author's personal copy -...

This article appeared in a journal published by Elsevier. The attachedcopy is furnished to the author for internal non-commercial researchand education use, including for instruction at the authors institution

and sharing with colleagues.

Other uses, including reproduction and distribution, or selling orlicensing copies, or posting to personal, institutional or third party

websites are prohibited.

In most cases authors are permitted to post their version of thearticle (e.g. in Word or Tex form) to their personal website orinstitutional repository. Authors requiring further information

regarding Elsevier’s archiving and manuscript policies areencouraged to visit:

http://www.elsevier.com/authorsrights

http://www.elsevier.com/authorsrights

Author's personal copy

Ethnomedicinal plants used for treating epilepsy by indigenouscommunities of sub-Himalayan region of Uttarakhand, India

Jyotsana Sharma a,n, Sumeet Gairola b, R.D. Gaur c, R.M. Painuli c, T.O. Siddiqi a

a Department of Botany, Hamdard University, Hamdard Nagar, New Delhi 110 062, Indiab Plant Biotechnology Division, CSIR-Indian Institute of Integrative Medicine, Canal Road, Jammu Tawi, Jammu 180 001, Jammu and Kashmir, Indiac Department of Botany, HNB Garhwal University, Srinagar, Garhwal 246 174, Uttarakhand, India

a r t i c l e i n f o

Article history:Received 23 June 2013Received in revised form13 August 2013Accepted 27 August 2013Available online 9 September 2013

Keywords:AnticonvulsantAntiepilepticBhoxaNomadic GujjarTharuTreatment

a b s t r a c t

Ethnopharmacological relevance: Although many plants are claimed to possess anticonvulsant/antiepi-leptic (AC/AE) properties, but there is very little information available about plants used by various ethniccommunities in different parts of India to treat epilepsy, one of the most common disorders of centralnervous system (CNS); this communication provides significant ethnomedicinal information on theplants used by indigenous communities: Bhoxa, Tharu and nomadic Gujjars of sub-Himalayan region,Uttarakhand, India to treat epilepsy, so that it could be used as a baseline data for studying chemicalconstituents and biological activities of these promising plants.Aims of the study: To record herbal preparations used by the presently studied communities for treatingepilepsy and discuss AC/AE properties of the recorded plants.Research strategy and methods: Ninety one traditional healers (29 Bhoxa, 35 Tharu and 27 nomadicGujjars) in sub-Himalayan region of Uttarakhand, India were interviewed to collect information onherbal preparations used by them for treating epilepsy. For each recorded species the use value (UV) andfidelity level (FL) was calculated.Results: A total of 24 plants belonging to 24 genera and 22 families were used by the presently studiedcommunities in 26 formulations to treat epilepsy. According to FL and UV values, most preferred speciesfor the treatment of epilepsy by Bhoxa community are Ricinus communis L. and Datura stramonium L.; bynomadic Gujjar community are Martynia annua L., Bacopa monnieri (L.) Wettst. and Ricinus communis L.;and by Tharu community are Allium sativum L., Asparagus racemosus Willd. and Achyranthes aspera L.Eight plants viz., Allium sativum L., Boerhavia diffusa L., Cassia fistula L., Clerodendrum viscosum Vent.,Datura stramonium L., Inula cappa DC., Oroxylum indicum (L.) Kurz and Pavetta indica L. recorded in thepresent survey have been reported for the first time in treatment of epilepsy by these indigenouscommunities in India. Five out of these eight newly reported plants viz., Cassia fistula L., Clerodendrumviscosum Vent., Inula cappa DC., Oroxylum indicum (L.) Kurz and Pavetta indica L. have not beenpharmacologically evaluated yet for their possible AC/AE properties.Conclusions: Detailed research on the listed plants and their derivatives may be undertaken to providenew alternative treatments and therapeutic uses for epilepsy or other diseases of CNS. We hope that thisarticle will stimulate further investigations into natural products for new AC/AE agents from the recordedethnomedicinal plants.

& 2013 Elsevier Ireland Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction

Epilepsy is the term used for a group of disorders characterizedby recurrent spontaneous seizures that apparently result from

complex processes involving several neurotransmitter systems suchthe glutamatergic, cholinergic, and gabaergic system (Almeida et al.,2011). Epilepsy is among the least understood of major chronicmedical conditions, even though one in three adults knows some-one with the disorder (Kobau and Price, 2003).

The mortality rate among people with epilepsy is two to threetimes higher – and the risk of sudden death is 24 times greater –than that of the general population (Ficker, 2000). Epilepsy affectsnearly 7 million people in India (Kumar et al., 2012) and 50 millionworldwide, approximately 40% of them are women (WHO, 2003).As per meta-analysis of previously published and unpublished

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/jep

Journal of Ethnopharmacology

0378-8741/$ - see front matter & 2013 Elsevier Ireland Ltd. All rights reserved.http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2013.08.052

Abbreviations: AC/AE, anticonvulsant/antiepileptic; CNS, central nervous system;FL, fidelity level; Gr, grass; H, herb; MES, maximal electro-shock; NA, informationnot available; PILO, pilocarpine; PTZ, pentylenetetrazole; S, shrub; STR, strychnine;Tr, tree; UV, use value.

n Corresponding author. Tel.: þ91 8506013991.E-mail address: [email protected] (J. Sharma).

Journal of Ethnopharmacology 150 (2013) 353–370


studies to determine patterns of epilepsy by using community-based studies, Sridharan and Murthy (1999) estimated the overallprevalence rate of epilepsy in India at 5.59 per 1000 population,with no statistically different rates between men and women orurban and rural population. In developed countries where drugsare easily available, epilepsy responds to treatment in up to 70% ofthe patients, but in developing countries 75% of people withepilepsy do not receive effective treatment (Kumar et al., 2012).As per Sridharan and Murthy (1999) the number of populationwith epilepsy in rural areas of India is �4.1 million, three fourthsof whom will not be getting any specific treatment. According toBharucha (2003) medical treatment for wealthy patients in somelarge Indian cities is as advanced as that anywhere in the world,yet there remains a large rural population of patients withepilepsy whose illness is unrecognized and untreated by medicalpersonnel. In this context, folk remedies are very important asthey are considered readily available, inexpensive, time tested andmay provide cheap alternative to rural population.

India is rich in ethnic diversity and has a well practiced knowl-edge of herbal medicines (Jain, 1991; Pandikumar et al., 2011). Sub-Himalayan region of Uttarakhand is very rich in biodiversity and ishome to some of the important indigenous communities of theregion. These communities are totally dependent on the naturalresources for their diverse daily needs and have invaluable knowl-edge about medicinal uses of plants growing in their vicinity (Gaurand Tiwari, 1987; Negi et al., 1993; Pande et al., 2006). Wondimuet al. (2007) opined that collecting and documenting indigenousknowledge on medicinal plants may add information to the valua-tion of biodiversity and to forward suggestions for its sustainableuse and conservation, besides that unrecorded information may belost forever. Therefore, there is an urgent need to record thisprecious ethnomedicinal knowledge so that in future it could aidin drug discovery and development of affordable healthcare forpoor and rural people. Knowledge about the ethnomedicinal plantsused by indigenous communities of sub-Himalayan region is verymeager except few recent attempts made by Gaur and Sharma(2011), Sharma and Painuli (2011), Sharma et al. (2011a, 2011b,2012, 2013). Keeping the aforesaid facts in view the present studywas undertaken to record herbal preparations used by threeimportant indigenous communities i.e. Bhoxa, Tharu and nomadicGujjars of sub-Himalayan region, Uttarakhand, India in treatment ofepilepsy and discuss their anticonvulsant/antiepileptic properties.

2. Research strategy and methods

2.1. Study area

The eastern part of North-West Himalaya covers the state ofUttarakhand, which includes two major divisions of Kumaon andGarhwal. The state lies between latitude 28142′ and 31128′N, andlongitude 77135′ and 81150′E, and bounded in northwest byHimachal Pradesh, in north by Tibet, in east by Nepal and in southby Uttar Pradesh. The sub-Himalayan region in Uttarakhandstretches along the southern periphery, and consists of a longchain of narrow as well as low altitude mountain ranges of about300–1000 m asl. It is an intermediate region between Gangeticplains and mountainous Himalaya, and has a width of about 30–40 km standing with scattered mountains. The present study wasconducted in sub-Himalayan region in the districts of Dehradun,Haridwar, Pauri and Udham Singh Nagar. The region has very richbiodiversity of plants and animals. It supports different foresttypes, which vary in species composition according to change inelevation and latitude (from east to west).

Regular field trips were undertaken between 2008 and 2012 indifferent seasons viz., winter (November to March), summer (April

to June) and rainy (July to October), for the collection of ethno-medicinal information related to treatment of epilepsy from threeimportant indigenous communities of Uttarakhand viz., Bhoxa,Tharu and nomadic Gujjars (for detailed information about thestudied communities see Sharma et al., 2012). Tharu is the largestprimitive indigenous community of Uttarakhand, whereas Bhoxais third largest indigenous community of Uttarakhand. NomadicGujjar community is one of the most important migratory com-munities of the Himalaya. They traditionally travel to the higherHimalayan meadows during summer & monsoon, and return backto lower Himalaya in winters. These communities live harmo-niously in the interior parts of the forests of the region and overthe centuries have accumulated a vast knowledge about plantsused to cure various ailments. Studied communities live indifferent parts of the sub-Himalayan region of Uttarakhand, India.23 Bhoxa villages, 16 Nomadic Gujjar villages and 33 Tharu villageswere visited during the course of the study.

2.2. Sampling and interview of traditional healers

Ethnomedicinal information was obtained through a seriesof interviews with traditional healers, who still practiced theirindigenous system of medicine. A pre-designed questionnaire wasused to interview the informants. Informants were asked aboutthe vernacular names, methods of preparation, route of adminis-tration, part (s) used, dosage and duration. Interviews and discus-sions were carried out using a local dialect for easycommunication with the participants. A total of 91 traditionalhealers (29 Bhoxa, 27 nomadic Gujjars and 35 Tharu) wereinterviewed to collect information on herbal preparations usedby them for treating epilepsy. Ethical clearance was not obtainedand no written prior consent was taken from the participants, as itwas not the requirement at the Universities where research wasconducted (HNB Garhwal University and Hamdard University).However participants were clearly informed about the objective ofthe study and their right to withdraw from the study at any time.Authors tried to remain neutral and no suggestion about any plantwas given to collect accurate information. The traditional healerswere specifically asked about plants used for the treatment ofepilepsy along with method of preparation and mode of admin-istration of the prescribed medicine. The traditional healers wererequested to accompany the authors to collect the plant specimensfrom adjoining forest areas. In some cases when the experiencedand knowledgeable persons were unable to visit the forest area,the fresh specimens were collected from the forest with details oftheir habit, habitat, height of the plant, fragrance and taste, flowerand fruit nature, etc., and consequently shown to them to obtainaccurate information. Epilepsy is commonly called as “Apasmar” or“Mirgi” by the local communities. Various symptoms are used toidentify epilepsy by the traditional healers. The disease is diag-nosed as the patients attacked with fits, usually occur at theinterval of twelve, fifteen or thirty days with a few exception ofvarying time limits. Other symptoms include loss of consciousness,subversion, derangement of eyes, emittance of froth from themouth, convulsion and tossing of arms and legs. Rarely the diseasecould be recognized at juvenile incubatory stage, as indicated bydeep anxiety, shivering, feeling of heavy breathing and thirst,stupefaction, excessive perspiration etc.

2.3. Identification of plants

The representative samples of the plant species used by thetraditional healers were collected for preparation of the herbariumspecimens. The plant specimens were identified with the help ofFlora of the District Garhwal North West Himalaya (Gaur, 1999). For

J. Sharma et al. / Journal of Ethnopharmacology 150 (2013) 353–370354


the confirmation of identification the specimens were comparedwith the authentic specimens lodged at Herbaria of HNB GarhwalUniversity Srinagar (GUH), Forest Research Institute, Dehradun (DD)and Botanical Survey of India, Dehradun (BSD). Specimens wereproperly labelled with detailed botanical name, vernacular name(s),family, locality, field number, date of collection and other necessaryremarks and deposited in the internationally indexed Herbarium ofDepartment of Botany, HNB Garhwal University Srinagar Garhwal(GUH). Voucher specimen number was given to each specimen.These numbers have been provided after names of the respective

species in Table 1. Valid botanical names with author citations of allthe plant species were verified from www.theplantlist.org.

2.4. Statistical analysis

For each species the use value (UV), as adapted by Ferreira et al.(2009) from the proposal of Phillips et al. (2002) was calculated.This quantitative method evaluates the relative importance of eachmedicinal species based on its relative use among informants. Use

Table 1Plants and herbal preparations used as remedy of epilepsy by the indigenous communities of sub-Himalayan region of Uttarakhand, (a) Bhoxa community, (b) Gujjarcommunity and (c) Tharu community.

