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Commonwealth of Australia

Flag Coat of arms

Anthem: "Advance Australia Fair"

Capital Canberra35°18.48′S 149°7.47′E

Largest city Sydney

Official languages None[N 2]

National language English[N 2]

Demonym AustralianAussie (colloquial)[3][4]

Government Federal parliamentaryconstitutional monarchy

• Monarch Elizabeth II • Governor­General Sir Peter Cosgrove • Prime Minister Malcolm Turnbull • Chief Justice Robert French

Legislature Parliament • Upper house Senate • Lower house House of Representatives

AustraliaFrom Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Australia (/ɒˈstreɪliә/, /ә­/, colloquially /­jә/),[10][11]

officially the Commonwealth of Australia,[12] is anOceanian country comprising the mainland of theAustralian continent, the island of Tasmania, andnumerous smaller islands. It is the world's sixth­largestcountry by total area. Neighbouring countries includePapua New Guinea, Indonesia and East Timor to thenorth; the Solomon Islands and Vanuatu to the north­east; and New Zealand to the south­east.

For at least 40,000 years[13] before the first Britishsettlement in the late 18th century,[14][15] Australia wasinhabited by indigenous Australians,[16] who spokelanguages grouped into roughly 250 languagegroups.[17][18] After the European discovery of thecontinent by Dutch explorers in 1606, Australia's easternhalf was claimed by Great Britain in 1770 and initiallysettled through penal transportation to the colony of NewSouth Wales from 26 January 1788. The population grewsteadily in subsequent decades; the continent wasexplored and an additional five self­governing crowncolonies were established. On 1 January 1901, the sixcolonies federated, forming the Commonwealth ofAustralia. Since federation, Australia has maintained astable liberal democratic political system that functionsas a federal parliamentary democracy and constitutionalmonarchy comprising six states and several territories.The population of 23.6 million[5] is highly urbanised andheavily concentrated in the eastern states and on thecoast.[19]

Australia is a developed country and one of thewealthiest in the world, with the world's 12th­largesteconomy. In 2014 Australia had the world's fifth­highestper capita income.[20] Australia's military expenditure isthe world's 13th­largest. With the second­highest humandevelopment index globally, Australia ranks highly inmany international comparisons of national performance,such as quality of life, health, education, economic

[N 1]

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Independence from the United Kingdom • Federation,Constitution

1 January 1901

• Statute ofWestminsterAdoption Act

9 October 1942 (with effectfrom 3 September 1939)

• Australia Act 3 March 1986

Area • Total 7,692,024 km2 (6th)

2,969,907 sq mi

Population • 2015 estimate 23,980,500[5] (51st) • 2011 census 21,507,717[6] • Density 2.8/km2 (233rd)

7.3/sq mi

GDP (PPP) 2015 estimate • Total $1.137 trillion[7] (19th) • Per capita $47,318[7] (17th)

GDP (nominal) 2015 estimate • Total $1.241 trillion[7] (12th) • Per capita $51,642[7] (9th)

Gini (2012) 33.6[8]medium · 19th

HDI (2013) 0.933[9]very high · 2nd

Currency Australian dollar (AUD)

Time zone various[N 3](UTC+8 to +10.5)

• Summer (DST) various[N 3] (UTC+8 to+11.5)

Date format dd­mm­yyyy

Drives on the left

Calling code +61

ISO 3166 code AU

Internet TLD .au

freedom, and the protection of civil liberties and politicalrights.[21] Australia is a member of the United Nations,G20, Commonwealth of Nations, ANZUS, Organisationfor Economic Co­operation and Development (OECD),World Trade Organization, Asia­Pacific EconomicCooperation, and the Pacific Islands Forum.

Contents

1 Name

2 History

2.1 Prehistory

2.2 European arrival

2.3 Colonial expansion

2.4 Nationhood

3 Government

4 States and territories

5 Foreign relations and military

6 Geography and climate

7 Environment

7.1 Environmental issues

8 Economy

9 Demographics

9.1 Language

9.2 Religion

9.3 Education

9.4 Health

10 Culture

10.1 Arts

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10.1 Arts

10.2 Media

10.3 Cuisine

10.4 Sport and recreation

11 See also

12 Notes

13 References

14 Bibliography

15 Further reading

16 External links

Name

The name Australia (pronounced [әˈstɹæɪljә, ­liә] in Australian English,[22]) is derived from the Latin TerraAustralis ("southern land") a name used for putative lands in the southern hemisphere since ancienttimes.[23] The earliest recorded use of the word Australia in English was in 1625 in "A note of Australia delEspíritu Santo, written by Sir Richard Hakluyt", published by Samuel Purchas in Hakluytus Posthumus, acorruption of the original Spanish name "Austrialia del Espíritu Santo" (Southern Land of the HolySpirit)[24][25][26] for an island in Vanuatu.[27] The Dutch adjectival form Australische was used in a Dutchbook in Batavia (Jakarta) in 1638, to refer to the newly discovered lands to the south.[28] The first time thatthe name Australia appears to have been officially used was in a despatch to Lord Bathurst of 4 April 1817in which Governor Lachlan Macquarie acknowledges the receipt of Capt. Flinders' charts of Australia.[29]

On 12 December 1817, Macquarie recommended to the Colonial Office that it be formally adopted.[30] In1824, the Admiralty agreed that the continent should be known officially as Australia.[31]

History

Prehistory

Human habitation of the Australian continent is estimated to have begun between 42,000 and 48,000 yearsago,[32][33] possibly with the migration of people by land bridges and short sea­crossings from what is nowSouth­East Asia. These first inhabitants may have been ancestors of modern Indigenous Australians.[34] Atthe time of European settlement in the late 18th century, most Indigenous Australians were hunter­gatherers, with a complex oral culture and spiritual values based on reverence for the land and a belief in

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Aboriginal rock art in the Kimberleyregion of Western Australia

Portrait of Captain JamesCook, the first European tomap the eastern coastline ofAustralia in 1770

Tasmania's Port Arthur penalsettlement is one of eleven UNESCOWorld Heritage­listed AustralianConvict Sites.

the Dreamtime. The Torres Strait Islanders, ethnically Melanesian, were originally horticulturalists andhunter­gatherers.[35] The northern coasts and waters of Australia were visited sporadically by fishermenfrom Maritime Southeast Asia.[36]

European arrival

The first recorded European sightingof the Australian mainland, and thefirst recorded European landfall onthe Australian continent, areattributed to the Dutch navigatorWillem Janszoon. He sighted thecoast of Cape York Peninsula inearly 1606, and made landfall on 26February at the Pennefather Rivernear the modern town of Weipa onCape York.[37] The Dutch chartedthe whole of the western andnorthern coastlines and named theisland continent "New Holland" during the 17th century, but made noattempt at settlement.[37] William Dampier, an English explorer andprivateer, landed on the north­west coast of New Holland in 1688 and againin 1699 on a return trip.[38] In 1770, James Cook sailed along and mappedthe east coast, which he named New South Wales and claimed for Great

Britain.[39] With the loss of its American colonies in 1783, the British Government sent a fleet of ships, the"First Fleet", under the command of Captain Arthur Phillip, to establish a new penal colony in New SouthWales. A camp was set up and the flag raised at Sydney Cove, Port Jackson, on 26 January 1788,[15] a datewhich became Australia's national day, Australia Day, although the British Crown Colony of New SouthWales was not formally promulgated until 7 February 1788. The first settlement led to the foundation ofSydney, and the exploration and settlement of other regions.

