associating brands to nations: why and...

UPPSALA UNIVERSITET

Department of Business Studies

Bachelor Thesis

2010-01-07

Associating Brands to Nations:

Why and How?

- A Case Study of Orrefors Kosta Boda

Authors: Sylvia Fridjonsson

Emma Mersmann

Advisor: Cecilia Pahlberg

Acknowledgements

We would like to express how thankful we are for the guidance and support we have received

throughout the process of writing this thesis from our advisor, Cecilia Pahlberg, and our

fellow students. Furthermore, we are grateful for Orrefors Kosta Boda‟s participation in this

process. Without the active involvement of Lars Westman, Andreas Ravelli and Lena

Bergström, we would not have been able to successfully complete this study.

Uppsala universitet, Sweden

January 7th

, 2010

Sylvia Fridjonsson Emma Mersmann

Abstract

As globalization has contributed to the increased availability of foreign products across global

markets, it is nowadays believed by some that a prerequisite for being able to compete on

increased competitive levels is to adapt a global perspective. In this sense, marketing

strategies aimed at promoting brands and products must be designed to function even on a

global scale. Whereas it has in the past been useful to associate brands and products to

specific nations in order to create an exotic appeal, it is questionable if such a marketing

strategy would be of use today.

With this in mind, this thesis aims to answer why associating a brand to a nation would be

used as a marketing strategy and how such an association would be expressed in practice by

having performed a single case-study of the company of Orrefors Kosta Boda and its two

brands‟ marketing activities.

What this study concludes is that the main reason as to why Orrefors Kosta Boda‟s two

brands are associated to Swedish attributes, which are both positive and unique, is that there is

a belief that this strategy allows the brands to be differentiated from other brands, and hence

increases both brands‟ equity. In addition, this study concludes that associations to Swedish

attributes are developed by using a combination of two strategies, namely those of the

country-of-origin strategy which serves to emphasize upon the products‟ Swedish origin in

terms of production and quality, and the culture-of-brand-origin strategy which is aimed at

communicating culture-based symbolic attributes assigned to, amongst many, the brands‟

heritages.

Keywords: Brand Identity, Core Identity, Extended Identity, Country-of-Origin,

Culture-of-Brand-Origin

1 INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................................................................. 1

1.1 BACKGROUND ................................................................................................................................................... 1 1.2 PROBLEM DISCUSSION ........................................................................................................................................ 1 1.3 RESEARCH QUESTION ......................................................................................................................................... 2 1.4 RESEARCH OBJECTIVE ......................................................................................................................................... 2 1.5 LIMITATIONS ..................................................................................................................................................... 2 1.6 STRUCTURE OF THE THESIS .................................................................................................................................. 3

2 LITERATURE REVIEW ..................................................................................................................................... 4

2.1 MARKETING STRATEGIES ..................................................................................................................................... 4 2.1.1 Branding as a Marketing Strategy ........................................................................................................ 5

2.2 THE BRAND-BUILDING PROCESS ........................................................................................................................... 6 2.2.1 Brand Identity ....................................................................................................................................... 6

2.3 ASSOCIATING BRANDS TO NATIONS – A BRANDING STRATEGY ................................................................................... 7 2.3.1 Country-of-Origin .................................................................................................................................. 8 2.3.2 Culture-of-Brand-Origin ........................................................................................................................ 9

2.4 THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK ............................................................................................................................... 11

3 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY ......................................................................................................................... 12

3.1 RESEARCH PLAN .............................................................................................................................................. 12 3.2 SAMPLE SELECTION .......................................................................................................................................... 12

3.2.1 Choice of Research Object .................................................................................................................. 12 3.2.2 Respondents ....................................................................................................................................... 13

3.3 DATA COLLECTION METHOD .............................................................................................................................. 14 3.3.1 Documentation ................................................................................................................................... 14 3.3.2 Interviews ........................................................................................................................................... 14

3.4 DATA ANALYSIS ............................................................................................................................................... 15 3.5 CRITIQUE OF METHODOLOGY ............................................................................................................................. 15

4 EMPIRICAL RESULTS AND DATA ANALYSIS .................................................................................................. 17

4.1 THE BRAND-BUILDING PROCESS OF THE BRANDS OF ORREFORS KOSTA BODA ............................................................. 17 4.1.1 Brand Audit ......................................................................................................................................... 17 4.1.2 The Brand Identities of Orrefors and Kosta Boda ............................................................................... 18

4.2 ENHANCING THE IDENTITIES OF ORREFORS AND KOSTA BODA – ASSOCIATING THE BRANDS TO SWEDEN .......................... 19 4.2.1 Country-of-Origin ................................................................................................................................ 20 4.2.2 Culture-of-Brand-Origin ...................................................................................................................... 20

5 DISCUSSION ................................................................................................................................................. 22

6 CONCLUSION AND FURTHER RESEARCH ...................................................................................................... 25

6.1 CONCLUSION .................................................................................................................................................. 25 6.2 SUGGESTIONS FOR FURTHER RESEARCH ............................................................................................................... 25

7 REFERENCES ................................................................................................................................................ 27

APPENDIX I A: INTERVIEW QUESTIONS FOR LARS WESTMAN, MARKETING DIRECTOR .................................. 30

APPENDIX I B: INTERVIEW QUESTIONS FOR LARS WESTMAN, MARKETING DIRECTOR (ENGLISH TRANSLATION) ............................................................................................................................................... 32

APPENDIX II A: INTERVIEW QUESTIONS FOR ANDREAS RAVELLI, EXPORT SALES MANAGER .......................... 34

APPENDIX II B: INTERVIEW QUESTIONS FOR ANDREAS RAVELLI, EXPORT SALES MANAGER (ENGLISH TRANSLATION) ............................................................................................................................................... 35

APPENDIX III A: INTERVIEW QUESTIONS FOR LENA BERGSTRÖM, ORREFORS DESIGNER ............................... 36

APPENDIX III B: INTERVIEW QUESTIONS FOR LENA BERGSTRÖM, ORREFORS DESIGNER (ENGLISH TRANSLATION) ............................................................................................................................................... 37

Associating Brands to Nations Fridjonsson & Mersmann

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1 Introduction

In this introductory part of the thesis, a basic background discussion regarding globalization

and its consequences will be held. Following this is a problem discussion which seeks to

deeper analyze the implications of globalization on marketing strategies. This, in turn, will

make way for the presentations of this study’s research question as well as research objective.

1.1 Background

Although there exist some discussions about whether or not globalization is a „new‟

phenomenon, or maybe even more profoundly, regarding what the concept of globalization

actually entails, there is little doubt as to whether or not globalization, so far, has influenced

many aspects of the world's societies (Dicken, 2003, p. 10). With this in mind, even though

simple, the definition of globalization as a "... process by which economic, political, cultural,

social, and other systems of nations are integrated into world sub-systems" (Clark, Hodis, &

D‟Angelo, 2009, p. 28), is relevant as it takes into consideration that it is a variety of societal

aspects, rather than just any single one, which are affected by globalization.

Although many discussions regarding the impact of globalization have been, and still are,

focused to a great extent on the creation of global economies (Ohmae, cited in Dicken 2003,

p.11), many discussions have also been centered around the potential development of global

cultures. As national borders have evolved into being purely physical country outlines and

nation-specific cultures have spilled over those borders, an intertwining of national cultures

has taken place (Friedman, 2007, p. 169). As products, symbols and values have crossed

national borders due to global trade and interaction, the world's preference structure has

become increasingly homogenized (Levitt, cited in Rosenbloom & Haefner, 2009, p, 267). In

terms of products, globalization has increased the availability of foreign products in countries

around the world. Hence, one of the many effects of globalization is reflected in the presence

of foreign goods in stores and markets worldwide (Hammond & Grosse, 2003, p. 285).