Species (Family), voucherspecimen number

Vernacularname

Habit Part used and mode of preparation UV FL value(%)

(a). Bhoxa communityArtemisia nilagirica (C.B. Clarke) Pamp. (Asteraceae),GUH-JS 19723

Chamri H The infusion of whole plant is given orally, 1–2 teaspoonfuls twice or thricea day

0.10 20.00

Cassia fistula L. (Caesalpinaceae), GUH-JS 18842 Amaltas Tr The seed decoction 2 teaspoonful is prescribed orally 0.31 32.14Colebrookea oppositifolia Sm. (Lamiaceae),GUH-JS 20145

Bindu S Half cup decoction of roots is given, once a day for 2 weeks or more 0.24 35.00

Datura stramonium L. (Solanaceae), GUH-JS 20364 Dathura H The young leaves and roots are boiled together, made into fine pastewith honey; this preparation is used to make pills of 3 g each, andadministered orally, twice a day

0.34 43.48

Flemingia fruticulosa Wall. (Fabaceae), GUH-JS 20186 Saadpatti S The powder of roots 1–2 g is given internally 0.07 12.50Oxalis corniculata L. (Oxalidaceae), GUH-JS 20375 Khatli H The whole plant is boiled in water till it reduces to its half, 2 teaspoonfuls

decoctionof this is recommended orally

0.24 25.00

Pavetta indica L. (Rubiaceae),GUH-JS 20141

Kaankra S The 1 g fine powder of roots with black pepper powder is administeredorally,twice a day

0.14 19.05

Ricinus communis L. (Euphorbiaceae), GUH-JS 18877 Arandi S The 1–2 teaspoonfuls infusion of leaves is prescribed internally, once ortwice a day

0.31 47.37

Vetiveria zizanioides (L.) Nash (Poaceae), GUH-JS19729

Khas-khas Gr The root powder is mixed with salt, black pepper powder and given orally 0.28 33.33

(b). Gujjar communityAcorus calamus L. (Araceae), GUH-JS 20355 Bacch H Fresh rhizome are washed properly, made into paste and prescribed orally

twice a day0.11 16.67

Bacopa monnieri (L.) Wettst. (Scrophulariaceae),GUH-JS 20254

Nir-brihmi/Barmi

H Leaves paste or juice is administered internally, half cup decoction takentwice orthrice a day in the treatment

0.41 45.83

Rauvolfia serpentina (L.) Benth. ex Kurz(Apocynaceae), GUH-JS 18866

Gandhak S 1 g root powder is taken internally, twice a day 0.30 32.00

Punica granatum L. (Punicaceae) , GUH-JS 20298 Baroni S Decoction of leaves about half cup is administered orally 0.33 39.13Colebrookea oppositifolia Sm. (Lamiaceae), GUH-JS20145

Sambhalu S Roots are crushed and made into fine powder; 1–2 g of this is taken orally 0.22 42.86

Flacourtia indica (Burm. f.) Merr. (Flacourtiaceae),GUH-JS 20285

Kaith S Decoction of stem given orally, twice a day 0.07 15.38

Martynia annua L. (Martyniaceae), GUH-JS 20105 Manbidu H Half cup decoction of leaves, once a day 0.30 53.33Ricinus communis L. (Euphorbiaceae), GUH-JS 18877 Aarand S 1–2 g powder of fruit is prescribed internally, once a day 0.37 41.67Oroxylum indicum (L.) Kurz (Bignoniaceae), GUH-JS20273

Tarangal Tr The half cup decoction of seeds is taken orally, once a day 0.15 21.05

(c). Tharu communityAchyranthes aspera L. (Amaranthaceae), GUH-JS 18893 Chattisa/

ChircitaH The 2 g powder of roots with sugar is taken orally, two times a day 0.29 37.04

Allium sativum L. (Amaryllidaceae), GUH-JS 18889 Lehsun H The bulb is boiled in water till the extract is reduced to half of its volume;half cup of filtered extract is given internally

0.31 47.83

Oroxylum indicum (L.) Kurz (Bignoniaceae), GUH-JS20273

Phargat Tr The powder of seeds 2–3 g is taken internally 0.14 29.41

Asparagus racemosus Willd. (Liliaceae), GUH-JS 18860 Satawar S The powder of roots 2 g along with sugar is taken, twice a day for 2–3weeks

0.23 44.44

Calotropis gigantea (L.) Dryand (Asclepiadaceae),GUH-JS 20351

Aankha S The bark decoction is given, 1 teaspoonfuls, twice a day for 2- weeks 0.14 20.00

Clerodendrum viscosum Vent. (Verbenaceae), GUH-JS18892

Bhatar S The root powder of plant and Boerhavia diffusa L.is mixed together and 3 gis prescribed orally

0.20 43.75

Boerhavia diffusa L. (Nyctaginaceae), GUH-JS 18845 Punarnava H Similar as above in Clerodendrum viscosum Vent 0.20 25.93Inula cappa DC. (Asteraceae),GUH-JS 20166

Damiya S Decoction of roots two teaspoonfuls is given internally 0.11 19.05

Vitex negundo L. (Verbenaceae),GUH-JS 18836

Nirgndi S The root powder 1–2 g is taken, twice or thrice a day 0.17 21.43

Abbreviations: H¼Herb; S¼Shrub; Tr¼Tree; Gr¼Grass; FL¼Fidelity level; UV¼Use value.

J. Sharma et al. / Journal of Ethnopharmacology 150 (2013) 353–370 355


value was calculated using the following formula:

UV ¼ ΣU=n

where U is the number of times a species is cited and n is thenumber of informants. The use value of each species is thereforebased objectively on the importance attributed by the informantsand does not depend on the opinion of the researcher (Ferreiraet al., 2009). Fidelity level (FL) was calculated using the followingformula:

FLð%Þ ¼ ðIp=IuÞ � 100

where Ip is the number of informants who independently indi-cated the use of a species for the same major ailment and Iu thetotal number of informants who mentioned the plant for anymajor ailment (Friedman et al., 1986).

3. Results and discussion

Plants and herbal preparations used to treat epilepsy by theindigenous communities of sub-Himalayan region of Uttarakhandare given in Table 1. It was observed that most of the traditionalhealers in all the three communities had knowledge about just

3 or 4 medicinal plants used to treat epilepsy and they used thoseplants only. Twenty four plant species belonging to 24 genera and22 families are recorded in the present survey. Only three plantspecies were used by more than one community viz., Colebrookeaoppositifolia Sm. (by Bhoxa and Gujjar community), Oroxylumindicum (L.) (by Gujjar and Tharu community) and Ricinuscommunis L. (by Bhoxa and Gujjar community). However, methodof preparation was different in all the cases. In case of Colebrookeaoppositifolia Sm., Bhoxa traditional healers prescribed a half cupdecoction of roots once a day for 2 weeks or more, whereas Gujjarprescribed 1 to 2 g crushed and fine powdered roots orally. Gujjarprescribe half cup decoction of seeds of Oroxylum indicum (L.),whereas Tharu prescribe 2 to 3 g powder of seeds of the plant.Similarly, in case of Ricinus communis L. Bhoxa traditional healersprescribed 1–2 teaspoonfuls infusion of leaves once or twice a dayand Gujjars prescribed 1–2 g powder of fruit once a day. It showsthat all the three communities use different plants and theirknowledge on medicinal plants is diverse and unique to them. Atotal of 26 different preparations to cure epilepsy were recorded inthe present study. These preparations were administered in theform of decoction, powder, infusion, juice and pills. Preparationsprescribed in the form of powder and pills were taken withlukewarm water only. Except one preparation prescribed by Gujjar

Table 2Pharmacological studies showing positive anticonvulsant/antiepileptic activities of the plants recorded in the present survey.

Species Plant part (s) used; extract used (dose) Experimental model Experimental animal Source

Achyranthes aspera L. NA NA NA NAAcorus calamus L. Roots; ethanol (0.5–1.0 ml/kg bw, i.p. of 500 mg/ml) PTZ, STR, MES Wister rat and Swiss mice Vohora et al. (1990)

Roots: methanol (100, 200 mg/kg bw, p.o.) PTZ Wister albino mice Jayaraman et al. (2010)Methanol MES, PTZ Mice Gopalakrishna et al.

(2010)Allium sativum L. Bulb; alcohol Leptazole Mice Adesina (1982)Artemisia nilagirica (C.B.Clarke) Pamp.

NA NA NA NA

Asparagus racemosus Willd. Root; methanol, aqueous (200 mg/kg bw, p.o.) MES, PTZ Rat Jalalpure et al. (2009)Bacopa monnieri (L.) Wettst. Leaves; ethanol (50, 55 mg/kg bw, p.o.) PTZ, STR, MES Wister mice and rat Kaushik et al. (2009)

Whole plant; aqueous (300 mg/kg/day p.o. for 15 days) PILO Wister rat Krishnakumar et al.(2009)

Boerhavia diffusa L. Roots; methanol (1000, 1500 and 2000 mg/kg bw, i.p.) PTZ Male Swiss albino mice Kaur and Goel (2011)Calotropis gigantea (L.) Dryand Leaves; methanol (180 mg/kg bw, p.o) MES, PTZ Wistar albino rat Babu and Karki (2011)

Peeled roots; alcohol (250, 500 mg/kg bw, p.o.) PTZ Albino rat Argal and Pathak (2006)Stem bark; methanol (180 mg/kg bw, p.o.) PTZ, MES Wistar albino rat Karki, Suresh Babu (2010)

Cassia fistula L. NA NA NA NAClerodendrum viscosum Vent. NA NA NA NAColebrookia oppositifolia Sm. NA NA NA NADatura stramonium L. Commercially available fluid extracts (24 drops/2 L

water for 30 days)Lithium-PILO Wister rat Peredery and Persinger

(2004)Flacourtia indica (Burm. f.)Merr

NA NA NA NA

Flemingia fruticulosa Wall. NA NA NA NAInula cappa DC. NA NA NA NAMartynia annua L. Leaves; methanol (200, 400 mg/kg bw, p.o.) PTZ, MES Wistar albino rat Babu et al. (2010a)Oroxylum indicum (L.) Kurz NA NA NA NAOxalis corniculata L. Leaves; methanol (200, 400 mg/kg bw, i.p.) PTZ, MES Wistar albino rat Kumar and Rajkapoor

(2010)Pavetta indica L. NA NA NA NAPunica granatum L. Peel; hydro alcohol (100, 200, 400, 600 mg/kg bw) STR Mice Olapour and Najafzadeh

(2010)Rauvolfia serpentina (L.) Benth.ex Kurz

Aqueous STR, Camphor,Leptazol

Mice Bianchi (1956)

Ricinus communis L. Root, seed; alcohol Leptazole Mice Adesina (1982)Hull portion of seeds; ethanol (60 mg/kg bw) MES Albino mice Tripathi et al. (2011)

Vetiveria zizanioides (L.) Nash NA NA NA NAVitex negundo L. Leaves; methanol (0.15, 0.2, 0.3 g/kg bw, i.p.) STR, Leptazol Swiss albino mice Gupta et al. (1999)

Leaves; ethanol (100, 250, 500, 1000 mg/kg bw, p.o.) PTZ, MES Wister albino mice andSwiss mice

Tandon and Gupta (2005)

Leaves; petroleum ether (250 mg/kg bw, i.p.) STR, Leptazol Swiss albino mice Gupta et al. (1997)

PTZ¼Pentylenetetrazole, MES¼Maximal electro-shock, STR¼Strychnine, PILO¼Pilocarpine, NA¼ Information not available.



Table 3Ethnomedicinal plants used internally in remedy of epilepsy in India.

Family/species [aSynonym] Ethnic/indigenousgroup

Region (State) Part(s) used/preparation and application Source

AmaranthaceaeAchyranthes aspera L. Baiga, Gond,

Khariya,Panka

Amarkantak (MadhyaPradesh)

The whole plant is mixed with 6–7 grains of dried grapes and crushedto about 15–20 g of powder. One teaspoon of the powder is taken orallytwice a day

Kumar et al.(2004)

Bondo Koraput district (Orissa) Dried powdered root (6 g) is given with water in epileptic condition toregain consciousness

Aminuddin andGirach (1991)

Tharu Sub-Himalayan region(Uttarakhand)

2 g powder of roots with sugar is taken orally, two times a day Present study

Gomphrena celosioides Mart. Localcommunity

Shahjahanpur district(Uttar Pradesh)

Leaf juice is given Sharma et al.(2010)

AmaryllidaceaeAllium cepa L. Traditional

healersUkhimath block(Uttarakhand)

Bulb extracts mixed with Mentha leaves extract istaken orally for a week

Semwal et al.(2010)

Allium sativum L. Tharu Sub-Himalayan region(Uttarakhand)

Bulb is boiled in water till the extract is reduced to half of its volume;half cup of filtered extract is given internally

Present study

Curcilago orchioides Gaertn. Taungya Gorakhpur andMaharajganj district(Uttar Pradesh)

two teaspoon powder of root taken twice daily Poonam and Singh(2009)

AnacardiaceaeSemecarpus anacardium L.f. Local

communityUpper East Godavari district(Andhra Pradesh)

Fruit juice used Sudhakar and Rao(1985)

ApiaceaeCarum copticum (L.) Benth. &Hook.f.

Yanadis Cuddapah district(Andhra Pradesh)

Latex of Falconeria insignis Royle ground with fruits of Carum copticum(L.) Benth. & Hook.f. given orally

Reddy et al. (2000)

Centella asiatica (L.) Urban Traditionalhealers

Chotanagpur and SanthalParganas (Bihar)

Its dried leaf powder is given as oral dose Hembrom (1991)

Ferula narthex Boiss. Localcommunity

Eastern Sikkim Gum used. Das et al. (2012)

Selinum vaginatum C.B. Clarke Herbalhealers

Nanda Devi BiosphereReserve, Chamoli district(Uttarakhand)

Powder of root given Rana et al. (2013)

Localcommunity

Nanda Devi National Park,Chamoli district(Uttarakhand)

Root powder of Acorus calamus L. is mixed with Selinum vaginatum C.B.Clarke root, Paeonia emodi Royle root powder and given half teaspoonfultwice a day

Rana et al. (2010)

ApocynaceaeAlstonia venenata R.Br. Madugga Siruvani forest (Tamil Nadu) About 10 ml fruit juice taken daily after meals Soudahmini et al.

