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Automotive Paints and Coatings Edited by Gordon Fettis

0 VCH Verlagsgesellschaft mbH, D-69451 Weinheim (Federal Republic of Germany 1995)

Distribution

VCH Verlagsgesellschaft, P.O. Box 10 1161, D-69451 Weinheim (Federal Republic of Germany

Switzerland: VCH Verlags-AG, P.O. Box CH-4020 Base1 (Switzerland)

Great Britain and Ireland: VCH Publishers (UK) Ltd., 8 Wellington Court, Wellington Street,

USA and Canada: VCH Publishers, 220 East 23rd Street, New York, NY 100 10-4606 (USA)

Japan: Eikow Building, 10-9 Hongo I-chane, Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo 113, Japan

Cambridge CB1 1HZ (Great Britain)

ISBN 3-527-28637-3

Automotive Paints and Coatings Edited by Gordon Fettis

VCH Weinheim . New York - Base1 - Cambridge Tokyo

Professor Gordon Fettis Department of Chemistry The University of York Heslington York YO1 500 United Kingdom

This book was carefully produced. Nevertheless, authors, editor and publisher do not warrant the informa- tion contained therein to be free of errors. Readers are advised to keep in mind that statements, data, illustrations. procedural details or other items may inadvertently be inaccurate.

~

1st edition 1995

Published jointly by VCH Verlagsgesellschaft, Weinheim (Federal Republic of Germany) VCH Publishers, New York, NY (USA)

Editorial Director: Dr. Barbara Bock, Louise Elsam Production Manager: Dipl. Wirt.-Ing. (FH) Bernd Riedel

Library of Congress Card No. applied for.

A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library

Die Deutsche Bibliothek - CIP-Einheitsaufnahme

Automotive paints and coatings / ed. by Gordon Fettis. - Weinheim ; New York ; Basel ; Cambridge ; Tokyo : VCH, 1995

NE: Fettis, Gordon [Hrsg.] ISBN 3-527-28637-3

0 VCH Verlagsgesellschaft mbH, D-69451 Weinheim (Federal Republic of Germany), 1994

Printed of acid-free and low-chlorine paper

All rights reserved (including those of translation into other languages). No part of this book may be repro- duced in any form - by photoprinting, microfilm, or any other means - nor transmitted or translating into a machine language without written permission from the publishers. Registered names, trademarks, etc. used in this book, even when not specifically marked as such, are not to be considered unprotected by law. Composition: Mittenveger Werksatz GmbH, D-68723 Plankstadt Printing: Strauss Offsetdruck, D-69509 Morlenbach Bookbinding: Wilh. Osswald & Co, D-67408 Neustadt Printed in the Federal Republic of Germany.

Preface

The development of modern day industry owes much to the technological improve- ments made in coatings over many years, both to protect and enhance the appearance of manufactured goods. None more so than the automotive industry which has bene- fited from great strides made in the degree of corrosion protection and the high quality of finish that can be achieved on vehicles. Most automotive manufacturers now operate on a multinational scale and so do the majority of the coatings producers who supply the industry.

This book is dedicated wholly to automotive coatings formulation, manufacture, application and sale. Each author has had many years of experience in the automotive field and all the contributions are written authoritatively from the practical standpoint. In recognition of the international nature of the business, authors have been drawn from Australia, Japan, Europe and the USA to give a regional as well as a world-wide perspective.

Following an introduction there are chapters on each stage of the coating operation starting with pre-treatment, through undercoats, surfacers and topcoats. There then follow two chapters covering paints for non-metallics and specialities. Finally, because of the importance of the marketing aspect of coatings there are chapters on technology licensing and technical service/market support.

Authors of the technological chapters were asked, where possible, to describe the formulation (including resins, solvents, pigments and additives), manufacture and properties of paint, testing, commercial application methods and environmental aspects. Clearly commercial confidentiality will have limited their ability to be com- pletely open on formulation but not withstanding that readers should find the presen- tation is comprehensive, informative and up-to-date.

Gordon C . Fettis 1 September 1994

Table of Contents

1 Introduction

1.1 Coatings and the Automobile . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.1.1 The Early Automobiles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.1.2 Ancient Paints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.2 Paint and the Automobile . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.3 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

2 Surface Treatment of Aluminium for Automotive Applications

2.1 2.2 2.2.1 2.2.2 2.2.3 2.3 2.3.1

2.3.2 2.3.3 2.3.4 2.4 2.4.1 2.4.2 2.4.3 2.5 2.6

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Types of Aluminium Surface Pretreatment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Chromium Chromating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Phosphating Chromating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Zinc Phosphating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Surface Treatment of Aluminium for Automobile Bodies . . . . . . . . . . Pretreatment and Subsequent Paint Application Processes involving Aluminium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Aluminium Ion's Inhibitive Effect on Chemical Conversion . . . . . . . .

