atlanta rising: an analysis on the climate change impacts ... · the impact of climate change on...

Atlanta Rising: An Analysis on the Climate Change Impacts and Resilience-Building in the City of Atlanta

Columbia School of International and Public Affairs Energy and Environment Practicum – Atlanta Rising

Ethan Tsai | Haeun Kim | Nobuhiro Arai | Rishi Chakraborty | Robert Paton | Yu Ann Tan

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Contents Executive Summary -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 3

I. Introduction -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- ● Climate Change Resilience in Urban Settings ● Low Income-Housing Communities ● The Office of Resilience Commitment to Building Energy Efficiency ● Vulnerability Analysis ● Addressing the Importance of Resilience

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II. Background on Atlanta ------------------------------------------------------------------------ ● Current Outlook ● Key Agencies within Atlanta

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III. Identifying the Impacts of Climate Change on Atlanta -------------------------------

● Climate Change Projections and Implications ● Climate Stressors and Vulnerabilities - Asbestos, Lead, and Mold

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IV. Mold in Atlanta ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------- ● The Urgency of Addressing the Mold Crisis ● Challenges of Addressing Mold Issues

1. Infrastructure Issues (HVAC systems, age of buildings) 2. Building Materials and Structural Components 3. Personal Property 4. Decentralized Agencies 5. Principal-Agent Problems 6. Insufficient Data on Mold 7. Lack of Finance

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V. Best Practices on Mold Issues Across the Cities ------------------------------------------ ● Raleigh, North Carolina ● New York City, New York

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VI. Policy Strategies and Recommendation for Atlanta ------------------------------------ 28

Keywords: Low-income households | Mold | Climate Change Impacts | Affordable Housing

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Executive Summary The Office of Resilience of the City of Atlanta is an overarching division that supports the Mayor and the City government to catalyze more equitable, sustainable programs, while also addressing the issue of social equity within the urban landscape. To strengthen the affordable housing mission of ‘One Atlanta’, the strategic blueprint of Mayor Bottoms’ administration, the Office of Resilience identified the quality of housing and energy burden as two key issues. In collaboration with the Rockefeller Foundation’s 100 Resilient city (100RC), our team supported the office to develop strategies enhancing resilience in low-income housing by: evaluating the impacts of climate stressors to existing vulnerabilities low-income housing infrastructure, investigating the current challenges that the city and its citizens face, and finally recommending potential policy routes that the City of Atlanta could undertake. In order to identify existing vulnerabilities, project how climate change affects to those vulnerabilities, and recommend mitigation actions so that Atlanta can build its resilience against climate change, our team approached this project in three phases. In the first phase, we worked closely with 100RC and the Office of Resilience to scoping the project by building framework. In the second phase, we conducted in-depth research where we narrowed the evolving vulnerabilities that Atlanta was facing into mold, asbestos, and lead, and concluded that the mold is the predominant factor that the city should focus on. Finally, in our third phase, we conducted interviews with subject matter experts in both Atlanta and New York to better understand the mold issue in Atlanta, how it affects low-income housing communities and what other cities are doing that they can learn from. As such, through our research and findings, our team concluded that mold is an environmental stressor that is exacerbated by the impacts of climate change, such as increase of extreme weather, precipitation, and humidity, and that it is mostly only prevalent among low-income housing community. This highlights the relationship between climate change and social inequality. The following pages of this report will go into detail, the methodology of how we pinpointed the vulnerabilities in low-income housing communities. After, a discussion on the changing climate of Atlanta and how it exacerbates the mold issue. We then analyzed the effects of mold and how it is a problem for low-income communities in Atlanta. In order to determine a recommendation, the team looked at two case studies, New York City Housing Authority and Raleigh, Carolina. Finally, we present a set of strategy recommendations that the Office of Resilience could consider moving forward. It is essential that cities possess robust ways to managing the risks, in the era where environmental and climate change impacts can halt urban and economic development, reduce the standards of living, and

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prevent social equality within a city. While Atlanta has much to work on in terms of mitigating climate change effects, it is on its way to developing a stronger and more resilient city.

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I. Introduction Climate Change Resilience in Urban Settings The impact of climate change on society over the past decades have been multidimensional. Increasing temperature, rising sea levels, volatile weather patterns, and other changes have become the leading concern among many world leaders and organizations. As climate change impacts affect the human population, urban cities have become particularly vulnerable. Metropolitan areas around the world have experienced a greater need to address climate issues that would lead to destruction and casualties. Within the United States, Atlanta is one of the many cities that has fallen victim to the impacts of climate change. In order to combat against urban environmental issues, such as rising temperature, flooding, and increasing humidity, the city has fostered a vision to develop resilience against climate change through their Atlanta Resilience Strategy. To do this, they would have to first identify their most important problems and determine the best ways to tackle such challenges. 1

As such, to support the resilience building of Atlanta, our team, with the support of 100RC, will be investigating the vulnerabilities that the city faces, and determine how the impacts of climate change in low-income housing communities can be mitigated. Low Income-Housing Communities While the effects of climate change are ubiquitous, it is not felt equally. Some populations, particularly low-income areas and communities of color, would be the first groups to experience such impacts. As they are already overburdened by poor housing infrastructure, economic conditions, and poor access to health, the consequences of climate change will worsen their livelihoods. Furthermore, the threats of climate change are expected to compound existing vulnerabilities among low-income communities, such as impairment to water and sanitation systems, humidity damages, and flooding. Given the preexisting conditions, lower-income and other marginalized communities have lower capacity to adapt to extreme weather and climate-related events. As such, it is important to help these communities build resilience to the growing threat of climate change. Prioritizing adaptation actions for the most vulnerable populations would contribute to a more equitable future for communities across Atlanta. The Office of Resilience Commitment to Building Energy Efficiency Energy efficiency make communities resilient by strengthening energy systems and providing reliable and affordable energy to households and businesses. Its potential in building resilience could be seen in

1 “Resilient Atlanta: Actions to Build a Equitable Future.” 100RC, Mayor’s Office, and Office of Resilience. 2017.