(2005)Carissa spinarum L. [aCarissaopaca Stapf ex Haines]

aLocalcommunity

Uttarakhand Leaves, seeds, root used Kala et al. (2004)

Nerium oleander L. [aNeriumindicum Mill.]

aEthniccommunity

West Rarrh region(West Bengal)

Drink 5 ml juice of root once daily for 15 days Ghosh (2008)

Rauvolfia serpentina (L.) Benth.ex Kurz

Gujjar Sub-Himalayan region(Uttarakhand)

1 g root powder is taken internally, twice a day Present study

Jaunsari Garhwal Himalaya(Uttarakhand)

Root used Bhatt and Negi(2006)

Localcommunity

Garhwal Himalaya(Uttarakhand)

Root used Gaur (1999)

Taungya Gorakhpur andMaharajganj district(Uttar Pradesh)

1–2 teaspoon root powder taken twice daily Poonam and Singh(2009)

Localcommunity

Uttarakhand Root used Adhikari et al.(2007)

Wrightia tinctoria R.Br. Localcommunity

Dharapuram Taluk (TamilNadu)

Half glass of root decoction is given repeatedly toreduce the attack of epilepsy

Balakrishnan et al.(2009)

AraceaeAcorus calamus L. Traditional

healersChotanagpur and SanthalParganas (Bihar)

A pinch of dried root powder is given with a little honey first thing inthe morning on empty stomach for at least 30 days

Hembrom (1991)

Localcommunity

Darjelling hills (Sikkim) NA Hussain and Hore(2007)

Localcommunity

Karnataka Rhizome used Shiddamallayyaet al. (2010a)

Khasi Meghalaya Roots and leaves used Hynniewta andKumar (2008)

Traditionalhealers


Decoction and powder of root given Rana et al. (2013)

Localcommunity


Root powder of Acorus calamus L. is mixed with Selinum vaginatum C.B.Clarke root, Paeonia emodi Royle root powder and given half teaspoonfultwice a day

Rana et al. (2010)



Table 3 (continued )



Traditionalhealers

Rajasthan Given twice a day with honey. Sharma andKumar (2007)

Ethniccommunity

Salem district (Tamil Nadu) Rhizome used Mishra et al.(2008)

Localcommunity

South Orissa Rhizome powder is taken in empty stomach Panda and Misra(2011)

Traditionalhealers

Uttarakhand About 5 g powder is taken with 1/2 spoon of honey once in a day Kala et al. (2005)

Mullukuruma

Wayanad district (Kerala) Rhizome paste is taken internally. Silja et al. (2008)

Mullukuruma

Wayanad district (Kerala) Seven tender leaves of Caesalpinia mimosoides Lam. used with leaves ofRicinus communis L. and Acorus calamus L.

Silja et al. (2008)


Fresh rhizome are washed properly, made into paste and prescribedorally twice a day

Present study

Arisaema flavum (Forssk.)Schott

Traditionalhealers

Manali Wildlife Sanctuary(Himachal Pradesh)

Bulb used Rana and Samant(2011)

AsclepiadaceaeCalotropis gigantea (L.) Dryand Tharu Sub-Himalayan region

(Uttarakhand)Bark decoction is given, 1 teaspoonful, twice a day for 2- weeks Present study

Localcommunity

Uttarakhand Latex, root, bark used Adhikari et al.(2007)

Calotropis procera (Aiton)Dryand

Traditionalhealers

Narendra Nagar Block, TehriGarhwal (Uttarakhand)

300 g of fresh flower extract mixed with 300 g of Piper nigrum L.powder and make its tablets. In epilepsy these tablets are given3–4 times a day till recovery

Dangwal andSharma (2011)

Caralluma umbellata Haw. Yanadis Cuddapah district(Andhra Pradesh)

Stem extract mixed with that of Saccharum spontaneum L. and stem barkof Butea monosperma (Lam.) Taub. with pepper, garlic, kasturi andgorojanam, ground and given orally

Reddy et al. (2000)

AsteraceaeAchillea millefolium L. Amchies Ladakh (Jammu & Kashmir) The whole herb is given in epilepsy with combination of other herbs Srivastava et al.

(1981)Traditionalhealers


Whole plant used Rana and Samant(2011)

Localcommunity

Uttarakhand Whole plant used Kala et al. (2004)

Artemisia absinthium L. Localcommunity

Gurez valley (Jammu &Kashmir)

Dried herb in powdered form is used Kapahi et al.(1993)

Artemisia nilagirica (C.B.Clarke) Pamp.

Traditionalhealers



Bhoxa Sub-Himalayan region(Uttarakhand)

Infusion of whole plant is given orally, 1–2 teaspoonfuls twice or thricea day

Present study

Localcommunity

Uttarakhand Whole plant used Adhikari et al.(2007)

Inula cappa DC. Tharu Sub-Himalayan region(Uttarakhand)

Decoction of roots two teaspoonfuls is given internally Present study

Sphaeranthus indicus L. Localcommunity

Eastern Rajasthan The expressed juice of plant is used Upadhyay et al.(2010)

BalanitaceaeBalanites aegyptiaca (L.) Delile Local

communityBetul district(Madhya Pradesh)

Fruit powder used Jain et al. (2010b)

BignoniaceaeOroxylum indicum (L.) Kurz Gujjar,

TharuSub-Himalayan region(Uttarakhand)

Powder of seeds 2–3 g is taken internally Present study

CaesalpiniaceaeBauhinia racemosa Lam. Ethnic

communityMedak district (AndhraPradesh)

Paste prepared from root bark of Diospyros chloroxylon Roxb. crushedwith those of Bauhinia racemosa Lam. and earthworms is administereddaily

Reddy et al. (2010)

Chenchu Rudrakod Sacred Grove,Nallamalais(Andhra Pradesh)

Stem bark is crushed and the filtrate mixed withgoat's milk is taken orally

Rao and Sunitha(2011)

Cassia fistula L. Bhoxa Sub-Himalayan region(Uttarakhand)

Two teaspoonfuls seed decoction is prescribed orally Present study

Caesalpinia mimosoides Lam. Mullukuruma

Wayanad district (Kerala) Seven tender leaves of Caesalpinia mimosoides Lam. used with leaves ofRicinus communis L. and Acorus calamus L

Silja et al. (2008)

ClusiaceaeMesua ferra L. Local

communityDibru-Saikhowa BiosphereReserve (Assam)

Decoction of equal amount of Ziziphus mauritiana Lam., Piper longum L.fruits, Vetiveria zizanioides (L.) Nash roots and Mesua ferra L. flowersgiven once a day for 7 days

Purkayastha et al.(2007)

CannabaceaeCannabis sativa L. Traditional

healersManali Wildlife Sanctuary(Himachal Pradesh)

Leaves, seed, bark used Rana and Samant(2011)






Ethniccommunity

Sonebhadra district(Uttar Pradesh)

Leaves used Singh and Dubey(2012)

Localcommunity

Uttarakhand Leaves, seeds used Kala et al. (2004)

CelastraceaeCassine glauca (Rottb.) Kuntze Yanadis Cuddapah district

(Andhra Pradesh)Stem bark extract given orally Reddy et al. (2000)

Celastrus paniculatus Willd. Gond, Bhil,Bediya

Chhatarpur district(Madhya Pradesh)

Root paste with jaggery is given Arjariya andChaurasia (2009)

CheilanthaceaeCheilanthes farinosa (Forssk.)Kaulf.

Ethniccommunity

Amarkantak(Madhya Pradesh)

Extract of rhizomes and leaves is given twice a day for five days Singh et al. (2005)

CombretaceaeAnogeissus latifolia (Roxb.ex DC.) Wall. ex Bedd.

Localcommunity

Jalgaon district(Maharashtra)

Leaf decoction is used Pawar and Patil(2011)

CommelinaceaeCommelina benghalensis L. Ethnic

traditionalhealers

Nandurbar district(Maharashtra)

20 g powder of roots is mixed with equal amount of jaggary and smallsized pills are prepared. Two pills in a day one in the morning and onein the evening for 6–7 days in case of adults and one pill in a day in caseof children and women

Patil and Bhaskar(2006)

ConvolvulaceaeCuscuta reflexa Roxb. Bhil Bibdod (Madhya Pradesh) Stem extract used Jadhav (2006)

Kandhas Kandhamal district (Orissa) Stem decoction with honey is taken every morning for 7 days Behera et al.(2006)

Evolvulus alsinoides (L.) L. Baiga, Gond,Khariya,Panka

Amarkantak (MadhyaPradesh)

About 10 g of plant paste is mixed with 100 g of curd prepared fromcow's milk. The preparation is given orally once a day for one month

Kumar et al.(2004)


2–3 teaspoon whole plant juice taken twice daily Poonam and Singh(2009)

Localcommunity

Panchmarhi region(Madhya Pradesh)

Juice of whole plant is used Mishra et al.(2012)

Localcommunity

Villupuram district(Tamil Nadu)

Whole plant extract used Sankaranarayananet al. (2010)

Ipomoea eriocarpa R.Br. Ethniccommunity

Rewa district (MadhyaPradesh)

Whole plant boiled in oil is used Shukla et al. (2010)

Ethniccommunity

Western Ghat (Kerala) Whole plant extract mixed with honey along with chanting some“manthras” is given

Pushpangadan andAtal (1984)

CrassulaceaeBryophyllum pinnatum (Lam.)Oken

Tai Ahom Dibrugarh district (Assam) Crushed leaves (2–3) are inserted into the mouth at the time ofsenselessness

Kalita and Phukan(2010)

CucurbitaceaeTrichosanthes anguina L. Mishings Dibrugarh district (Assam) Outer portion of fruit is crushed and pills made out of it are taken three

times dailyBauah and Kalita(2007)

DryopteridaceaeDryopteris cochleata (D.Don)C. Chr.

Ethniccommunity

Amarkantak(Madhya Pradesh)

Juice/extract of dried rhizome is given Singh et al. (2005)

EbenaceaeDiospyros chloroxylon Roxb. Ethnic

communityMedak district (AndhraPradesh)

Paste prepared from root bark of Diospyros chloroxylon Roxb. crushedwith those of Bauhinia racemosa Lam. and earthworms is administereddaily

Reddy et al. (2010)

EuphorbiaceaeAcalypha indica L. Yanadis Cuddapah district

(Andhra Pradesh)Leaves ground with garlic, pepper and leaves of Leucas aspera (Willd.)Link, extract given orally

Reddy et al. (2000)

Palliyan Southern Western Ghats(Tamil Nadu)

Leaves of Acalypha indica L. with Cardiospermum halicacabum L. boiledin neem (Azadirachta indica A.Juss.) oil and the extract given

Henry et al. (1996)

Croton roxburghii Wall. Localcommunity

Uttarakhand Whole plant used. Adhikari et al.(2007)

Euphorbia dracunculoides Lam. Localcommunity


Leaf powder is given Sharma et al.(2010)

Falconeria insignis Royle[aSapium insigne (Royle)Trimen]

aYanadis Cuddapah district(Andhra Pradesh)

Latex of Falconeria insignis Royle ground with fruits of Carum copticum(L.) Benth. & Hook.f. given orally

Reddy et al. (2000)

Ricinus communis L. Bhoxa Sub-Himalayan region(Uttarakhand)

1–2 teaspoonfuls infusion of leaves is prescribed internally, once ortwice a day

Present study

Mullukuruma

Wayanad district (Kerala) Seven tender leaves of Caesalpinia mimosoides Lam. used with leaves ofRicinus communis L. and Acorus calamus L

Silja et al. (2008)







1–2 g powder of fruit is prescribed internally, once a day Present study

Tragia involucrata L. Yanadis Cuddapah district(Andhra Pradesh)

Shoot extract given orally Reddy et al. (2000)

FabaceaeButea monosperma (Lam.)Taub.

Yanadis Cuddapah district(Andhra Pradesh)


Reddy et al. (2000)

Desmodium elegans DC. Localcommunity

Siwalik region, GarhwalHimalaya (Uttarakhand)

Root used Gaur and Sharma(2011)

Erythrina stricta Roxb. Lotha-Naga Wokha district (Nagaland) Stem bark paste is taken Jamir et al. (2010)Flemingia fruticulosa Wall. Local

communityRanikhet, Kumaon hills(Uttarakhand)

Root used Shah and Gupta(1976)


1–2 g powder of roots is given internally Present study

Flemingia macrophylla (Willd.)Merr. [aFlemingia congestaW.T.Aiton]

aLocalcommunity

Chhattisgarh One teaspoonful root paste is taken with a cup of cold water twice a dayfor one month

Tirkey (2006)

Flemingia procumbens Roxb.[aFlemingia vestita Baker]

aLocalcommunity

Majuri-Kirchi forest tract(Jammu & Kashmir)

Root used Kapur (1990)

Flemingia strobilifera (L.)W.T.Aiton

Ethniccommunity

Darjeeling district(West Bengal)

Two teaspoons of root juice is taken twice daily for 6 weeks Saha et al. (2011)

Localcommunity

Uttarakhand Root, leaf, flower used Adhikari et al.(2007)

Glycyrrhiza glabra L. Ethniccommunity

East Singhbhum, Simdega,Latehar and Gumla district(Jharkhand)

Half tablespoon of Glycyrrhiza glabra L. powder is taken mixed with halftablespoon of honey twice daily for 15 days

Tomar et al. (2012)

Traditionalhealers

Uttarakhand 10 g whole plant powder mixed with 1/2 spoon of cowbutter is given to eat

Kala et al. (2005)

Indigofera linnaei Ali Localcommunity


Decoction given Gaur 1999

Localcommunity


Decoction of whole plant used Mishra et al.(2012)

FlacourtiaceaeFlacourtia indica (Burm. F.)Merr.

