average daily consumption from food

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Average daily consumption from food

Taurine occurs naturally in food, especially in seafood and meat. The mean daily intake from

omnivore diets was determined to be around 58 mg (range from 9 to 372 mg) and to be low ornegligible from a strict vegan diet. In another study, taurine intake was estimated to be generally

less than 200 mg/day, even in individuals eating a high-meat diet. According to another study,taurine consumption was estimated to vary between 40 to 400 mg/day.

[9]

Biosynthesis

Mammalian taurine synthesis occurs in the pancreas via the cysteine sulfinic acid pathway. In

this pathway, the sulfhydryl group ofcysteine is first oxidized to cysteine sulfinic acid by the

enzyme cysteine dioxygenase. Cysteine sulfinic acid, in turn, is decarboxylated by sulfinoalanine

decarboxylase to form hypotaurine. It is unclear whether hypotaurine is then spontaneously orenzymatically oxidized to yield taurine.

Taurine is naturally produced in the testicles of many mammals. Urban legends surrounding the

source of taurine have included bull urine extract and bull semen.[citation needed]

While it's true that

taurine is found in both sources, taurine in the pharmaceutical orfood industry is chemically

synthesized (see below).

Health Benefits

Despite being present in many energy foods, taurine has not been proven to be energy-giving. Astudy of mice hereditarily unable to transport taurine suggests that it is needed for proper

maintenance and functioning ofskeletal muscles.[10]

In addition, it has been shown to be

effective in removing fatty liver deposits in rats, preventing liver disease, and reducing cirrhosisin tested animals.

[11][12]There is also evidence that taurine is beneficial for adult human blood

pressure and possibly, the alleviation of other cardiovascular ailments (in humans suffering

essential hypertension, taurine supplementation resulted in measurable decreases in bloodpressure).

[13]

It is believed that prematurely born infants lack the enzymes needed to convert cystathionine tocysteine and may, therefore, become deficient in taurine. Thus, taurine has been added to many

infant formulas as a measure of prudence, since the early 1980s. However, this practice has never

been rigorously studied, and as such it has yet to be proven to be necessary, or even beneficial.[14]

Taurine is also used in some contact lens solutions.[15]

Toxicity

Taurine is involved in a number of crucial physiological processes. However, the role of taurine

in these processes is not clearly understood and the influence of high taurine doses on theseprocesses is uncertain. A substantial increase in the plasma concentration of growth hormone

was reported in some epileptic patients during taurine tolerance testing (oral dose of 50 mg/kg

bw/day), suggesting a potential to stimulate the hypothalamus and to modify neuroendocrinefunction. There is an indication that taurine (2 g/day) has some function in the maintenance and

possibly in the induction ofpsoriasis. It may also be necessary to take into consideration that

absorption of taurine from beverages may be more rapid than from foods.[9]

Energy drinks

Taurine in regularly used as an ingredient in energy drinks, with some containing as much as1,000 mg per serving.

[16]A 2003 study by the European Food Safety Authority found no adverse

affects for up to 1,000 mg of Taurine per kilogram of bodyweight per day, however this was in

regards to Taurine alone, noting they did not compare the effects of Taurine when combined withthe other ingredients in energy drinks.

[17]
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Physiological functions

Taurine is conjugated via its amino terminal group with chenodeoxycholic acid and cholic acid

to form the bile salts sodium taurochenodeoxycholate and sodium taurocholate. The low pKa[18]

of taurine's sulfonic acid group ensures that this moiety is negatively charged in the pH ranges

normally found in the intestinal tract and, thus, improves the surfactantproperties of the cholicacid conjugate. Taurine crosses the blood-brain barrier

[19][20][21]and has been implicated in a wide

array of physiological phenomena including inhibitory neurotransmission,[22]

long-term

potentiation in the striatum/hippocampus,[23]

membrane stabilization,[24]

feedback inhibition of

neutrophil/macrophage respiratory burst, adipose tissue regulation and possible prevention of

obesity,[25][26]

calcium homeostasis,[27]

recovery from osmotic shock,[28]

protection againstglutamate excitotoxicity

[29]and prevention of epileptic seizures.

[30]It also acts as an antioxidant

and protects against toxicity of various substances (such as lead and cadmium).[31][32][33][34]

Additionally, supplementation with taurine has been shown to prevent oxidative stress inducedby exercise.