1.2 Problem Discussion

With regards to the fact that products are today increasingly available across global markets,

marketers are faced with having to design marketing strategies which are applicable even on a

global scale. In the past, although designed to function under other market conditions than


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those of today, associating brands to nations has been an effective strategy for creating an

exotic appeal for consumers (Usunier & Lee, 2005, p. 265). For instance, people experience a

part of the American lifestyle when they enter a McDonald‟s restaurant, take part of the

French romance when they use a Cacharel perfume, or experience the German gemütlichkeit

as they taste a Löwenbräu beer (Usunier & Lee, 2005, p. 265).

However, as globalization has taken place, marketing strategies have had to be reevaluated,

and possibly even altered in order to see to the changing surroundings (Cayla & Arnould,

2008, p. 86). Although some associations between countries and brands such as Chanel and

France, Swatch watches and Switzerland, Mercedes and Germany can still be made (Aaker,

1996, p. 82), it has nowadays become problematic to establish such associations as the loss of

nation-specific identities (Hammond & Grosse, 2003, p. 286) has decreased the relevance of

marketing a brand‟s origin. In other words, it is questionable whether associating a brand to a

nation is a marketing strategy which should be implemented yet today.

1.3 Research Question

Why would associating a brand to a nation be used as a marketing strategy and how would

such an association be expressed in practice?

1.4 Research Objective

The objective of this thesis is to study why the two brands of Orrefors Kosta Boda AB

(henceforth Orrefors Kosta Boda) are associated to their home nation of Sweden, especially

with regards to what the company believes to be the benefits and/or detriments of doing so.

Furthermore, the thesis aims to study how both brands‟ associations to Sweden are expressed

in actual practice by focusing on the specific strategies used to market these two brands.

1.5 Limitations

This study will not take into consideration the ownership of Orrefors Kosta Boda but rather

focus on its two brands. This is due to the fact that the brands were established and developed

prior to any acquisitions1.

1 Orrefors Kosta Boda was owned by the Danish company Royal Scandinavia between the years of 1996 and

2005 (Kosta Boda, 2009) and is since then owned by The New Wave Group.


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Another limitation to this study is concerned with not seeing to Orrefors Kosta Boda‟s

consumers but to look at the brands and their creation purely out of the company‟s own

perspective. Although the focus does lie on the company it is rather difficult to completely

avoid discussing consumers and consumer behavior as there would be no point in branding, or

marketing at all, if the consumers did not exist and have opinions.

Even though it would be of interest to try to identify a correlation between Orrefors Kosta

Boda‟s branding and the company‟s overall success, both defining what the concept of

success actually implies and being able to see the direct effect of branding on success, would

be rather difficult.

Yet another point to make is that of this study not aiming to generalize its results and make

them applicable to other companies, whether Swedish or not, but to see to the brands of

Orrefors Kosta Boda only.

1.6 Structure of the Thesis

Henceforth, this thesis will entail five major parts; a literature review, a methodology, an

empirical results and data analysis, a discussion and lastly a conclusion.

The literature review part of this thesis develops in complexity as it will start off with an

outline of some of the basic branding theories and will finish off by presenting theories which

combine the concept of branding with that of associating brands to nations. The methodology

part will give both detailed accounts of how this study of Orrefors Kosta Boda was conducted

as well as explain as to why the chosen methods were of the greatest use. In the empirical

results and data analysis part of this thesis, the results of the empirical study will be presented

as well as linked to the theoretical framework provided in the literature review. Following

this, the thesis will be concluded by a discussion concerning the empirical results, in turn,

leading to this study‟s conclusion.


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2 Literature Review

In this literature review part of the thesis, the literature used to explain the concepts applied

within this thesis is presented. This review begins by explaining some basic terms and ideas

associated with branding and brand identities, then continues on by discussing the idea of

associating brands to nations, and finishes by presenting two possible strategies for doing so.

2.1 Marketing Strategies

With the effects of globalization in mind, it has been argued that it is significant for marketing

strategies to take on a more global perspective and to be designed to function on a worldwide

scale (Douglas & Wind, 1987, p. 19). More specifically, global marketing strategies should

focus on developing global products and brands, as the key to success on today's globalized

markets is argued to lie in the standardization of the marketing of both products and brands

(Levitt, cited in Douglas & Wind, 1987, p. 19). The writings of branding gurus and marketing

academics implicitly assume that the principles of building a strong brand are basically the

same across cultures (Cayla & Arnould, 2008, p. 87).

On the other hand, it is reasoned that adapting marketing strategies to local markets is

necessary as different markets are, still today, to some extent characterized by a variety of

preferences. In other words, although some homogenizations of consumer markets have taken

place due to globalization, there still exist specific cultural variables such as history and

geography (Lim & O‟Cass, 2001, p. 122) which contribute to creating variations amongst

markets and consumer behavior (Usunier & Lee 2005, p. 88). On that note, it is argued that

adaptations of products and customizations of marketing strategies to market-specific

characteristics might yield greater returns (Fisher, Kotler, Vedder, cited in Douglas & Wind,

1987, p. 19).

And viewed from yet another perspective, it has been argued that rather than choosing one of

these sides, both marketing strategies can be applied; that standardization should be

implemented only to the point where it is feasible, and that adaptation should take place only

if it is necessary. (Usunier & Lee 2005, p. 248)


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2.1.1 Branding as a Marketing Strategy

One specific type of marketing strategy is that of branding; a strategy aimed at promoting a

product by portraying everything that a company and its products supposedly stand for.

(Beckham, 2000, p. 2) Although this definition is just one of many, it highlights the idea that

a brand, put simply, stands for something. Discussions regarding brands are not necessarily

concerned with whether or not a brand does serve a function, but rather centered around the

arguments of what kind of function a brand does serve. (See Kotler, cited in Erdem, Swait &

Valenzuela, 2006; Aaker, 1996; Aaker, 2004; Lim & O‟Cass, 2001)

Within marketing, it has been argued that one of the dimensions most essential to the survival

and to the creation of a competitive advantage of a product is that of

differentiation. According to Kotler (cited in Erdem, Swait & Valenzuela, 2006, p. 34), a

brand, regardless of whether it is a name, term, sign, symbol, design, or even a combination of

these, is intended to differentiate the products of one seller from those of others, and hence,

making that seller distinguishable from his competitors. Since a consequence of failing to

accomplish differentiation is that consumers will perceive all sellers and products to be the

same (Aaker, 2004, p. 136), it is rather crucial that marketing strategies are focused on

building brands which, in turn, should create some distinction between various sellers and

products. On the other hand, if seller and product differentiation is achieved then a brand's

success might be more likely, as the dimension of differentiation is pointed out by the Brand

Asset Valuator study (BAV) to play a significant role in a brand's success (Aaker, 2004, p.

136).

Brands also serve to communicate what they, the seller and the product stand for. In this

sense, a brand should reach out to consumers with information about what they are

purchasing. What is important to note here is that, as validation amongst consumers is only

obtained if the information which a brand provides is believable, it is crucial for a brand to

communicate both expert and trustworthy information (Erdem, Swait & Valenzuela, 2006, p.

35). Hence, if the information communicated is believable, then a brand serves as validation

to consumers. It is also argued that the meaning (McCracken, cited in Lim & O‟Cass, 2001, p.

120) which a brand communicates will add value to a product in consumers‟ minds by

conveying a certain competence, standard and image (Lim & O‟Cass, 2001, p. 120). In other


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words, the brand communicates credibility (Fatt, cited in Lim & O‟Cass, 2001, p. 120).