Santal Paschim Mednapur District(West Bengal)

Root used Mahanta and Pal(2012)


Decoction of stem is orally given, twice a day Present study

GentianaceaeCanscora alata (Roth) Wall.[aCanscora decussata (Roxb.)Schult. & Schult.f.]

aLocalcommunity

Cooch Behar district(West Bengal)

NA Goswami et al.(2010)

LamiaceaeColebrookea oppositifolia Sm. Bhoxa Sub-Himalayan region

(Uttarakhand)Half cup decoction of roots is given once a day for 2 weeks or more Present study

Localcommunity

Uttarakhand Stem, root, leaves Adhikari et al.(2007)


Roots are crushed and made into fine powder; 1–2 g of this is takenorally

Present study

Coleus aromaticus Benth. Taungya Gorakhpur andMaharajganj district(Uttar Pradesh)

1 teaspoon juice of leaves taken twice daily Poonam and Singh(2009)

Localcommunity


Leaf juice used Sankaranarayananet al. (2010)

Gmelina arborea Roxb. Yanadis Cuddapah district(Andhra Pradesh)

Shoot decoction given orally Reddy et al. (2000)

Leucas aspera (Willd.) Link Yanadis Cuddapah district(Andhra Pradesh)

Leaves of Acalypha indica L. ground with garlic, pepper and leaves ofLeucas aspera (Willd.) Link, extract given orally

Reddy et al. (2000)

Ocimum gratissimum L. Localcommunity


Leaf paste is given Sharma et al.(2010)

Pavetta indica L. Bhoxa Sub-Himalayan region(Uttarakhand)

1 g fine powder of roots with black pepper powder is administeredorally twice a day

Present study

Thymus serphyllum L. Localcommunity

Spiti valley(Himachal Pradesh)

Whole plant used Sharma et al.(2006)

LiliaceaeAsparagus officinalis L. Local

communityMajuli island and Darrangdistricts (Assam)

Root juice is used Barua et al. (2007)

Asparagus racemosus Willd. Localcommunity

Kanjamalai hills, Salemdistrict (Tamil Nadu)

Roots with honey and cow's milk are used Alagesaboopathi(2011)

Localcommunity

Karnataka Root used Shiddamallayyaet al. (2010a)






Localcommunity

Rawain valley, Uttarkashi(Uttarakhand)

Root powder is used Negi et al. (2011)

Ethniccommunity

Rayalaseema region,Southern Ghats(Andhra Pradesh)

Whole plant used Rao et al. (2006)


Powder of roots 2 g along with sugar is taken, twice a day for 2–3 weeks Present study

Tripuri andReang

Tripura Half cup truberous root's decoction is diluted with equal amount of milkand taken once a day for three months as a remedy against epilepsy

Das et al. (2009)

Mullukuruma

Wayanad district (Kerala) Rhizome juice is used internally Silja et al. (2008)

LoganiaceaeStrychnos nux-vomica L. Local

healersKalahandi district (Orissa) The infusion of bark is given Nayak et al. (2004)

Localcommunity

Karnataka Bark used Shiddamallayyaet al. (2010a)

Ethniccommunity

Rayagada district (Orrisa) The infusion of bark is given Pattanaik et al.(2006)

Ethniccommunity

Rewa district(Madhya Pradesh)

Decoction of bark used Shukla et al. (2010)

LoranthaceaeDendrophthoe falcata (L.f.)Ettingsh.

Localcommunity


Whole plant used Mishra et al.(2012)

LythraceaeLawsonia inermis L. Local

communityDibrugarh district (Assam) About 25 ml of extracted juice mixed with equal amount of raw cow

milk is given once daily for a weekKalita et al. (2005)

MarsileaceaeMarsilea minuta L. Kharia,

Mankdias,Saharas

Similipal BiosphereReserve, Mayurbhanjdistrict (Orrisa)

About 10 g whole fresh plant paste is mixed with 100 g of curd preparedfrom black cow's milk. The dosage is given orally once a day in emptystomach for one month

Rout et al. (2009)

MartyniaceaeMartynia annua L. Herbal

healersGarhwal Himalaya(Uttarakhand)

Leaf powder is given Gaur (1999)

Localcommunity

Upper East Godavari district(Andhra Pradesh)

Leaf juice is given Shah and Gupta(1976)

Localcommunity


Leaves used Kapur (1990)

Irular Marudhamalai hills,Coimbatore (Tamil Nadu)

Leaves used Senthilkumar et al.(2006)

Ethniccommunity

Salem district (Tamil Nadu) Leaves used Mishra et al.(2008)


Half cup decoction of leaves, once a day is used Present study

MeliaceaeAzadirachta indica A.Juss. Palliyan Southern Western Ghats

(Tamil Nadu)Leaves of Acalypha indica L. with Cardiospermum halicacabum L. boiledin neem (Azadirachta indica A.Juss.) oil and the extract given

Henry et al. (1996)

MimosaceaeAcacia pennata (L.) Willd. Irular Sirgur plateau, Nilgiri

Biosphere Reserve(Tamil Nadu)

Leaves used Pradheeps andPoyyamoli (2013)

Mimosa pudica L. Localcommunity

Kanyakumari district(Tamil Nadu)

Macerated root is taken thrice a day Jeeva et al. (2006)

Ethniccommunity


Root, leaves used Singh and Dubey(2012)

MoringaceaeMoringa oleifera Lam.[aMoringa pterygospermaGaertn.]

Ethniccommunity

Satpuda region, Dhule andJalgaon districts(Maharashtra)

Whole plant used Jain et al. (2010a)

aMishing Kaziranga National Park(Assam)

Leaves used Kutum et al. (2011)

NyctaginaceaeBoerhavia diffusa L. Tharu Sub-Himalayan region

(Uttarakhand)Same as above in Clerodendrum viscosum Vent Present study

OxalidaceaeOxalis corniculata L. Traditional

healersManali Wildlife Sanctuary(Himachal Pradesh)



Whole plant is boiled in water till it reduces to its half, two teaspoonfulsdecoction of this is recommended orally

Present study






PaeoniaceaePaeonia emodi Royle Herbal

healersNanda Devi BiosphereReserve, Chamoli district(Uttarakhand)

Powder of leaves and root given Rana et al. (2013)

Localcommunity


Root powder mixed with root powder of Selinum vaginatum C.B. Clarkeis given half teaspoon twice a day up to 6 months

Rana et al. (2010)

Localcommunity


Root powder mixed with root powder of Paeonia emodi Royle, is givenhalf teaspoon twice a day up to 6 months

Rana et al. (2010)

Localcommunity


Root powder of Acorus calamus L. is mixed with root powder of Selinumvaginatum C.B. Clarke and Paeonia emodi Royle is given half teaspoonfultwice a day

Rana et al. (2010)

PandanaceaePandanus amaryllifolius Roxb. Local

communityKoothanoallur, Marakkadaiand Thiruvarur district(Tamil Nadu)

Shoot and leaf used Rekha et al. (2013)

Localcommunity


Oil obtained from leaf is effective against epilepsy Sankaranarayananet al. (2010)

PassifloraceaePassiflora foetida L. Ethnic

communityDarjeeling district(West Bengal)

Infusion of leaves is consumed Saha et al. (2011)

PiperaceaePiper longum L. Local




Piper nigrum L. Traditionalhealers

Narendra Nagar Block, TehriGarhwal (Uttarakhand)

300 g of fresh flower extract of Calotropis procera (Aiton) Dryand mixedwith 300 g of Piper nigrum L. powder and make its tablets. In epilepsythese tablets are given 3–4 times a day till recovery

Dangwal andSharma (2011)

Meena Rajasthan Fruit used Meena and Rao(2010)

PlumbaginaceaePlumbago auriculata Lam. Local

communityTirunelveli district(Tamil Nadu)

Root used Vanila et al. (2008)

PoaceaeCymbopogon citratus (DC.)Stapf

Localcommunity

Kanyakumari district(Tamil Nadu)

Leaf paste of the plant is used Jeeva et al. (2006)

Cynodon dactylon (L.) Pers. Tribalcommunity

Bijagarh, West Nimardistrict (Madhya Pradesh)

Plant extract used Mahajan (2007)

Localcommunity

Cooch Behar district(West Bengal)

Plant juice used Goswami et al.(2010)


50 ml whole plant infusion given twice daily Poonam and Singh(2009)

Localcommunity

Noth-East Haryana Whole plant used Jain and Verma(1981)

Saccharum spontaneum L. Yanadis Cuddapah district(Andhra Pradesh)


Reddy et al. (2000)

Vetiveria zizanioides (L.) Nash Bhoxa Sub-Himalayan region(Uttarakhand)

Root powder is mixed with salt, black pepper powder and given orally Present study

Localcommunity

Dibru-Saikhowa BiosphereReserve (Assam)



PrimulaceaeAnagallis arvensis L. Local

communityNoth-East Haryana Whole plant used Jain and Verma

(1981)Localcommunity

Ranikhet, Kumaon hills(Uttarakhand)

Whole plant used Shah and Gupta(1976)

PteridaceaeActiniopteris radiata (Sw.) Link Ethnic

communityChitrakoot(Madhya Pradesh)

Plant paste with honey is given twice a day Sikarwar et al.(2008)

PunicaceaePunica granatum L. Gujjar Sub-Himalayan region

(Uttarakhand)Decoction of leaves about half cup is administered orally Present study

Bhotia Pithoragarh district(Uttarakhand)

Leaves boiled in water with ten rose leaves till it is reduced tohalf of its volume, filtered, added with some butter is drunk

Samal et al. (2010)






RhamnaceaeZiziphus mauritiana Lam. Local




Ziziphus oenopolia (L.) Mill. Nayaka Savandurga forest, MagadiTaluk, Bangalore district(Karnataka)

50 ml of root juice is taken internally twice a day for 1 month Udayan et al.(2005)

RubiaceaeGalium asperuloides Edgew. Local

communityMajuri-Kirchi forest tract(Jammu & Kashmir)

Plant juice employed in epilepsy Kapur (1990)

Galium rotundifolium L. Localcommunity


Whole plant used Shah and Gupta(1976)

RutaceaeChloroxylon swietenia DC. Chenchu Rudrakod Sacred Grove,

Nallamalais (AndhraPradesh)

Stem bark of Chloroxylon swietenia DC. crushed with Strychnospotatorum L.f. is used


Citrus maxima (Burm.) Osbeck Localcommunity

Koothanoallur, Marakkadaiand Thiruvarur district(Tamil Nadu)

Fruit, oil used Rekha et al. (2013)

Citrus medica L. Nyishi Arunachal Pradesh Leaves used Khongsai et al.(2011)

Ruta chalepensis L. Localcommunity

Karnataka Whole plant used Shiddamallayyaet al. (2010a)

Ruta graveolens L. Madugga Siruvani forest (Tamil Nadu) Whole plant juice (5–10 ml once daily) is used as an anthelmintic inepilepsy

Soudahmini et al.(2005)

Strychnos potatorum L.f. Chenchu Rudrakod Sacred Grove,Nallamalais(Andhra Pradesh)

Stem bark of Chloroxylon swietenia DC. crushed with Strychnospotatorum L.f. is used


Toddalia asiatica (L.) Lam. Tribalphysicians

Rayalaseema region,Southern Ghats(Andhra Pradesh)

Rhizome used Rao et al. (2006)

SapindaceaeCardiospermum halicacabum L. Palliyan Southern Western Ghats

(Tamil Nadu)Leaves of Acalypha indica L. with Cardiospermum halicacabum L. boiledin neem (Azadirachta indica A.Juss.) oil and the extract given

Henry et al. (1996)

Sapindus saponaria L.[aSapindus mukorossiGaertn.]

aLocalcommunity

Eastern Sikkim Fruit used Das et al. (2012)

aLocalcommunity

Meghalaya Fruits (2) are crushed to paste and mixed thoroughly with water(30 ml). It is taken orally (20 ml daily, before food)

Dolui et al. (2004)

Sapindus trifoliatus L.[aSapindus emarginatusVahl]

aPalliyar Sirumalai hills, WesternGhats (Tamil Nadu)

Five gram of root is soaked in 100 ml of water and boiled in a low flame.The boiled extract is taken orally for 50 ml twice a day for the period ofthirty to ninety days

Maruthupandianand Mohan. (2010)

SapotaceaeManilkara hexandra (Roxb.)Dubard

Localcommunity


Fruit is used Mishra et al.(2012)

ScrophulariaceaeBacopa monnieri (L.) Wettst. Yanadis Cuddapah district

(Andhra Pradesh)Plant extract given orally Reddy et al. (2000)

Localcommunity


Plant extract with milk used Gaur (1999)


100–150 ml decoction of leaves taken internally twice daily Poonam and Singh(2009)

Localcommunity

Karnataka Whole plant used Shiddamallayyaet al. (2010a)

Localcommunity


Whole plant, stems, leaves used Shah and Gupta(1976)

Tribalcommunity


Whole plant used Singh and Dubey(2012)

Localcommunity

South Orissa Leaf juice along with honey is taken Panda and Misra(2011)

Mullukuruma

Wayanad district (Kerala) The dried plant powder is given internally Silja et al. (2008)


Leaves paste or juice is administered internally, halfcup decoction twice or thrice a day

Present study

Mazus pumilus (Burm.f.)Steenis

Localcommunity


Leaves given Kapur (1990)

SmilacaceaeSmilax lanceifolia Roxb. Local

communityPanchmarhi region(Madhya Pradesh)

Rhizome used Mishra et al.(2012)



community, where Boerhavia diffusa L. and Clerodendrum viscosumVent. were used together, all the other preparations were madefrom single plant only.