A British settlement was established in Van Diemen's Land, nowknown as Tasmania, in 1803, and it became a separate colony in1825.[40] The United Kingdom formally claimed the western part ofWestern Australia (the Swan River Colony) in 1828.[41] Separatecolonies were carved from parts of New South Wales: SouthAustralia in 1836, Victoria in 1851, and Queensland in 1859.[42] TheNorthern Territory was founded in 1911 when it was excised fromSouth Australia.[43] South Australia was founded as a "freeprovince"—it was never a penal colony.[44] Victoria and WesternAustralia were also founded "free", but later accepted transportedconvicts.[45][46] A campaign by the settlers of New South Wales ledto the end of convict transportation to that colony; the last convictship arrived in 1848.[47]

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The Last Post is played at an AnzacDay ceremony in Port Melbourne,Victoria. Similar ceremonies are heldin most suburbs and towns.

The indigenous population, estimated to have been between 750,000 and 1,000,000 at the time Europeansettlement began,[48] declined for 150 years following settlement, mainly due to infectious disease.[49] Agovernment policy of "assimilation" beginning with the Aboriginal Protection Act 1869 resulted in theremoval of many Aboriginal children from their families and communities—often referred to as the StolenGenerations—a practice which may also have contributed to the decline in the indigenous population.[50]The Federal government gained the power to make laws with respect to Aborigines following the 1967referendum.[51] Traditional ownership of land—aboriginal title—was not recognised until 1992, when theHigh Court case Mabo v Queensland (No 2) overturned the legal doctrine that Australia had been terranullius ("land belonging to no one") before the European occupation.[52]

Colonial expansion

A gold rush began in Australia in the early 1850s[53] and the Eureka Rebellion against mining licence feesin 1854 was an early expression of civil disobedience.[54] Between 1855 and 1890, the six coloniesindividually gained responsible government, managing most of their own affairs while remaining part of theBritish Empire.[55] The Colonial Office in London retained control of some matters, notably foreignaffairs[56] defence,[57] and international shipping.

Nationhood

On 1 January 1901, federation of the colonies was achieved after adecade of planning, consultation and voting.[58] This established theCommonwealth of Australia as a dominion of the British Empire.[59]The Federal Capital Territory (later renamed the Australian CapitalTerritory) was formed in 1911 as the location for the future federalcapital of Canberra. Melbourne was the temporary seat ofgovernment from 1901 to 1927 while Canberra was beingconstructed.[60] The Northern Territory was transferred from thecontrol of the South Australian government to the federal parliamentin 1911.[61] In 1914, Australia joined Britain in fighting World WarI, with support from both the outgoing Commonwealth Liberal Partyand the incoming Australian Labor Party.[62][63] Australians tookpart in many of the major battles fought on the Western Front.[64] Ofabout 416,000 who served, about 60,000 were killed and another152,000 were wounded.[65] Many Australians regard the defeat of

the Australian and New Zealand Army Corps (ANZACs) at Gallipoli as the birth of the nation—its firstmajor military action.[66][67] The Kokoda Track campaign is regarded by many as an analogous nation­defining event during World War II.[68]

Britain's Statute of Westminster 1931 formally ended most of the constitutional links between Australia andthe UK. Australia adopted it in 1942,[69] but it was backdated to 1939 to confirm the validity of legislationpassed by the Australian Parliament during World War II.[70][71] The shock of the United Kingdom's defeatin Asia in 1942 and the threat of Japanese invasion caused Australia to turn to the United States as a new

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Parliament House was opened inCanberra in 1988, replacing theprovisional Parliament Housebuilding, opened in 1927.

ally and protector.[72] Since 1951, Australia has been a formal military ally of the US, under the ANZUStreaty.[73] After World War II Australia encouraged immigration from Europe. Since the 1970s andfollowing the abolition of the White Australia policy, immigration from Asia and elsewhere was alsopromoted.[74] As a result, Australia's demography, culture, and self­image were transformed.[75] The finalconstitutional ties between Australia and the UK were severed with the passing of the Australia Act 1986,ending any British role in the government of the Australian States, and closing the option of judicial appealsto the Privy Council in London.[76] In a 1999 referendum, 55% of voters and a majority in every staterejected a proposal to become a republic with a president appointed by a two­thirds vote in both Houses ofthe Australian Parliament. Since the election of the Whitlam Government in 1972,[77] there has been anincreasing focus in foreign policy on ties with other Pacific Rim nations, while maintaining close ties withAustralia's traditional allies and trading partners.[78]

Government

Australia is a constitutional monarchy with a federal division ofpowers. It uses a parliamentary system of government[79] withElizabeth II at its apex as the Queen of Australia, a role that isdistinct from her position as monarch of the other Commonwealthrealms. The Queen resides in the United Kingdom and isrepresented in Australia by the Governor­General at the federal leveland by the Governors at the state level, who by convention act onthe advice of her ministers.[80][81] The most notable exercise to dateof the Governor­General's reserve powers outside the PrimeMinister's request was the dismissal of the Whitlam Government inthe constitutional crisis of 1975.[82]

The federal government is separated into three branches:

The legislature: the bicameral Parliament, defined in section 1 of the constitution as comprising theQueen (represented by the Governor­General), the Senate, and the House of Representatives;The executive: the Federal Executive Council, in practice the Governor­General as advised by thePrime Minister and Ministers of State;[83]The judiciary: the High Court of Australia and other federal courts, whose judges are appointed bythe Governor­General on advice of the Council.

In the Senate (the upper house), there are 76 senators: twelve each from the states and two each from themainland territories (the Australian Capital Territory and the Northern Territory).[84] The House ofRepresentatives (the lower house) has 150 members elected from single­member electoral divisions,commonly known as "electorates" or "seats", allocated to states on the basis of population,[85] with eachoriginal state guaranteed a minimum of five seats.[86] Elections for both chambers are normally held everythree years, simultaneously; senators have overlapping six­year terms except for those from the territories,whose terms are not fixed but are tied to the electoral cycle for the lower house; thus only 40 of the 76places in the Senate are put to each election unless the cycle is interrupted by a double dissolution.[84]

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Malcolm Turnbull, PrimeMinister of Australia

Peter Cosgrove, Governor­General of Australia

Australia's electoral system uses preferential votingfor all lower house elections with the exception ofTasmania and the ACT which, along with theSenate and most state upper houses, combine itwith proportional representation in a system knownas the single transferable vote. Voting iscompulsory for all enrolled citizens 18 years andover in every jurisdiction,[87] as is enrolment (withthe exception of South Australia).[88] The partywith majority support in the House ofRepresentatives forms the government and itsleader becomes Prime Minister. In cases where noparty has majority support, the Governor­Generalhas the constitutional power to appoint the PrimeMinister and, if necessary, dismiss one that has lostthe confidence of Parliament.[89]

There are two major political groups that usually form government, federally and in the states: theAustralian Labor Party and the Coalition which is a formal grouping of the Liberal Party and its minorpartner, the National Party.[90][91] Within Australian political culture, the Coalition is considered centre­right and the Labor Party is considered centre­left.[92] Independent members and several minor parties haveachieved representation in Australian parliaments, mostly in upper houses.