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a circular system. Energy efficiency could also help alleviate low-income households by addressing energy burden, economic volatility, and most importantly, the community’s capacity to cope with the effects of climate change. Given Atlanta’s commitment towards energy efficiency, this research will also bridge and highlight ways of how the city could improve their energy efficiency measures while primarily addressing climate change impacts. Vulnerability Analysis As we research the impact of climate change on the vulnerabilities of Atlanta, it is important to first define and breakdown the term, “vulnerabilities”. The term vulnerability could have multiple meanings depending on its interpretation and context. Given the City’s effort in building resilience so that citizens are protected from the impact of climate change and the social inequality that comes from it, the research will focus on the vulnerabilities associated to the people. The definition of vulnerability in this research is as follows:

“Vulnerability refers to the degree to which people or the things they value are susceptible to, or are unable to cope with, the adverse impacts of climate change. Thus, vulnerability determines how severe the impacts of climate change might be.” 2

As the vulnerability is a result of complex interaction of various factors, our team further developed the analytic framework to diagnose the vulnerabilities that the City would experience. The research will look into the vulnerabilities with the lens of: 1. exposure to climate stressors, 2. severity of impact by such exposure, and 3. ability to adapt - to calibrate the impacts and to devise the solutions. 3

1. Identifying the exposure to climate stressors: Project climate change scenarios and define which

vulnerabilities are expected to be aggravated with climate stressors in the city of Atlanta. For example, the increase of flooding and humidity are all environmental impacts that would lead to worsening the vulnerabilities, such as mold, within the city.

2. Measuring the sensitivity to the impacts: Scoping the population and areas affected and diagnosing the degree of severity by looking into the physical outlook of low-income building infrastructures. In other words, this report will observe how the existing vulnerabilities, coupled with climate stressors, affect low-income households.

3. Improving the ability to adapt: Creating adaptation measures by understanding the City’s and target population’s current ability and capacity.

2 Brent Yarnal, “Human Vulnerability to Climate Impacts,” Penn State College of Earth and Mineral Sciences, https://www.e-education.psu.edu/geog438w/node/252 3 IBID

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Visual: The Vulnerability Framework

Addressing the Importance of Resilience The increasing effects of climate change, such as extreme weather, is aggravating the risks and stresses within urban cities. To neglect such changes could result in endangering the public’s safety and livelihood. Furthermore, the failure to anticipate such impacts can lead to missed opportunities for effectively managing the risks of climate change. As such, proper resilience building among the various agencies and stakeholders within Atlanta could help the communities prepare for varied climate-related threats. It is especially important for the city to support the low income housing stock as these communities face old infrastructural issues and inefficient energy usage. Furthermore, the vulnerabilities due to climate change have exacerbated specific factors within low income neighborhoods, such as mold issue, asbestos, and lead poisoning (as discussed later in our report). By identifying the vulnerabilities - mold issues, asbestos, and lead poisoning - the City of Atlanta could start to plan sustainable programs that could support low-income households in dealing with these vulnerabilities. In this report, we will highlight one of the aforementioned vulnerabilities as a core strategy for alleviating the burden of low-income communities, so that there is greater potential for the city to flourish in the future.

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II. Background on Atlanta Current Outlook As the capital and the most populous city in the state of Georgia, Atlanta is the 38th most populous city in the United States with a population of 486,290 people. Based on Gini coefficients calculated 4

by the U.S. Census Bureau, Atlanta also has the highest income inequality among U.S. cities with a population greater than 250,000. Although Atlanta’s per capita income of USD 40,595 (as of 2017) is 5

higher than the U.S. national average per capita income of USD 31,177, the median household income in Atlanta is USD 51,701 and lower than the U.S. national average median household income of USD 57,652. In addition, Atlanta’s poverty rate of 22.4 percent is far higher than the U.S. national average 6

poverty rate of 12.3 percent . Atlanta also ranks the 4th highest in median energy burden levels in the 7

U.S., and 3rd highest among low income household populations. 8

According to our research and information provided by 100 Resilient Cities, the zip codes of 30310, 30311, and 30314 in Southwestern Atlanta predominantly consist of low-income households that are particularly vulnerable to the impacts of climate change in the metropolis. As of 2016, the three zip codes of 30310, 30311, and 30314 feature in the top ten neighborhoods with the highest poverty rates in Atlanta (32.2percent , 35.3 percent , and 34.7 percent respectively). In 2017, per capita income 91011

in these three zip codes ranged from USD 13,178 to USD 18,291 (compared to the city-wide average per capita income of USD 40,595 for Atlanta). In addition, the three zip codes also rank among the 12

top five neighborhoods with the highest energy burden in Atlanta. The majority of housing units in 13

these zip codes is more than 50 years old, on average, which results in poor insulation, inefficient heating and cooling, and high energy use. More so, 90 percent of government assistance to these 14

households is through direct bill payment of utilities and only 10 percent on weatherization measures

4 “American Fact Finder.” US Census Bureau. 5 Foster,S, and Lu, W. (2018). “Atlanta Ranks Worst in Income Inequality in the U.S.” Bloomberg. See https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2018-10-10/atlanta-takes-top-income-inequality-spot-among-american-cities 6 “Quick Facts.” US Census Bureau. See https://www.census.gov/quickfacts/fact/table/atlantacitygeorgia/INC110217 7 IBID 8 “The Low-Income Energy Burden of Atlanta Households.” Gerogia Tech. See: https://cepl.gatech.edu/projects/low_Income 9 “30310 Zip Code (Atlanta, GA) Detailed Profile.” See http://www.city-data.com/zips/30310.html 10 “30311 Zip Code (Atlanta, GA) Detailed Profile.” See http://www.city-data.com/zips/30311.html 11 “30314 Zip Code (Atlanta, GA) Detailed Profile.” See http://www.city-data.com/zips/30314.html 12 IBID 13 “The Low-Income Energy Burden of Atlanta Households.” Gerogia Tech. See: https://cepl.gatech.edu/projects/low_Income 14 “30310 Zip Code (Atlanta, GA) Detailed Profile.” See http://www.city-data.com/zips/30310.html, “30311 Zip Code (Atlanta, GA) Detailed Profile.” See http://www.city-data.com/zips/30311.html, “30314 Zip Code (Atlanta, GA) Detailed Profile.” See http://www.city-data.com/zips/30314.html

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that improve the resilience of units, which highlights their vulnerabilities to current and future climate change risks. 15

The City of Atlanta’s current mayor is Keisha Lance Bottoms from The Democratic Party. In 2018, she took over from Mayor Kasim Reed, who had a strong record of making Atlanta a U.S. leader in fighting climate change and prioritizing resiliency. In 2017, for instance, Mayor Reed pledged that Atlanta will continue to honor the commitments laid out in the Paris Climate Agreement. The Mayor’s Office also has an executive office labeled the Mayor’s Office of Resilience, whose duty is to combat Atlanta’s 21st century problems pertaining to climate change and low-income housing. In 2017, along with 100 Resilient Cities, the City of Atlanta published “Resilient Atlanta: Actions to Build an Equitable Future,” which includes a comprehensive and actionable set of Visions, Targets, and Actions that addresses the region’s most pressing stresses and seeks to build capacity among residents and city systems alike to better withstand future shocks. In particular, “Vision 3: Build Our 16