Fidelity level (FL) and use value (UV) for each of the recordedplant species is given in Table 1. Highest FL for plants used by Bhoxacommunity was recorded for Ricinus communis L. (47.37%) followedby Datura stramonium L. (43.48%), Colebrookea oppositifolia Sm.(35.00%), Vetiveria zizanioides (L.) Nash (33.33%) and Cassiafistula L. (32.14%), whereas highest UV was recorded for Datura

stramonium L. (0.34) followed by Ricinus communis L. (0.31), Cassiafistula L. (0.31) and Vetiveria zizanioides (L.) Nash (0.28). In case ofplants used by nomadic Gujjar community highest FL was recordedfor Martynia annua L. (53.33%) followed by Bacopa monnieri (L.)Wettst. (45.83%), Colebrookea oppositifolia Sm. (42.86%) and Ricinuscommunis L. (41.67%), while highest UV was recorded for Bacopamonnieri (L.) Wettst. (0.41) followed by Ricinus communis L. (0.37),Punica granatum L. (0.33), Martynia annua L. (0.30) and Rauvolfiaserpentina (L.) Benth. ex Kurz (0.30). Maximum value of FL for plants




SolanaceaeCestrum nocturnum L. Local

communityGarhwal Himalaya(Uttarakhand)

Plant extract used Gaur (1999)

Localcommunity

Uttarakhand Leaves used Adhikari et al.(2007)

Datura stramonium L. Bhoxa Sub-Himalayan region(Uttarakhand)

Young leaves and roots are boiled together, made into fine paste withhoney; this preparation is used to make pills of 3 g each, andadministered orally, twice a day

Present study

TaxaceaeTaxus baccata L. Local

communityDarjelling hills (Sikkim) Leaves are antispasmodic, used in epilepsy Hussain and Hore

(2007)Localcommunity

Meghalaya Leaves are used Dolui et al. (2004)

UlmaceaeTrema orientalis (L.) Blume Local

communityKumar parvatha peak,Mangalore (Karnataka)

Macerated root is taken thrice a day to cure epilepsy Shiddamallayyaet al. (2010b)

Ethniccommunity

Salem district (Tamil Nadu) Root bark and leaves used in epilepsy Mishra et al.(2008)

Lotha-Naga Wokha district (Nagaland) Stem bark paste is applied Jamir et al. (2010)

ValerianaceaeNardostachys jatamansi(D. Don) DC. [aNardostachysgrandiflora DC.]

Jaunsari Garhwal Himalaya(Uttarakhand)

Rhizome used Bhatt and Negi(2006)

Ethniccommunity

Sikkim Dried roots are used to stop epileptic fits Singh et al. (2002)

aHerbalhealers


Powder of root given Rana et al. (2013)

aLocalcommunity

Uttarakhand Rhizome used Kala et al. (2004)

Valeriana hardwickii Wall. Localcommunity

Almora district(Uttarakhand)

Root used Malhotra and Basu(1984)

Traditionalhealers



Valeriana jatamansi Jones[aValeriana wallichii DC.]

Localcommunity

Eastern Sikkim Root used Das et al. (2012)

Traditionalhealers


Root used Rana and Samant(2011)

aLocalcommunity


Root used Shah and Gupta(1976)

VerbenaceaeClerodendrum viscosum Vent. Tharu Sub-Himalayan region

(Uttarakhand)Root powder of plant and Boerhavia diffusa L. (Punarnava) is mixedtogether and 3 g is prescribed orally

Present study

Lantana indica Roxb. Irular Southern Western Ghats(Tamil Nadu)

Leaf juice once in the morning to cure fits in children Henry et al. (1996)

Vitex negundo L. Ethniccommunity

Kollimalai hill tracts(Tamil Nadu)

7.5 to 15 g decoction of leaves and root are given Anand et al. (2006)


Root powder 1–2 g is taken, twice or thrice a day Present study

VitaceaeCissus quadrangularis L. Local

communityKanjamalai hills, Salemdistrict (Tamil Nadu)

Stem pounded in water is given orally twice a day for 5 days Alagesaboopathi(2011)

ZingiberaceaeCurcuma caesia Roxb. Local

communityPanchmarhi region(Madhya Pradesh)

Rhizome used Mishra et al.(2012)

Elettaria cardamomum (L.)Maton

Mullukuruma

Wayanad district (Kerala) Powdered seeds are used Silja et al. (2008)

a Synonym given in original publication.



used by Tharu community was recorded for Allium sativum L.(47.83%) followed by Asparagus racemosusWilld. (44.44%), Cleroden-drum viscosum Vent. (43.75%) and Achyranthes aspera L. (37.04%),whereas maximum UV was recorded for Allium sativum L. (0.31)followed by Achyranthes aspera L. (0.29), Asparagus racemosus Willd.(0.23), Boerhavia diffusa L. (0.20) and Clerodendrum viscosum Vent.(0.20). FL and UV values revealed that most preferred species for thetreatment of epilepsy by Bhoxa community are Ricinus communis L.and Datura stramonium L., by nomadic Gujjar community areMartynia annua L., Bacopa monnieri (L.) Wettst. and Ricinus com-munis L., and by Tharu community are Allium sativum L., Asparagusracemosus Willd. and Achyranthes aspera L.

Research papers dealing with pharmacological studies onexperimental animal models showing positive anticonvulsant/anti-epileptic (AC/AE) activity of the plants recorded in the presentsurvey were also reviewed. Details of pharmacological studiesshowing positive AC/AE activities of the plants recorded in thepresent survey have been summarized in Table 2. Only 13 out of 24recorded plants in the present study have earlier been evaluated fortheir AC/AE activity on experimental animal models. Remaining 11species have not yet been evaluated and may show some promisingAC/AE pharmacological activity. These possible AC/AE plants areAchyranthes aspera L., Artemisia nilagirica (C.B. Clarke) Pamp., Cassiafistula L., Clerodendrum viscosum Vent., Colebrookia oppositifolia Sm.,Flacourtia indica (Burm. F.) Merr., Flemingia fruticulosa Wall., Inulacappa DC., Oroxylum indicum (L.) Kurz, Pavetta indica L. and Vetiveriazizanioides (L.) Nash. However, out of these eleven plant species,central nervous system depressant activity of methanol extract ofaerial part of Achyranthes aspera L. (Alam et al., 2008) and seed ofCassia fistula L. (Mazumder et al., 1998) have been recorded earlieron mice experimental animal models.

To summarize ethnomedicinal information about the plantsused to treat epilepsy in India, more than 300 research papersreporting ethnomedicinal information on the plants used byvarious indigenous communities from different parts of India wereextensively reviewed. In many research papers dealing with thesubject of ethnomedicine not even a single plant used to treatepilepsy was recorded. However, approximately 100 of thesepublications had some information about the plants used to treatepilepsy. Invariably in all those publications only reference toepilepsy was made and no detailed information about symptomsused to identify epilepsy was available. Besides that in some ofthose publications only information about plant part used wasgiven, without any information about method of preparation,dosage or applications. Nevertheless, we have made every possibleeffort to collect, analyse and discuss all the available information,which could be gathered through literature survey. The collectedinformation was further compared with each other to mark mostwidely used and distributed plant species.

Literature survey revealed that eight species recorded in thepresent survey have been documented for the first time usedagainst epilepsy in India (Table 3). These species are Allium sativumL., Boerhavia diffusa L., Cassia fistula L., Clerodendrum viscosumVent., Datura stramonium L., Inula cappa DC., Oroxylum indicum (L.)Kurz and Pavetta indica L. Various classes of phytoconstituentssuch as alkaloids, lipids, terpenes, triterpenoids, flavonoids andcoumarins have been reported to possess anticonvulsant activity(Kumar et al., 2012). Most of the recorded plants in the presentsurvey have many phytoconstituents related to aforesaid classes ofphytoconstituents. However, further studies are needed to isolateand characterise phytoconstituents responsible for AC/AE activityof the recorded plants.

Ethnomedicinal plants used internally in remedy of epilepsy inIndia are summarized in Table 3 with their botanical name, family,ethnic/indigenous group using them, region/state of India wherethey are used, part(s) used, preparation and application. A total of

125 plant species belonging to 110 genera and 61 families are usedinternally in India for the treatment of epilepsy. Most widely usedplant for treating epilepsy in India is Acorus calamus L. (cited in 13studies), it is used by various ethnic communities in nine Indianstates viz., Bihar, Karnataka, Kerala, Meghalaya, Orrisa, Rajasthan,Sikkim, Tamil Nadu and Uttarakhand. Bacopa monnieri (L.) Wettst.(cited in nine studies) is used in six Indian states viz., AndhraPradesh, Karnataka, Kerala, Orrisa, Uttar Pradesh and Uttarakhand.Asparagus racemosus Willd. (cited in seven studies) is used inIndian states of Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Kerala, Tamil Nadu,Tripura and Uttarakhand. Other widely used plants are Martyniaannua L. (cited in six studies) and Rauvolfia serpentina (L.) Benth.ex Kurz (cited in five studies). Cynodon dactylon (L.) Pers., Evolvulusalsinoides (L.) L., Nardostachys jatamansi (D. Don) DC., Paeoniaemodi Royle, Strychnos nux-vomica L. have been cited in fourstudies. Achillea millefolium L., Achyranthes aspera L., Artemisianilagirica (C.B. Clarke) Pamp., Cannabis sativa L., Colebrookeaoppositifolia Sm., Punica granatum L., Ricinus communis L., Tremaorientalis (L.) Blume and Valeriana jatamansi Jones have been citedin three studies. Twenty three plants have been cited in twostudies, whereas remaining 84 plants have been cited only once.

It is interesting to point out here, that even though most of theethnic communities live geographically distant from each other, butin most of the cases they use same part of the plant to preparemedicine for epilepsy. For example, invariably leaves of Martyniaannua L. are used in south of India (Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu),north-west of India (Uttarakhand) and extreme north of India(Jammu & Kashmir). Whole plant of Artemisia nilagirica (C.B. Clarke)Pamp. and Achillea millefolium L. are used in three north-westernHimalayan states of India viz., Jammu & Kashmir, Himachal Pradeshand Uttarakhand. Similarly roots of Rauvolfia serpentina (L.) Benth.ex Kurz, leaves of Cannabis sativa L., whole plant of Evolvulusalsinoides (L.) L., leaves of Acalypha indica L., leaves of Coleusaromaticus Benth., roots of Asparagus racemosus Willd., bark ofStrychnos nux-vomica L., leaves of Punica granatum L., roots ofMimosa pudica L., whole plant of Oxalis corniculata L., roots ofPaeonia emodi Royle, whole plant of Cynodon dactylon (L.) Pers.,whole plant of Sapindus saponaria L., roots of Nardostachys jata-mansi (D. Don) DC., etc are used by different ethnic communities inIndia (Table 3).

In most of the preparations medicine was prepared withplant parts only without addition of any other ingredient.But sometimes honey (in nine preparations), milk (in sevenpreparations), butter (in three preparations), jaggery (in twopreparations) or sugar (in two preparations) was given alongwith the prescribed dosage of medicine, which may be probablyto mask unattractive taste of the plant and to make it moreacceptable to the patients (Table 3). Besides that all of thesesubstrates are considered to be good for health and vitality byethnic communities of India.

Ethnomedicinal plants used externally in treatment of epilepsyin India are given in Table 4, which includes 23 plants speciesbelonging to 23 genera and 18 families. Eight species are used forexternal application on the body, mostly in the paste formwhich isapplied externally either on head, neck or whole body of thepatient. Sixteen plants are used through nasal route, eitherthrough inhalation, smelling or in form of nasal drops. Extract ofAcalypha indica L., Allium cepa L., Centella asiatica (L.) Urb.,Gynandropsis pentaphylla DC Prodr.,Mimosa pudica L., Sarcostemmaacidum (Roxb.) Voigt and Solanum virginianum L. is applied as anasal drop. Only in case of Acalypha indica L. used by Palliyancommunity of southern Western Ghats of Tamil Nadu, extract ofleaves ground with onion is poured both through ears and nose ofchildren of up to 12 years of age (Henry et al., 1996). Summary ofplant species used to treat epilepsy in different states of India isprovided in Table 5.



4. Conclusions

Prior to present study knowledge about plants used to treatepilepsy by the studied communities was almost absent. Thisarticle has provided new insight to the medicinal knowledge ofthese communities. It was observed that with rapid modernizationand urbanization of the region in recent decade, younger genera-tion of these traditional healers is least interested in learning andcarrying on their familial profession. Besides that most of thesetraditional healers are of very old age and do not wish to discloseevery information to any other person outside their family.

Moreover, their knowledge is not available in documented form.Therefore, there is every likelihood that in a few decades most ofthe ethnomedicinal knowledge that they have gained thoughcenturies of experience will disappear with them. In that case,present study substantiates to secure such knowledge up to someextent. For preservation and conservation of this type of knowl-edge, a long term policy is greatly warranted with the involvementof locals, and all concerned people including Government organi-sations. Five out of eight viz., Cassia fistula L., Clerodendrumviscosum Vent., Inula cappa DC., Oroxylum indicum (L.) Kurz andPavetta indica L. newly reported plant species for treatment of

Table 4Ethnomedicinal plants used externally in remedy of epilepsy in India.