Precoat Treatment Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Surface Pretreatment of Aluminium for Automobile Parts . . . . . . . . . Aluminium Wheels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Car Radiators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Engine Parts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Outlook . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Types of Aluminium Alloys. and Their Characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . .

3 Primers for the Automotive Industry

3.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.2 General Concepts of Application and Composition of

Automotive Primers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.2.1 Application . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

9 11 11 13 13 14

14 16 19 21 23 23 24 25 27 27

28

29 29

VIII Table of Contents

3.2.2 Composition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33 3.3 Dipping Primers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33 3.3.1 Solvent Dip Primers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33 3.3.1.1 Formulation Commercial Solvent-Borne Dip Primer . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34 3.3.1.2 Application Characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34 3.3.2 Water-Borne Dip Primers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35 3.3.2.1 Formulation Commercial Water-Borne Dip Primer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36 3.3.2.2 Application Characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36 3.4 Electrodeposition Primers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37 3.4.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37 3.4.2 Evolution of Electrodeposition Primers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38 3.4.2.1 Anodic Electrodeposition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38 3.4.2.2 Cathodic Electrodeposition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38 3.4.3 Basic Electrodeposition Reactions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39 3.4.3.1 Anodic Reactions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40 3.4.3.2 Cathodic Reactions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41 3.4.3.3 Basic Electrodeposition Mechanism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42 3.4.4 Electrodeposition Polymer Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45 3.4.5 Basic Polymer Chemistry (Anodic) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45 3.4.5.1 Anodic Chemistry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45 3.4.5.2 Composition and Formula of Anodic Primer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48 3.4.6 Basic Polymer Chemistry (Cathodic) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49 3.4.6.1 Cathodic Chemistry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49 3.4.6.2 Composition and Formula of Cathodic Primer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51 3.4.7 Key Parameters Controlling Electrodeposition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52 3.4.7.1 Anodic Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52 3.4.7.2 Cathodic Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53 3.4.8 Electrodeposition Process and Facilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55 3.4.8.1 Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55 3.4.8.2 Facilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56 3.4.8.3 Conversion Coatings for Electrodeposition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60 3.5 Inverted or Reverse Electrodeposition Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61 3.6 Electrophoretic Powder Coating (EPC) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63 3.7 Non-Ionic Electrodeposition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64 3.8 Autophoretic Deposition (Electroless Chemical Deposition) . . . . . . . . 65 3.9 Pre-Primed Automotive Coil Steel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66 3.10 Ancillary Automotive Primers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67 3.10.1 Zinc-Rich Primers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67 3.10.2 Anti-Corrosive Waxes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67 3.10.3 Anti-Chip Primers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68 3.10.4 Primers for Plastic Components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69 3.10.5 Thin-Film Passivation Primers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69 3.10.6 Primers for Non-Ferrous Metals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70 3.11 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70

Table of Contents IX

4 Surfacers

4.1 4.2 4.3 4.3.1 4.3.2 4.3.2.1 4.3.2.2 4.3.2.3 4.3.2.4 4.3.3 4.3.3.1 4.3.3.2 4.3.4 4.3.5 4.4 4.4.1 4.4.1.1 4.4.1.2 4.4.1.3 4.4.1.4 4.4.1.5 4.4.2 4.4.3 4.4.4 4.5 4.5.1 4.5.2 4.6 4.6.1 4.6.2 4.6.3 4.6.4 4.6.5 4.6.6 4.6.7 4.7 4.7.1 4.7.2 4.7.3 4.7.4 4.8 4.8.1 4.8.1.1 4.8.1.2

Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72

Resin Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76

Crosslinking Reactions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78

Pigmentation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81 Prime Pigments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81 Extenders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82 Solvents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83 Additives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84 Manufacture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86 Pigment Dispersion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86 Degree of Dispersion - ‘Fineness’ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87 Mixing or ‘Let Down’ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87 Filtration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87 Product (Batch) Testing: Quality Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88 Ballmill Dispersion: Process Detail . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88 Beadmill Dispersion: Process Detail . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89 Typical Compositions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90 Anti-Chip Coatings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91 Background and Resin Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Pigmentation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91 Application . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92 Conventional Air Spray Application . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Spray Losses/Transfer Efficiency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93 Automatic Spray . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94 Electrostatic Spray . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96 Resistivity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99 Application of Waterborne Surfacers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Airless Spray . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101 Stoving Procedures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101 Oven Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101 Convection Ovens - Basic Design Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101 Fume and Odour Emission . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103 Future Stoving Developments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103 Performance / Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104 Typical Test Procedure / Specification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104