Future City Today” includes Target 3.1, which aims to improve quality, access, and distribution of affordable housing in Metro Atlanta, and Target 3.5, which aims to install sustainable energy- and water-efficient infrastructure improvements in public spaces and around 500 homes and businesses each year. These goals incorporate policy targets to increase resilience and reduce the vulnerabilities 17

of Atlanta’s low-income housing to the impacts of climate change. In addition, the City of Atlanta’s Climate Action Plan of 2015 also includes the following four major goals: 18

● Reduce energy consumption in commercial buildings by 20 percent by 2020 and 40 percent by

2030; ● Reduce energy consumption in residential buildings 20 percent by 2020 and 40 percent by 2030; ● Reduce GHG emissions produced by transportation 20 percent by 2020 and 40 percent by 2030; ● Increase waste diversion rate to landfills up to 80 percent by 2020. Key Agencies within Atlanta The Office of Resilience of the City of Atlanta is an overarching division that supports the Mayor and the City government departments to catalyze more equitable, sustainable programs. The resilience

15 “Energy and Weatherization Assistance Programs.” (2009). Smith and Lehmann Consulting. See: https://dwss.nv.gov/uploadedFiles/dwssnvgov/content/Energy/2009percent 20Programpercent 20Yearpercent 20Evaluation.pdf 16 “Resilient Atlanta: Actions to Build an Equitable Future.” (2017). 100 Resilient Cities. See: http://www.100resilientcities.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/11/Atlanta-Resilience-Strategy-PDF-v2.pdf 17 IBID 18 “City of Atlanta Climate Action Plan.” (2015). See: https://atlantaclimateactionplan.files.wordpress.com/2016/02/atlanta-climate-action-plan-07-23-2015.pdf

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that the Office pursues is people focused. The office believes that the social equity and sustainability are what consist of resilience, hence the Office addresses resilience issues in tandem with social equity. In May 2018, Mayor Bottoms announced the establishment of ‘One Atlanta,’ the City’s first Office of Equity, Diversity and Inclusion, where the issue of affordable housing is one of the major agenda. The Office of Resilience was asked to jointly work for the affordable housing issues with other agencies such as Invest Atlanta, Atlanta BeltLine, and their Housing Authority. The Office of Resilience identified the quality of housing and addressing energy burden as two key issues to be addressed to achieve the pledge on housing affordability, which will be included in the the Action Plan that has been worked on under the guidance of Chief of Housing Officer, Terri Lee. The Office of Resilience now focuses on scoping the causes of low-quality housing and energy efficiency in especially low-income housings. To develop the strategies to enhance resilience in low-income housing, the Office is also looking for the most effective and efficient ways to achieve the goal. The Housing Authority of the City of Atlanta (AH) is the largest housing authority in Georgia and one of the largest in the nation. AH administers the Section 8 Moderate Rehabilitation Program (Mod Rehab), a unit-based rental subsidy program for low and moderately low-income individuals and families, and provides affordable housing resources for nearly 22,000 low-income households comprised of approximately 50,000 people. 19

Housing Choice Voucher Program (HCVP) is the most featured program that AH runs, where using the voucher, the selected families can choose the housing among the listed properties with the assurance that they will not have to pay more than 30 percent of their adjusted income toward rent. Property owners/landlords own and manage the facilities and enter into landlord-tenant relationships with assisted families. AH established the Enhanced Inspections Standards to ensure that all HCVP participating units and the surrounding neighborhood are suitable for HCVP residents. Once a property owner determines that their unit meets all of the criteria listed in the Enhanced Inspections Standards Checklist, they can select an HCVP prospect and submit the Request for Tenancy Approval (RTA). AH gives incentives to the property owners to voluntarily improve the conditions of the property with a program called Rent Boost. With the Rent Boost, properties receive a $35 boost on the monthly rent offer for each major system upgrade on electrical, HVAC, and energy efficiency, which accounts to a total of $105 per month. 20

19 Atlanta Housing Authority (https://www.atlantahousing.org/about-us/) 20 Atlanta Housing Authority (https://www.atlantahousing.org/developers-property-owners/)

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Department of Health, Georgia (DPH) is the lead agency in preventing disease, injury and disability; promote health and wellbeing; and preparing for and responding to disasters from a health perspective. The main functions of DPH include: Health Promotion and Disease Prevention, Maternal and Child Health, Environmental Health, Emergency Preparedness and Response, the Office of Health Equity, and the State Public Health Laboratory. Through our analysis, the 21

Department of Health’s goals in tackling the ‘climate exacerbated vulnerabilities’, such as mold, among low-income housing communities presents an avenue for cooperation with the Office of Resilience and AH.

21 Georgia Department of Public Health Overview. Georgia Department of Public Health, dph.georgia.gov/about-dph)

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III. Identifying the Impacts of Climate Change on Atlanta To gauge the climate change impacts to the resilience of Atlanta, the environmental changes that the climate change will bring, e.g. changes in average temperature, humidity, frequencies of extreme weather events should be understood prior to diagnosing how the society will be impacted by such changes. In this chapter, we project how the climate condition in Atlanta will evolve, and how those environmental changes can affect to the existing vulnerabilities within the City. Climate Change Projections and Implications Based on the historical data of the climate and weather changes in Atlanta, our team ran the regression to project the development of climate change stressors by calculating the slope and the intercept of the average changes. The followings are the results from the analysis:

● General increase of average temperature per year, projecting into 2050: The first graph shows that the average temperature has generally increased from 1970 to 2018. The average temperature is expected to rise by 1°F, based on the regression line created by changes in the average temperature.

Graph I-1: Average Annual Temperature 22

Source:iWEATHERNET

22 iWEATHERNET(https://www.iweathernet.com/atlanta-weather-records)

https://www.iweathernet.com/atlanta-weather-records

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Graph I-2: Average Annual Temperature (prediction) 23

Source:iWEATHERNET

● Increase in the number of hot days (95 °F or above): These three graphs show that Atlanta

has surely experienced the increase in the number of hot days (95 °F or above) .

