold in New Zealand as early as the 1820s, but it is usually accepted that the first gold discovery by a European was near Coromandel in 1852. There were later discoveries in Golden Bay (1856), Otago (1861), Marlborough (1864), and the West Coast of the South Island (1864). Significant rushes occurred only on the Coromandel Peninsula, the West Coast, and Otago.

• The discovery by Gabriel Read in Otago sparked the first major rush in New Zealand. Gabriel’s Gully instantly became a canvas town. This was followed by the rush to Dunstan, which was sparked by the discovery of Irishman Christopher Reilly and American Horatio Hartley.

• The discovery of gold substantially and very quickly altered the course of New Zealand’s colonial history. The main period of extraction was from 1861–1865 in Otago, but there were also sustained periods of extraction in Nelson / Marlborough, Thames / Coromandel / Hauraki, and the West Coast of the South Island.

• 194 000 settlers came to New Zealand in the 1860s, largely to find gold or to make money as part of the huge support industry of publicans, theatre managers, store keepers, dancing girls, bankers, etc that followed the miners.

• Most migrants in this period were male, unmarried, and young. This led to a huge gender imbalance on the goldfields. The migrants were very multicultural. The Irish influx into Presbyterian Otago was described as “the new inequity”.

• The search for gold was a worldwide phenomenon. Many of New Zealand’s gold miners had mined in California, Victoria, and New South Wales. When they left New Zealand, many of the miners went on to Queensland, Western Australia, or South Africa.

• The gold rush brought Chinese and non-British Europeans to New Zealand in large numbers for the first time.

• The method of gold mining changed depending on the region in which the gold was being mined. In Otago and the West Coast of the South Island, the gold was extracted through the washing of alluvial gravels, silts and sand with simple cradles and sluice boxes (individuals), then with hydraulic sluicing systems using water races, pipes and hoses (groups), and then with massive dredges that worked whole river beds (companies). On the Hauraki fields, the method of extraction was to crush gold bearing quartz. This was no place for the individual miner. Local and overseas investors formed companies to raise the capital needed. Most of the gold that was found after 1870 was extracted by companies who paid the individual miners to work for them.

• Many Otago miners believed that there must be a mother lode – a hard rock source of gold at the start of the river. At Skipper’s Canyon, Bendigo and Macetown, rich veins were found and worked. Otago’s schist contained quartz reefs that contained gold and rivers and glaciers had ground away at it over thousands of years so there was often higher concentration on gold beneath the rivers and glaciers. There was no mother lode.


• A few lucky prospectors become rich out of gold, but others perished in winter floods and sharp snowstorms. Others developed scurvy because of their poor diets, which were often just tea and flour.

• Gold was a “boom and bust” industry, an unstable economic activity. Historians debate the importance of the gold rush to New Zealand’s history. Some argue that the impact of the gold rushes was relatively limited because they were very concentrated in terms of time and location. Most miners who came to New Zealand left again. Others, like Belich, disagree. They point out that right around the Pacific gold-mining rim there was a drop off and that a large group of gold miners and members of the support industry stayed in New Zealand. Their values and aspirations were very important in the shaping of New Zealand society.

• The discovery of gold opened up previously unsettled areas for settlement. It led to the rapid establishment of transport routes. At the peak of the West Coast gold rush, in 1867, there were about 29 000 people on the West Coast, which was around 12% of New Zealand’s P keh population. Surveyors quickly followed the miners into new areas for settlement.

• Gold led to major demographic changes in New Zealand in terms of gender, ethnicity, and location.

• Many of the migrants who came for gold brought positive attitudes to hard work and versatile skills. They brought a different culture to many of the settlers with an emphasis on alcohol and gambling.

• Gold contributed significantly to the economic and political dominance of the South Island during the second half of the nineteenth century. It led to further rivalry between the provinces. The Canterbury provincial council offered £1 000 to anyone who found gold within the Canterbury province.

• Gold also provided an incentive for foreign investors to put money into the New Zealand economy including the Vogel Plan.

• Most of the gold went overseas, mainly to mints in Melbourne, but much of the money that was paid for it went back into the New Zealand economy. The capital created by gold led to economic expansion in the 1870s.


• Gold created a sense of optimism about New Zealand’s future at a time when the North Island was experiencing considerable racial tension and war.

• In 1865, Chinese mainly from the Guangdong province were invited to rework the Otago goldfields. They were very meticulous. They were the first large group of non-European migrants to come to New Zealand. They were the subjects of overt racism that culminated in a poll tax being introduced in 1881 to discourage migration. They lived in their own settlements, such as the Lawrence Chinese Camp. Most hoped to earn enough money to return to China, but many died in New Zealand. A large group were disinterred to be buried back in China, but the boat carrying their bodies sank off the Hokianga in 1902.