Following a partyroom leadership challenge, Julia Gillard became the first female Prime Minister in June2010.[93] The most recent federal election was held on 7 September 2013 and resulted in a majoritygovernment for the Coalition. Liberal Party leader Tony Abbott was sworn into office as Prime Minister bythe Governor­General of Australia on 18 September. In September 2015, Malcolm Turnbull successfullychallenged Abbott for leadership of the Coalition, and was sworn in as Prime Minister on the 15th.[94] Withfive Prime Ministers in as many years between 2010 and 2015, with most of those leadership changesoccurring through leadership spills rather than general elections, Australia has been described as the "coupcapital of the democratic world".[95]

States and territories

Australia has six states—New South Wales (NSW), Queensland (QLD), South Australia (SA), Tasmania(TAS), Victoria (VIC) and Western Australia (WA)—and two major mainland territories—the AustralianCapital Territory (ACT) and the Northern Territory (NT). In most respects these two territories function asstates, but the Commonwealth Parliament can override any legislation of their parliaments. By contrast,federal legislation overrides state legislation only in areas that are set out in Section 51 of the AustralianConstitution; state parliaments retain all residual legislative powers, including those over schools, statepolice, the state judiciary, roads, public transport and local government, since these do not fall under theprovisions listed in Section 51.[96]

Each state and major mainland territory has its own parliament—unicameral in the Northern Territory, theACT and Queensland—and bicameral in the other states. The states are sovereign entities, although subjectto certain powers of the Commonwealth as defined by the Constitution. The lower houses are known as the

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A clickable map of Australia's states and mainlandterritories

Australian Army soldiers conductinga foot patrol during a joint trainingexercise with US forces in ShoalwaterBay (2007).

Legislative Assembly (the House of Assembly in South Australia and Tasmania); the upper houses areknown as the Legislative Council. The head of the government in each state is the Premier and in eachterritory the Chief Minister. The Queen is represented in each state by a Governor; and in the NorthernTerritory, the Administrator.[97] In the Commonwealth, the Queen's representative is the Governor­General.[98]

The federal parliament directly administers the following territories:[83]

Ashmore and Cartier IslandsAustralian Antarctic TerritoryChristmas IslandCocos (Keeling) IslandsCoral Sea IslandsHeard Island and McDonald IslandsJervis Bay Territory, a naval base and seaport for the national capital in land that wasformerly part of New South Wales

The external territory of Norfolk Island previouslyexercised considerable autonomy under the NorfolkIsland Act 1979 through its own legislativeassembly and an Administrator to represent theQueen.[99] In 2015, the Commonwealth Parliamentabolished self­government, integrating NorfolkIsland into the Australian tax and welfare systemsand replacing its legislative assembly with acouncil.[100]

Macquarie Island is administered by Tasmania, andLord Howe Island by New South Wales.

Foreign relations and military

Over recent decades, Australia's foreign relationshave been driven by a close association with the United Statesthrough the ANZUS pact, and by a desire to develop relationshipswith Asia and the Pacific, particularly through ASEAN and thePacific Islands Forum. In 2005 Australia secured an inaugural seatat the East Asia Summit following its accession to the Treaty ofAmity and Cooperation in Southeast Asia, and in 2011 attended theSixth East Asia Summit in Indonesia. Australia is a member of theCommonwealth of Nations, in which the Commonwealth Heads ofGovernment meetings provide the main forum for co­operation.[101]

Australia has pursued the cause of international tradeliberalisation.[102] It led the formation of the Cairns Group and Asia­Pacific Economic Cooperation.[103][104] Australia is a member of the

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Climatic zones in Australia, based onthe Köppen climate classification.

Organisation for Economic Co­operation and Development and the World Trade Organization,[105][106] andhas pursued several major bilateral free trade agreements, most recently the Australia–United States FreeTrade Agreement[107] and Closer Economic Relations with New Zealand,[108] with another free tradeagreement being negotiated with China—the Australia–China Free Trade Agreement—and Japan,[109]

South Korea in 2011,[110][111] Australia–Chile Free Trade Agreement, and as of November 2015 has put theTrans­Pacific Partnership before parliament for ratification.[112]

Along with New Zealand, the United Kingdom, Malaysia and Singapore, Australia is party to the FivePower Defence Arrangements, a regional defence agreement. A founding member country of the UnitedNations, Australia is strongly committed to multilateralism[113] and maintains an international aid programunder which some 60 countries receive assistance. The 2005–06 budget provides A$2.5 billion fordevelopment assistance.[114] Australia ranks fifteenth overall in the Center for Global Development's 2012Commitment to Development Index.[115]

Australia's armed forces—the Australian Defence Force (ADF)—comprise the Royal Australian Navy(RAN), the Australian Army and the Royal Australian Air Force (RAAF), in total numbering 81,214personnel (including 57,982 regulars and 23,232 reservists) as of November 2015. The titular role ofCommander­in­Chief is vested in the Governor­General, who appoints a Chief of the Defence Force fromone of the armed services on the advice of the government.[116] Day­to­day force operations are under thecommand of the Chief, while broader administration and the formulation of defence policy is undertaken bythe Minister and Department of Defence.

In the 2015­16 budget, defence spending was A$31.9 billion or 1.92% of GDP,[117] representing the 13thlargest defence budget.[118] Australia has been involved in UN and regional peacekeeping, disaster reliefand armed conflict, including the 2003 invasion of Iraq; it currently has deployed about 2,241 personnel invarying capacities to 12 international operations in areas including Iraq and Afghanistan.[119]

Geography and climate

Australia's landmass of 7,617,930 square kilometres(2,941,300 sq mi)[120] is on the Indo­Australian Plate. Surroundedby the Indian and Pacific oceans,[N 4] it is separated from Asia bythe Arafura and Timor seas, with the Coral Sea lying off theQueensland coast, and the Tasman Sea lying between Australia andNew Zealand. The world's smallest continent[122] and sixth largestcountry by total area,[123] Australia—owing to its size and isolation—is often dubbed the "island continent",[124] and is sometimesconsidered the world's largest island.[125] Australia has 34,218kilometres (21,262 mi) of coastline (excluding all offshoreislands),[126] and claims an extensive Exclusive Economic Zone of8,148,250 square kilometres (3,146,060 sq mi). This exclusiveeconomic zone does not include the Australian AntarcticTerritory.[127] Apart from Macquarie Island, Australia lies between latitudes 9° and 44°S, and longitudes112° and 154°E.

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Coral of the Great Barrier Reef, theworld's largest coral reef system.

Topographic map of Australia. Darkgreen represents the lowest elevationand dark brown the highest

The Great Barrier Reef, the world's largest coral reef,[128] lies a short distance off the north­east coast andextends for over 2,000 kilometres (1,240 mi). Mount Augustus, claimed to be the world's largestmonolith,[129] is located in Western Australia. At 2,228 metres (7,310 ft), Mount Kosciuszko on the GreatDividing Range is the highest mountain on the Australian mainland. Even taller are Mawson Peak (at 2,745metres or 9,006 feet), on the remote Australian territory of Heard Island, and, in the Australian AntarcticTerritory, Mount McClintock and Mount Menzies, at 3,492 metres (11,457 ft) and 3,355 metres (11,007 ft)respectively.[130]

Australia's size gives it a wide variety of landscapes, with tropicalrainforests in the north­east, mountain ranges in the south­east,south­west and east, and dry desert in the centre.[131] It is the flattestcontinent,[132] with the oldest and least fertile soils;[133][134] desert orsemi­arid land commonly known as the outback makes up by far thelargest portion of land.[135] The driest inhabited continent, its annualrainfall averaged over continental area is less than 500 mm.[136] Thepopulation density, 2.8 inhabitants per square kilometre, is amongthe lowest in the world,[137] although a large proportion of thepopulation lives along the temperate south­eastern coastline.[138]

Eastern Australia is marked by the Great Dividing Range, whichruns parallel to the coast of Queensland, New South Wales and much of Victoria. The name is not strictlyaccurate, because parts of the range consist of low hills, and the highlands are typically no more than 1,600metres (5,249 ft) in height.[139] The coastal uplands and a belt of Brigalow grasslands lie between the coastand the mountains, while inland of the dividing range are large areas of grassland.[139][140] These includethe western plains of New South Wales, and the Einasleigh Uplands, Barkly Tableland, and Mulga Lands ofinland Queensland. The northernmost point of the east coast is the tropical­rainforested Cape YorkPeninsula.[141][142][143][144]