Plant (Family) Ethnic/indigenousgroup

Region (state) Part(s) used/preparation and application Source

Application on bodyBombax ceiba L. (Bombacaceae) Ethnic

communityEast Singhbhum, Simdega,Latehar, Gumla district(Jharkhand)

Paste prepared from a medium sized whole plant of Ocimum sanctumL.þCynodon dactylon (L.) Pers. (100 g)þBombax ceiba L. (100 g) is appliedon shaved head once daily in the morning for 10 days

Tomar et al.(2012)

Acalypha indica L. (Euphorbiaceae) Palliyan Southern Western Ghats(Tamil Nadu)

Leaves ground with onion rubbed on neck, chest and hipsof children (up to age 12)

Henry et al.(1996)

Rhynchosia suaveolens (L.f.) DC.(Fabaceae)

Palliyan Southern Western Ghats(Tamil Nadu)

Roots boiled in neem oil, extract rubbed on head, legs and hands,3 times for 3 days, bath taken for fits and epilepsy

Henry et al.(1996)

Ocimum sanctum L. (Lamiaceae) Ethniccommunity

East Singhbhum, Simdega,Latehar, Gumla district(Jharkhand)

Same as above given in Bombax ceiba L Tomar et al.(2012)

Cissampelos pareira L.(Menispermaceae)

Yanadis Cuddapah district (AndhraPradesh)

Leaves ground with Kasturi and turmeric, applied allover the surface of the body

Reddy et al.(2000)

Cynodon dactylon (L.) Pers.(Poaceae)

Ethniccommunity

East Singhbhum, Simdega,Latehar, Gumla district(Jharkhand)

Same as above given in Bombax ceiba L Tomar et al.(2012)

Lantana camara L. (Verbenaceae) Chedi Southern Western Ghats(Tamil Nadu)

Leaf paste applied on body for fits Henry et al.(1996)

Vitex negundo L. (Verbenaceae) Localcommunity

Kotia hills, Vizianagaramdistrict (Andhra Pradesh)

Leaves are made into paste and the paste is applied over the head Babu et al.(2010b)

Meghalaya Root bark is ground and mixed with local liquor to make a paste.The paste is applied over neck

Dolui et al.(2004)

Nasal applicationAcalypha indica L. (Euphorbiaceae) Palliyan Southern Western Ghats

(Tamil Nadu)Leaves ground with onion, extract poured into ears andnose of children (up to age 12)

Henry et al.(1996)

Allium cepa L. (Amaryllidaceae) Localcommunity

Almora district(Uttarakhand)

At the time of epilepsy attack, the crushed pyaj (Allium cepa L.)is put in the nostrils of the patients

Kumari et al.(2011)

Aristolochia indica L.(Aristolochiaceae)

Ethniccommunity

Western Ghat (Kerala) Juice of root applied to the nose Pushpangadanand Atal (1984)

Cassine glauca (Rottb.) Kuntze(Celastraceae)

Localcommunity


Smoke of crushed leaves used Gaur (1999)

Centella asiatica (L.) Urban(Apiaceae)

Traditionalhealers


Fresh leaf juice used as a nasal drop. Two to three drops aregiven twice daily for 3 to 5 consecutive days

Hembrom(1991)

Desmodium elegans DC. (Fabaceae) Localcommunity


Infusion of roots smelled Gaur (1999)

Eryngium foetidum L. (Apiaceae) Khasi Meghalaya Victims of fits and epilepsy are made to smell the leaf paste Hynniewta andKumar (2008)

Gynandropsis pentaphylla DCProdr. (Capparidaceae)

Traditionalhealers

Gulbarga district(Karnataka)

Leaf extract dropped into the nostrils Ghatapanadiet al. (2011)

Mimosa pudica L. (Mimosaceae) Ethniccommunity

Satpuda forest, EastKhandesh (Maharashtra)

10 g of twigs crush in water, squeeze to obtain juice. Threedrops in nose daily for one month

Bagul (2013)

Moringa oleifera Lam.(Moringaceae)

Ethniccommunity

Lakhimpur district(Assam)

Root extract is given to inhale Kalita and Bora(2008)

Murraya koenigii (L.) Spreng.(Rutaceae)

Mullukuruma

Wayanad district (Kerala) Patients are made to smell the leaves Silja et al.(2008)

Pancratium parvum Dalzell(Amaryllidaceae)

Pawra Satpura hills(Maharashtra)

Smell of the bulb is given for inhalation Jagtap et al.(2009)

Ruta chalepensis L. (Rutaceae) Mullukuruma

Wayanad district (Kerala) Leaves are used for smelling in the case of epilepsy Silja et al.(2008)

Sarcostemma acidum (Roxb.) Voigt(Asclepiadaceae)

Yanadis Cuddapah district (AndhraPradesh)

Water solution of pulpy mesocarp given as nasal drops Reddy et al.(2000)

Solanum virginianum L. [aSolanumxanthocarpum Schard. & H.Wendl.] (Solanaceae)

aTraditionalhealers


When seizure takes place, fruit juice is administered as nasal drop. Twoto three drops are given twice daily for 3 to 5 consecutive days. Whenseizure takes place again, the treatment is repeated

Hembrom(1991)

Valeriana hardwickii Wall.(Valerianaceae)

Localcommunity

Gurez valley (Jammu &Kashmir)

Powdered root is snuffed Kapahi et al.(1993)

a Synonym given in original publication.



epilepsy in the present study have not been pharmacologicallyevaluated yet for their possible AC/AE properties (Table 2). Sothese five species are totally new and could further be pharmaco-logically evaluated to ascertain their AC/AE properties. Detailedsearch on the listed plants and their derivatives may be under-taken to provide new alternative treatments and therapeutic usesfor epilepsy or other diseases of the CNS. We hope that this articlewill stimulate further investigations into natural products for newAC/AE agents from the recorded ethnomedicinal plants.

Acknowledgements

Authors are thankful to the Bhoxa, Gujjar and Tharu traditionalhealers for providing valuable information and sharing theirknowledge with us. We are also grateful to local people for theircooperation during the field surveys. One of the authors (JyotsanaSharma) is thankful to University Grants Commission, India for

providing financial support under Dr. D.S. Kothari PostdoctoralFellowship.

References

Adesina, S.K., 1982. Studies on some plants used as anticonvulsants in Amerindianand African traditional medicine. Fitoterapia 53, 147–162.

Adhikari, B.S., Babu, M.M., Saklani, P.L., Rawat, G.S., 2007. Distribution, use patternand prospects for conservation of medicinal shrubs in Uttaranchal state, India.Journal of Mountain Science 4, 155–180.

Alagesaboopathi, C., 2011. Ethnobotanical studies on useful plants of Kanjamalaihills of Salem district of Tamil Nadu, Southern India. Archives of AppliedScience Research 3, 532–539.

Alam, M.A., Slahin, N., Uddin, R., Hasan, S.M.R., Akter, R., Kamaluddin, M., Faroque,A., Ghani, A., 2008. Analgesic and neuropharmacological investigations of theaerial part of Achyranthes aspera Linn. Stamford Journal of PharmaceuticalSciences 1, 44–50.

Almeida, R.N., Agra, M.F., Maior, F.N.S., de Sousa, D.P., 2011. Essential oils and theirconstituents: anticonvulsant activity. Molecules 16, 2726–2742.

Aminuddin, Girach, R.D., 1991. Ethnobotanical studies on Bondo tribe of districtKoraput (Orissa), India. Ethnobotany 3, 15–19.

Table 5Species used to treat epilepsy in different states of India.

Name of thestates

Ethnomedicinal plants used as a remedy of epilepsy

Andhra Pradesh Acalypha indica L., Asparagus racemosus Willd., Bacopa monnieri (L.) Wettst., Bauhinia racemosa Lam., Butea monosperma (Lam.) Taub., Carallumaumbellata Haw., Carum copticum (L.) Benth. & Hook.f., Cassine glauca (Rottb.) Kuntze, Chloroxylon swietenia DC., Diospyros chloroxylon Roxb., Falconeriainsignis Royle, Gmelina arborea Roxb., Leucas aspera (Willd.) Link, Martynia annua L., Saccharum spontaneum L., Semecarpus anacardium L.f., Strychnospotatorum L.f., Toddalia asiatica (L.) Lam., Tragia involucrata L.

ArunachalPradesh

Citrus medica L.

Assam Asparagus officinalis L., Bryophyllum pinnatum (Lam.) Oken, Lawsonia inermis L., Mesua ferra L., Moringa oleifera Lam., Piper longum L., Trichosanthesanguina L., Vetiveria zizanioides (L.) Nash, Ziziphus mauritiana Lam.

Bihar Acorus calamus L., Centella asiatica (L.) Urb.Chhattisgarh Flemingia macrophylla (Willd.) Merr.Haryana Anagallis arvensis L., Cynodon dactylon (L.) Pers.HimachalPradesh

Achillea millefolium L., Arisaema flavum (Forssk.) Schott, Artemisia nilagirica (C.B. Clarke) Pamp., Cannabis sativa L., Oxalis corniculata L., Thymusserphyllum L., Valeriana hardwickii Wall., Valeriana jatamansi Jones

Jammu &Kashmir

Achillea millefolium L., Artemisia absinthium L., Flemingia procumbens Roxb., Galium asperuloides Edgew., Martynia annua L.,Mazus pumilus (Burm.f.) Steenis

Jharkhand Glycyrrhiza glabra L.Karnataka Acorus calamus L., Asparagus racemosus Willd., Bacopa monnieri (L.) Wettst., Ruta chalepensis L., Strychnos nux-vomica L., Trema orientalis (L.) Blume,

Ziziphus oenopolia (L.) Mill.Kerala Acorus calamus L., Asparagus racemosus Willd., Bacopa monnieri (L.) Wettst., Caesalpinia mimosoides Lam., Elettaria cardamomum (L.) Maton, Ipomoea

eriocarpa R.Br., Ricinus communis L.Madhya Pradesh Achyranthes aspera L., Actiniopteris radiata (Sw.) Link, Balanites aegyptiaca (L.) Delile, Celastrus paniculatus Willd., Cheilsathes farinosa (Forssk.) Kaulf.,

Curcuma caesia Roxb., Cuscuta reflexa Roxb., Cynodon dactylon (L.) Pers., Dendrophthoe falcata (L.f.) Ettingsh., Dryopteris cochleata (D.Don) C. Chr.,Evolvulus alsinoides (L.) L., Indigofera linnaei Ali, Ipomoea eriocarpa R.Br., Manilkara hexandra (Roxb.) Dubard, Smilax lanceifolia Roxb.,Strychnos nux-vomica L.

Maharashtra Anogeissus latifolia (Roxb. ex DC.) Wall. ex Bedd., Commelina benghalensis L., Moringa oleifera Lam.Meghalaya Acorus calamus L., Sapindus saponaria L., Taxus baccata L.Nagaland Erythrina stricta Roxb., Trema orientalis (L.) BlumeOrrisa Achyranthes aspera L., Acorus calamus L., Bacopa monnieri (L.) Wettst., Cuscuta reflexa Roxb., Marsilea minuta L., Strychnos nux-vomica L.Rajasthan Acorus calamus L., Piper nigrum L., Sphaeranthus indicus L.Sikkim Acorus calamus L., Ferula narthex Boiss., Nardostachys jatamansi (D. Don) DC., Sapindus saponaria L., Taxus baccata L., Valeriana jatamansi JonesTamil Nadu Acacia pennata (L.) Willd., Acalypha indica L., Acorus calamus L., Alstonia venenata R.Br., Asparagus racemosus Willd., Azadirachta indica A.Juss.,

Cardiospermum halicacabum L., Cissus quadrangularis L., Citrus maxima (Burm.) Osbeck, Coleus aromaticus Benth., Cymbopogon citratus (DC.) Stapf,Evolvulus alsinoides (L.) L., Lantana indica Roxb., Martynia annua L., Mimosa pudica L., Pandanus amaryllifolius Roxb., Plumbago auriculata Lam., Rutagraveolens L., Sapindus trifoliatus L., Trema orientalis (L.) Blume, Vitex negundo L., Wrightia tinctoria R.Br.

Tripura Asparagus racemosus Willd.Uttar Pradesh Bacopa monnieri (L.) Wettst., Cannabis sativa L., Coleus aromaticus Benth., Curcilago orchioides Gaertn., Cynodon dactylon (L.) Pers., Euphorbia

dracunculoides Lam., Evolvulus alsinoides (L.) L., Gomphrena celosioides Mart., Mimosa pudica L., Ocimum gratissimum L., Rauvolfia serpentina (L.) Benth.ex Kurz

Uttarakhanda Achillea millefolium L., Achyranthes aspera L., Acorus calamus L., Allium cepa L., Allium sativum L., Anagallis arvensis L., Artemisia nilagirica (C.B. Clarke)Pamp., Asparagus racemosus Willd., Bacopa monnieri (L.) Wettst., Boerhavia diffusa L., Calotropis gigantea (L.) Dryand, Calotropis procera (Aiton) Dryand,Cannabis sativa L., Carissa spinarum L., Cassia fistula L., Cestrum nocturnum L., Chrysopogon zizanioides (L.) Roberty, Clerodendrum viscosum Vent.,Colebrookia oppositifolia Sm., Croton roxburghii Wall., Datura stramonium L., Desmodium elegans DC., Flacourtia indica (Burm. F.) Merr., Flemingiafruticulosa Wall., Flemingia strobilifera (L.) W.T.Aiton, Galium rotundifolium L., Glycyrrhiza glabra L., Indigofera linnaei Ali, Inula cappa DC., Martyniaannua L., Nardostachys jatamansi (D. Don) DC., Oroxylum indicum (L.) Kurz, Oxalis corniculata L., Paeonia emodi Royle, Pavetta indica L., Piper nigrum L.,Punica granatum L., Rauvolfia serpentina (L.) Benth. ex Kurz, Ricinus communis L., Selinum vaginatum C.B. Clarke, Valeriana hardwickii Wall., Valerianajatamansi Jones, Vitex negundo L.

West Bengal Canscora alata (Roth) Wall., Cynodon dactylon (L.) Pers., Flacourtia indica (Burm. F.) Merr., Flemingia strobilifera (L.) W.T.Aiton, Nerium oleander L.,Passiflora foetida L.

a Including species recorded in the present study.



Anand, R.M., Nandakumar, N., Karunakaran, L., Ragunathan, M., Murugan, V., 2006.A survey of medicinal plants in Kollimalai hill tracts, Tamil Nadu. NaturalProduct Radiance 5, 139–143.

Argal, A., Pathak, A.K., 2006. CNS activity of Calotropis gigantea roots. Journal ofEthnopharmacology 106, 142–145.

Arjariya, A., Chaurasia, K., 2009. Some medicinal plants among the tribes ofChhatarpur district (M.P.) India. Ecoprint 16, 43–50.

Babu, A.R.S., Karki, S.S., 2011. Anti-convulsant activity of various extracts of leaves ofCalotropis gigantea Linn against seizure induced models. International Journalof Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences 3, 200–203.

Babu, H., Lakshmi, M., Kumar, S., 2010a. Studies on phytochemical and antic-onvulsant property of Martynia annua Linn. International Journal of Phytophar-macology 1, 82–86.

Babu, N.C., Naidu, M.T., Venkaiah, M., 2010b. Ethnomedicinal plants in Kotia hills ofVizianagaram district, Andhra Pradesh, India. Journal of Phytology 2, 76–82.

Bagul, R.M., 2013. Traditional medicines and healthcare system of region of eastKhandesh, (M.S.) India, tribals in Satpuda forest. World Journal of PharmacyResearch 1, 6–9.