Graph Ⅱ-1: Maximum temperature in the hottest month 24

Source:iWEATHERNET

23 iWEATHERNET(https://www.iweathernet.com/atlanta-weather-records) 24 iWEATHERNET(https://www.iweathernet.com/atlanta-weather-records)



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Graph Ⅱ-2: Increase in the number of days over 95 °Ｆ 25

Source:iWEATHERNET

Graph Ⅱ-3: Minimum temperature in the hottest month 26

Source:iWEATHERNET

● Decrease in the number of freezing dates: According to these graphs, the temperature has

increased even in coldest month.




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Graph Ⅲ-1: Minimum temperature in the coldest month 27

Source:iWEATHERNET

Graph Ⅲ-2: Decrease in the number of days with below freezing point 28

Source:iWEATHERNET




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Graph Ⅲ-3: Maximum temperature in the coldest month 29

Source:iWEATHERNET

● Increase of overall precipitation: Aggregate precipitation has been increasing based on data

from the past 25 years, leading to an increase in the number of extreme rainfall events. ● Graph IV-1: Rainfall from 1996 to 2018 30

Source: NATIONAL WEATHER SERVICE

● Increase of high intensity storms, leading to potentially more severe flooding : Global 31

warming is shifting rainfall patterns, making heavy rain more frequent.

Table IV-1: Extreme weather events in Georgia

29 iWEATHERNET(https://www.iweathernet.com/atlanta-weather-records) 30 NATIONAL WEATHER SERVICE(https://www.weather.gov/ffc/rainfall_scorecard) 31 US Department of Commerce, and NOAA. “Flooding in Georgia.” National Weather Service, NOAA's National Weather Service, 12 Mar. 2018, www.weather.gov/safety/flood-states-ga


https://www.weather.gov/ffc/rainfall_scorecard

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Tropical Storm Alberto Flood, July 1994 Epic Flooding in North Georgia, September 2009

Area Impacted: Central and Southwest Georgia Number of Fatalities: 33 (31 in Georgia, 2 in Alabama) Number of Injuries: Unknown Dollar Damage: $750 Million in Georgia, Alabama and Florida

Area Impacted: Atlanta Metro Area and Northwest Georgia Number of Fatalities: 10 Number of Injuries: Unknown Dollar Damage: $300 Million

Climate Stressors and Vulnerabilities - Asbestos, Lead, and Mold To address the climate change impact to low-income housing issues surrounding energy efficiency and housing equity, we looked into the vulnerabilities that the climate stressors would highly likely exacerbate. Through the literature reviews, we identified the existing infrastructure conditions that may affect quality housing (especially respect to public health) and addressing energy efficiency at low-income housings - asbestos, radon, lead, mold, other biologicals, wood smoke and other solid fuel emissions. From the list of problems, we selected asbestos, lead, and mold as the vulnerabilities that can be worsened by the climate change stressors in Atlanta, and ultimately we chose mold as the salient issue that the City of the Atlanta should address as its priority. Given the increasing number of high impact events in the region of Atlanta (such as severe tropical storms and tornadoes), compounded by higher average precipitation, humidity and temperatures - the deterioration of buildings has accelerated. Many construction defects have played a part in the rapid building deterioration in the fact of increasing environmental stressors. This includes:

● Poor ventilation and poorly located/maintained HVAC systems; ● Faulty construction and maintenance of crawl spaces or inadequate building design to

withstand environmental stressors; ● Failed technologies like flat roofs or fake stucco cladding without adequate caulking or

loose-fill insulation; ● Incomplete basements exposed to saturated ground water conditions; ● And faulty water intrusion/ leaks. 32

There are many ways buildings become home to a toxic mix of microbes, fragments of microbes, and harmful chemicals. These factors listed above help promote the growth of mold and increase the propensity to lead and asbestos exposure. 33

32 What Is a Water Damaged Building? | Surviving Mold. https://www.survivingmold.com/mold-symptoms/what-is-a-water-damaged-building. Accessed 12 May 2019. 33 Molds, Mycotoxins and More | Surviving Mold. https://www.survivingmold.com/mold-symptoms/molds-mycotoxins-more. Accessed 12 May 2019.

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Lead poisoning occurs when individuals are exposed to materials such as contaminated paint or fine dust particles, which builds up in the body over time. Even low levels of lead can cause serious health concerns. Children under the age of 6 are especially vulnerable to lead poisoning, which can severely affect mental and physical development. At higher levels, lead poisoning can damage kidneys and the nervous systems; and in rare cases be fatal. Exposure to lead usually comes in the the form of lead-based paint - something that is highly prevalent in older homes. This is significant as the average age of homes in the communities are approximately fifty years old. Lead-based paints were only banned in 1978 and even if repainted, houses might still have base layers of lead-based paint. Lead was also commonly used to solder pipes and to build household plumbing mechanisms. With the increased frequency of high impact climate events - the chances that materials which contain lead are disturbed is much higher - increasing the risk of lead transmission into the air and water system.

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According to the Center for Disease Control (CDC), twenty-four million homes in the U.S. contained deteriorated lead-based paint and 535,000 children under the age of five have blood lead levels high enough to damage their health. In 2014, more than 2,500 children tested positive for lead 35

in Georgia. Children are especially susceptible because their bodies easily absorb lead, harmful to their developing organs. According to the Georgia Department of Public Health, even low levels of lead 36

can be harmful to children. Pregnant and breastfeeding women are also at risk of passing along high levels of lead exposure. 37

Asbestos, similar to lead, exposures comes with severe health risks. Asbestos exposure occurs when microscopic asbestos fibres become airborne and are then inhaled or ingested by an individual. No 38