Brands serve a variety of purposes, and differ in significance, yet, if managed right, they are

valuable since they add credibility, aid consumers‟ memories and the communication with

them, and could even contribute to creating a competitive advantage. (Aaker, 2004, p.143)

2.2 The Brand-Building Process

The brand-building process is a structured approach to branding, consisting of three

sequential stages within which (1) brand audit, (2) brand identity and (3) brand position

statements are performed and created. Within the brand audit stage, both internal factors such

as vision, organizational culture and brand architecture, as well as external factors such as

competitors and consumers, are taken into consideration. Central to the brand-building

process is the secondary stage which entails the creation of a brand identity; the creation of

the customer-perceived image of a brand. During the final step of the process, a brand

position statement is determined. (Wallström, Karlsson, Salehi, Sangari, 2006, p. 42) This

serves to emphasize upon and communicate the attributes believed to reflect the brand

identity in the best possible way (de Chernatony, Knox, Urde, Aaker, cited in Wallström et

al., 2006, p. 43).

2.2.1 Brand Identity

Although all three stages of the brand-building process are important, developing and

implementing a brand identity is central to building a strong brand (Aaker, 1996, p. 25;

Wallström et al., 2006, p. 42). A brand identity consists of both a core and an extended

identity. The core identity entails what a brand stands for; the timeless essence of a brand that

does not change even though a brand travels to new markets. The extended brand identity, on

the other hand, involves the intangible enhancements of the brand including the associations

made to a brand. These associations can be made in terms of a brand as a (1) Product, (2)

Organization, (3) Person or (4) Symbol. (Aaker, 1996, pp. 86-87)

In today‟s environment, it is not easy to build a strong brand. Not only is there a need to know

the brand‟s identity but also to understand the brand‟s role in each situation in which it is

involved. (Aaker, 1996, p. 31) In order to successfully build a brand, an understanding of how


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to create a brand identity is needed; to define what the brand stands for and how to

communicate that identity most effectively (Aaker, 1996, p. 35).

Although there is no need for all four of the possible brand associations of a brand to be

implemented into a brand identity, the possibility of making the previously mentioned

associations between a brand and a (1) Product, (2) Organization, (3) Person or (4) Symbol

(Aaker, 1996, p. 79), should be taken into consideration. Yet, the associations chosen to be

implemented should only be those which contribute positively to the customers‟ perceptions

of a brand (Aaker, 1996, p. 78).

Figure 1: Aaker’s Brand Identity Planning Model (Aaker, 1996, p. 79). Emphasis upon the

colored boxes. Own construct, Fridjonsson & Mersmann, 2009.

Associations made between a brand and a symbol is a strategy applicable in order to

strengthen the consumers‟ recognition of a brand. Brand heritage is one of the possible

symbol associations which can be made. (Aaker, 1996, p. 85) A brand can also be associated

with a product, in terms of for example the country-of-origin concept (Aaker, 1996, p. 82).

2.3 Associating Brands to Nations – A Branding Strategy

With regards to branding, it is proposed that an association between a brand and the country

from which it originates is of central value to a brand‟s equity (Sinclair, 2008, p. 217; Keller,

Shocker et al., cited in Agrawal & Kamakura, 1999, p. 256), as a brand‟s market position and

differentiation, as well as the consumers‟ purchasing decisions are affected by such an

association (Jaworski & Fosher, 2003, p. 101). A brand‟s aggregate value is dependent upon


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whether positive or negative associations to the country from which the brand originates are

made. As several studies have proven, consumers tend to evaluate products based on which

country they are associated with (Hong & Whyer, cited in Keillor, Hult, Erffmeyer &

Babakus, 1996, p. 58), and so, whether positive or negative associations to a brand‟s home

nation are made, either intangible assets or liabilities for a brand are created (Pappu, Quester,

Cooksey, cited in Zeugner-Roth, Diamantopoulos & Montesinos, 2008, p. 578). Put

differently, the country name itself can add to or subtract from the consumer perceived

aggregate value of a product (Aaker, Keller, Kotler & Haider & Rein, Lampert & Jaffe, cited

in Zeugner-Roth et al., 2008, p. 580).

For a company, the combination of a strong brand image with a strong country image makes

for an ideal strategic market position, such as the one which Volvo made in Sweden has

obtained (Jaffe & Nebenzahl, 2006, p. 123). In this sense, and keeping in mind the aggregate

value of a brand associated to a nation, global corporations often keep such a brand

association as the brand is taken over. The incentive for a global corporation to maintain such

an association is the potentially increased equity of the global corporation as a whole.

(Sinclair, 2008, p. 222) Yet, there is also a risk for a negative turnout in which the brand

equity is diminished if the country image is overall negative (Jaworski & Fosher, 2003, p.

101).

2.3.1 Country-of-Origin

Associating a brand to a product is a significant association to be made as it is directly linked

to the consumers‟ brand choice and their user experience (Aaker, 1996, p. 78). Therefore, and

with regards to today‟s highly competitive global markets, branding with the concept of

country-of-origin is a powerful marketing tool (Ryan, 2008, p. 20). Associating a brand to a

product‟s country-of-origin is a strategic move in the hope of adding credibility to a brand as

a whole (Aaker, 1996, p. 82). Yet, in order to add credibility to a brand with the help of a

country-of-origin association, it is required that, as mentioned, the country with which the

brand is associated is one with a positive reputation (Iversen & Hem, cited in Zeugner-Roth et

al., 2008, p. 581).

What is important to note though, is that the country-of-origin effects, in a traditional sense,


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are not viewed to be the same nowadays as they were before the development of so-called

hybrid products. As the presence of hybrid products on global markets has increased,

consumers have found it more difficult to evaluate products simply based on the

distinguishability of a product‟s country-of-origin, due to the fact that a hybrid product today

might be designed, manufactured and assembled in different countries. (Baker & Micjie,

Chao, cited in Lim & O‟Cass, 2001, p. 122) In other words, the complex country-of-origin

information provided by today‟s hybrid products, leaves consumers faced with having to,

themselves, determine and evaluate products with regards to what they believe to be their

country-of-origin. Regardless of the consequences of today‟s hybrid products, there has been

a developing trend in arguing that the country-of-origin concept has evolved into being a

concept only used to influence consumers‟ perceptions of the quality (Khachaturian &

Morganosky, cited in Lim & O‟Cass, 2001, p. 121), as well as the purchasing value (Ahmed

& d‟Astou, cited in Lim & O‟Cass, 2001, p. 121) of products.

2.3.2 Culture-of-Brand-Origin

Much of the country-of-origin literature has focused on the effects of product origin as

opposed to on the effects of brand origin (Chao, Pecothich & Rosenthal, Pirson, Verlegh &

Steenkamp, cited in Thakor & Lavack, 2003, p. 395). It has been proposed that, due to the

development of hybrid products, and hence the development of country-of-origin information

complexity, the dominance of country-of-origin information is decreasing and being replaced

by the need for culture-of-brand-origin information. This information is believed to be more

available to the consumers as the marketing activities of a brand expose them to such

information. (Lim & O‟Cass, 2001, p. 123) Even though specific information regarding the

country from which the brand originates is unavailable, the marketing of culture-of-brand-

origin information may influence the consumers to assign a certain country‟s cultural

characteristics to a brand (Lim & O‟Cass, 2001, p. 123).

As a part of his brand-as-symbol association, Aaker (1996, p. 79) includes the aspect of a

brand‟s heritage. It is suggested that a strong symbol constitutes the cornerstone of a brand

strategy, and that a brand heritage, in some cases, represents the essence of a brand (Aaker,

1996, p. 85). It is here important to note that, although some universal symbols do exist, the

interpretations of what symbols stand for differ across countries as the symbolic meanings are


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culture-based (Usunier & Lee 2005, p.249). Therefore, associating a brand to a symbol, more

specifically, associating a brand to its heritage implies that associations to an entire culture

have been made rather than seeing to make just geographical and historical associations

(Ryan, 2008, p. 20).