The landscapes of the Top End and the Gulf Country—with theirtropical climate—include forest, woodland, wetland, grassland,rainforest and desert.[145][146][147] At the north­west corner of thecontinent are the sandstone cliffs and gorges of The Kimberley, andbelow that the Pilbara. To the south of these and inland, lie moreareas of grassland: the Ord Victoria Plain and the WesternAustralian Mulga shrublands.[148][149][150] At the heart of thecountry are the uplands of central Australia. Prominent features ofthe centre and south include Uluru (also known as Ayers Rock), thefamous sandstone monolith, and the inland Simpson, Tirari andSturt Stony, Gibson, Great Sandy, Tanami, and Great Victoriadeserts, with the famous Nullarbor Plain on the southerncoast.[151][152][153][154]

The climate of Australia is significantly influenced by oceancurrents, including the Indian Ocean Dipole and the El Niño–Southern Oscillation, which is correlated with periodic drought, and the seasonal tropical low­pressure

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The koala and the eucalyptus form aniconic Australian pair.

system that produces cyclones in northern Australia.[155][156] These factors cause rainfall to vary markedlyfrom year to year. Much of the northern part of the country has a tropical, predominantly summer­rainfall(monsoon) climate.[136] The south­west corner of the country has a Mediterranean climate.[157] Much of thesouth­east (including Tasmania) is temperate.[136]

Environment

Although most of Australia is semi­arid or desert, it includes adiverse range of habitats from alpine heaths to tropical rainforests,and is recognised as a megadiverse country. Fungi typify thatdiversity; an estimated 250,000 species—of which only 5% havebeen described—occur in Australia.[158] Because of the continent'sgreat age, extremely variable weather patterns, and long­termgeographic isolation, much of Australia's biota is unique. About85% of flowering plants, 84% of mammals, more than 45% of birds,and 89% of in­shore, temperate­zone fish are endemic.[159] Australiahas the greatest number of reptiles of any country, with 755species.[160]

Australian forests are mostly made up of evergreen species,particularly eucalyptus trees in the less arid regions; wattles replacethem as the dominant species in drier regions and deserts.[161]

Among well­known Australian animals are the monotremes (the platypus and echidna); a host ofmarsupials, including the kangaroo, koala, and wombat, and birds such as the emu and the kookaburra.[161]Australia is home to many dangerous animals including some of the most venomous snakes in theworld.[162] The dingo was introduced by Austronesian people who traded with Indigenous Australiansaround 3000 BCE.[163] Many animal and plant species became extinct soon after first human settlement,[164]including the Australian megafauna; others have disappeared since European settlement, among them thethylacine.[165][166]

Many of Australia's ecoregions, and the species within those regions, are threatened by human activities andintroduced animal, chromistan, fungal and plant species.[167] All these factors have led to Australia havingthe highest mammal extinction rate of any country in the world.[168] The federal Environment Protectionand Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999 is the legal framework for the protection of threatened species.[169]Numerous protected areas have been created under the National Strategy for the Conservation of Australia'sBiological Diversity to protect and preserve unique ecosystems;[170][171] 65 wetlands are listed under theRamsar Convention,[172] and 16 natural World Heritage Sites have been established.[173] Australia wasranked 3rd out of 178 countries in the world on the 2014 Environmental Performance Index.[174]

Environmental issues

Protection of the environment is a major political issue in Australia.[175][176] In 2007, the First RuddGovernment signed the instrument of ratification of the Kyoto Protocol. Nevertheless, Australia's carbondioxide emissions per capita are among the highest in the world, lower than those of only a few other

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Drought affecting Lake Hume on theUpper Murray River

The Super Pit gold mine inKalgoorlie, Western Australia, is thenation's largest open cut mine.[190]

industrialised nations.[177] Rainfall in Australia has slightly increased over the past century, both nationwideand for two quadrants of the nation.[178]

According to the Bureau of Meteorology's 2011 Australian ClimateStatement, Australia had lower than average temperatures in 2011 asa consequence of a La Niña weather pattern; however, "the country's10­year average continues to demonstrate the rising trend intemperatures, with 2002–2011 likely to rank in the top two warmest10­year periods on record for Australia, at 0.52 °C above the long­term average".[179] Furthermore, 2014 was Australia's third warmestyear since national temperature observations commenced in1910.[180][181] Water restrictions are frequently in place in manyregions and cities of Australia in response to chronic shortages dueto urban population increases and localised drought.[182][183]Throughout much of the continent, major flooding regularly follows extended periods of drought, flushingout inland river systems, overflowing dams and inundating large inland flood plains, as occurred throughoutEastern Australia in 2010, 2011 and 2012 after the 2000s Australian drought.

A carbon tax was introduced in 2012 and helped to reduce Australia's emissions but was scrapped in 2014under the Liberal Government.[184] Since the carbon tax was repealed, emissions have again continued torise.[185]

Australian biota has been severely impacted by changes occurring since European settlement began in1788,[186] with more than 10% of mammal species lost in the past 225 years.[187] There have also been 23bird species or subspecies,[188] 4 amphibians and more than 60 plant species known to be lost during thisperiod.[186] The Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act of 1999 was designed tominimise further impacts on ecological communities in Australia and its territories.[189]

Economy

Australia is a wealthy country; it generates its income from varioussources including mining­related exports, telecommunications,banking and manufacturing.[191][192][193] It has a market economy, arelatively high GDP per capita, and a relatively low rate of poverty.In terms of average wealth, Australia ranked second in the worldafter Switzerland in 2013, although the nation's poverty rateincreased from 10.2% to 11.8%, from 2000/01 to 2013.[194][195] Itwas identified by the Credit Suisse Research Institute as the nationwith the highest median wealth in the world and the second­highestaverage wealth per adult in 2013.[194]

The Australian dollar is the currency for the nation, includingChristmas Island, Cocos (Keeling) Islands, and Norfolk Island, aswell as the independent Pacific Island states of Kiribati, Nauru, and

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Destination and value of Australian exports in2006[204]

Tuvalu. With the 2006 merger of the Australian Stock Exchange and the Sydney Futures Exchange, theAustralian Securities Exchange became the ninth largest in the world.[196]

Ranked third in the Index of Economic Freedom (2010),[197] Australia is the world's twelfth largesteconomy and has the fifth highest per capita GDP (nominal) at $66,984. The country was ranked second inthe United Nations 2011 Human Development Index and first in Legatum's 2008 Prosperity Index.[198] Allof Australia's major cities fare well in global comparative livability surveys;[199] Melbourne reached topspot for the fourth year in a row on The Economist's 2014 list of the world's most liveable cities, followedby Adelaide, Sydney, and Perth in the fifth, seventh, and ninth places respectively.[200] Total governmentdebt in Australia is about $190 billion[201] – 20% of GDP in 2010.[202] Australia has among the highesthouse prices and some of the highest household­debt levels in the world.[203]

An emphasis on exporting commodities rather thanmanufactured goods has underpinned a significantincrease in Australia's terms of trade since the start ofthe 21st century, due to rising commodity prices.Australia has a balance of payments that is more than7% of GDP negative, and has had persistently largecurrent account deficits for more than 50 years.[205]Australia has grown at an average annual rate of 3.6%for over 15 years, in comparison to the OECD annualaverage of 2.5%.[205] Australia was the only advancedeconomy not to experience a recession due to the globalfinancial downturn in 2008–2009.[206] However, the

economies of six of Australia's major trading partners have been in recession, which in turn has affectedAustralia, significantly hampering its economic growth in recent years.[207][208] From 2012 to early 2013,Australia's national economy grew, but some non­mining states and Australia's non­mining economyexperienced a recession.[209][210][211]