Film Properties (Stoved Film) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73 Product Types And Formulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74

Resin Chemistry - Basic Reactions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78 Nitrogen Resins (Crosslinking) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78

Epoxy Modification (Polyesters) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80 Polyurethane (PU) Modification of Polyesters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80

91

92

99

Basic Parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104

X Table of Contents

4.8.1.3 Performance 106 4.8.2 4.8.3

4.9 4.10 Inverted or Reverse Process 110 4.10.1 4.10.2 4.11 4.11.1

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Florida Exposure (5" South) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108 Peel Resistance: Florida 5 O South . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108

4.8.4 Accelerated Weathering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109 Automotive Topcoats - Specific Surfacer Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . 109

Typical Inverted (Reverse) Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110 Electro Powder Coating (EPC) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111 Current & Future Developments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112 Present Market Needs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112

4.11.2 Product Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112 4.11.2.1 Higher Solids Technology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113 4.11.2.2 2K High Solids Surfacers for Plastic Components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114 4.11.2.3 Water-borne Surfacers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114 4.11.2.4 Powder Coatings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116 4.11.2.5 Developments in Pigmentation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116 4.11.2.6 Summary - Future Trends . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.12 References 117

5 Topcoats for the Automotive Industry

5.1 5.2 5.3 5.3.1 5.3.1.1 5.3.1.2 5.3.1.3 5.3.1.4 5.3.1.5 5.3.1.6 5.3.2 5.3.2.1 5.3.2.2 5.3.2.3 5.3.3 5.3.3.1 5.3.3.2 5.4 5.4.1 5.4.2 5.4.3 5.4.4 5.5 5.5.1

Definitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119 The Development of the Different Automotive Systems . . . . . . . . . . 120 Solvent-Borne Topcoats . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122 Solid Colour Topcoats for OEM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122 Resin Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122 Pigments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127 Solvents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130 Additives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131 Solid Colour Topcoats for Repair . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131 Solid Colour Topcoats for Plastics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134 Metallic Basecoats . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134 Resin Compositions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134 Aluminium and Other Effect Pigments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135 Additives for Metallic Basecoats . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136 Clearcoats . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136 Resin Compositions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136 Additives for Clearcoats . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137 High-Solids Topcoats . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138 Development of High-Solids Topcoats . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138 High-Solids Topcoats (Solid Colours) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138 High-Solids Basecoats . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139 High-Solids Clearcoats . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140 Water-Borne Topcoats . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140 Principles of Water-Borne Topcoats . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140

Table of Contents XI

5.5.2 5.5.3 5.5.4 5.6 5.7 5.8 5.9 5.10 5.11 5.12

Water-Borne Basecoats . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140 Water-Borne Solid Colour Topcoats . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141 Water-Borne Clearcoats . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141 Powder Topcoats . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142 New Crosslinking Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142 Production of Topcoats . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143 Application of Topcoats . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143 Testing of Topcoats . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143 Outlook . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144

6 Paints for Plastics (Non-Metals)

6.1 6.2 6.3 6.4 6.5 6.6 6.7 6.8 6.9 6.10 6.11 6.12 6.13

Reasons for Using Plastics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148 Why are Plastics Coated? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148 Preparation and Pretreatment Prior to Painting Preparation . . . . . . . . 151 TPO. the Growing Exterior Plastics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152 Types of Coatings Used for Plastics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155 Coating Composition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155 Colour Matching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156 Application Techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157

Performance Specification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163 Manufacturing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163 Outlook . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167

Environmental (Volatile Organic Compound) Compliance . . . . . . . . . 158

7 Specialities for Automotive Coatings

7.1 7.2 7.3 7.4 7.5 7.6 7.6.1 7.6.2 7.6.3 7.6.4 7.6.5 7.7 7.7.1 7.7.2 7.7.3

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168 Technologies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168 Formulation Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169

Application Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170

Tests for the Liquid Product . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173 Tests for Determination of Application Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Dry Film Property Tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175 Dry Film Durability Tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176 Test Substrates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177 Products . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178 Underbody Coatings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178 Paints for Plastics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179 Paint for Plastic Parts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180

Substrates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170

Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172

174

Table of Contents XI11

8.8 8.9 8.10 8.10.1 8.10.2 8.10.3 8.10.4 8.10.5 8.10.6 8.11 8.12 8.13 8.14 8.15 8.15.1 8.15.2 8.15.3 8.15.4 8.16 8.17

Exclusive. Non.exclusive. Sole Licences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201 Options. Letters of Intent and Protocols . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202 Financial Arrangements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202 Royalties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202 Scales . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203 Downpayment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203 Minimum Royalties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204 Experts Fees . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204 Reports . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204 Sub-Licensing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204 Government Approval . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205 Updating and Feedback . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205 Licensing Abuse . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205 Licensing-Out . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206 Preliminary Steps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206 Prospective Licensees . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206 Confidentiality Agreement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206 Heads of Agreement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207 Licensing-In . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211