34 US EPA, OCSPP. “Protect Your Family from Exposures to Lead.” US EPA, 12 Feb. 2013, https://www.epa.gov/lead/protect-your-family-exposures-lead 35 Hoff, Valerie. “ 2,500 Georgia Children Test Positive for Lead Exposure.” 11 Alive, 11 Alive, 29 Apr. 2016, www.11alive.com/article/news/local/2500-georgia-children-test-positive-for-lead-exposure/159845471. 36 Ibid. 37 Ibid. 38 “Asbestos Exposure | Occupations, Products & Jobsite Health Risks.” Mesothelioma Center - Vital Services for Cancer Patients & Families, https://www.asbestos.com/exposure/

https://dph.georgia.gov/lead-education-and-faqs

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level of asbestos exposure is considered safe, but most problems such as lung cancer and laryngeal cancer happen after years of repeated, long-term exposure. Asbestos is commonly present in walls in the form of insulation and was still commonly used in housing construction up until not too long ago. When asbestos products start to deteriorate or are cut, sanded, drilled, or disturbed in any way, the microscopic fibers become airborne. The higher frequency of high impact climate events threaten the structural foundation of houses, and increase the risk of asbestos fibres becoming airborne as a result of broken walls, roofs and foundation. Such extreme weather events also speed up the deterioration of already badly constructed old housing structures, thus further compounding the risks of asbestos exposure. Molds are part of the natural environment and spores can be found both indoors and outdoors. Mold does not usually pose a problem, unless mold spores land on a damp or wet spot and begin growing. There are many types of mold but none of them will grow without water or moisture. Molds can 39

have a big impact on indoor air quality which in turn has a significant impact on overall health and well being, especially since the general population now spends approximately 90 percent of their time indoors. Mold produces allergens, irritants, and in some cases, potentially toxic substances 40

(mycotoxins). Inhaling or touching mold or mold spores may cause allergic reactions in sensitive individuals, and such responses include hay fever-type symptoms, such as sneezing, running nose, red eyes and skin rash (dermatitis). The most common types of mold that are found indoors include Cladosporium, Penicillium, Alternaria, and Aspergillus. There is also Stachybotrys chartarum - also known as Stachybotrys atra or what is sometimes referred to as "black mold". Stachybotrys grows on household surfaces that have high cellulose content, such as wood, fiberboard, gypsum board, paper, dust, and lint and needs constant moisture for growth so only under “near wet” conditions usually where there has been persistent condensation or water leaks. It is perhaps important to note here however that, it is not necessary to 41

distinguish the strains of mold as it all pose health risks and implications for the integrity of the existing infrastructure.

39 US EPA, OAR. “A Brief Guide to Mold, Moisture and Your Home.” US EPA, 13 Aug. 2014, https://www.epa.gov/mold/brief-guide-mold-moisture-and-your-home. 40 Air Allergen. “Presentation for Georgia State University” 41 CDC - Mold - General Information: Facts about Stachybotrys Chartarum and Other Molds. 4 Dec. 2018, https://www.cdc.gov/mold/stachy.htm

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III. Mold in Atlanta The Urgency of Addressing the Mold Crisis Tackling mold in Atlanta’s low income housing requires more urgency than addressing the lead and asbestos exposure problem and the main reason for this is its occurence. In the case of lead and asbestos exposure, relatively serious structural damage such as broken tiles, walls and roofs is required in order for the building integrity to be compromised to a level that lead and asbestos exposure becomes a problem. The incidences of lead and asbestos occuring in the structural makeup of housing is also lower than compared to mold as mold can be found everywhere, whereas materials that contain the former are not always used in construction. The conditions for which mold can grow to become 42

a problem are a lot easier to achieve than the conditions for which lead and asbestos exposure becomes a threat. It is much easier to have a mold problem than to have a lead or asbestos problem.

Graph: Prevalence of Asthma 43

Furthermore, there is a strong public health case for the eradication of mold. During our research and field interviews, the significant negative impact that mold has on a population’s respiratory health was repeatedly underscored. As mentioned earlier, mold is ubiquitous in indoor and outdoor environments and has been associated with respiratory disease including childhood and adult asthma. A growing body of evidence from both human and animal studies has revealed a link between mold

42 Johnson, Richard. Air Allergen. 43 Georgia Department of Public Health. Child Asthma Data Summary. Georgia Department of Public Health, 2017, dph.georgia.gov/sites/dph.georgia.gov/files/2016 CHILD ASTHMA DATA SUMMARY 08.2017.pdf

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presence, especially indoor mold exposure with asthma initiation, persistence and exacerbation. 44

Differences in asthma prevalence also exists according to demographic characteristics. The latest data published by the Department of Health for the year 2014 demonstrated that asthma prevalence was higher among children whose family annual household income was less than $25,000 than among children from families making $75,000 or more per year. The nature of mold growth and the ways through which to contain and remedy it also encapsulate better maintenance and upkeep of living spaces which in turn could potentially also address lead and asbestos exposure problems. Challenges of Addressing Mold Issues Atlanta faces many challenges in its fight to combat mold. In order to construct realistic and actionable solutions for the city, it is necessary to fully understand these issues from all angles. Climate change’s compounding effects on mold growth in Atlanta highlights the urgency of this challenge.

1. Infrastructure Issues (HVAC systems, age of buildings) Low-income housing tend to have certain structural characteristics that encourage mold growth - which in turn would compound the problem of shoddy construction and accelerate the rate of infrastructure deterioration. The problem is cyclical and one bad situation feeds into another bad situation. Part of the city’s worsening mold problem can be attributed to the aging infrastructure, a phenomenon especially prevalent in low-income communities. As mentioned before, nearly 90 percent of the new housing developments are high-end units, showing that very little investment is occurring in our target zip codes, much less in the public housing units, which experience the highest rate of mold infestation per capita in Atlanta. Because of this lack of financial investment, the housing units that are most prevalent here were built in the 1950s or earlier. The pipes, roofs, and walls of these buildings are more prone to water damage from leaks than newer constructions. Mold only grows when moisture is present and the water intrusion problems prevalent in many of the households in these zip codes encourages this. Other low-quality construction in low-income housing such as the high prevalence of drywall and other construction materials high in organic content, insufficiently contained insulation, poorly ventilated crawl spaces and basements, lack of humidity control mechanisms, lack of filtration mechanisms interact with the new environmental reality of higher humidity, temperatures and precipitation - to create a prime hotbed for mold growth. 45

44 Zhang, Zhonghua et al. “Fungal Exposure and Asthma: IgE and Non-IgE-Mediated Mechanisms.” Current allergy and asthma reports vol. 16,12 (2016): 86. doi:10.1007/s11882-016-0667-9 45Johnson, Richard. Air Allergen

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If mold is allowed to grow and spread in a home, a variety of physical damage can result, both to the structure itself, and to the building’s fixtures and contents too. 2. Building Materials and Structural Components Mold has the potential to cause serious structural damage as it feeds on and breaks down organic matter. This is significant in the context of low-income housing as the construction material used tends to be of lower quality, a lot of it tends to contain high percentages of organic matter such as wood in pillars and floors and paper in drywall and insulation. 46

3. Personal Property In addition to compromising the structural integrity of the building, mold also destroys property within the home. A mold infestation eats away at paint, wallpaper, carpets, and fabric upholstery, which all compromises a house’s HVAC system. Once rooted, it is extremely difficult to completely eradicate a system or an environment of mold, and often items have to be disposed of and destroyed. When viewed alone, old infrastructure is no emergency situation. When combined with the high rental rate in the area (thus creating the principal-agent problem), the lack of new affordable developments, and the increasingly favorable growth conditions for mold in Atlanta, it creates a perfect incubator in which mold can thrive. 4. Decentralised Agencies During our in-field research trip to Atlanta, the most striking revelation was the extent to which the different city organizations, many of which share common goals, are isolated from one another and thus lack proper coordination. This challenge is not restricted to combatting the incidence of mold; in fact, the same phenomenon occurs with improving energy efficiency among low-income households. The methods to address both mold and energy efficiency sometimes overlap, and we will thus focus especially on these planning designs and inefficiencies.