The Hawke Government floated the Australian dollar in 1983 and partially deregulated the financialsystem.[212] The Howard Government followed with a partial deregulation of the labour market and thefurther privatisation of state­owned businesses, most notably in the telecommunications industry.[213] Theindirect tax system was substantially changed in July 2000 with the introduction of a 10% Goods andServices Tax (GST).[214] In Australia's tax system, personal and company income tax are the main sourcesof government revenue.[215]

In May 2012, there were 11,537,900 people employed (either full­ or part­time), with an unemploymentrate of 5.1%.[216] Youth unemployment (15–24) stood at 11.2%.[216] Data released in mid­November 2013showed that the number of welfare recipients had grown by 55%. In 2007 228,621 Newstart unemploymentallowance recipients were registered, a total that increased to 646,414 in March 2013.[217] According to theGraduate Careers Survey, full­time employment for newly qualified professionals from various occupationshas declined since 2011 but it increases for graduates three years after graduation.[218][219]

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Australia has one of the world's mosthighly urbanised populations with themajority living in metropolitan citieson the coast. (Pictured: Gold Coastbeach and skyline, Queensland).

Since 2008, inflation has typically been 2–3% and the base interest rate 5–6%. The service sector of theeconomy, including tourism, education, and financial services, accounts for about 70% of GDP.[220] Rich innatural resources, Australia is a major exporter of agricultural products, particularly wheat and wool,minerals such as iron­ore and gold, and energy in the forms of liquified natural gas and coal. Althoughagriculture and natural resources account for only 3% and 5% of GDP respectively, they contributesubstantially to export performance. Australia's largest export markets are Japan, China, the US, SouthKorea, and New Zealand.[221] Australia is the world's fourth largest exporter of wine, and the wine industrycontributes $5.5 billion per year to the nation's economy.[222]

Demographics

For generations, the vast majority of immigrants came from theBritish Isles, and the people of Australia are still mainly of British orIrish ethnic origin. In the 2011 Australian census, the mostcommonly nominated ancestry was English (36.1%), followed byAustralian (35.4%),[223] Irish (10.4%), Scottish (8.9%), Italian(4.6%), German (4.5%), Chinese (4.3%), Indian (2.0%), Greek(1.9%), and Dutch (1.7%).[224]

Australia's population has quadrupled since the end of World WarI,[225] much of this increase from immigration. Following WorldWar II and through to 2000, almost 5.9 million of the totalpopulation settled in the country as new immigrants, meaning thatnearly two out of every seven Australians were born in anothercountry.[226] Most immigrants are skilled,[227] but the immigrationquota includes categories for family members and refugees.[227] By 2050, Australia's population is currentlyprojected to reach around 42 million.[228] Nevertheless, its population density, 2.8 inhabitants per squarekilometre, remains among the lowest in the world.[137] As such, Australians have more living space perperson than the inhabitants of any other nation.[229]

In 2011, 24.6% of Australians were born elsewhere and 43.1% of people had at least one overseas­bornparent;[230] the five largest immigrant groups were those from the United Kingdom, New Zealand, China,India, and Vietnam.[231] Following the abolition of the White Australia policy in 1973, numerousgovernment initiatives have been established to encourage and promote racial harmony based on a policy ofmulticulturalism.[232] In 2005–06, more than 131,000 people emigrated to Australia, mainly from Asia andOceania.[233] The migration target for 2012–13 is 190,000,[234] compared to 67,900 in 1998–99.[235]

The Indigenous population—Aborigines and Torres Strait Islanders—was counted at 548,370 (2.5% of thetotal population) in 2011,[236] a significant increase from 115,953 in the 1976 census.[237] The increase ispartly due to many people with Indigenous heritage previously having been overlooked by the census dueto undercount and cases where their Indigenous status had not been recorded on the form. IndigenousAustralians experience higher than average rates of imprisonment and unemployment, lower levels of

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Religion in Australia[231]Religion PercentRoman Catholic   25.3%Anglican   17.1%Other Christian   18.7%Buddhism   2.5%Islam   2.2%Hinduism   1.3%Judaism 0.5%Other 0.8%No religion   22.3%Undefined or not stated   9.4%

education, and life expectancies for males and females that are, respectively, 11 and 17 years lower thanthose of non­indigenous Australians.[221][238][239] Some remote Indigenous communities have beendescribed as having "failed state"­like conditions.[240]

In common with many other developed countries, Australia is experiencing a demographic shift towards anolder population, with more retirees and fewer people of working age. In 2004, the average age of thecivilian population was 38.8 years.[241] A large number of Australians (759,849 for the period 2002–03;[242]

1 million or 5% of the total population in 2005[243]) live outside their home country.

Language

Although Australia has no official language, English has always been entrenched as the de facto nationallanguage.[2] Australian English is a major variety of the language with a distinctive accent and lexicon,[245]

and differs slightly from other varieties of English in grammar and spelling.[246] General Australian servesas the standard dialect. According to the 2011 census, English is the only language spoken in the home forclose to 81% of the population. The next most common languages spoken at home are Mandarin (1.7%),Italian (1.5%), Arabic (1.4%), Cantonese (1.3%), Greek (1.3%), and Vietnamese (1.2%);[231] a considerableproportion of first­ and second­generation migrants are bilingual. A 2010–2011 study by the Australia EarlyDevelopment Index found the most common language spoken by children after English was Arabic,followed by Vietnamese, Greek, Chinese, and Hindi.[247][248]

Over 250 Indigenous Australian languages are thought to have existed at the time of first European contact,of which less than 20 are still in daily use by all age groups.[249][250] About 110 others are spokenexclusively by older people.[250] At the time of the 2006 census, 52,000 Indigenous Australians,representing 12% of the Indigenous population, reported that they spoke an Indigenous language athome.[251] Australia has a sign language known as Auslan, which is the main language of about 5,500 deafpeople.[252]

Religion

Australia has no state religion; Section 116 of theAustralian Constitution prohibits the federalgovernment from making any law to establish anyreligion, impose any religious observance, or prohibitthe free exercise of any religion.[253] In the 2011 census,61.1% of Australians were counted as Christian,including 25.3% as Roman Catholic and 17.1% asAnglican; 22.3% of the population reported having "noreligion"; 7.2% identify with non­Christian religions,the largest of these being Buddhism (2.5%), followedby Islam (2.2%), Hinduism (1.3%) and Judaism (0.5%).The remaining 9.4% of the population did not providean adequate answer.[231]

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The University of Sydney is theoldest university in Australia, havingbeen founded in 1850.