9 Automotive Technical Service and Market Support

9.1 9.2 9.3 9.3.1 9.3.2 9.3.3 9.3.4 9.3.4.1 9.3.4.2 9.3.4.3 9.3.4.4 9.4 9.4.1 9.4.2 9.4.2.1 9.4.2.2 9.4.2.3 9.4.3 9.4.3.1 9.4.3.2 9.4.3.3 9.4.3.4

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212 Technical Service and the Market Served . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212 Mass Production of Consumer Goods 213 Automobile Manufacture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213 Requirements of the Assembly Line . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214 Parts Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215 Paint as a Part . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215 Paint as an Unfinished Part . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216 Paint as a Multilayered Part . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217 Paint as a Multicomponent Part . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217 Paint as an Amorphous Part . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217 Effective Technical Service . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218 Technical Service Basics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218 The Evolution of Technical Service . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219 OnDemand . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219 Contracting Out . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220 On-Site Team . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221 Setting Up the One-Site Team . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222 Supply . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222 Preparation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223 Processing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223 Quality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

XIV Table of Contents

9.4.3.5 Other Organizational Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 226 9.4.3.6 Training . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 226 9 A.3.7 Future Trends . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227 9.5 Other Market Support . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228 9.5.1 Colour Service . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228 9.5.2 Quality Improvement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229 9.5.3 Training . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 230

List of Contributors

Chapter 1 Albert G. Armour Department of Systems University of Pennsylvania 293 Towne Building Philadelphia

USA PA 19104-6315

Chapter 2 Kiyotada Yasohara Nippon Paint Co. Ltd. 1-2, 2-Chome Oyodo-Kita Kita-Ku Osaka 531 Japan

Chapter 3 Z . Vachlas 53, Peate Avenue Glen Pris 3146 Melbourne Australia

Chapter 4 Derek A. Ansdell 8, Ryans Mount Marlow Buckinghamshire SL7 2PB United Kingdom

Chapter 5 Ulrich Poth LPFA BASF Lacke und Farben Glasuritstr. 1 48165 Munster Germany

Chapter 6 Charles Storms Red Spot Paint and Varnish Company 1016 East Columbia Street P.O. Box 418 Evansville Indiana 47703-0418 USA

Chapter 7 Karlheinz Steimel Dismar Services Postfach 520306 50962 Koln Germany

Chapter 8 Michael A. Kerr Northend House 92, High-Street Dorchester-on-Thames Oxon. OX10 7WP United Kingdom

Chapter 9 C. H. Kaufmann Coatings Consultant 30, Grasspoint Crescent Etobicoke Ontario Canada M9C2V1

1 Introduction

A. G. Armour

1.1 Coatings and the Automobile

1.1.1 The Early Automobiles

The automobile, defined as “a vehicle that moves under its own power” [1.1], is Euro- pean by birth and American by adoption. It took 6000 years to develop and only 100 years to implement. In 3000 BC the Sumerians used two-axle carts. Later the Romans provided a front steering axle, covered coaches and the first road network.

The dream of a self-propelled vehicle can be traced as far back as ROGER BACON [1.2] who wrote in the thirteenth century that “cars can be made so that without animals they will move with unbelievable rapidity.” LEONARDO DA VINCI renewed the idea three hundred years later, visualizing a self-propelled tank type vehicle. This had to be speculation for both Bacon and da Vinci since no feasible power plant was available or even envisioned. The first real step to make their dreams reality was taken by NICHO- LAS JOSEPH CUGNOT, a French cavalry officer. In 1769 he built and ran a three-wheeled wooden cart designed for pulling artillery pieces. It was powered by steam from a boi- ler situated in front of the front wheel. It was a clumsy vehicle that left the road when taking bends at 3 mph. While no improvement over the horse it is considered the first self-propelled highway vehicle.

During the next thirty years, the steam engine underwent considerable development and refinement. While many inventors took part in its development, JAMES WAIT, a Scotsman, is given credit for the first simple, efficient engine. In 1784 he received a patent on a steam driven automobile with a three gear transmission. With his partner, the manufacturer MATHEW BOULTON, Watt produced more than 500 steam engines and thus contributed greatly to the Industrial Revolution that took place in England in the late eighteenth century.