Although brand origin, another term used while discussing a brand‟s culture-of-origin, can be

viewed as a demographic variable (Thakor & Kohli, 1996, p. 28) and in terms of the place,

region or country from where a brand is perceived to originate (Thakor & Kohli, cited in

Thakor & Lavack, 2003, p. 396), brand origin also reflects part of a brand‟s personality and

identity (Thakor & Kohli, 1996, p. 28). It is suggested that the associations made to a brand‟s

origin reflect some of the most prominent characteristics of a brand (Thakor & Lavack, 2003,

p. 396), hence yielding the way for defining a brand‟s position statement and identity.


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2.4 Theoretical Framework

In order link the terms and concepts presented within this literature review, a theoretical

framework has been developed. This theoretical framework seeks to point out the connections

between some of the most, in this study, significant theories; how the concepts of branding

and the associations made between a brand and a specific nation are interconnected.

Figure 2: Theoretical Framework developed for this thesis. Emphasis upon the colored boxes.

Own construct, Fridjonsson & Mersmann, 2009.

The Brand-Building Process

Brand Audit Brand Identity

Core IdentityExtended Identity

Associating a Brand to a

Nation

Country-of-Origin

Culture-of-Origin

Brand Position Statement


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3 Research Methodology

In this part of the thesis, the methodological framework used for this study will be presented.

Furthermore, explanations as to why the chosen methods are the most suitable for this study

will be given.

3.1 Research Plan

In order for the research question to be answered as thoroughly as possible, this study was

aimed at both exploring in depth why, and describing in detail how brands are associated to a

nation. In order to gain such qualitative data, a single-case study was chosen and performed.

This allowed this thesis to study a specific research object in a contemporary and real context.

3.2 Sample Selection

3.2.1 Choice of Research Object

To begin with, one of the most important criteria for the selection of the object of research

was that it was of Swedish origin. This criteria was set not just because of the fact that this

thesis is composed at a Swedish university, in a Swedish setting, but mainly due to the

interesting fact that although Sweden is a country of small proportion, many internationally

recognized and established firms and products have originated from this country2. With this in

mind, it was important that the research object should be operating on a global level, as

studying the marketing strategy of associating a brand to a nation would otherwise not be

relevant.

On that note, it is of significance to mention that it was not necessary for the seller to be

Swedish, as this study does not take into consideration ownership, and that it was rather the

nationality of the product which was of importance. Furthermore, rather than just seeing to

products and their origins, there was an underlying interest in studying the concept of brands

and their origins. The interest in brands and the brand-building process, including brand

identity, is based on the idea that brands might be of a greater dimension and might demand

greater attention within the fields of strategic marketing than do simple products.

2 Internationally recognized and established Swedish companies and products such as IKEA, VOLVO, Saab,

Atlas Copco, Tetra Pak, STORA, ABB, Electrolux, Scania etc.


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Orrefors Kosta Boda, as this thesis‟ research object, was a rather obvious choice as the

company‟s brands answer to all of the criteria put forth. Before this study commenced, there

was a belief that, regardless of the fact that Orrefors and Kosta Boda are nowadays part of the

same business, the brands, apart from each other, both possess attributes which express their

Swedish origin. What was also of interest was the fact that the two brands function under the

same management, yet stand for different things (Kosta Boda, 2009; Orrefors, 2009).

3.2.2 Respondents

Once Orrefors Kosta Boda had been selected as this study‟s research object, choices had to be

made regarding the selection of respondents from the company. Since the research objective

of this thesis is to study the brands as well as the branding strategies implemented at Orrefors

Kosta Boda, the respondents chosen to be part of this study work for the company of Orrefors

Kosta Boda.

Lars Westman, Marketing Director at Orrefors Kosta Boda, was asked to partake in this study

due to the assumption that he would be able to provide the most expert information about and

insight into questions regarding anything having to do with the marketing of both Orrefors

and Kosta Boda.

In order to receive answers to the questions concerning marketing on, more specifically,

foreign markets, Andreas Ravelli, Export Sales Manager at Orrefors Kosta Boda, was

approached. The intention with approaching him was not necessarily to gain information

about exactly how the exportation of Orrefors Kosta Boda‟s products occurs, but rather to be

provided with insight as to how the products are perceived on foreign markets, in other words,

what the brands are believed to stand for on markets outside of Sweden.

To gain yet another perspective of both why and how Orrefors Kosta Boda‟s two brands are

associated to Sweden, Lena Bergström, a designer for Orrefors, was asked to be a part of this

study. The ambition with interviewing her was to receive insight as to if, why and how a

designer chooses to work with associations when it comes to designing products.


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Lastly, the ambition was to be able to establish some contact with Orrefors Kosta Boda‟s only

wholly-owned sales office located in New Jersey, USA. The belief was that if the study was

provided with a foreign perspective to the research objective, then some of the ideas as to how

the brands are perceived on foreign markets might have gained further support and perhaps

even some validation. Despite several attempts to establish contact with the foreign sales

office of Orrefors Kosta Boda, no responses were obtained.

3.3 Data Collection Method

Throughout this study, different types of data were collected and made use of, seeking to

answer the research question. At first, it was necessary to explore academic literature in order

to outline this study‟s theoretical framework, in turn, making it possible to collect empirical

data relevant for the research objective.

3.3.1 Documentation

One type of data collected for this study entailed information regarding the brands of Orrefors

Kosta Boda provided by the company‟s web pages. This information allowed for some

underlying assumptions regarding the brands to be made, prior to articulating this study‟s

research question.

Following the articulation of the research question as well as objective, data from academic

literature, in terms of theories relevant to the concepts of brands, branding, associations to

nations and both country-of-origin and culture-of-brand-origin, was collected. This, in turn,

outlined the theoretical framework upon which this study is based. The academic literature,

from which the theories were gathered, consists of a variety of texts published in only

academic journals and academic books, and does not entail texts from either bachelor- or

master theses‟.

3.3.2 Interviews

Data, central to this study, was collected through two semi-structured interviews, on site, with

the respondents from Orrefors Kosta Boda, Lars Westman and Andreas Ravelli, as well as

through one semi-structured interview over the phone with the third respondent, Lena

Bergström. Choosing to conduct semi-structured interviews was based on the belief that


15

neither structured nor unstructured interviews would provide the most suitable and useful

data. The semi-structured interview type seemed to be the most appropriate one to use as it

would provide a direction for the interview, in terms of themes and concepts, yet would allow

for an open discussion and dialogue to occur as interpretations can be made throughout the

interview. (Saunders, Lewis & Thornhill 2009, pp. 320-321)

The interviews were designed to follow some themes, including those of the brands‟ history,

the brands‟ current marketing strategies and the associations between the brands and Sweden.

Although the interview questions followed some themes, the questions were designed to

avoid leading the respondents on and letting them answer according to what they believed to

be the correct or wanted answers. (See Appendices I-III for the interview questions)

3.4 Data Analysis

Keeping in mind that a single case study was conducted, the most appropriate type of data

analysis seemed to be a within-case analysis since this would allow for a comparison between

the qualitative data collected by the interviews and the developed theoretical framework to be

done. The aim of the comparison between these data was to distinguish some possible

correlations between the ideas of why and how something such as branding should be done in

theory, and why and how Orrefors Kosta Boda actually does it in practice. Any similarities,

dissimilarities, patterns and correlations were first identified, in order to then be further

analyzed and discussed.

3.5 Critique of Methodology

Questioning the reliability of the study is the possibility of subject or participant bias

(Saunders et al., 2009, p. 156). In this case, it is questionable whether or not the information

received from the respondents is reliable as their employment at Orrefors Kosta Boda might

cause their responses to be in favor of the company. Yet another aspect questionable is that of

an observer bias possibly existing (Saunders et al., 2009, p. 157) as the interviews were

performed after the outlining of the theoretical framework.