Before European settlement, the animist beliefs of Australia's indigenous people had been practised formany thousands of years. Mainland Aboriginal Australians' spirituality is known as the Dreamtime and itplaces a heavy emphasis on belonging to the land. The collection of stories that it contains shapedAboriginal law and customs. Aboriginal art, story and dance continue to draw on these spiritual traditions.The spirituality and customs of Torres Strait Islanders, who inhabit the islands between Australia and NewGuinea, reflected their Melanesian origins and dependence on the sea. The 1996 Australian census countedmore than 7000 respondents as followers of a traditional Aboriginal religion.[254]

Since the arrival of the First Fleet of British ships in 1788, Christianity has grown to be the major religionpractised in Australia. Christian churches have played an integral role in the development of education,health and welfare services in Australia. For much of Australian history the Church of England (now knownas the Anglican Church of Australia) was the largest religious denomination. However, multiculturalimmigration has contributed to a decline in its relative position, and the Roman Catholic Church hasbenefitted from recent immigration to become the largest group. Similarly, Islam, Buddhism, Hinduism andJudaism have all grown in Australia over the past half­century.[255]

Australia has one of the lowest levels of religious adherence in the world.[256] It was reported in 2001 thatonly 7% of Australians attended church on a weekly basis.[257]

Education

School attendance, or registration for home schooling,[258][259] iscompulsory throughout Australia. Education is the responsibility ofthe individual states and territories[260] so the rules vary betweenstates, but in general children are required to attend school from theage of about 5 up until about 16.[261][262] In some states (e.g.,Western Australia,[263] the Northern Territory[264] and New SouthWales[265][266]), children aged 16–17 are required to either attendschool or participate in vocational training, such as anapprenticeship.

Australia has an adult literacy rate that was estimated to be 99% in2003.[267] However, a 2011–12 report for the Australian Bureau of

Statistics reported that Tasmania has a literacy and numeracy rate of only 50%.[268] In the Programme forInternational Student Assessment, Australia regularly scores among the top five of thirty major developedcountries (member countries of the Organisation for Economic Co­operation and Development). Catholiceducation accounts for the largest non­government sector.

Australia has 37 government­funded universities and two private universities, as well as a number of otherspecialist institutions that provide approved courses at the higher education level.[269] The OECD placesAustralia among the most expensive nations to attend university.[270] There is a state­based system ofvocational training, known as TAFE, and many trades conduct apprenticeships for training newtradespeople.[271] About 58% of Australians aged from 25 to 64 have vocational or tertiaryqualifications,[221] and the tertiary graduation rate of 49% is the highest among OECD countries. The ratio

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The Royal Exhibition Building inMelbourne was the first building inAustralia to be listed as a UNESCOWorld Heritage Site in 2004.[286]

of international to local students in tertiary education in Australia is the highest in the OECD countries.[272]In addition, 38 percent of Australia's population has a university or college degree, which is among thehighest percentages in the world.[273][274]

Health

Australia has the third and seventh highest life expectancy of males and females respectively in theworld.[275] Life expectancy in Australia in 2010 was 79.5 years for males and 84.0 years for females.[276]

Australia has the highest rates of skin cancer in the world,[277] while cigarette smoking is the largestpreventable cause of death and disease, responsible for 7.8% of the total mortality and disease. Rankedsecond in preventable causes is hypertension at 7.6%, with obesity third at 7.5%.[278][279] Australia ranks35th in the world[280] and near the top of developed nations for its proportion of obese adults [281] andnearly two thirds (63%) of its adult population is either overweight or obese.[282]

Total expenditure on health (including private sector spending) is around 9.8% of GDP.[283] Australiaintroduced universal health care in 1975.[284] Known as Medicare, it is now nominally funded by an incometax surcharge known as the Medicare levy, currently set at 1.5%.[285] The states manage hospitals andattached outpatient services, while the Commonwealth funds the Pharmaceutical Benefits Scheme(subsidising the costs of medicines) and general practice.[284]

Culture

Since 1788, the basis of Australian culture has been stronglyinfluenced by Anglo­Celtic Western culture.[287][288] Distinctivecultural features have also arisen from Australia's naturalenvironment and Indigenous cultures.[289][290] Since the mid­20thcentury, American popular culture has strongly influenced Australia,particularly through television and cinema.[291] Other culturalinfluences come from neighbouring Asian countries, and throughlarge­scale immigration from non­English­speaking nations.[291][292]

Arts

The rock art of Australia's Indigenous peoples is the oldest andrichest in the world, dating as far back as 60,000 years and spreadacross hundreds of thousands of sites.[293] Traditional designs,patterns and stories infuse contemporary Indigenous Australian art, "the last great art movement of the 20thcentury";[294] its exponents include Emily Kame Kngwarreye.[295] During the first century of Europeansettlement, colonial artists, trained in Europe, showed a fascination with the unfamiliar land.[296] Thenaturalistic, sun­filled works of Arthur Streeton, Tom Roberts and others associated with the 19th­centuryHeidelberg School—the first "distinctively Australian" movement in Western art—gave expression to aburgeoning Australian nationalism in the lead­up to Federation.[296] While the school remained influentialinto the new century, modernists such as Margaret Preston, and, later, Sidney Nolan and Arthur Boyd,

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Sidney Nolan's Snake mural (1970),held at the Museum of Old and NewArt in Hobart, Tasmania, is inspiredby the Aboriginal creation myth ofthe Rainbow Serpent, as well asdesert flowers in bloom after adrought.[300]

Actor playing the bushranger NedKelly in The Story of the Kelly Gang(1906), the world's first feature film

explored new artistic trends.[296] The landscape remained a central subject matter for Fred Williams, BrettWhiteley and other post­World War II artists whose works, eclectic in style yet uniquely Australian, movedbetween the figurative and the abstract.[296][297] The National Gallery of Australia and state galleriesmaintain collections of Australian and international art.[298] Australia has one of the world's highestattendances of art galleries and museums per head of population.[299]

Australian literature grew slowly in the decades following Europeansettlement though Indigenous oral traditions, many of which havesince been recorded in writing, are much older.[301] Writers of the19th­century Bulletin School, such as Henry Lawson and BanjoPaterson, captured the experience of the bush using a distinctiveAustralian vocabulary. Their works are still very popular; Paterson'sbush poem "Waltzing Matilda" (1895) is regarded as Australia'sunofficial national anthem.[302] Miles Franklin is the namesake ofAustralia's most prestigious literary prize, awarded to the best novelabout Australian life.[303] Its first recipient, Patrick White, went onto win the Nobel Prize in Literature in 1973.[304] Australian winnersof the Man Booker Prize include Peter Carey, Thomas Keneally andRichard Flanagan.[305] Author David Malouf, playwright DavidWilliamson and poet Les Murray are also renowned literaryfigures.[306][307]

Many of Australia's performing arts companies receive funding through the federal government's AustraliaCouncil.[308] There is a symphony orchestra in each state,[309] and a national opera company, OperaAustralia,[310] well known for its famous soprano Joan Sutherland.[311] At the beginning of the 20th century,Nellie Melba was one of the world's leading opera singers.[312] Ballet and dance are represented by TheAustralian Ballet and various state companies. Each state has a publicly funded theatre company.[313]

Media

The Story of the Kelly Gang (1906), the world's first feature lengthfilm, spurred a boom in Australian cinema during the silent filmera.[314] After World War I, Hollywood monopolised theindustry,[315] and by the 1960s Australian film production hadeffectively ceased.[316] With the benefit of government support, theAustralian New Wave of the 1970s brought provocative andsuccessful films, many exploring the nation's colonial past, such asPicnic at Hanging Rock and Breaker Morant,[317] while the so­called Ozploitation genre produced international blockbusters,including the Mad Max series.[318] More recent successes includedShine and Rabbit­Proof Fence.[319][320] Notable Australian actorsinclude Errol Flynn, Judith Anderson, Geoffrey Rush, NicoleKidman, Heath Ledger and Cate Blanchett.[321]

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The Melbourne Cricket Ground isstrongly associated with the historyand development of cricket andAustralian rules football, Australia'stwo most popular spectatorsports.[332]