Balakrishnan, V., Prema, P., Ravindran, K.C., Robinson, J.P., 2009. Ethnobotanicalstudies among villagers from Dharapuram Taluk, Tamil Nadu, India. GlobalJournal of Pharmacology 3, 8–14.

Barua, U., Hore, D.K., Sarma, R., 2007. Wild edible plants of Majuli island andDarrang districts of Assam. Indian Journal of Traditional Knowledge 6, 191–194.

Bauah, M., Kalita, D., 2007. Ethnomedicine used by Mishings tribes of Dibrugarhdistrict, Assam. Indian Journal of Traditional Knowledge 6, 595–598.

Behera, S.K., Panda, A., Behera, S.K., Misra, M.K., 2006. Medicinal plants used by theKandhas of Kandhamal district of Orissa. Indian Journal of Traditional Knowl-edge 5, 519–528.

Bharucha, N.E., 2003. Epidemiology of epilepsy in India. Epilepsia 44, 9–11.Bhatt, V.P., Negi, G.C.S., 2006. Ethnomedicinal plant resources of Jaunsari tribe of

Garhwal Himalaya, Uttaranchal. Indian Journal of Traditional Knowledge 5, 331–335.Bianchi, C., 1956. Anticonvulsant action of some anti-epileptic drugs in mice pre-

treated with rauwolfia alkaloids. British Journal of Pharmacology 11, 141–146.Dangwal, L.R., Sharma, A., 2011. Indigenous traditional knowledge recorded on

some medicinal plants in Narendra Nagar Block (Tehri Garhwal), Uttarakhand.Indian Journal of Natural Products and Resources 2, 110–115.

Das, H.B., Majumdar, K., Datta, B.K., Ray, D., 2009. Ethnobotanical uses of someplants by Tripuri and Reang tribes of Tripura. Natural Product Radiance 8,172–180.

Das, T., Mishra, S.B., Saha, D., Agarwal, S., 2012. Ethnobotanical survey of medicinalplants used by ethnic and rural people in eastern Sikkim Himalayan region.African Journal of Basic & Applied Sciences 4, 16–20.

Dolui, A.K., Sharma, H.K., Marein, T.B., Lalhriatpuii, T.C., 2004. Folk herbal remediesfrom Meghalaya. Indian Journal of Traditional Knowledge 3, 358–364.

Ferreira, F.S., Brito, S.V., Ribeiro, S.C., Almeido, W.O., Alves, R.R.N., 2009. Zoother-apeutics utilized by residents of the community Poco Dantas, Crato-CE, Brazil.Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine 5, 21.

Ficker, D.M., 2000. Sudden unexplained death and injury in epilepsy. Epilepsia 41,S7–S12.

Friedman, J., Yaniv, Z., Dafni, A., Palewitch, D., 1986. A preliminary classification ofthe healing potential of medicinal plants, based on the rational analysis ofethnopharmacological field survey among Bedouins in Negev Desert, Israel.Journal of Ethnopharmacology 16, 275–287.

Gaur, R.D., 1999. Flora of the District Garhwal North West Himalaya (withEthnobotanical Notes). TransMedia, Srinagar (Garhwal), India.

Gaur, R.D., Sharma, J., 2011. Indigenous knowledge on the utilization of medicinalplant diversity in the Siwalik region of Garhwal Himalaya, Uttarakhand. Journalof Forest Science 27, 23–31.

Gaur, R.D., Tiwari, J.K., 1987. Indigenous medicinal plants of Garhwal Himalaya-anEthnobotanical study. In: Medicinal and Poisonous Plants of the Tropics.Leewenberg (Ed.), Proceedings of International Botanical Congress, Berlin,Netherlands, pp. 139–142.

Ghatapanadi, S.R., Johnson, N., Rajasab, A.H., 2011. Documentation of folk knowl-edge on medicinal plants of Gulbarga district, Karnataka. Indian Journal ofTraditional Knowledge 10, 349–353.

Ghosh, A., 2008. Ethnomedicinal plants used in West Rarrh region of West Bengal.Natural Product Radiance 7, 461–465.

Gopalakrishna, H.N., Pemminati, S., Giri, S., Shenoy, A.K., Holla, G.K., Nair, V., 2010. Effectof Acorus calamus on electrical and chemical induced seizures in mice. InternationalJournal of Applied Biology and Pharmaceutical Technology 1, 466–473.

Goswami, G., Pal, S., Palit, D., 2010. Studies on the physico-chemical characteristics,macrophyte diversity and their economic prospect in Rajmata Dighi: a wetlandin Cooch Behar district, West Bengal, India. NeBIO 1, 22–27.

Gupta, M., Mazumder, U.K., Bhawal, S.R., 1999. CNS activity of Vitex negundo Linn. inmice. Indian Journal of Experimental Biology 37, 143–146.

Gupta, M., Mazumder, U.K., Chakrabarti, S., Bhattacharya, S., Rath, N., Bhawal, S.R.,1997. Antiepileptic and anticancer activity of some indigenous plants. IndianJournal of Physiology and Allied Sciences 51, 53–56.

Hembrom, P.P., 1991. Tribal medicine in Chotanagpur and Santhal Parganas of Bihar,India. Ethnobotany 3, 97–99.

Henry, A.N., Hosagoudar, V.B., Ravikumar, K., 1996. Ethno-medico-botany of theSouthern Western Ghats of India. In: Jain, S.K. (Ed.), Ethnobiology in HumanWelfare. Deep Publications, New Delhi, India, pp. 173–180.

Hussain, S., Hore, D.K., 2007. Collection and conservation of major medicinal plantsof Darjeeling and Sikkim Himalayas. Indian Journal of Traditional Knowledge 6,352–357.

Hynniewta, S.R., Kumar, Y., 2008. Herbal remedies among the Khasi traditionalhealers and village folks in Meghalaya. Indian Journal of Traditional Knowledge7, 581–586.

Jadhav, D., 2006. Ethnomedicinal plants used by Bhil tribe of Bibdod, MadhyaPradesh. Indian Journal of Traditional Knowledge 5, 263–267.

Jagtap, S.D., Deokule, S.S., Pawar, P.K., Harsulkar, A.M., 2009. Traditional ethnome-dicinal knowledge confined to the Pawra tribe of Satpura hills, Maharashtra,India. Ethnobotanical Leaflets 13, 98–115.

Jain, D.L., Baheti, A.M., Jain, S.R., Khandelwal, K.R., 2010a. Use of medicinal plantsamong tribes in Satpuda region of Dhule and Jalgaon districts of Maharashtra—an ethnobotanical survey. Indian Journal of Traditional Knowledge 9, 152–157.

Jain, S.K., 1991. Dictionary of Indian Folk Medicine and Ethnobotany. Deep Publish-ing, New Delhi.

Jain, S.P., Singh, S.C., Srivastava, S., Singh, J., Mishra, N.P., Prakash, A., 2010b. Hithertounreported ethnomedicinal uses of plants of Betul district of Madhya Pradesh.Indian Journal of Traditional Knowledge 9, 522–525.

Jain, S.P., Verma, D.M., 1981. Medicinal plants in the folk-lore of North-EastHaryana. National Academy Science Letters 4, 269–271.

Jalalpure, S.S., Bagewadi, V., Shaikh, I., 2009. Antiepileptic effect of Asparagusracemosus root extracts. Journal of Tropical Medicinal Plants 10, 157–161.

Jamir, N.S., Takatemjen, Limasemba, 2010. Traditional knowledge of Lotha-Nagatribes in Wokha district, Nagaland. Indian Journal of Traditional Knowledge 9,45–48.

Jayaraman, R., Anitha, T., Joshi, V.D., 2010. Analgesic and anticonvulsant effects ofAcorus calamus roots in mice. International Journal of PharmTech Research 2,552–555.

Jeeva, S., Kiruba, S., Mishra, B.P., Venugopal, N., Dhas, S.S.M., Regini, G.S., Kingston, C.,Kavitha, A., Sukumaran, S., Raj, A.D.S., Laloo, R.C., 2006. Weeds of Kanyakumaridistrict and their value in rural life. Indian Journal of Traditional Knowledge 5,501–509.

Kala, C.P., Farooquee, N.A., Majila, B.S., 2005. Indigenous knowledge and medicinalplants used by Vaidyas in Uttaranchal, India. Natural Product Radiance 4,195–206.

Kala, C.P., Farooquee, N.A., Dhar, U., 2004. Prioritization of medicinal plants on thebasis of available knowledge, existing practices and use value status inUttaranchal, India. Biodiversity and Conservation 13, 453–469.

Kalita, D., Bora, R.L., 2008. Some folk medicines from Lakhimpur district, Assam.Indian Journal of Traditional Knowledge 7, 414–416.

Kalita, D., Dutta, M., Islam, N.F., 2005. Few plants and animals based folk medicinesfrom Dibrugarh District, Assam. Indian Journal of Traditional Knowledge 4,81–85.

Kalita, D., Phukan, B., 2010. Some ethnomedicines used by the Tai Ahom ofDibrugarh district, Assam, India. Indian Journal of Natural Products andResources 1, 507–511.

Kapahi, B.K., Srivastava, T.N., Sarin, Y.K., 1993. Traditional medicinal plants of Gurez(Kashmir)—an ethnobotanical study. Ancient Science of Life XIII, 119–124.

Kapur, S.K., 1990. Economically useful plants of Majauri-Kirchi forest tract (Jammu& Kashmir). Journal of Economic and Taxonomic Botany 14, 501–522.

Karki, S.S., Suresh Babu, A.R., 2010. Studies on anticonvulsant activity of stem barksof Calotropis gigantea Linn. in experimental animals. International Journal ofPharmaceutical Sciences Review and Research 5, 114–116.

Kaur, M., Goel, R.K., 2011. Anti-convulsant activity of Boerhavia diffusa: plausiblerole of calcium channel antagonism. Evidence Based Complement and Alter-native Medicine, 1–7. (Article ID 310420).

Kaushik, D., Tripathi, A., Tripathi, R., Ganachari, M., Khan, S.A., 2009. Anticonvulsantactivity of Bacopa monniera in rodents. Brazilian Journal of PharmaceuticalSciences 45, 643–649.

Khongsai, M., Saikia, S.P., Kayang, H., 2011. Ethnomedicinal plants used by different tribesof Arunachal Pradesh. Indian Journal of Traditional Knowledge 10, 541–546.

Kobau, R., Price, P., 2003. Knowledge of epilepsy and familiarity with this disorderin the U.S. population: results from the 2002 HealthStyles survey. Epilepsia 44,1449–1454.

Krishnakumar, A., Abraham, P.M., Paul, J., Paulose, C.S., 2009. Down-regulation ofcerebellar 5-HT(2C) receptors in pilocarpine-induced epilepsy in rats: thera-peutic role of Bacopa monnieri extract. Journal of Neurological Sciences 284,124–128.

Kumar, K.K.S., Rajkapoor, B., 2010. Effect of Oxalis corniculata L. Extract on biogenicamines concentrations in rat brain after induction of seizures. InternationalJournal of Phytopharmacology 1, 87–89.

Kumar, R., Suman, N.R., Dash, S.S., 2004. Traditional uses of plants by tribals ofAmarakantak region, Madhya Pradesh. Indian Journal of Traditional Knowledge3, 383–390.

Kumar, S., Madaan, R., Bansal, G., Jamwal, A., Sharma, A., 2012. Plants and plantproducts with potential anticonvulsant activity—a review. PharmacognosyCommunications 2, 3–99.

Kumari, P., Joshi, G.C., Tewari, L.M., 2011. Diversity and status of ethno-medicinalplants of Almora district in Uttarakhand, India. International Journal ofBiodiversity and Conservation 3, 298–326.

Kutum, A., Sarmah, R., Hazarika, D., 2011. An ethnobotanical study of Mishing tribeliving in fringe villages of Kaziranga National Park of Assam, India. IndianJournal of Fundamental and Applied Life Sciences 1, 45–61.

Mahajan, S.K., 2007. Traditional herbal remedies among the tribes of Bijagarh ofWest Nimar district, Madhya Pradesh. Indian Journal of Traditional Knowledge6, 375–377.

Mahanta, A.K., Pal, D.C., 2012. Some ethnomedicinal uses of forest weeds amongSantal tribes in Paschim Mednapur District, W.B., India. In: G.G. Maiti, S.K.



Mukherjee (Eds.), Proceedings of the International Seminar on Multidisciplin-ary Approaches in Angiosperm Systematics, University of Kalyani. pp. 652–654.

Malhotra, C.L., Basu, D., 1984. A preliminary survey of plant resources of medicinaland aromatic value from Almora. Journal of Economic and Taxonomic Botany 5,859–864.

Maruthupandian, A., Mohan, V.R., 2010. Observations of ethnomedicinal plantsfrom Sirumalai hills in Western Ghats of Tamil Nadu, India. Journal of HerbalMedicine and Toxicology 4, 89–92.

Mazumder, U.K., Gupta, M., Rath, N., 1998. CNS activities of Cassia fistula in mice.Phytotherapy Research 12, 520–522.

Meena, A.K., Rao, M.M., 2010. Folk herbal medicines used by the Meena communityin Rajasthan. Asian Journal of Traditional Medicines 5, 19–31.

Mishra, R.K., Patel, S.P., Srivastava, A., Vashistha, R.K., Singh, A., Puskar, A.K., 2012.Ethnomedicinally important plants of Panchmarhi region, Madhya Pradesh,India. Nature & Science 10, 22–26.

Mishra, S.B., Dwivedi, S., Shashi, A., Prajapati, K., 2008. Ethnomedicinal uses of someplant species by ethnic and rural peoples of the Salem district of Tamilnaduwith special reference to the conservation of vanishing species. EthnobotanicalLeaflets 12, 873–887.

Nayak, S., Behera, S.K., Misra, M.K., 2004. Ethno-medico-botanical survey ofKalahandi district of Orissa. Indian Journal of Traditional Knowledge 3, 72–79.