• At times, the 1860s goldfields were lawless. There were murders, fights and claim-jumping. Most of the problems were associated with alcohol. At Christmas 1865, Hokitika’s 72 pubs were packed with drunken miners. Illegal liquor suppliers were common.


Topic Two: Essay Four

Describe the changes that took place in New Zealand’s demographics and settlement patterns in the nineteenth century.

Evaluate the influence of these changes on the lives of nineteenth-century New Zealanders.

The candidate’s response to the first part of essay question could include: Changes to M ori population numbers

• 1800–1840: A period of some decline in M ori population from an 1800 estimate of between 86 000–100 000 in 1800 to an estimate of 70 000–90 000 in 1840. Significant depopulation took place in some areas of high contact with P keh . As many as 20 000 M ori may have died in the musket wars; others died as a result of tuberculosis, the measles, and influenza.

• 1840–1874: A period of rapid decline in the M ori population (47 330 in 1874) due to epidemics, a drop in M ori fertility rates (a hangover from the males that were killed in the musket wars), increasing numbers of P keh , war and confiscation.

• 1874–1900: A stabilising of the M ori population due to increased fertility and increasing immunity. The more able candidates might question the reliability of the statistics concerning nineteenth-century M ori population numbers. Pre-contact and pre-Treaty estimates have varied significantly. The statistics from the later part of the nineteenth century also need to be treated with caution. It seems likely that more M ori had an opportunity to register for the census in the 1890s than they had earlier. P keh population numbers

• In 1840, the P keh population was about 2000.

• Between 1840 and 1858, there was a steady increase (59 413 in 1858). This was the era of the Wakefield settlements. Young men were also attracted to New Zealand. Some population growth due to natural increase. In 1858, the M ori and P keh populations were roughly equal.

• 1858–1881 saw a very rapid increase in the P keh population (487 889 in 1881) due to the gold rush and the implementation of Vogel’s Plan. Natural increase still accounted for 61 percent of the population’s growth.

• During the “Long Depression” of the 1880s, there was some much-heralded out-migration. More people left New Zealand than arrived in 1888. Despite this, New Zealand’s population kept growing through natural increase.

North Island or South Island dominance?

• Until the 1860s, most people lived in the North Island. Two-thirds of the M ori population lived north of Taupo, and most migrants went to either the Wakefield settlements or to Auckland.

• 1860–1890 was a period of “Middle Island ascendancy” as the gold rush, pastoralism, and Vogel attracted settlers to the South Island. War in the North Island also helped the growth of the P keh population of the South Island.

• By 1896, the North Island was dominant again. The effects of the “Long Depression” were more acutely obvious in the South and the timber industry, refrigeration, and confiscation had opened up the North Island for farming. The last major gold strike was in the Coromandel region.

Rural or Urban?

• There was gradual urbanisation of the P keh population; but even by 1900, P keh New Zealand was still largely rural (54.4 percent in 1901).

Other Settlement Patterns

• Till 1840, most P keh lived on the coastal North Island. Many were itinerant and most, if not all, had a close relationship with M ori. Some were “Pakeha-Maori”: missionaries, sealers, whalers, traders, or worked in timber industry, etc.

• 1840–1860 saw the development of small-scale coastal settlements. These were the planned Wakefield settlements and Auckland. Pastoralism began in the hinterland beyond these settlements.

• 1860–1900 was the period of great territorial expansion of much wider P keh settlement with large waves of South Island immigration and the development of inland towns and cities in Waikato, Manawatu, and Taranaki. This P keh expansion was largely due to confiscation, refrigeration, the timber industry and the railways.

Gender

• For the whole of the nineteenth century, P keh men outnumbered women, although this gradually levelled out as the “womb overtook the ship” as the main determinant of New Zealand’s population. There were 622 females for every 1000 males in 1861 and 900 for every 1000 males in 1901.



• Disease and war led to significant dislocation for M ori in many areas.

• The swamping of the M ori population occurred because of the rapidly increasing size of the P keh population. This put pressure on colonial governments to take control of M ori land through war and confiscation. P keh dominance in population “legitimised” legislation that advantaged settlers over M ori as “democratic”.

• The population of the South Island led to “middle island ascendancy” and significant political power to Otago and especially Canterbury during the Provincial era.

• “Atomisation”: Evaluation of Miles Fairburn’s theory of atomisation. The P keh population primarily functioning as individuals due to the nature of the immigration experience and the immigrants that New Zealand attracted.