[35]In a 2008 study, taurine has been shown to reduce the secretion ofapolipoprotein

B100 and lipids in HepG2 cells.[36]

High concentrations of serum lipids and apolipoprotein B100

(essential structural component ofVLDL and LDL) are major risk factors ofatherosclerosis andcoronary heart disease. Hence, it is possible that taurine supplementation is beneficial for theprevention of these diseases. In a 2003 study, Zhang et al. have demonstrated the

hypocholesterolemic (blood cholesterol-lowering) effect of dietary taurine in young overweight

adults. Furthermore, they reported that body weight also decreased significantly in the taurinesupplemented group.

[37]These findings are consistent with animal studies.

[38]Taurine has also

been shown to help people with congestive heart failureby increasing the force and effectiveness

of heart-muscle contractions.[39]

Taurine levels were found to be significantly lower in vegans than in a control group on a

standard American diet. Plasma taurine was 78% of control values, and urinary taurine 29%.[40]

In the cell, taurine keeps potassium and magnesium inside the cell while keeping excessive

sodium out. In this sense, it works like a diuretic. Because it aids the movement of potassium,sodium, and calcium in and out of the cell, taurine has been used as a supplementation for

epileptics as well as for people who have uncontrollable facial twitches.[41]

According to animal studies, taurine produces anxiolytic effect and may act as a modulator or

anti-anxiety agent in the central nervous system.[42][43][44]

Taurine is necessary for normal skeletal muscle functioning. This was shown by a 2004 study,[45]

using mice with a genetic taurine deficiency. They had a nearly complete depletion of skeletal

and cardiac muscle taurine levels. These mice had a reduction of more than 80% of exercisecapacity compared to control mice. The authors expressed themselves as "surprised" that cardiac

function showed as largely normal (given various other studies about effects of taurine on the

heart).

Studies have shown that taurine can influence (and possibly reverse) defects in nerve blood flow,

motor nerve conduction velocity, and nerve sensory thresholds in experimental diabeticneuropathic rats.

[46][47]In another study on diabetic rats, taurine significantly decreased weight

and decreased blood sugarin these animal models.[48]

Likewise, a 2008 study demonstrated that

taurine administration to diabetic rabbits resulted in 30% decrease in serum glucose levels.[49]

According to the single study on human subjects, daily administration of 1.5g taurine had no

significant effect on insulin secretion or insulin sensitivity.[50]

There is evidence that taurine mayexert a beneficial effect in preventing diabetes-associated microangiopathy and tubulointerstitial

injury in diabetic nephropathy.[51][52]

Taurine acts as a glycation inhibitor. Studies have shownthat taurine treated diabetic rats had a decrease in the formation ofadvanced glycation end

products (AGEs) and AGEs content.[53][54]

Lately, cosmetic compositions containing taurine have been introduced, possibly due to its

antifibroticproperties. It has been shown that taurine acts as a TGFB1 inhibitor.[55]

It also helps

to maintain skin hydration.[56]
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Taurine and cats

Taurine is an essential dietary requirement for feline health, since cats cannot synthesize the

compound. The absence of taurineyes causes a cat's retina to slowly degenerate, causing eyeproblems and (eventually) irreversible blindnessa condition known as central retinal

degeneration (CRD),[57][58]as well as hair loss and tooth decay. It was discovered in 1987 thattaurine deficiency can also cause feline dilated cardiomyopathy.

[59]Unlike CRD, the condition is

reversible with supplementation. Taurine is now a requirement of the Association of American

Feed Control Officials (AAFCO) and any dry or wet food product labeled approved by the

AAFCO should have a minimum of 0.1% taurine in dry food and 0.2% in wet food.[60]

Taurine and bird development

Recent research has provided evidence that taurine is essential in early bird development ofpasserines. Many passerines, regardless of spider availability, seek out many taurine-rich spiders

to feed their young particularly in their youngest stages of life. Researchers later compared thebehaviors and development of birds fed a taurine-supplemented diet to a control diet and found

that juveniles that were fed taurine-rich diets as neonates were much larger risk takers and moreadept at spatial learning tasks.

[61]

Synthesis and production

In 1993, approximately 5,0006,000 t. of taurine were produced; 50% for pet food manufacture,

50% in pharmaceutical applications.[62]

Synthetic taurine is obtained from isethionic acid (2-hydroxyethanesulfonic acid), which in turn is obtained from the reaction ofethylene oxide with

aqueous sodium bisulfite.[63]

Another approach is the reaction ofaziridine with sulfurous acid.

This leads directly to taurine.
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