Negi, K.S., Tiwari, J.K., Gaur, R.D., Pant, K.C., 1993. Notes on ethnobotany of fivedistricts of Garhwal Himalaya. Ethnobotany 5, 73–81.

Negi, V.S., Maikhuri, R.K., Vashishtha, D.P., 2011. Traditional healthcare practicesamong the villages of Rawain valley, Uttarkashi, Uttarakhand, India. IndianJournal of Traditional Knowledge 10, 533–537.

Olapour, S., Najafzadeh, H., 2010. Evaluation analgesic, anti-inflammatory andantiepileptic effect of hydro alcoholic peel extract of Punica granatum (pome-granage). Asian Journal of Medical Sciences 2, 266–270.

Panda, A., Misra, M.K., 2011. Ethnomedicinal survey of some wetland plants ofSouth Orissa and their conservation. Indian Journal of Traditional Knowledge10, 296–303.

Pande, P.C., Tiwari, L., Pande, H.C., 2006. Folk-Medicine and Aromatic Plants ofUttaranchal. Bishen Singh Mahendra Pal Singh, Dehra Dun.

Pandikumar, P., Chellappandian, M., Mutheeswaran, S., Ignacimuthu, S., 2011.Consensus of local knowledge on medicinal plants among traditional healersin Mayiladumparai block of Theni District, Tamil Nadu, India. Journal ofEthnopharmacology 134, 354–362.

Patil, H.M., Bhaskar, V.V., 2006. Medicinal uses of plants by tribal medicine men ofNandurbar district in Maharashtra. Natural Product Radiance 5, 125–130.

Pattanaik, C., Reddy, C.S., Dhal, N.K., Das, R., 2006. Some phytotherapeutic claims bytribals of Rayagada district, Orrisa, India. Ethnobotanical Leaflets 10, 189–197.

Pawar, S., Patil, D.A., 2011. Ethnomedicinal plants in Jalgaon district: current status.Current Botany 2, 15–21.

Peredery, O., Persinger, M.A., 2004. Herbal treatment following post-seizureinduction in rat by litium pilocarpine: Scutellaria lateriflora (Skullcap), Gelse-mium sempervirens (Gelsemium) and Datura stramonium (Jimson Weed) mayprevent development of spontaneous seizures. Phytotherapy Research 18,700–705.

Phillips, O., Gentry, A.H., Reynel, C., Wilkin, P., Galvez-Durand, C.B., 2002. Quanti-tative ethnobotany and Amazonian conservation. Conservation Biology 8,225–248.

Poonam, K., Singh, G.S., 2009. Ethnobotanical study of medicinal plants used by theTaungya community in Terai Arc Landscape, India. Journal of Ethnopharmacol-ogy 123, 167–176.

Pradheeps, M., Poyyamoli, G., 2013. Ethnobotany and utilization of plant resourcesin Irula villages (Sigur plateau, Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve, India). Journal ofMedicinal Plants Research 7, 267–276.

Purkayastha, J., Dutta, M., Nath, S.C., 2007. Ethnomedicinal plants from Dibru-Saikhowa biosphere reserve, Assam. Indian Journal of Traditional Knowledge 6,477–480.

Pushpangadan, P., Atal, C.K., 1984. Ethno-medico-botanical investigations in KeralaI. Some primitive tribals of Western Ghats and their herbal medicine. Journal ofEthnopharmacology 11, 59–77.

Rana, C.S., Sharma, A., Kumar, N., Dangwal, L.R., Tiwari, J.K., 2010. Ethnopharmacol-ogy of some important medicinal plants of Nanda Devi National Park (NDNP)Uttarakhand, India. Nature and Science 8, 9–14.

Rana, C.S., Tiwari, J.K., Dangwal, L.R., Gairola, S., 2013. Faith herbal healer knowledgedocument of Nanda Devi Biosphere Reserve, Uttarakhand, India. Indian Journalof Traditional Knowledge 12, 308–314.

Rana, M.S., Samant, S.S., 2011. Diversity, indigenous uses and conservation status ofmedicinal plants in Manali wildlife sanctuary, North western Himalaya. IndianJournal of Traditional Knowledge 10, 439–459.

Rao, B.R., Sunitha, S., 2011. Medicinal plant resources of Rudrakod sacred grove inNallamalais, Andhra Pradesh, India. Journal of Biodiversity 2, 75–89.

Rao, D.M., Rao, U.V.U.B., Sudharshanam, G., 2006. Ethno-Medico-Botanical studiesfrom Rayalaseema Region of Southern Eastern Ghats, Andhra Pradesh, India.Ethnobotanical Leaflets 10, 198–207.

Reddy, K.N., Trimurthulu, G., Reddy, C.S., 2010. Medicinal plants used by ethnicpeople of Medak district, Andhra Pradesh. Indian Journal of Traditional Knowl-edge 9, 184–190.

Reddy, R.V., Lakshmi, N.V.N., Raju, R.R.V., 2000. Traditional phytotherapy forepilepsy, fits and hysteria by Yanadis of Cuddapah district A.P. Ancient Scienceof Life XIX, 92–95.

Rekha, D., Tamil Selvi, S., Bharathidasan, R., Panneerselvam, A., Ilakkiya, R., Jayapal, R.,2013. Study of medicinal plants used from Koothanoallur and Marakkadai,

Thiruvarur district of Tamil nadu, India. Hygeia: Journal for Drugs and Medicines5, 164–170.

Rout, S.D., Panda, T., Mishra, N., 2009. Ethnomedicinal studies on some pterido-phytes of Similipal Biosphere Reserve, Orrisa, India. International Journal ofMedicine and Medical Sciences 1, 192–197.

Saha, J., Sarkar, P.K., Chattopadhyay, S., 2011. A survey of ethnomedicinal plants ofDarjeeling hills for their antimicrobial and antioxidant activities. Indian Journalof Natural Products and Resources 2, 479–492.

Samal, P.K., Dhyani, P.P., Dollo, M., 2010. Indigenous medicinal practices of Bhotiatribal community in Indian Central Himalaya. Indian Journal of TraditionalKnowledge 9, 256–260.

Sankaranarayanan, S., Bama, P., Ramachandran, J., Kalaichelvan, P.T., Deccaraman, M.,Vijayalakshimi, M., Dhamotharan, R., Dananjeyan, B., Sathya, B.S., 2010. Ethno-botanical study of medicinal plants used by traditional users in Villupuramdistrict of Tamil Nadu, India. Journal of Medicinal Plants Research 4, 1089–1101.

Semwal, D.P., Saradhi, P.P., Kala, C.P., Sajwan, B.S., 2010. Medicinal plants used bylocal Vaidyas in Ukhimath block, Uttarakhand. Indian Journal of TraditionalKnowledge 9, 480–485.

Senthilkumar, M., Gurumoorthi, P., Janardhanan, K., 2006. Some medicinal plantsused by Irular, the tribal people of Marudhamalai hills, Coimbatore, Tamil Nadu.Natural Product Radiance 5, 382–388.

Shah, S.C., Gupta, L.K., 1976. Useful medicinal plants of Ranikhet. Indian Drugs 14,47–52.

Sharma, J., Gairola, S., Gaur, R.D., Painuli, R.M., 2012. The treatment of jaundice withmedicinal plants in indigenous communities of the Sub-Himalayan region ofUttarakhand, India. Journal of Ethnopharmacology 143, 262–291.

Sharma, J., Gairola, S., Gaur, R.D., Painuli, R.M., 2011a. Medicinal plants used forprimary health care by Tharu tribe of Udham Singh Nagar, Uttarakhand, India.International Journal of Medicinal and Aromatic Plants 1, 228–233.

Sharma, J., Gaur, R.D., Gairola, S., Siddiqi, T.O., Painuli, R.M., 2013. Traditional herbalmedicines used for the treatment of skin disorders by the Gujjar tribe of Sub-Himalayan tract, Uttarakhand. Indian Journal of Traditional Knowledge 12(4),(In Press).

Sharma, J., Gaur, R.D., Painuli, R.M., 2011b. Folk Herbal Medicines Used by the GujjarTribe of Sub-Himalayan Tracts, Uttarakhand. Journal of Economic and Taxo-nomic Botany 35, 224–230.

Sharma, J., Painuli, R.M., 2011. Plants used for the treatment of Rheumatism by theBhoxa tribe of District Dehradun, Uttarakhand. International Journal of Med-icinal and Aromatic Plants 1, 28–32.

Sharma, J., Painuli, R.M., Gaur, R.D., 2010. Plants used by the rural communities ofdistrict Shahjahanpur, Uttar Pradesh. Indian Journal of Traditional Knowledge 9,798–803.

Sharma, L.K., Kumar, A., 2007. Traditional medicinal practices of Rajasthan. IndianJournal of Traditional Knowledge 6, 531–533.

Sharma, P.K., Sethi, G.S., Sharma, S.K., Sharma, T.K., 2006. Ethnomedicinal observa-tions among the inhabitants of cold desert area of Himachal Pradesh. IndianJournal of Traditional Knowledge 5, 558–561.

Shiddamallayya, N., Yasmeen, A., Gopakumar, K., 2010a. Hundred common forestmedicinal plants of Karnataka in primary healthcare. Indian Journal of Tradi-tional Knowledge 9, 90–95.

Shiddamallayya, N., Yasmeen, A., Gopakumar, K., 2010b. Medico-botanical survey ofKumar Parvatha Kukke Subramanya, Mangalore, Karnataka. Indian Journal ofTraditional Knowledge 9, 96–99.

Shukla, A.N., Srivastava, S., Rawat, A.K.S., 2010. An ethnobotanical study ofmedicinal plants of Rewa district, Madhya Pradesh. Indian Journal of TraditionalKnowledge 9, 191–202.

Sikarwar, R.L.S., Pathak, B., Jaiswal, A., 2008. Some unique ethnomedicinal percep-tions of tribal communities of Chitrakoot, Madhya Pradesh. Indian Journal ofTraditional Knowledge 7, 613–617.

Silja, V.P., Varma, K.S., Mohanan, K.V., 2008. Ethnomedicinal plant knowledge of theMullu kuruma tribe of Wayanad district, Kerala. Indian Journal of TraditionalKnowledge 7, 604–612.

Singh, A., Dubey, N.K., 2012. An ethnobotanical study of medicinal plants inSonebhadra District of Uttar Pradesh, India with reference to their infectionby foliar fungi. Journal of Medicinal Plants Research 6, 2727–2746.

Singh, H.B., Prasad, P., Rai, L.K., 2002. Folk medicinal plants in the Sikkim Himalayasof India. Asian Folklore Studies 61, 295–310.

Singh, S., Dixit, R.D., Sahu, T.R., 2005. Ethnomedicinal uses of Pteridophytes ofAmarkantak, Madhya Pradesh. Indian Journal of Traditional Knowledge 4,392–395.

Soudahmini, E., Senthil, G.M., Panayappan, L., Divakar, M.C., 2005. Herbal remediesof Madugga tribes of Siruvani forest, South India. Natural Product Radiance 4,492–501.

Sridharan, R., Murthy, B.N., 1999. Prevalence and pattern of epilepsy in India.Epilepsia 40, 631–636.

Srivastava, T.N., Badola, D.P., Gupta, O.P., 1981. Medicinal Herbs Used by Amchies ofLadakh. Paper Presented in the Seminar on Recent Researches in Ethnobotany,Calicut on 29-12-1981. Central Council for Research in Ayurveda and Siddha,India.

Sudhakar, S., Rao, R.S., 1985. Medicinal plants of Upper East Godavari district(Andhra Pradesh) and need for establishment of medicinal farm. Journal ofEconomic and Taxonomic Botany 7, 399–406.

Tandon, V.R., Gupta, R.K., 2005. An experimental evaluation of anticonvulsantactivity of Vitex negundo. Indian Journal Physiology and Pharmacology 49,199–205.



Tirkey, A., 2006. Some ethnomedicinal plants of family-Fabaceae of Chhattisgarhstate. Indian Journal of Traditional Knowledge 5, 551–553.

Tomar, J.B., Bishnoi, S.K., Saini, K.K., 2012. Healing the tribal way: ethno-medicinalformulations used by the tribes of Jharkhand, India. International Journal ofMedicinal and Aromatic Plants 2, 97–105.

Tripathi, A.V., Gupta, R., Saraf, S.K., 2011. Phytochemical investigation characteriza-tion and anticonvulsant activity of Ricinus communis seeds in mice. NaturalProduct Research 25, 1881–1884.

Udayan, P.S., George, S., Tushar, K.V., Balachandran, I., 2005. Some common medicinalplants used by the Nayaka community, Savandurga forest of Magadi taluk,Bangalore rural district, Karnataka, India. Journal of Natural Remedies 5, 35–40.

Upadhyay, B., Parveen, Dhaker, A.K., Kumar, A., 2010. Ethnomedicinal andethnopharmaco-statistical studies of Eastern Rajasthan, India. Journal of Eth-nopharmacology 129, 64–86.

Vanila, D., Ghanthikumar, S., Manickam, V.S., 2008. Ethnomedicinal uses of plantsin the plains area of the Tirunelveli-District, Tamilnadu, India. EthnobotanicalLeaflets 12, 1198–1205.

Vohora, S.B., Shah, S.A., Dandiya, P.C., 1990. Central nervous system studies on an ethanolextract of Acorus calamus rhizomes. Journal of Ethnopharmacology 28, 53–62.

W.H.O., 2003. Annual Report 2003: Global Campaign Against Epilepsy, Published byWorld Health Organization, International Bureau for Epilepsy and InternationalLeague Against Epilepsy. p 2.

Wondimu, T., Asfaw, Z., Kelbessa, E., 2007. Ethnobotanical study of medicinal plantsaround ‘Dheeraa’ town, Arsi Zone, Ethiopia. Journal of Ethnopharmacology 112,152–161.


author's personal copy -...

Documents