A major impediment to the rapid development of self-powered vehicles in Britain was a law passed by Parliament in 1861. This law, made even stricter in 1865, limited the speed of all motorized vehicles to 2 mph in the city and 4 mph in the country. It also required all vehicles to be preceded by a man, walking 50metres in front, waving a red flag in order to alert everyone of the approach of a dangerous vehicle. The driver of the vehicle was also responsible for any accident that might occur, independent of the cause. This law, known as the “Red Flag Act” remained in force until 1896 and severely retarded the growth of the British automobile industry during these early growth years.

As it turned out, the future of the automobile was not to be with steam as it was expensive and inefficient for suppling small amounts of power. From the middle of the

2 1.1 Coatinas and the Automobile

nineteenth century, attention was focused on the gasoline engine. A two cycle engine, developed by the Belgian inventor ETIENNE LENOIR was patented in 1860. It was crude and noisy, but worked and found commercial success. In 1878, a German, NICHOLAS OTTO, introduced the four cycle engine. Early efforts at gasoline engine development were mainly intended to provide power for small industrial applications although its potential use for locomotion was also recognized.

However, most scholars credit KARL BENZ and GOTI-LIEB DAIMLER of Germany for today’s gasoline powered automobile. Daimler, an engineer with the Nicholas firm began with motorcycles while Benz began with a three-wheeled vehicle. Both used a one-cylinder engine. Daimler employed a high speed motor; Benz used spark ignition.

Within ten years, Peugeot, Panhard and Levassor were manufacturing handcrafted cars with Daimler engines in France. The most rapid progress was made initially in France where a good highway system encouraged motoring. These early ‘horseless car- riages’, were just that: a buggy with a motor attached. The 1890s saw the automobile industry move into regular commercial production with France in the lead, Germany right behind and Britain trying to overcome the impact of the Red Flag Act. A variety of vehicles, gasoline, steam and electric, were on the road and races were beginning to attract attention. Levassor won a Paris-Rouen race in 1894 and a year later drove a Panhard 1200 km from Paris to Bordeaux in 48 h, maintaining an average speed of fif- teen miles per hour. These early cars were individually constructed and no repair facilities existed. They were expensive to buy and operate and for the most part were an expensive toy for wealthy sportsmen. However, they were the forerunners of today’s automobiles and demonstrated clearly the future viability of the horseless carriage.

During the early years of the twentieth century, the United States established a lead- ership position in automobile production. This achievement is largely associated with the introduction of the moving assembly line technique, enabling mass production, pioneered by the Ford Motor Company in 1913 and by the formation of General Motors by WILLIAM DURANT in 1908.

Paint possesses several attributes critical for its successful usage on coaches, carri- ages and latterly, automobiles. Paint, whether glossy, matt or semigloss, allows the user to highlight selected features. Paint, through the use of pigments, provides an infi- nite array of colors, that satisfies even the most discriminating owner. Finally, paint imparts protection from ultraviolet light, corrosion and other types of weathering and aging. Paint has a long history, predating the earliest visions of the automobile by many thousands of years, and has played an important role in the development of Man.

1.1.2 Ancient Paints

The earliest paints known were found in Europe and Australia. Europe’s were made by the Neanderthal or Cro-Magnon man while those from Australia were produced by ancient Aborigines [1.3]. Both date back to about 20,000 years BC. While most were monochromatic, others utilized a palette of colors made from natural earthen materials. Most were applied by fingertip but others appear to have been applied with crude

1 Introduction 3

brushes made from the frayed tips of soft branches or twigs. These early paints used many naturally ocurring pigments still in use - red and yellow iron oxides, chalk, char- coal, terra verde, etc. Binders included animal fats, egg whites and yolks, blood, etc. The Europeans worked deep in caves so they must have discovered a system of illu- mination in order to do their art work. Scaffolding of some form must also have been used as many of these early drawings were done on cave ceilings. Obviously these early painters were more intelligent than often depicted. The paints lasted more than 20,000 years, a remarkable feat, even if protected from the sun.

In North America primitive paints similar to the early European and Australian paints date back to 9000 years BC. The paintings, on the rock walls of living quarters, are pictures of animals and people and so on.

Discoveries in the Libyan desert indicate that similar paints wre used by the early Egyptians. Their usage led to the development of hieroglyphics which, in turn, led to the Phoenician alphabet. Similiar artwork is produced to this day in Central Africa.

The Egyptians may have been the first to develop paint. While they used many natural pigments and materials they appear to be the first to develop synthetic pigments. Egyptian blue was composed of lime, alumina, silica, soda ash and copper oxides. According to VITRUVIOUS, it was made by calcining a mixture of sand, soda and copper. The Egyptians employed a wide variety of organic and inorganic materials as binders: gum arabic, egg white, gelatin, beeswax, etc. Lime, plaster and plaster of Paris were also used. Their ships were coated with asphalt and balsam oil: materials to preserve and waterproof them.