The two principal city offices that deal directly with mold-related problems are the Georgia Department of Public Health (DPH) and the Atlanta Housing Authority (AH). There is an inherent disconnect between the two, and this is partly caused by the roles each is legally allowed to play in the fight against mold. AH is tasked with ensuring that low-income residents receiving housing subsidies are provided with safe and adequate housing units. If a tenant has a water leak and develops serious mold growth in the unit, for example, he will contact the landlord to resolve the issue. If this does not occur, then the tenant will contact AH who will then send an inspector to verify that the unit does not meet current

46“Mold Warning Signs and Damage.” Findlaw, injury.findlaw.com/torts-and-personal-injuries/mold-warning-signs-and-damage.html

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standards. Once this is verified, AH will then issue a timeline by which the landlord must fix the problem, or they will lose their contract with AH and the family must find another housing unit in which to live. They are not tasked to repair the issue themselves, but only to act as enforcers to ensure landlords make necessary repairs to the unit when needed. One flaw in the process is that it is often in the tenant’s best interest to not contact AH if the landlord is unresponsive. In the event their landlord loses his/her contract with the city, it is up to the tenant to find another available housing unit in which to live. This is problematic for a few reasons. Many of the tenants have children in school and a move would likely entail changing school districts, thereby uprooting their families and lives. This is especially true for the public housing areas in Atlanta proper. There, rent prices are increasing at the fifth highest rate in the U.S. This means that finding new landlords to sign up for the public housing 47

has become much more difficult, since landlords know they can receive more money from a market-rate tenants. New construction also reflects this lack of public housing supply, with more than 87 percent of new developments being classified as high-end luxury apartments. This translates to a 48

reality in which many public housing tenants choose to remain in their mold-infested apartments. AH provides three financial incentives that costs $35 per month each, to participating landlords, which target either energy efficiency. The improvement of energy efficiency could have important secondary effects on mold. The first incentive is given if the landlord installs a more efficient HVAC unit. HVACs play a critical part in combating mold through the circulation and dehumidification of air, so this boost provides multiple angles. The second is when the landlord upgrades the electrical efficiency of the unit. The third is given when he installs more energy efficient insulation and windows in the unit. Although representing an additional $105 in the landlord’s pocket, our research shows that these boosts are not sufficient to change the landlord’s behavior on their own. Paperwork is one significant barrier of entry. Multiple participating landlords with whom we spoke with expressed an annoyance at the amount of paperwork required to take part in the housing program at all, and to fill out additional paperwork for an extra $35 per month (after spending capital to make the upgrades) is not sufficient for them to make what they view as unnecessary upgrades. Instead, they say that after an event occurs that requires action (a window or HVAC unit breaks, mold in insulation, etc), they make the repairs and then realize they qualify for the extra money per month. Therefore, the incentives do not make a substantive impact on inspiring change in the housing units. Having established that many tenants do not report unresolved mold issues to AH for fear of losing their home, one would think that there would be other avenues that could cheaply and efficiently

47 Kanell, Michael E. “Atlanta Rent Growth Among Nation's Fastest.” AJC, The Atlanta Journal-Constitution, 27 Mar. 2018, www.ajc.com/business/atlanta-rent-growth-among-nation-fastest/fZ7DCMDwjEjiH004ZqzP1L/ 48 King, Michael. “New Report: 90% of New Apartment Construction in Metro Atlanta in 2017 Classified as 'Luxury'.” WXIA, 26 Sept. 2018, www.11alive.com/article/money/new-report-90-of-new-apartment-construction-in-metro-atlanta-in-2017-classified-as-luxury/85-598256469

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resolve the problem. Unfortunately, however, mold treatment falls in a grey area of jurisdiction. For example, tenants believes that mold and breathable air falls under the code enforcement’s responsibility. However, the code enforcement pushes this as a public health issue. The State and county Health departments, on the other hand, have no means to enforce landlords to respond to their tenants’ mold concerns. In May of 2013, the Georgia Department of Public Health developed a legislation that would require all landlords to uphold public health standards in their housing units (to include mold and lead concerns), however, the legislation was not approved. Because of this gap in jurisdiction, the tenant 49

is forced with the following options: stay and suffer the health consequences, spend significant personal capital to upgrade the rental unit’s infrastructure themselves, report the issue to AH and attempt to find another public housing unit that does not also suffer similar issues, or forego the public housing option and move into a market-rate apartment. None of these options are reasonable nor realistic to impose on a low-income family, and we have identified several key policy recommendations that will ease the burden on the tenants. The Mayor’s Office of Resiliency is tasked with the formation of the types of policies that would address both mold eradication and energy efficiency efforts throughout the city. Unfortunately, the office is severely understaffed, making multilateral coordination efforts with other agencies extremely difficult. They recognize the growing inequality in the city, the difficulties of making affordable housing issues both accessible and safe. However, they are also faced with the lack of manpower for enacting structural changes that would lead to positive results. It is worth noting that these limitations are coming at a time when the current mayor has made public housing reforms a key part of her initiatives. She pledged that the city will raise more than $1 billion to go towards retrofitting current public housing stock, constructing new developments, and helping cash-poor residents stay in their homes. Without pinpointing the structural gaps and inefficiencies in the system, however, devoting more money to public housing will not have the impact the Mayor hopes.