In line with this, although the interview questions were designed to avoid leading the

respondents on to give certain answers, there is, as always, a slight risk for questions to be


16

interpreted by the respondents as leading. This risk might have been increased due to the fact

that all the interview questions were sent to the respondents ahead of time. Yet, this can also

yield the opposite effect as the respondents might be more prepared.

Another critique towards this study‟s methodology is aimed at the interpretations of the data

collected from the interviews. Interpreting this type of qualitative data entails a possible risk

for misinterpreting what is actually meant with a response. In line with this, and with regards

to the fact that all interviews were conducted in Swedish and this thesis is written in English,

there also exists a risk for translations causing responses to receive a meaning slightly

different from the meaning assigned to the responses given in Swedish.

Another point to make is that if the respondents from Orrefors Kosta Boda believed that the

results of this study could either advantage or disadvantage them in any way, then that could

affect the actual results of this study. Furthermore, there could have been events or

happenings unrelated to this study which could still have influenced the respondents and

responses indirectly.


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4 Empirical Results and Data Analysis

In this result-analyzing part of the thesis, the results of the three performed interviews will be

presented and analyzed in correlation to the already developed Theoretical Framework.

4.1 The Brand-Building Process of the Brands of Orrefors Kosta Boda

4.1.1 Brand Audit

In order to analyze what the brands of Orrefors and Kosta Boda stand for today, it is of

significance to first look back at the brands‟ history as it has had great influence on what they

have come to stand for.

Although established at different points in time, Kosta Boda in 1742 and Orrefors in 1898, the

two glass factories were fierce competitors throughout most of the 20th

century (Westman,

2009) as they both were at the forefront of Swedish glass production. Regardless of exactly

why, Orrefors came to be viewed as Kosta Boda‟s role model as much of Orrefors‟ glass

seemed to be imitated by Kosta Boda (Westman, 2009). Yet, both Orrefors and Kosta Boda,

separately, managed to establish strong brands which were successful throughout the 20th

century. Consequently, and as a result of decades of competition, both Orrefors‟ and Kosta

Boda‟s brands were shaped by the awareness of each other, an external factor central to the

brand audit part of the brand-building process for the two of them (Wallström, 2008, p. 42).

While Kosta Boda did take its art glass production into a new direction in the beginning of the

1980‟s in an attempt to differentiate its art from that of Orrefors (Westman, 2009), the two

companies remained within much of the same competitive area of the art glass industry. This

changed as Orrefors acquired Kosta Boda in 1990. In hope of strategically being able to

maintain as well as develop two strong brands, each with an individual brand identity and

within the same company, Orrefors Kosta Boda aimed its strategies at creating an even

greater distinction between the two brands (Westman, 2009). In order to do so, throughout the

auditing phase (Wallström, 2008, p. 42), Orrefors Kosta Boda saw to the internal factors of

the two brands‟ individual visions and identities. Although a merger of the two brands would

have been more economically justifiable as it simply is less expensive to manage one brand

than it is to manage two (Westman, 2009), it was believed that there would be greater benefits

to be gained by having two brands.


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4.1.2 The Brand Identities of Orrefors and Kosta Boda

Regardless of the fact that much has changed in terms of market characteristics (Dicken,

2003, p. 10) and within the fields of marketing (Cayla & Arnould, 2008, p. 86) since the two

brands came to be, Orrefors Kosta Boda has been, and still is, focused on maintaining the core

identities of its two brands. The strategies implemented in order to do so, maintaining the

timeless essence of the brands (Aaker 1996, pp. 86-87), are those of standardization (Levitt,

cited in Douglas & Wind, 1987, p. 19); strategies which make sure that what the brands stand

for is not sacrificed (Westman, 2009).

In terms of product design, the product selection by a council consisting of representatives

from the production-, marketing-, sales-, and product development departments (Bergström,

2009), contributes to maintaining rather specific core identities for both brands. It is here

important to note that the designs are not adjusted to specifically fit the brand identities of

Orrefors or Kosta Boda, but that the designers‟ own design articulation and analysis are fused

with the brands‟ visions in order to create synchronized images (Bergström, 2009). Yet, even

though standardizations of the core identities do not allow for the essence of the brands to

change even as the brands travel to new markets (Aaker, 1996, pp. 86-87), some design

adjustments can still be made to products without compromising what the brands‟ core

identities entail (Westman, 2009; Bergström, 2009). For example, in order to answer to its‟

greatest foreign market‟s preferences, Orrefors Kosta Boda adjusts the sizes of its whiskey

glasses to fit American market preferences (Westman, 2009; Bergström, 2009).

In contrast to the necessity of standardizing what a core identity stands for, there is a need to

customize the strategies (Fisher, Kotler, Vedder, cited in Douglas & Wind, 1987, p. 19) of

enhancing a brand‟s extended identity (Aaker, 1996, pp. 86-87). On that note, a brand identity

must not only be maintained, but must also be further developed so that the entire brand

identity is strengthened. In the case of Orrefors Kosta Boda, it is partially a designer‟s task to

be perceptive of the changes in market preferences which occur (Bergström, 2009; Lim &

O‟Cass, 2001, p. 122), to then be able to translate those perceptions into product designs

which the designer believes might appeal to consumers (Bergström, 2009). With this in mind,

parts of the extended brand identity are affected by whoever the designers are at the time

(Bergström, 2009). In addition to the designers‟ influence, the marketers at Orrefors Kosta


19

Boda contribute to the development of the extended brand identities of Orrefors and Kosta

Boda by deciding upon the brands‟ brand position statements. In order to emphasize and

communicate the attributes which represent the brands most beneficially (Wallström, 2008, p.

43), Orrefors Kosta Boda has assigned the statements “Embrace the Moment” to Orrefors and

“True Passion” to Kosta Boda (Westman, 2009).

In spite of whether or not, or to which extent, core identities are standardized or extended

identities and the marketing strategies are customized the purposes which Orrefors Kosta

Boda‟s brand identities serve, are to differentiate the brands from others. Hence, what both

brand identities communicate are that the brands‟ products not only serve useful functions

(Westman, 2009), but that they also provide uniqueness (Ravelli, 2009). Providing products

such as the hand-made wine glasses, each glass slightly different from the other, is what

Orrefors Kosta Boda believes to be both brands‟ unique selling point; the believed reason as

to why Orrefors Kosta Boda‟s products appeal to consumers (Ravelli, 2009). Put differently,

providing unique products with distinct characteristics is a way of survival (Bergström, 2009).

4.2 Enhancing the Identities of Orrefors and Kosta Boda – Associating the Brands to

Sweden

In the case of Orrefors Kosta Boda, associating both brands to Sweden is a way to provide

products which are differentiated from others (Westman, 2009), as being Swedish implies that

one has something unique to offer (Bergström, 2009). It is suggested that strategically

associating a brand to a nation would only be useful if the country to which a brand would be

associated has a positive image (Westman, 2009; Pappu, Quester, Cooksey, cited in Zeugner-

Roth et al., 2008, p. 578). With regards to the fact that either intangible assets or liabilities for

a brand are created depending on whether positive or negative associations to the brand‟s

home nation are made, Orrefors Kosta Boda is certain that its brands‟ associations to Swedish

attributes increase the equity of both brands (Ravelli, 2009). This is due to the belief that

Sweden itself, as a country, is a strong brand (Ravelli, 2009). Furthermore, there is a belief

that this positive perception of Sweden might be attained partially through the country‟s

political neutrality and strong democracy (Ravelli, 2009), the historically significant Swedish

innovations such as the zipper and the wrench (Westman, 2009), but also further reinforced

by the existence of many strong brands such as those of Ericsson, Volvo, Saab, SSAB, Atlas


20

Copco and ABB still today (Ravelli, 2009). Moreover, it is thought that combining a strong

country image, such as the Swedish one, with a strong brand image makes for an ideal

strategic market position; just as the previously mentioned one which Volvo has obtained

(Jaffe & Nebenzahl, 2006, p. 123) by combining its Swedish image with its strive for high

quality and safety (Westman, 2009). Of course, the perceptions of the Swedish country image

vary in matter as the northern parts of Germany, for example, tend to evaluate the image

positively as a certain geographical closeness to and cultural understanding of Sweden exists.