About the same time the Japanese and Chinese were developing their famous lacquer. The base for these lacquers is a latex extracted from a tree known as the ‘Urushi’ tree in Japan. This tree belongs to the same family of plants as poison ivy and similarly, is quite toxic. The latex serves as a healing compound for the tree by sealing off cuts and other damage. Both the Japanese and Chinese learned to make a fantastic lacquer from this latex, producing coatings that appear to last indefinitely even under very dif- ficult wear and environmental conditions.

In Medieval Europe the arts of painting and paint manufacturing were progressing. Around the sixth century oils began to be used although egg albumin was still the pre- ferred medium. Treatises written during the fifteenth century describe the use of rosin, sandarac and mastic varnishes containing linseed oil. Varnishes were made from a variety of resins and at least one oil (linseed). The use of thinners to enhance room temperature application commenced during this period. Around the middle of the seventeenth century driers were introduced. Paints were manufactured in ounce quan- tity batches using a pestle and mortar.

WATKIN, in 1773, was the first to detail the technical preparation of paints and varnishes. Copal and amber were the resins of choice for varnishes made at this time. Var- nish factories slowly began to emerge in Europe heralding the beginning of the paint industry. Paint manufacture progressed from the pestle and mortar method to a rough stone trough with a ball muller (grinder) enabling production of larger batches of paint.

Around 1900 coaches and early handbuilt cars had finishes made from the raw materials shown [1.4].

4 1.2 Paint and the Automobile

Oleoresinous Binders

Resin Oil

Colorants Solvents

Pigments Filler Thinners

Amber Linseed oil White lead Chalk Oil of terpentine Copal Wood oil Zinc oxide Kaolin Pine oil Rosins Perilla oil Bone black Alcohol Dammer Poppyseed oil Slate black Wood alcohol Sandarac Nut oil Lead chromate Ethyl acetate Shellac Casteroil Cobalt blue

The advent of the automobile or ‘horseless carriage’ at the start of the twentieth century marked the beginning of significant advances in paint technology.

1.2 Paint and the Automobile

In the early 1900s, binders for both the primer and topcoat were based on oleoresinous materials. A total of 25 brush coats were needed for adequate film build and extensive drying times and processing were required between coats. The cars were individually finished which took over 300 hours or 2-3 weeks to complete. Large storage bays were used to house the finished automobiles while they dried. Production line manufacture was out of the question. When finally cured, these finishes looked good but dulled rap- idly on exposure and chalked badly after a few months. They ultimately failed by cracking. Storage of the car when not in use was required to preserve the finish but fre- quent polishing and buffing was done to maintain gloss. Furthermore the color selec- tion was essentially limited to black. This long and tedious process continued into the early 1920s and had become a major problem for the automobile companies creating considerable incentive for them to find new finishes. This pressure was applied on the paint industry by the major car producers.

About that same time, a practical way to make low viscosity nitrocellulose was discovered: High viscosity nitrocellulose was treated with sodium acetate under elevated temperatures to give a low viscosity product of fairly uniform molecular weight. This material, when formulated into a paint, provided lacquers which could be brushed or sprayed at practical solid levels to provide adequate film builds in several coats. When force-dried, and hand buffed, a high gloss finish that could be spot repaired was attained in less than 6 hours [1.5]-[1.7]. By 1925 the overall finishing process including polishing dropped to about 50 hours. This breakthrough in paint technology allowed the production line manufacture of automobiles to become reality. In addition, nitrocellulose lacquers could be formulated in many colors.

During this period substantial progress was made with pigments. High grade ma- roon pigments, chromium hydrate, various organic yellows, phthalocyanine blues and other durable pigments were introduced into the marketplace [1.5].

Phenol formaldehyde resins, introduced in 1925 offering speed of cure, increased water resistance, greater durability and chemical resistance over natural resins, were

1 Introduction 5

also finding their place. Alkyd resins, originally made from glyceryl phthalate polyesters modified with drying oil fatty acids and crosslinked with urea or melamine formaldehyde resins, also became available at this time. They offered the industry the option of lacquers or enamels as topcoats in both solid and metallic colours. Both types of finish, in different chemical forms, remained available until the advent of color coat/clearcoat enamel technology, which has gradually taken over topcoats, in the early 1970s.

The synthetic topcoat systems of the 1920s, with their related primers, changed the finishing process of the automobile from a handcraft operation requiring many weeks to a production line operation consuming less than 4 hours of manufacturing time. This change greatly facilitated the move to the mass production of the automobile and its availability to the population at large.