Australia has two public broadcasters (the Australian Broadcasting Corporation and the multiculturalSpecial Broadcasting Service), three commercial television networks, several pay­TV services,[322] andnumerous public, non­profit television and radio stations. Each major city has at least one dailynewspaper,[322] and there are two national daily newspapers, The Australian and The Australian FinancialReview.[322] In 2010, Reporters Without Borders placed Australia 18th on a list of 178 countries ranked bypress freedom, behind New Zealand (8th) but ahead of the United Kingdom (19th) and United States(20th).[323] This relatively low ranking is primarily because of the limited diversity of commercial mediaownership in Australia;[324] most print media are under the control of News Corporation and FairfaxMedia.[325]

Cuisine

Most Indigenous Australian tribal groups subsisted on a simple hunter­gatherer diet of native fauna andflora, otherwise called bush tucker.[326][327] The first settlers introduced British food to the continent, muchof which is now considered typical Australian food, such as the Sunday roast.[328][329] Multiculturalimmigration transformed Australian cuisine; post­World War II European migrants, particularly from theMediterranean, helped to build a thriving Australian coffee culture, and the influence of Asian cultures hasled to Australian variants of their staple foods, such as the Chinese­inspired dim sim and Chiko Roll.[330]

Vegemite, pavlova, lamingtons and meat pies are regarded as iconic Australian foods.[331] Australian wineis produced mainly in the southern, cooler parts of the country.

Sport and recreation

About 24% of Australians over the age of 15 regularly participate inorganised sporting activities.[221] At an international level, Australiahas excelled at cricket, field hockey, netball, rugby league and rugbyunion.[333] The majority of Australians live within the coastal zone,making the beach a popular recreation spot and an integral part ofthe nation's identity.[334] Australia is a powerhouse in water­basedsports, such as swimming and surfing.[335] The surf lifesavingmovement originated in Australia, and the volunteer lifesaver is oneof the country's icons.[336] Nationally, other popular sports includeAustralian rules football, horse racing, squash, surfing, soccer, andmotor racing. The annual Melbourne Cup horse race and the Sydneyto Hobart yacht race attract intense interest.[337]

Australia is one of five nations to have participated in everySummer Olympics of the modern era,[338] and has hosted the Gamestwice: 1956 in Melbourne and 2000 in Sydney.[339] Australia has also participated in every CommonwealthGames,[340] hosting the event in 1938, 1962, 1982, 2006 and will host the 2018 Commonwealth Games.[341]Australia made its inaugural appearance at the Pacific Games in 2015. As well as being a regular FIFAWorld Cup participant, Australia has won the OFC Nations Cup four times and the AFC Asian Cup once –the only country to have won championships in two different FIFA confederations.[342] Other major

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international events held in Australia include the Australian Open tennis grand slam tournament,international cricket matches, and the Australian Formula One Grand Prix. The highest­rating televisionprograms include sports telecasts such as the Summer Olympics, FIFA World Cup, The Ashes, RugbyLeague State of Origin, and the grand finals of the National Rugby League and Australian FootballLeague.[343] Skiing in Australia began in the 1860s and snow sports take place in the Australian Alps andparts of Tasmania.

See also

Transport in AustraliaTourism in AustraliaVisa policy of AustraliaOutline of AustraliaBook:Australia

Notes1. Australia's royal anthem is "God Save the Queen", played in the presence of a member of the Royal family when

they are in Australia. In all other appropriate contexts, the national anthem of Australia, "Advance Australia Fair",is played.[1]

2. English does not have de jure status.[2]3. There are minor variations from three basic time zones; see Time in Australia.4. Australia describes the body of water south of its mainland as the Southern Ocean, rather than the Indian Ocean

as defined by the International Hydrographic Organization (IHO). In 2000, a vote of IHO member nations definedthe term "Southern Ocean" as applying only to the waters between Antarctica and 60 degrees south latitude.[121]

References1. It's an Honour – Symbols – Australian National Anthem (http://www.itsanhonour.gov.au/symbols/anthem.cfm)

and DFAT – "Australian National Anthem" (http://dfat.gov.au/about­us/publications/corporate/protocol­guidelines/Pages/16­other­matters.aspx#163); "National Symbols" (PDF). Parliamentary Handbook of theCommonwealth of Australia (29th ed.). 2005 [2002]. Retrieved 7 June 2007.

2. "Pluralist Nations: Pluralist Language Policies?". 1995 Global Cultural Diversity Conference Proceedings,Sydney. Department of Immigration and Citizenship. Archived from the original on 20 December 2008. Retrieved11 January 2009. "English has no de jure status but it is so entrenched as the common language that it is de factothe official language as well as the national language."

3. See entry in the Macquarie Dictionary.4. Collins English Dictionary. Bishopbriggs, Glasgow: HarperCollins. 2009. p. 18. ISBN 978­0­00­786171­2.5. "Population clock". Australian Bureau of Statistics website. Commonwealth of Australia. Retrieved 29 June

2015. The population estimate shown is automatically calculated daily at 00:00 UTC and is based on dataobtained from the population clock on the date shown in the citation.

6. Australian Bureau of Statistics (31 October 2012). "Australia". 2011 Census QuickStats. Retrieved 21 June 2012.7. "Australia". International Monetary Fund. October 2015. Retrieved 9 October 2015.8. "OECD Economic Surveys: Norway 2012".9. "2014 Human Development Report Summary" (PDF). United Nations Development Programme. 2014. pp. 21–25.

Retrieved 27 July 2014.10. Macquarie ABC Dictionary. The Macquarie Library Pty Ltd. 2003. p. 56. ISBN 1­876429­37­2.11. "Australia". Oxford Dictionaries. Oxford University Press. April 2010. Retrieved 26 July 2012.

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12. "Constitution of Australia". ComLaw. 9 July 1900. Retrieved 5 August 2011. "3. It shall be lawful for theQueen, with the advice of the Privy Council, to declare by proclamation that, on and after a day therein appointed,not being later than one year after the passing of this Act, the people of New South Wales, Victoria, SouthAustralia, Queensland, and Tasmania, and also, if Her Majesty is satisfied that the people of Western Australiahave agreed thereto, of Western Australia, shall be united in a Federal Commonwealth under the name of theCommonwealth of Australia."

13. Wade, Nicholas (22 September 2011). "Australian Aborigine Hair Tells a Story of Human Migration". The NewYork Times.

14. "European discovery and the colonisation of Australia". Australian Government: Culture Portal. Department ofthe Environment, Water, Heritage and the Arts, Commonwealth of Australia. 11 January 2008. Retrieved 7 May2010. "[The British] moved north to Port Jackson on 26 January 1788, landing at Camp Cove, known as 'cadi' tothe Cadigal people. Governor Phillip carried instructions to establish the first British Colony in Australia. TheFirst Fleet was under prepared for the task, and the soil around Sydney Cove was poor."

15. Davison, Hirst and Macintyre, pp. 157, 254.16. "Both Australian Aborigines and Europeans Rooted in Africa – 50,000 years ago". News.softpedia.com.