Additionally, it is argued that the Dutch also perceive the Swedish country image as positive

due to the fact that the Netherlands, just as Sweden, has a royal house. (Ravelli, 2009)

4.2.1 Country-of-Origin

Despite the fact that it is rather expensive to manufacture in Sweden, seeing that the overall

price-level is quite high, Orrefors Kosta Boda is determined to keep its glass production in its

original location in the woods of Småland (Ravelli, 2009) in order to avoid the products

evolving into more hybrid-like products (Baker & Micjie, Chao, cited in Lim & O‟Cass,

2001, p. 122). Part of the reason as to why Orrefors Kosta Boda is set on doing so is to be able

to continue to market its products with a “made in Sweden” label, a label which, in the case of

Orrefors Kosta Boda‟s products, is synonymous with quality as well as uniqueness. (Ravelli,

2009; Khachaturian & Morganosky, cited in Lim & O‟Cass, 2001, p. 122). Creating this type

of brand-to-product association, or conveying a message of Swedish high-quality production

in terms of hand-made products (Ravelli, 2009), is a strategic move made by Orrefors Kosta

Boda in hope of adding credibility to its brands (Aaker, 2004, p.143). This is done, believing

that associating a brand to a product‟s country-of-origin, just as Orrefors Kosta Boda does

through its “made in Sweden” labels, directly affects a consumer‟s brand choice as well as a

consumer‟s user experience (Aaker, 1996, p. 78). Yet, in order to do so, it is a prerequisite

that the country-of-origin association made is with a country such as Sweden which has a

positive reputation (Westman, 2009; Ravelli, 2009; Iversen & Hem, cited in Zeugner-Roth et

al., 2008, p. 581).

4.2.2 Culture-of-Brand-Origin

Besides the geographical, brand-to-product associations (Aaker, 1996, p. 79), which are made

between Orrefors Kosta Boda‟s brands and Sweden, there exists a variety of brand-to-symbol

associations (Aaker, 1996, p. 79) between the brands and the Swedish culture. Both Orrefors


21

and Kosta Boda have, as already mentioned, a long history in Sweden. Having had such long

histories, both Orrefors‟ and Kosta Boda‟s brand heritages are made up of great amounts of

cultural inheritance. Consequently, the brand heritages, the essence of both the extended

brand identities (Aaker, 1996, p. 85), reflect a variety of Swedish cultural attributes.

On that note, the aspects of history and cultural heritage are used throughout the marketing of

Orrefors and Kosta Boda. Orrefors Kosta Boda is convinced that pointing to both brands‟

long history is a significant part of marketing the brands on foreign markets (Ravelli, 2009).

Since both brands‟ long history is an appealing attribute on foreign markets (Bergström,

2009), the Kosta Boda logo was altered in order to make sense even outside of Sweden. The

seal which (still) certifies Kosta Boda as a supplier to the Swedish royal court was removed

from the Kosta Boda logo at the same time as the word “SINCE”, from right next to the

company‟s establishment year of “1742”, was replaced by the word “SWEDEN” (Westman,

2009). Nowadays, both brands communicate some culture-of-brand-origin information (Lim

& O‟Cass, 2001, p. 123) as “SWEDEN” is a visible part of both brands‟ logos.

In terms of design history, as the extended identities of Orrefors and Kosta Boda are both, as

previously mentioned, partially shaped by the designers and their product designs (Bergström,

2009), so are they indirectly influenced by the Swedish design heritage. Since all the

designers at Orrefors Kosta Boda are Swedish, and their designs are most likely, yet perhaps

unawarely, influenced by their Swedish heritage (Bergström, 2009), the products of Orrefors

and Kosta Boda reflect some of the Swedish design heritage attributes; namely those of

simplicity and purity (Westman, 2009). The Swedish design heritage is hence reinstated today

as a designer might choose to play with historical attributes, to then reinvent them as new

products are designed (Bergström, 2009).

Although Orrefors Kosta Boda is sure that making use of the brands‟ long histories and

design heritages are strategies which add to the brands‟ entire equity, Orrefors Kosta Boda

believes that the marketing of culture-of-brand-origin attributes is only appropriate as long as

it is done tastefully and does not become an exaggeration (Westman, 2009).


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5 Discussion

In this discussion part of the thesis, the findings from the empirical analysis will be

challenged and problematized so that a deeper discussion can be held.

After having presented and analyzed the empirical data as well as seeing to identify some

correlations between them and this study‟s theoretical framework, there exists little doubt as

to whether or not Orrefors Kosta Boda‟s brands are associated with Swedish attributes, in

other words, can be described in terms of “swedishness”. Although slightly ambiguous,

“swedishness”, as a concept, expresses the idea that there exist many attributes which could

be reflective of Sweden as a whole. Attributes assigned to Sweden can range anywhere from

the harsh climate, the political neutrality and democracy, the history including the Vikings,

and the musical talents of artists such as ABBA, all the way to the innovative minds of people

such as Alfred Nobel. And in the case of Orrefors Kosta Boda, “swedishness” is articulated

in everything from the geographic location of its production facilities, the selection of its

designers as well as its assorted designs, all the way to the marketing strategies of its brands.

Yet, regardless of this ambiguity surrounding “swedishness”, much of the empirical data in

this study has pointed to the idea that “swedishness” implies being different and somewhat

unique. Hence, it can be argued that, since “swedishness” is synonymous with differentiation,

it is also synonymous with adding value to a brand originating from Sweden, and in other

words, increasing the brand‟s equity.

In the case of Orrefors Kosta Boda, and continuing along this line of thought, associating both

brands to Sweden is used as a marketing strategy and plays a major role in the development of

both brands‟ customized extended identities. However, although the empirical data does

support such an argument, it does not clearly state whether or not “swedishness” is part of

either one of the brands‟ standardized core identities.

It is possible that “swedishness” is not part of the core identities of Orrefors or Kosta Boda

based on the thought that both brands were established so far back in history, when foreign

markets were still unreachable, that branding their products as being Swedish was irrelevant

and rather meaningless at that point in time. Even though this is just one of many possible

reasons as to why “swedishness” is not part of the core identities, it can be reasonable to


23

believe that pinpointing exactly what makes up a core identity in general is a difficult task. In

the case that “swedishness” is in fact not part of the two core identities, yet is part of the

extended identities, it can be argued that developing associations between the brands and

Swedish attributes is a marketing strategy which today purely aims to promote the brands and

their products. Although this, in general, might be a useful marketing strategy, it might also

give rise to some concerns. As a brand‟s extended identity, per theoretical definition, is the

enhancements of the brand, one can question whether the extended identity of a brand

emphasizes upon only the best attributes of a brand. Furthermore, if only the best attributes of

a brand are communicated, how can one know if those attributes are truly representative of

the brand‟s core identity and not just beautifications of the truth made in order to appeal to a

given context? Hence, if this is so and the beautifications have no correlation to the brand‟s

core identity whatsoever, then the brand‟s credibility might be diminished.