Topcoat technology in the 1950s through 1980s moved to the use of acrylic based bin- der systems crosslinked with isocyanates or melamines. These offered enhanced durability, broader use of more durable pigments and expanded use of aluminium-flake- based metallic coatings. Today, with the exception of some nonmetallic solid colour formulations, topcoats are color coatklearcoat systems. These systems, first used in Europe, use heavily pigmented, opaque basecoats based on polyester or acrylic binders and acrylic clearcoats fortified with ultraviolet screening agents and anti-oxidants. These systems offer better appearance and a broadened colour range through the addi- tional use of pearlescent pigments along with aluminum flake and translucent colored pigments.

Over the years there have been substantial changes in undercoat systems. In the early days sheet metal parts (hoods and fenders) were primed separately from the car body. These sheet metal primers were generally blends of oleoresinous and alkyd vehicles and were applied by flow or dip coating. Bodies were spray coated with a primer of moderate pigment concentration. After baking and before topcoating, a highly pigmented, easy processing surfacer was applied and thoroughly sanded. The corrosion protection of these systems was not uniform on all areas of the car. Corrosion of rocker panels and other recessed and boxed-in areas was frequently encountered.

Electrodeposition, a radically different way of priming automobiles, was pioneered by the Ford Motor Company in the 1960s. It is probably the most significant coating technology change for automobile manufacture of the second half of the twentieth century. The electrocoating process involves an aqueous dispersion of a paint carrying either positive or negative ionic groups, thus providing for either cathodic or anodic deposition. The car body is coated on a production line by immersing the body in a tank containing the aqueous primer dispersion and subjecting it to a direct current charge. The applied voltage charge causes the dispersed particles and pigments to migrate to the car body. As they are deposited the consequent transfer of electrons provides an electrically neutral film deposit. During the process electroendosmosis occurs, squeezing the water out of the deposited coating and leaving it in a firm state. With this process, improved uniform coverage is achieved in recessed areas and on sharp edges as well as on flat surfaces. The body is baked to coalesce and cure the primer film with much less sagging occumng.

The first commercial electrocoat primers were of the anodic type. While they provided a substantial improvement in corrosion protection over previous primers, it was

6 1.2 Paint and the Automobile

found that the cathodic type was even better. In 1976, PPG introduced the first cathodic primer, and this technology, with continuous improvement, has become the standard of the automotive industry worldwide. Combined with the more recent introduction of galvanized sheet metal, car manufacturers are now able to offer ten year warranties against corrosion.

In the 1960s, the U.S., starting with the state of California, began to consider the effects of air pollution and centered its concerns on the automobile industry. While the initial regulations focussed on automotive emissions, concerns for air pollution soon moved to the automotive assembly plants with solvent emissions from the painting process identified as a major source.

In 1967, Rule 66 was passed by Los Angeles County, California regulating the use of potentially harmful solvents in industrial coatings. The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), using this regulation as a guide, restricted the use of photochemically reactive hydrocarbons and oxidants that react with nitric oxide in the presence of UV radiation to produce smog. Later the EPA decided all organic solvents were photochemically reactive and published guidelines drastically restricting the amount of solvent discharged into the atmosphere from industrial finishing operations. To meet these emission requirements automotive finishes would have to be sprayed at nearly 60 volume % solids. These requirements led to the gradual elimination of low solids solvent-borne lacquers and enamels as automotive coatings and encouraged the inves- tigation and commercialization of new technologies based on high solids coatings, water-borne coatings and powder coatings. Electrodeposition priming, as it is based on water as a carrier, became even more prevalent.

Water-borne one-coat enamel topcoat systems were first introduced by General Motors in the early 1970s in its two California plants. These systems had sensitive application characteristics, required air-conditioning of the spray booths, offered mar- ginally acceptable appearance and were uneconomic. Several years later European automotive producers, to lower emissions and maintain appearance and performance, began using low solids water-borne basecoat systems with solvent-based clearcoats. These systems were more attractive since the water-borne color coats were heavily pigmented and applied in thin films, hence offering satisfactory application. This technology was initially pioneered by ICI but was soon offered by most major paint producers. Colour coat/clearcoat technology continues to expand in use to this day with clearcoats based on higher solids solvent systems being used to reduce solvent emissions.

High solids coatings based on acrylic or polyester resins crosslinked with high solids methylated melamines have been explored as primers and topcoats. Many solid colors, when not employing color coatklearcoat technology utilise these resin systems. Poly- esters are more popular in Europe while the acrylics are more popular in the U.S. and Japan. NAD (Nonaqueous Dispersion) technology, small crosslinked particles that control rheology, has found use in high solids systems to improve their application properties.

Powder coatings were also explored in the early 1970s as zero-pollution finishes. At that time they found some success as primers and, in Japan, in the reverse process: as a primer followed by electrodeposition primers. During the 1980s automotive powder coatings fell out of favour but are presently making a comeback as primers and chip resistant primers and are being actively researched as clearcoats.