Retrieved 27 April 2013.17. "Australian Social Trends". Australian Bureau of Statistics website. Commonwealth of Australia. Retrieved

6 June 2008.18. Walsh, Michael (1991) "Overview of indigenous languages of Australia" in Suzanne Romaine (1991). Language

in Australia. Cambridge University Press. p. 27. ISBN 978­0­521­33983­4.19. "Geographic Distribution of the Population". Retrieved 1 December 2012.20. Data refer mostly to the year 2014. World Economic Outlook Database­April 2015

(http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/weo/2015/01/weodata/weorept.aspx?pr.x=39&pr.y=6&sy=2012&ey=2012&scsm=1&ssd=1&sort=country&ds=.&br=1&c=512%2C668%2C914%2C672%2C612%2C946%2C614%2C137%2C311%2C962%2C213%2C674%2C911%2C676%2C193%2C548%2C122%2C556%2C912%2C678%2C313%2C181%2C419%2C867%2C513%2C682%2C316%2C684%2C913%2C273%2C124%2C868%2C339%2C921%2C638%2C948%2C514%2C943%2C218%2C686%2C963%2C688%2C616%2C518%2C223%2C728%2C516%2C558%2C918%2C138%2C748%2C196%2C618%2C278%2C522%2C692%2C622%2C694%2C156%2C142%2C624%2C449%2C626%2C564%2C628%2C565%2C228%2C283%2C924%2C853%2C233%2C288%2C632%2C293%2C636%2C566%2C634%2C964%2C238%2C182%2C662%2C453%2C960%2C968%2C423%2C922%2C935%2C714%2C128%2C862%2C611%2C135%2C321%2C716%2C243%2C456%2C248%2C722%2C469%2C942%2C253%2C718%2C642%2C724%2C643%2C576%2C939%2C936%2C644%2C961%2C819%2C813%2C172%2C199%2C132%2C733%2C646%2C184%2C648%2C524%2C915%2C361%2C134%2C362%2C652%2C364%2C174%2C732%2C328%2C366%2C258%2C734%2C656%2C144%2C654%2C146%2C336%2C463%2C263%2C528%2C268%2C923%2C532%2C738%2C944%2C578%2C176%2C537%2C534%2C742%2C536%2C866%2C429%2C369%2C433%2C744%2C178%2C186%2C436%2C925%2C136%2C869%2C343%2C746%2C158%2C926%2C439%2C466%2C916%2C112%2C664%2C111%2C826%2C298%2C542%2C927%2C967%2C846%2C443%2C299%2C917%2C582%2C544%2C474%2C941%2C754%2C446%2C698%2C666&s=NGDPDPC&grp=0&a=), International Monetary Fund. Accessed on 25 April2015.

21. "Australia: World Audit Democracy Profile". WorldAudit.org. Archived from the original on 13 December 2007.Retrieved 5 January 2008.

22. Australian pronunciations: Macquarie Dictionary, Fourth Edition (2005). Melbourne, The Macquarie Library PtyLtd. ISBN 1­876429­14­3

23. "Australia" (http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=australia) – Online Etymology Dictionary. Retrieved 28October 2015.

24. "He named it Austrialia del Espiritu Santo and claimed it for Spain"(http://www.sl.nsw.gov.au/discover_collections/history_nation/queiros/index.html) The Spanish quest for TerraAustralis | State Library of New South Wales Page 1.

25. "A note on 'Austrialia' or 'Australia' Rupert Gerritsen ­ Journal of The Australian and New Zealand Map SocietyInc.­ The Globe, Number 72, 2013 "(http://rupertgerritsen.tripod.com/pdf/published/Austrialia_Globe_72_2013_pp23­30.pdf) Posesion en nombre deSu Magestad (Archivo del Museo Naval, Madrid, MS 951) Page 3.

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26. "THE ILLUSTRATED SYDNEY NEWS". Illustrated Sydney News (National Library of Australia). 26 January1888. p. 2. Retrieved 29 January 2012.

27. Purchas, vol. iv, pp. 1422–32, 1625. This appears to be variation of the original Spanish "Austrialia" [sic].[1](https://web.archive.org/web/20060822033701/http://www.hispanicfiesta.com.au/pics/pdf_mag_2004/42.PDF) Acopy at the Library of Congress can be read online [2](http://memory.loc.gov/service/rbc/rbdk/d0404/02951422.jpg).

28. Scott, Ernest (2004) [1914]. The Life of Captain Matthew Flinders. Kessinger Publishing. p. 299. ISBN 978­1­4191­6948­9.

29. "WHO NAMED AUSTRALIA?". The Mail (Adelaide, SA : 1912 – 1954) (Adelaide: National Library ofAustralia). 11 February 1928. p. 16. Retrieved 14 February 2012.

30. Weekend Australian, 30–31 December 2000, p. 1631. Department of Immigration and Citizenship (2007). Life in Australia (PDF). Commonwealth of Australia. p. 11.

ISBN 978­1­921446­30­6. Retrieved 30 March 2010.32. Gillespie, Richard (2002). "Dating the First Australians (full text)" (PDF). Radiocarbon 44 (2): 455–472.

Retrieved 28 July 2014.33. Roberts, Richard G.; Jones, Rhys; Spooner, Nigel A.; Head, M.J.; Murray, Andrew S.; Smith, M.A. (1994).

"The human colonisation of Australia: optical dates of 53,000 and 60,000 years bracket human arrival at DeafAdder Gorge, Northern Territory". Quaternary Science Reviews 13 (5­7): 575–583. doi:10.1016/0277­3791(94)90080­9.

34. "The spread of people to Australia". Australian Museum.35. Viegas, Jennifer (3 July 2008). "Early Aussie Tattoos Match Rock Art". Discovery News. Archived from the

original on 10 July 2008. Retrieved 30 March 2010.36. MacKnight, CC (1976). The Voyage to Marege: Macassan Trepangers in Northern Australia. Melbourne

University Press.37. Davison, Hirst and Macintyre, p. 233.38. Marsh, Lindsay (2010). History of Australia : understanding what makes Australia the place it is today.

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BibliographyDavison, Graeme; Hirst, John; Macintyre, Stuart (1999). The Oxford Companion to Australian History.Melbourne: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0­19­553597­9.Jupp, James (2001). The Australian people: an encyclopedia of the nation, its people, and their origins.Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0­521­80789­1.Smith, Bernard; Smith, Terry (1991). Australian painting 1788–1990. Melbourne: Oxford University Press.ISBN 0­19­554901­5.Teo, Hsu­Ming; White, Richard (2003). Cultural history in Australia. University of New South Wales Press.ISBN 0­86840­589­2.

Further readingDenoon, Donald, et al. (2000). A History of Australia, New Zealand, and the Pacific. Oxford: Blackwell. ISBN0­631­17962­3Goad, Philip and Julie Willis (eds) (2011). The Encyclopedia of Australian Architecture Cambridge UniversityPress, Port Melbourne, Victoria. ISBN 978­0­521­88857­8Hughes, Robert (1986). The Fatal Shore: The Epic of Australia's Founding. Knopf. ISBN 0­394­50668­5.Powell JM (1988). An Historical Geography of Modern Australia: The Restive Fringe. Cambridge, UK:

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Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0­521­25619­4Robinson GM, Loughran RJ, and Tranter PJ (2000) Australia and New Zealand: economy, society andenvironment. London: Arnold; NY: OUP; 0340720336 paper 0­340720328 hard.

External links

Wikimedia Atlas of Australia Geographic data related to Australia (http://www.openstreetmap.org/browse/relation/80500) at

OpenStreetMapAbout Australia (http://www.dfat.gov.au/geo/australia/) from the Department of Foreign Affairs andTrade websiteGovernments of Australia website (http://www.gov.au/) (federal, states and territories)Australian Government website (http://www.australia.gov.au/)Australian Bureau of Statistics (http://www.abs.gov.au/)Community organisations portal (http://www.community.gov.au/)Tourism Australia (http://www.australia.com/)Australia (https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the­world­factbook/geos/as.html) entry at TheWorld FactbookAustralia (http://ucblibraries.colorado.edu/govpubs/for/australia.htm) at UCB Libraries GovPubsAustralia (https://www.dmoz.org/Regional/Oceania/Australia) at DMOZ

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Categories: Australia Member states of the United Nations English­speaking countries and territoriesLiberal democracies

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