However, just as it can be argued that “swedishness” is not part of the core identities of

Orrefors and Kosta Boda due to the historical time aspect, the opposite can also be argued as

this exact aspect might just have contributed to the meaning of “swedishness”. Of course,

there might exist other explanations as to why “swedishness” is part of the core identities. If

“swedishness” is in fact part of the core identities of Orrefors and Kosta Boda, as well as part

of their extended identities, then it is arguable to say that the enhancements, the associations,

are true reflections of what the core identities stand for. In other words, it can be reasoned that

if such a correlation exists then the marketing is a genuine attempt to convey the message of

the brands being truly Swedish. In this sense, the brands‟ extended identities, in terms of

customized associations, are just that, namely extensions of the core identities. It can be

argued that, although the extended identities are somewhat customized, as any marketing

strategy would be, the greater parts of them must still correlate with the standardized core

identities, and not be beautified, in order to maintain credibility.

As previously discussed, the extended brand identities of Orrefors and Kosta Boda serve as

marketing strategies, believed to increase the brand equities as associating to Swedish

attributes adds positive meaning. Increasing the brand equities in this way, will be possible

only if Sweden continues to convey a positive country image. Although Sweden, as of today,

does convey a rather positive country image due to a variety of reasons, and hence adds value


24

to Orrefors and Kosta Boda, any unforeseen incident could contribute to prohibiting this from

happening. Furthermore, associating the brands to Swedish attributes will increase the brand

equities only if nation-specific attributes will, at all, remain distinguishable from each other.

A prerequisite for this is that globalization processes, such as the intertwining of cultures and

national identities, either halter or even recess.

Keeping this in mind, and once again referring to the scenarios of the extended identities of

Orrefors and Kosta Boda both correlating and not correlating with their core identities, one

can discuss the varying consequences which the brands face. It seems reasonable to say that

there will be graver consequences facing the brands if the extended identities do correlate

with the core identities, and hence “swedishness” is part of the core. This is argued with

regards to the idea that core identities, in general, should not change and rather just maintain

their timeless essence. Hence, if the Swedish country image is decreased in value or becomes

indistinguishable from that of other countries, then a core identity in which “swedishness” is

part will have to be completely reconstructed. On the other hand, if the extended identities do

not correlate with the core identities, and hence, “swedishness” is not part of the core, then

one can argue that adjustments to only the marketing strategies will have to be made in terms

of reconstructing the extended associations to the core identities.

What is important to note here is that this study cannot determine whether or not

“swedishness” is part of either of the brands‟ core identities, but that much support exist for

arguing that the extended identities incorporate associations to Swedish attributes. Although

both scenarios entail certain risks, one can argue that Orrefors Kosta Boda believes that there

are greater benefits to be gained by doing so, than there are losses to suffer.


25

6 Conclusion and Further Research

In this concluding part of the thesis, conclusions will be drawn in order to answer this thesis’

research question. Following this, suggestions for further research will be presented.

6.1 Conclusion

Although much speculation can be done regarding both what the concept of “swedishness”

actually entails as well as what the usefulness of implementing such a concept is, it can, based

on the empirical data collected in this study, be concluded that Orrefors Kosta Boda‟s two

brands‟ extended identities are associated to Swedish attributes. This is reasoned to be due to

the belief that marketing with the help of Swedish associations is synonymous with marketing

something positive and unique as of today. What this study concludes is that one of the

reasons as to why Orrefors Kosta Boda associates its brands to Swedish attributes is that this

type of marketing strategy differentiates its brands from those of competitors, hence

increasing both brands‟ overall equity. Yet another reason as to why such a marketing

strategy is applied might be that regardless of whether or not, or to which extent,

“swedishness” is part of the core identities of Orrefors and Kosta Boda, marketing the

extended identities with the help of such a concept does not imply that the associations

developed deviate from what the brands actually stand for.

In order to answer how associations to a nation would be expressed in practice, this study

found that depending on which brand association is made, different strategies might be

applied. In the case of Orrefors Kosta Boda and how its brands‟ extended identities are

associated to Sweden in practice, it was concluded that two types of strategies are applied.

The associations of the brands as products are developed with the help of the country-of-

origin concept which emphasizes upon the quality and production of products, whereas the

associations of the brands as symbols are developed with the help of the culture-of-brand-

origin concept which serves to communicate culture-based symbolic attributes assigned to,

amongst many, the brands‟ heritages.

6.2 Suggestions for Further Research

Since this thesis was limited to only answering the research question from a company

perspective, namely that of Orrefors Kosta Boda‟s, it is here suggested that any further


26

research regarding this matter could take into consideration the consumer perspective. A

study of the consumers‟ perceptions in regards to the value of associating brands to nations

would allow for conclusions to be drawn concerning the actual perceived value of such a

strategy.

Furthermore, although this study touched upon the discussion of whether or not, or to which

extent, “swedishness” is part of the core identities of Orrefors and Kosta Boda, it is here

suggested that a more in-depth research regarding the complexity of both pinpointing what

the core identities can be defined as and what significance “swedishness” plays in those

definitions should be done. This could allow for conclusions to be drawn regarding the extent

to which the core identities are affected by changes in the brands‟ surroundings; the extent to

which the core identities of Orrefors and Kosta Boda might be affected by the diminishment

of the Swedish country image equity or the decreased distinguishability between nation

specific attributes.


27

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Country Brand Equity and Consumers‟ Product Preferences: An Empirical Study”.

Management International Review, vol. 48, no. 5, pp. 577-602.

Interview Sources

Bergström, Lena

Orrefors Designer

Telephone December 9

Ravelli, Andreas

Export Sales Manager at Orrefors Kosta Boda

Kosta November 24

Westman, Lars

Marketing Director at Orrefors Kosta Boda

Kosta November 24


30

Appendix I a: Interview Questions for Lars Westman, Marketing Director

Orrefors Kosta Boda 2009-11-24

Historik / Marknadsföring

Innan sammanslagningen av Orrefors och Kosta Boda år 1990

o I er åsikt, hade Orrefors och Kosta Boda starka varumärken?

o Vad stod varumärkena för?

o Hur bildades dessa två varumärken? Strategier?

o Representerade de någonting svenskt? På vilket sätt?

o Om ja, varför användes dessa strategier?

Efter sammanslagningen av Orrefors och Kosta Boda år 1990

o Efter sammanslagningen, jobbade Orrefors Kosta Boda med att bibehålla två

separata varumärken eller med att skapa ett varumärke?

o Om två separata – hur gjordes detta? Fördelar/nackdelar med att bibehålla två

separata varumärken?

o Om ett varumärke – hur gjordes detta? Fördelar/nackdelar med att skapa ett

varumärke?

Royal Scandinavia 1996 – 2005

o Hade det utländska ägandet någon påverkan på Orrefors Kosta Bodas

varumärke/-n?

o Ändrades brandingstrategierna under dessa år? Om ja, på vilket sätt? Om nej,

varför inte?

o Vad hände med det ”svenska” varumärket – förlorades, bibehölls eller

neutraliserades det?

The New Wave Group 2005 –

o Vad betydde det för Orrefors Kosta Boda att återigen vara svenskägda när The

New Wave Group köpte företaget från Royal Scandinavia år 2005?

o Upplevde Orrefors Kosta Boda det som positivt eller negativt?

o Återigen, påverkade detta varumärket? Om ja, på vilket sätt? Om nej, varför

inte?

Marknadsföring idag

Hur marknadsförs Orrefors Kosta Bodas varumärke/-n?

o Specifikt, vad representerar Orrefors Kosta Bodas varumärke/-n?

Då Orrefors Kosta Boda är ett internationellt företag med verksamhet utomlands,

använder företaget sig av samma brandingstrategier utomlands som i Sverige?

o Om ja, varför? Vad anser ni är fördelarna med att göra detta?

o Om nej, varför inte? Vad anser ni är nackdelarna med att göra detta?