• “A Man’s Country”: Evaluation of Jock Phillips’ view of nineteenth-century New Zealand being a male-dominated community (“Truth by numbers”). Perhaps regional statistics are more significant than national statistics when looking at social history. Caversham (Dunedin) and some suburbs of Auckland had more women than men for much of the nineteenth century.

• The gradual levelling out of the gender ratio led to the “settling down” of the New Zealand male. The beginning of the end for the “frontier society”.

• The importance of land: Because of their rural background and events such as the clearances that they had experienced before migrating to New Zealand, many migrants wanted New Zealand to provide them with an independent living on the land. These immigrants longed for access to the land that they believed was being monopolised by M ori in the North Island and large estate holders in the South.

• Because so many of New Zealand’s immigrants came from rural areas and settled in rural areas, they were suspicious of the cities and of work in factories. Many had chosen to come to New Zealand rather than move to British cities. They were determined to make sure that New Zealand didn’t suffer from the “Old World evils” that had existed in Britain.


Topic Two: Essay Five

Describe the changes that occurred in the New Zealand economy in the 1880s that created the “Long Depression”. Evaluate the impact of these economic changes on New Zealand society and politics.


• By the end of the 1870s, the bottom had fallen out of the international wool and wheat markets. Belich describes the 1880s depression as the “long stagnation”, a period in which the New Zealand economy was forced to adjust and find new goods and markets.

• The overseas market for Kauri gum and timber was erratic, and the amount of gold production was decreasing.

• Government credit had fuelled the economic growth of the 1870s. When this ended, the economy went into recession. High export prices had justified all the borrowing of the early 1870s, but by the end of the decade the politicians had lost their nerve. Vogel was replaced by Harry Atkinson as Treasurer. Atkinson believed that the pace of change had been too quick and that borrowing should be restricted. Government activity slowed down, but New Zealand was still burdened with a huge overseas debt that had been incurred in the 1870s.

• Britain suffered from a state of depression from the mid-1870s. This had a major impact on New Zealand that was closely linked to Britain. The City Bank of Glasgow collapsed in 1878, and other banks followed. The collapse of the City Bank of Glasgow had a major impact on South Island land sales. This bank had lent money to many South Island farmers.

• In the early 1880s, there was a sudden halt in private investment into New Zealand from Britain. Investors seemed to lose confidence in New Zealand’s “progress” (depression hit Canada and Australia too for similar reasons).

• There was considerable regional variation in the effects of the depression. The South Island, which was more dependent on wool and gold, was hardest hit, and rural people suffered more negative consequences than those in urban areas. Urban manufacturing continued to grow but probably more slowly from the middle of the 1880s.

• Some historians such as Gary Hawke have argued that if we accept the commonly accepted definition (a real decline in income), there wasn’t actually a depression in the 1880s. They provide evidence that prices fell as quickly as wages. Most historians emphasise the impact of the depression. This included bankruptcy, unemployment, out-migration, with more people leaving New Zealand than arriving, and an increase in sweated labour with male workers being replaced with cheaper labour (women and children).


• The economic changes of the 1880s led to political instability and to a growth in class consciousness. Many settlers came to resent the misleading propaganda of New Zealand as a paradise for workers and investors.

• The sweating scandals of the 1880s, which had been largely confined to Dunedin, had a big impact on national politics. P keh New Zealanders were shocked that these Old World evils had made their way to New Zealand.

• This led to the election of the Liberal Government in 1890. (It actually took until 1891 for this unlikely alliance of left- and right-of-centre, rural and urban MPs to scratch together a government.)

• The Liberals are supposedly New Zealand’s first political party; but, were the previous administrations really as “continuous” as the Liberals made out? The various ministries of the 1870s and 1880s had quite different policies. It has been argued that the phrase “continuous ministry” was coined by the Liberals when they were in power so that they could blame the non-Liberals for everything that had happened in the past.

• The Liberals gained enough support to put through a legislative programme (the so-called “social laboratory”), which included old-age pensions, advances to settlers, new standards for working conditions, breaking up the “great estates” (both South Island P keh and North Island M ori) and industrial arbitration, but how radical were they really? Their sympathy for the underdog didn’t extend to M ori. M ori were denied the advances given to settlers and were only eligible to half the old-age pension. McKenzie’s land policies led to the huge amounts of M ori land loss in the North Island.

• It has also been argued that the much-heralded “closer settlement” legislation of the Liberals might not have been as significant as McKenzie claimed. Private subdivision opened up much more land than state repurchase. The Government was offered much more land than it bought. This eagerness to sell was due to the fact that the estates were often heavily mortgaged and the depression had reduced the value of the land. The invention of refrigeration made smaller farms economically viable.

• Important Liberal reforms that the candidate could refer to include: Labour

• Truck Act 1891, meant that truckies had to be paid in cash not in kind.