1 Introduction 7

Automotive finishes have gone from being (greatly) above to below average solvent emitters thereby helping the automotive industry meet its solvent emission requirements. These requirements are now actively enforced in Germany and, as a result, are spreading across the Common Market. Japanese car manufacturers are following these trends carefully and utilising new technologies as soon as they are developed in Europe or the U.S. In recent years, the Japanese paint industry and car producers have tested rotobake, a process that involves rotating the car to provide a more uniform finish, and have commercialised fluorocarbon finishes on their luxury automobiles.

The worldwide production of automotive vehicles has grown substantially in the past ten years with annual production increasing from about 40 x lo6 vehicles in 1982 to almost 50 X lo6 units in 1992 [1.8]. During this time there has been little growth in the developed market production areas of Western Europe (Germany, France, Italy, U.K.), Japan and the U.S. with most growth occurring in the developing automobile production countries of Spain, South Korea, and Mexico. The developed market areas accounted for about 45 x lo6 units of the almost 50 x lo6 produced in 1992, with production distributed fairly equally among the regions (Europe 15.5 x lo6, AsiaPacific 17 X lo6 and North America 13 x lo6). These trends are expected to continue into the twenty-first century.

The major vehicle producers’ corporate nationalities are also distributed equally among these regions with four based in Europe (Volkswagen, Fiat, Peugeot-Citroen PSA, and Renault), three in North America (General Motors, Ford and Chrysler) and three in Japan (Toyota, Nissan and Honda). As we move into the twenty-first century further consolidation of vehicle producers is anticipated, continuing the trend of the past decade. Currently the Japanese producers have global production facilities while Ford and General Motors are not far behind. The rest are still regionally based, a position that cannot continue if they are to remain among the world’s leading producers.

Global liaisons and joint ventures are also common. Ford has joint production facilities with Mazda and GM has done the same with Toyota in the U.S.

In the paint industry the same trends are underway. Paint companies are merging and/or forming joint ventures. As a result there are fewer suppliers to the automobile industry than ten years ago. The major players are global or globally connected. BASF has acquired Inmont in the U.S. and has a joint venture partner in Japan. Du Pont formed a joint venture with ICI in Europe (which it has recently fully acquired) and with Kansai to service the Japanese car producers located in the U.S. PPG has made a number of acquisitions in Europe and has a close relationship with Nippon Paint in Japan.

As a result there are only six major paint producershppliers to the worldwide automotive market today with the number of niche suppliers decreasing almost daily.

These suppliers, like the major car producers, are equally divided between Europe, North America and AsialPacific. They are BASF, and Hoechst, headquartered in Europe; P.P.G. and Du Pont from the U.S.; and Nippon Paint and Kansai Paint from Japan. With continued slow growth of the worldwide car market expected at about 2 YO per year, there will be continued pressure for further consolidation on the paint producers. This is very likely to occur before the year 2010.

8 1.3 References

1.3 References

E. Angelucci, Albert0 Belluci: The Automobile - From Steam to Gasoline, McGraw-Hill, New York 1974, pp 23-50. J. B. Rae: The American Automobile, A Brief History, The University of Chicago Press, Chicago 1965, pp 1-18. J. H. Boatwright: “Worldwide History of Paint”, in J. J. Matiello (ed.): Protective & Decor- ative Coatings, Paints, Varnishes, Lacquers & Inks, vol. I, Wiley & Sons, New York 1941-45,

E. Schwenk: “Vom Schusterpech zum Wasserlack”, in Museum - Denkmalpflege - Gra- bungstechnik e.V. (ed.): Lackfarben, Historische Rezepte und deren Bindermittel auf techni- schen Kulturgut, Arbeitsgemeinschaft der Restauratoren, Landesmuseum fur Technik und Arbeit, Mannheim 1992. F. G. Weed: “The Finishing of Automotive Equipment and other Metal Surfaces”, in J. J. Matiello (ed.): Protective & Decorative Coatings, Paints, Varnishes, Lacquers & Inks, vol. 111, Wiley & Sons, New York 1941-45, chap. 14. A. G. Armour, D. T. Wu, J. A. Antonelli, and J. H. Lowell: “Sixty Years of Automotive Coatings from Lacquers to Oligomers”, in R. B. Seymour, H. Mark (ed.): Organic Coat- ings Their Orgin and Development, Elsevier Science Publishing, New York 1990, pp 39-53. D. A. Hounshell, J. K. Smith, Jr.: Science & Corporate Strategy, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge 1988, pp 138-146. Automotive News: 1993 Market Data Book, CRAM Communications, Inc., Detroit 1993.

pp 9-20.

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