Marknadsföring med hjälp av nationell identitet

o Hur ser ni på den svenska nationella identiteten? Vad är svensk nationell

identitet, i er åsikt?


31

o Kan man säga att Orrefors Kosta Bodas varumärke/-n representerar en svensk

nationell identitet?

o Om ja, på vilket sätt? Om nej, på vilket sätt inte?

o Anser ni att det är positivt/negativt att marknadsföra varumärken med

anktnytningar till en nationell identitet på utländska marknader?

Skiljer sig fördelarna/nackdelarna beroende på vilken nationell identitet

(vilket land) varumärket representerar?

Skiljer sig fördelarna/nackdelarna beroende på vilken utländsk

marknad varumärket marknadsförs på?

o Vad anser ni skulle vara eller är de främsta fördelarna/nackdelarna med att

Orrefors Kosta Bodas varumärke/-n har en svensk nationell identitet?


32

Appendix I b: Interview Questions for Lars Westman, Marketing Director

(English Translation)


History / Marketing

Before the merger of Orrefors and Kosta Boda 1990

o In your opinion, were the two brands of Orrefors and Kosta Boda strong

brands?

o What did the brands stand for?

o How were the two brands built? Strategies?

o Did the brands represent something Swedish? In what way? If yes, why were

these strategies implemented?

After the merger of Orrefors and Kosta Boda 1990

o After the merger, did Orrefors Kosta Boda actively work with preserving the

two brands or work towards creating one combined brand?

o If two separate brands – how was this managed? Benefits/detriments of

preserving two separate brands?

o If one brand – how was this managed? Benefits/detriments of creating one

combined brand?

Royal Scandinavia 1996 – 2005

o Did the foreign ownership have any impact on Orrefors Kosta Boda‟s brand/-

s?

o Did the branding strategies change during these years? If yes, why? If not,

why not?

o What happened to the ”Swedish” brand/-s – was it/were they lost, preserved or

neutralized?

The New Wave Group 2005 –

o What did it mean for Orrefors Kosta Boda to once again be in Swedish

ownership after The New Wave Group bought the company from Royal

Scandinavia in 2005?

o Was this something positive or negative for Orrefors Kosta Boda?

o Once again, did this affect the brand/-s? If yes, how? If no, why not?

Marketing Today

How are the brand/-s of Orrefors Kosta Boda marketed?

o Specifically, what do the brand/-s of Orrefors Kosta Boda represent?

As Orrefors Kosta Boda is a company which operates internationally, does the

company make use of the same branding strategies abroad as it does in Sweden?

o If yes, why? What do you believe to be the benefits of doing so?

o If no, why not? What do you believe to be the detriments of doing so?


33

Marketing with the help of national identity

o How do you perceive the Swedish national identity? In your opinion, what

does the Swedish national identity entail?

o Can one state that the brand/-s of Orrefors Kosta Boda represents a Swedish

national identity?

o If yes, how? If no, how not?

o In your opinion, do you believe that marketing with national identity on

foreign markets has positive/negative effects?

Do the benefits/detriments differ depending on which national identity

(which country) the brand/-s represent?

Do the benefits/detriments differ depending on which foreign market

the brand/-s are marketed on?

o In your opinion, what would be, or what are, the foremost benefits/detriments

of Orrefors Kosta Boda‟s brand/-s being marketed with the help of Swedish

national identity?


34

Appendix II a: Interview Questions for Andreas Ravelli, Export Sales

Manager


Hur marknadsförs Orrefors Kosta Bodas varumärke/-n?

o Specifikt, vad representerar Orrefors Kosta Bodas varumärke/-n?

Då Orrefors Kosta Boda är ett internationellt företag med verksamhet utomlands,

använder företaget sig av samma brandingstrategier utomlands som i Sverige?

o Om ja, varför? Vad anser ni är fördelarna med att göra detta?

o Om nej, varför inte? Vad anser ni är nackdelarna med att göra detta?

Marknadsföring med hjälp av nationell identitet

o Hur ser ni på den svenska nationella identiteten? Vad är svensk nationell

identitet, i er åsikt?

o Kan man säga att Orrefors Kosta Bodas varumärke/-n representerar en svensk

nationell identitet?

o Om ja, på vilket sätt? Om nej, på vilket sätt inte?

o Anser ni att det är positivt/negativt att marknadsföra varumärken med

anktnytningar till en nationell identitet på utländska marknader?

Skiljer sig fördelarna/nackdelarna beroende på vilken nationell identitet

(vilket land) varumärket representerar?

Skiljer sig fördelarna/nackdelarna beroende på vilken utländsk

marknad varumärket marknadsförs på?

o Vad anser ni skulle vara eller är de främsta fördelarna/nackdelarna med att

Orrefors Kosta Bodas varumärke/-n har en svensk nationell identitet?


35

Appendix II b: Interview Questions for Andreas Ravelli, Export Sales

Manager (English Translation)


How are the brand/-s of Orrefors Kosta Boda marketed?

o Specifically, what do the brand/-s of Orrefors Kosta Boda represent?

As Orrefors Kosta Boda is a company which operates internationally, does the

company make use of the same branding strategies abroad as it does in Sweden?

o If yes, why? What do you believe to be the benefits of doing so?

o If no, why not? What do you believe to be the detriments of doing so?

Marketing with the help of national identity

o How do you perceive the Swedish national identity? In your opinion, what

does the Swedish national identity entail?

o Can one state that the brand/-s of Orrefors Kosta Boda represents a Swedish

national identity?

o If yes, how? If no, how not?

o In your opinion, do you believe that marketing with national identity on

foreign markets has positive/negative effects?

Do the benefits/detriments differ depending on which national identity

(which country) the brand/-s represent?

Do the benefits/detriments differ depending on which foreign market

the brand/-s are marketed on?

o In your opinion, what would be, or what are, the foremost benefits/detriments

of Orrefors Kosta Boda‟s brand/-s being marketed with the help of Swedish

national identity?


36

Appendix III a: Interview Questions for Lena Bergström, Orrefors

Designer

Telephone 2009-12-09

Hur ser du på den svenska nationella identiteten? I din åsikt, vad är svensk nationell

identitet för Orrefors Kosta Boda?

Kan man säga att Orrefors Kosta Bodas varumärken representerar en svensk nationell

identitet? Om ja, på vilket sätt reflekteras detta?

Finns det något som designmässigt är typiskt för svenskt konstglas?

Som designer - hur arbetar du med den svenska nationella identiteten? Hur reflekterar

din konst den svenska nationella identiteten?

Vad anser du skulle vara, eller är, de främsta fördelarna/nackdelarna med att Orrefors

Kosta Bodas varumärken har en svensk nationell identitet?

Anser du att det är positivt/negativt att Orrefors Kosta Bodas varumärken använder

sig av den svenska nationella identiteten på utländska marknader? Varför?


37

Appendix III b: Interview Questions for Lena Bergström, Orrefors

Designer (English Translation)

Telephone 2009-12-09

How do you perceive the Swedish national identity? In your opinion, what does the

Swedish national identity entail for Orrefors Kosta Boda?

Can one state that the brand/-s of Orrefors Kosta Boda represent a Swedish national

identity? If yes, in which way is this reflected?

Is there anything which design-wise is typical for Swedish art glass?

As a designer, how do you work with the Swedish national identity? How does your

art reflect the Swedish national identity?

In your opinion, what would be, or what are, the foremost benefits/detriments of

Orrefors Kosta Boda‟s brand/-s being marketed with the help of Swedish national

identity?

In your opinion, do you believe that marketing the brand/-s of Orrefors Kosta Boda

with the help of the Swedish national identity on foreign markets has positive/negative

effects? How so?

associating brands to nations: why and...

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