• Department of Labour created to inspect factories and help people find work.

• Factories Act 1894 restricted working hours for women and children, set holiday entitlements, and ensured the safety of the workers in the work place.


• Industrial Conciliation and Arbitration Act 1894 provided a mechanism for the settlement of industrial disputes.

Land

• Land and Income Tax 1891.

• Department of Agriculture developed to educate farmers 1892.

• Lands for Settlement Act 1892 empowered the state to buy land for resettling small farmers.

• Advances to Settlers Act 1894 – enabled P keh farmers to develop their land.

• Large-scale M ori land purchases. Social changes

• Old age pensions were set up by the Liberals in 1898.

• Women were given full suffrage in 1893 under the Liberals (and despite its Premier’s stalling tactics).

• Equal grounds for divorce for both men and women 1898. Political / economic

• James Carroll became the first M ori Native Minister 1899.

• The Liberals fought and won a battle against the governor’s interference in national politics. Liberals were therefore seen as more democratic and more responsive to the people.

• The Legislative council or Upper House was by and large an anachronism by this stage, and the Liberals reduced their powers even more.


Topic Two: Essay Six

Describe some of the changing values, fears and aspirations that different groups of P keh had in the nineteenth century. Evaluate the extent to which the values, fears and aspirations of P keh had shaped New Zealand society by

1900.


• Many migrants to New Zealand dreamed of owning their own land. Land was a commodity that many had found hard to obtain in Britain. Land in New Zealand would provide security for settlers’ families.

• Many migrants were also suspicious of urbanisation. In many cases, they had chosen to make the long migration journey to New Zealand instead of joining those who were migrating from rural to urban areas in order to find jobs brought about by industrialisation. Cities were associated with “Old World evils”. Migrating to New Zealand was supposed to enable one’s family to avoid sweating, urban poverty, unemployment and work houses.

• Many migrants came to New Zealand as a result of government assistance. It has been argued that this established an expectation among New Zealand’s settlers that government would be involved in different aspects of people’s lives.

• Most migrants were Eurocentric. They believed that the European (especially the British) way of life was best. The historian Rollo Arnold has shown that the way in which settlers thought was shaped more by their experiences of “home” than their experience in New Zealand.

• Most settlers brought with them beliefs and values that had been shaped by their Christian religion. Church played an important part in the lives of nineteenth century New Zealand P keh .

• Many migrants hoped that New Zealand would be egalitarian, a place where it was easy to get ahead quickly because “Jack was as good as his master”. It was supposed to be a workers’ paradise.

• Some female migrants saw New Zealand as a “bride’s paradise”, where they would quickly be able to be married and experience upward social mobility.

• Most had been led to believe that New Zealand was a land of great plenty.

• Different groups of migrants brought different values depending on the circumstances of their migration. Some New Zealand Company settlers to Otago and Canterbury brought expectations of Free Church Presbyterian and Anglican utopias. Gold miners had a totally different set of values, which involved a desire to strike it lucky and take part in a mate-ship culture that had its own set of well-established if unwritten rules.

• Settlers who came as part of the Wakefield plan were probably more committed to the continuation of a class system than those who came later. Wakefield had planned for a “vertical slice” of Britain to be transplanted into New Zealand and although this was never realised in the manner he had hoped, those who found themselves at the top of the ladder (including early pastoralists) were quick to put in place structures and activities that allowed them to express their status.


• The desire of P keh migrants to own land and the attitudes that settlers brought with them about land ownership clashed violently with the attitude that M ori had towards land. Settler notions of racial superiority also contributed to the wars that broke out in the 1860s. These wars and the legislation that followed had a very significant impact on the New Zealand that had developed by 1900.

• It was much harder for migrants at certain times to fulfil their landowning ambitions because of the enormous estates that were owned by a small group of South Island P keh farmers (“the maharajahs of merino”) and North Island M ori.

• The depression of the 1880s underlined the gaps that existed between the expectations of P keh settlers and reality. The depression led to social unrest and a growth in class consciousness. Settlers came to realise that governmental intervention was necessary to close the gap between their expectations of a prosperous life in New Zealand and the reality of their situation. This led to the election of the Liberal Government. Their programme of legislation allowed for the machinery of the state to be used to create “god’s own country”. It included old-age pensions, health and safety regulations for factories and shops, the establishing of a process for industrial arbitration and conciliation, and legislation that opened up both M ori and P keh land for small-scale agricultural farming. It could be argued that these things were a direct result of the attitudes and values of settlers.

• Miles Fairburn sees the desire of P keh settlers to get ahead in New Zealand as contributing to an “atomised” New Zealand that lacked strong community bonds.

assessment schedule – 2007 history: examine a significant

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