5. Principal-Agent Problems Another problem that was briefly touched on was the principal-agent problem inherent in the landlord/tenant relationship. Because the only feasible option for the tenant has a negative consequence on their own life circumstances, the landlord has little motivation to quickly resolve the source of the mold issue themselves. Mold infestation in a building’s ductwork or insulation is harder for a tenant to prove. Landlord often allow the situation to continue as it poses little financial or legal threats. Mold has become such a cause of landlord-tenant friction that, during eviction court cases, some judges have declared that using mold

49 Georgia Healthy Homes Strategic Plan. Georgia Department of Public Health, 13 May 2013, dph.georgia.gov/sites/dph.georgia.gov/files/related_files/site_page/EnvHealthLeadStrategicPlan.pdf

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exposure in their defense is unlikely to help the tenants. The legal system expects tenants to have 50

acquired mold test results (at their own expense), medical records showing mold-related damage to their health, as well as testimony from a mold expert. All of these factors combine to put the power in the hands of the landlord, with little motivation to address mold complaints nor proactively retrofit their housing units.

6. Insufficient Data on Mold Additionally, in our research, we realized that there is less mold-related data than other public health risks, which further works against the tenant due to lack of public awareness. There are several direct consequences that result from this. Most importantly, many tenants do not think to look for mold in ducts or insulation when exhibiting common symptoms. Inversely, many landlords do not treat the issue as a public health issue when their tenants do report the presence of mold. Unless there is an obvious water leak that is causing spore growth, some landlords will assume it is mildew and therefore the tenant’s duty to contain. Others, not privy to the dangers of prolonged mold exposure, will simply paint over the mold, thereby putting it temporarily out of sight without addressing the source of the problem. This is the most common action taken by landlords, partly due to lack of awareness and partly due to negligence and lack of accountability inherent in the system. 7. Lack of Finance At first glance, it would appear that the city of Atlanta has the sufficient funds and willpower required to address its affordable housing crisis. The Mayor pledged to acquire $1 billion in new funds to address the growing crisis, and on April 25, 2019, she announced that the city has reached 20 percent of that goal with the addition of a $60 million infusion. Critics, however, pointed out that the $60 million is from federal government grants, which the city receives every year for affordable housing. Coordinating efforts and streamlining initiatives represent feasible methods which the city can affect positive change while reducing duplication of effort.

50 Mariano, Willoughby. “No Help for Tenants Sickened by Mold in Their Homes.” AJC, The Atlanta Journal-Constitution, 4 Nov. 2018, www.ajc.com/news/local-govt--politics/help-for-tenants-sickened-mold-their-homes/OYx8slCAnZHlxi0saf9a3I/

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V. Best Practices on Mold Issues Across the Cities In order to tackle the mold issues within Atlanta, it would be helpful to investigate and observe programs that other cities have implemented in combating this issue. Along the East Coast of the US, Raleigh, North Carolina, and New York City, New York, have similar qualities and programs that Atlanta may find helpful in tackling the mold issue. Raleigh, North Carolina Raleigh, North Carolina, and Atlanta share many similarities applicable to this project. Environmentally, both are extremely hot and humid cities, and have experienced a distinct rise in spore counts and mold-related illnesses over the past two decades. Both cities also have weak tenant rights, aging infrastructure, massive inequality issues, and a jump in rent prices in previously affordable-housing areas. Perhaps most importantly, Raleigh identified the same gap in jurisdiction in which Code Enforcement and the Department of Health does not consider fungal growth a violation.

This in turn allows landlords to ignore mold growth in their rental properties -- but state officials are 51

trying to change that. In April, 2019, Lawmakers in North Carolina introduced a bill that would give local governments the power necessary to ensure landlords treat mold growth when reported by their tenants. The verbiage 52

is clear - in that a housing unit will be declared unsafe by the local government if there is harmful fungal growth that goes left untreated. The bill would create a set of statewide parameters, enforceable by the Department of Health and Human Services authority, on what actions must be taken to deal with fungal growth that could result in negative health effects for tenants. It also requires tenants to notify landlords immediately when they detect the presence of mold in their living space, and also frees up local tax dollars in order to conduct testing on units in which tenants and landlords dispute the presence of mold. 53

This piece of legislation addresses the exact issues faced by Atlanta, and provides a framework through which to better address mold growth through direct public policy action. The downside, however, is that this legislation must come from Georgia, not Atlanta, lawmakers, since the Department of Health and Human Services is a state-run organization. That being said, the Raleigh government was instrumental in making this bill a priority for the state, and Atlanta’s economic power in Georgia

51 Wilson, Diane. “Raleigh Residents Complain of Mold, Moisture Issues in Apartment Complex.” ABC11 Raleigh-Durham, 20 Nov. 2017, abc11.com/raleigh-residents-complain-of-mold-mildew-issues/2674595/ 52 Sentendrey, David. “Bill Introduced in NC House to Battle Mold in Apartments.” WJZY, 25 Apr. 2019, www.fox46charlotte.com/news/local-news/bill-introduced-in-nc-house-to-battle-mold-in-apartments 53 WRAL. Renters Have Little Recourse but to Record Problems with Mold. WRAL, 4 Feb. 2016, www.wral.com/rental-mold/15306657/

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indicates that they can likely have a similar sway on the introduction of a similar bill to make fungal treatment enforcement across all of Georgia. New York City, New York As part of our study, our team interviewed Andrea Thomson (Special Advisor of the Healthy Homes Unit at NYCHA) to understand the organization’s initiatives on mold remediation in low-income housing across New York City. During our interview, Andrea Thomson highlighted issues pertaining to ageing infrastructure and deferred maintenance that make NYCHA units particularly vulnerable to leaks and mold. Such issues included many NYCHA units being around 50 years old, roof-related infrastructure not being repaired in 20 years, antiquated ventilation systems with poor circulation, decaying in-wall piping, and facades that do not protect housing units from rainwater. In addition, 54

due to federal and state disinvestment, NYCHA has a $17 billion infrastructure budget gap. The 55

President has also proposed a devastating budget cut that would further reduce funding for repairs by over 60 percent to only about $100 million annually to address all $17 billion of infrastructure needs. 56

Due to the budget gap, NYCHA has chosen to address its ageing infrastructure and mold remediation by improving operational efficiency. In 2017, NYCHA launched a new pilot program (called “Mold Busters”) to empower front line staff with the knowledge and equipment to find and fix the source of mold. The pilot included new training, new tools like moisture meters, and strategic remedies such as 57

new mold-killing paint. The yearlong pilot was launched at 38 developments throughout the City on 58

May 1, 2017. During the pilot, mold remediation staff was trained on how to use tools to measure 59

air-flow from vents, called anemometers, as well as how to use hygrometer which is a tool used to measure humidity. Each instrument provided the staff with vital root cause information to 60

ultimately improve the health and lives of NYCHA residents. The pilot also incorporated insights 61

from mold remediation experts, NYCHA residents, and a certified industrial hygienist to develop a new-mold inspection protocol that creates a documented project plan in response to each mold work order and guides staff through finding the root cause, choosing the next steps, and appropriate remediation methods. 62

54 “NYCHA Launches Mold Busters, New Pilot Program to Combat Mold.” www1.Nyc.gov, New York City Housing Authority, 21 Apr. 2017, www1.nyc.gov/site/nycha/about/press/pr-2017/nycha-launches-mold-busters-new-pilot-porgram-to-combat-mold-20170424.page. 55 Ibid. 56 Ibid. 57 Ibid. 58 Ibid. 59 Ibid. 60 Ibid. 61 Ibid. 62 Ibid.

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Based on insights from the pilot, NYCHA launched its Mold Busters program for mold remediation across its housing units in New York City in January 2019. The new Mold Busters program focussed on improving the coordination of repairs among staff, conducting early-inspections to identify the underlying source of mold emergence in, scheduling quality-assurance inspections to ensure that the root cause of mold is resolved, and engaging actively with NYCHA residents, NGOs, and government agencies to prioritize mold remediation as a serious public health issue. Mold Busters currently uses the following best practices that have been developed from the results of its initial pilot program: 63

● Conducting initial inspections to identify the root cause of mold in each household ● Feeding data from initial inspections into a handheld device that automatically generates repair

options for maintenance staff ● Developing metrics, such as mold recurrence rates, to monitor and assess the progress of the

Mold Busters program ● Creating new staff positions to improve coordination and scheduling of repairs ● Developing a dashboard to manage schedules of personnel for repairs ● Scheduling regular inspection of roofs (to ensure that stale air is extracted effectively )and old

infrastructure for repairs ● Resolving simple repairs in seven days and more complex repairs in fifteen days ● Building relations with non-profit organizations and government agencies to prioritize mold

remediation as a public policy and health issue in New York City ● Identifying partners to bridge NYCHA’s funding gap and invest in improving NYCHA’s

ventilation and plumbing systems ● Disseminating guidance on mold remediation through the NYCHA website and community

outreach programs ● Increasing the ease for residents to report mold issues through the Customer Contact Center

helpline and the my NYCHA app

Since the Mold Busters program is still in its initial stages, after being launched in January 2019, the effectiveness of the program in controlling the emergence and re-emergence of mold in low-income housing across New York City is still being monitored and assessed by NYCHA.

63 “Mold Busters: Resources for Residents.” New York City Housing Authority, New York City Housing Authority, www1.nyc.gov/site/nycha/residents/mold-busters-resources.page.

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VI. Policy Strategies and Recommendations for Atlanta Based on the findings from our study, we developed several strategies and policy recommendations to improve Atlanta’s resilience to increasing occurrences of mold in lieu of climate change. Our recommendations are targeted towards specific stakeholders and their capacities to address mold-related issues in the City of Atlanta. The proposed solutions highlight the magnitude and severity of the public health issue of mold, and strive to help the City of Atlanta and the Department of Health (DPH) in prioritizing mold remediation in low-income neighborhoods. These measures are also aimed at the broader objective of promoting climate equity through building resilience in low-income communities to ensure that they are not disproportionately affected by the impacts of climate change (specifically the exacerbation of mold-related incidences due to increased humidity and precipitation). Atlanta Housing Authority First, we recommend the Atlanta Housing (AH) to devise more punitive measures in the form of enforcement mechanisms since financial incentives alone are not sufficient in ensuring that landlords take action on mold-related issues on behalf of their tenants. This conclusion was reached based on the ineffective energy efficiency financial incentives that AH currently has in place. Such measures need to incorporate tougher action on landlords to resolve the emergence of mold in their properties. These measures can also encompass the writing of established mold standards (such as requiring filters and no visible mold growth) into building codes and mechanisms for humidity control. Also, we recommend the AH to clearly define the standards and parameters that would constitute an “Acceptable Standard of Living” in its clause on mold-related issues. In order to be most effective, AH can approach this in a multi-prong fashion - providing financial incentives to landlords and tenants who go above and beyond what is required of them by example submitting a mold spore count report.

Department of Public Health Second, we recommend the DPH to develop better data collection mechanisms on mold-related occurrences. Like NYCHA, the DPH can promote the use of handheld devices and moisture meters for the early-inspection of mold occurrences in low-income households, while providing guidance on training mold remediation staff to use tools that measure air-flow from vents, called anemometers, along with training to use hygrometers that measure humidity levels. In fact, doctors have started to recommend mold spore tests as part of prescriptions for chronic asthma patients. The DPH can integrate best practices on spore tests and early inspection in its standards and the dissemination of public health information on mold control. More so, the DPH can also build a database to collate information on mold occurrences. The database can also be used to develop best practices on mold control across numerous cases, while strengthening data-based decision-making for mold remediation in local communities.

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Office of Resilience Finally, the OoR should serve as the primary agency that facilitates and coordinates the efforts of the AH and DPH. The OoR would need to ensure that the City of Atlanta works closely with the AH and DPH to prevent silos and mitigate the impacts of mold occurrences. Since mold crisis affects their overarching mission to promote the resilience of communities across Atlanta, the OoR will be able to reduce income inequality by addressing the vulnerabilities of low-income households to mold in lieu of climate change. However, these recommendations are low-hanging fruit and do not address the larger structural challenge of remedying mold-related issues that are reported over the long-term. In the case of North Carolina, the City of Raleigh played an instrumental role in introducing a bill and prioritizing mold remediation for state-level legislations and enforcement. Similarly, the City of Atlanta needs to play a similar role in prioritizing mold remediation for the State of Georgia and bringing about state-level legislation to provide incentives and enforcement for mold control. Doing so will address the long-term challenge of controlling mold across the City of Atlanta, while mold incidences continue to increase due to the effects of climate change. More so, long-term recommendations will need to address a series of challenges to enable the control of mold across Atlanta. Hence, long-term solutions will need to resolve the dearth of data on mold-related occurrences, the risk of working in silos due to the decentralized organizational structures of the AH, DPH, and OoR, the risk of losing landlord participation in mold remediation programs while holding them accountable to better standards, the challenge of enabling HVAC systems to be effective in mold control, and the overall ageing infrastructure and poor construction due to low-quality materials across low-income neighborhoods.

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This project was made possible by generous contributions from the Earth Institute and the Center on Global Energy Policy.

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