1 - 3

5 - 16

17 - 22

23 - 29

30 - 65

66 - 71

72 - 78

79 - 81

An architecture design process is a progress from conceptual to construction. There are few stages in a design process. One of the design process included the preparation of construction drawings, which is the key in this process. We are given an opportunity to visit the construction site of low rise or medium rise buildings from this project. In this project, we need to produce a complete documentation and an analysis of construction elements, understand and be able to explain current construction technology on local sites after we go to the site. We use visual images, sketches and drawings to show the analysis and explanation.

02

Astana P8 In this construction project, there will be few different types of semi-d :

1. TYPE A - a 2 ½ storey semi-d with built-up 7,682 sf, included 4 + 2 bedrooms, 4 + 2 bathrooms and an individual lift.2. TYPE B1 - a 3 ½ storey semi-d with built-up 6,869 sf, included 3 + 1 bedrooms, 3 +3 bathrooms and an individual lift.3. TYPE B2 - a 3 ½ storey semi-d with built-up 6,889 sf, included 3 + 1 bedrooms, 3 + 4 bathrooms and an individual lift.4. TYPE B3 - a 3 storey semi-d with built-up 6,057 sf, included 5 + 1 bedrooms, 5 + 2 bathrooms and an individual lift.5. TYPE C - a 3 ½ storey semi-d with built-up 7,340 sf, included 3 + 1 bedrooms, 3 + 3 bathrooms and an individual lift.6. TYPE C1 - a 3 ½ storey semi-d with built-up 7,325 sf, included 3 + 1 bedrooms, 3 + 3 bathrooms and an individual lift.

TYPE A TYPE B1 TYPE B2 TYPE B3 TYPE C TYPE C1

SITE PLANS 04

A construction site is one of the most dangerous place you can be around and working within the construction site is considered a 3-D (Dirty, Dangerous and Difficult) job. According to the Department of Occupational Safety and Health (DOSH) in 2015, 88 construction workers die, which is the highest recorded death compared to other industries. Another 149 other construction workers suffer from disabilities due to accidents in the construction site. Thus, it is important that workers working in this area are protected and equipped with safety equipments to reduce their chances of death and injuries.

Safety Attire & EquipmentAll workers entering and working are required to put on a helmet, high visibility jackets as well as safety shoes. Depending on the job, workers may require to put on additional equipment such as rubber boots, earplugs and masks.

Workers with safety attire working within the site

Helmet - Protects the worker’s head from impact from falling impacts or side collision

Safety Shoes - Protects workers feet from falling objects as well as increasing grip between soils and ground to prevent slipping.

High Visibility Jacket - Allows the workers to be seen from far distance and even at night.

Rubber Boots - Waterproof and protects the workers feet in wet areas.

Ear Plugs - Protects workers ears from constant loud noises from machinery.

Masks - Ensure workers do not inhale dangerous fumes and dust during construction. Only used when working in dusty areas or dangerous fumes.

06

At the entrance of the site, signboards are placed to warn visitors and workers about the dangers and hazards of the construction site. A guard house is placed at the entrance to prevent unauthorised entrance into the construction sites.

Safety signboards are placed at the entrance and visitors must be registered and checked before entering

Within the construction sites, there are a few emergency assembly points as well as fire extinguishers throughout the construction sites. A first aid kit is also on standby within the site in case of minor injuries.

Fire Extinguisher. Found around the site.

First Aid Kit. Location within the site office

Map of assembly areas within the construction site. Contains location of fire extinguisher around the sites.

07

Scaffoldings and safety nets are commonly used although the buildings are only three to four stories high. Guard rails made out either with strong ropes or aluminum bars are also placed at stairwells and high places to keep workers safe. These scaffolds can be used in conjunction with guard rails to prevent workers from falling down and safety net on frame to catch heavy objects or materials that fall from the scaffolding platform itself. These are some of the safety precautions when climbing up or erecting scaffolding.

➔ Ensure the scaffolding is on a level ground to provide maximum stability➔ Site surrounding the scaffolding must be cleared➔ Do not overload the scaffolding platform and keep scaffolding platform clear.➔ Scaffolding should be anchored down firmly to the ground using weights.➔ Scaffolding planks should be slip-resistant, in uniform thickness and not overlapped

with other planks➔ Ensure safety nets are installed properly to avoid obstructing the path on the platform.

Scaffoldings and safety nets surround the building itself

08

As the building is between three and four stores and the size of the building is small, mobile telescopic cranes are used instead of the large tower cranes commonly used in highrise construction. These cranes are mobile by design and can be moved around the site when needed. During lifting, outrigger stabilising jacks are deployed to keep the crane balanced during heavy lifting. These cranes can lift thousands of tonnes of its own weight thanks to the principles of Pascal’s law and hydraulics. The lifting capacity can be changed by adding counterweights behind the boom crane to increase the weight of the crane to balance the load. These cranes are commonly used to lift up heavy materials as well as concrete mixture up to the third floor or the roof using a crane skip.

MACHINERIESMost, if not all construction sites uses modern machinery to complete various tasks that are impossible or takes a long time using manual labour work. From time to time, different machineries are used for different tasks and different construction stages. Most of the machinery as transported into the site through the entrance and temporary roads are laid for the machinery to reach the specified location within the site. Most of the machinery used are movable and specialise in low to midrise buildings. These are some of the machinery used within the site.

Mobile Telescopic Crane

USED FOR - Carrying large loads such as bricks and concrete bucketsDURING - Structural Construction (Roof/Walls/Floors/Pillars)

09

ExcavatorAnother common machinery used in the construction site is the excavator. It is commonly used during the early stages of the construction especially during landscaping, digging foundations and trenches to lay utilities such as water pipes and cables. An excavator consists of an undercarriage where the tracks are located. The cabin, engines and hydraulics are attached to the undercarriage to enable the boom arm and bucket to rotate a full swing. The boom arm is powered by hydraulic pumps that moves the motors and actuators within the boom arm and the bucket. Although the excavator’s boom arm could only move up and down, the arm could reach a considerable distance from the cabin itself. The bucket allows the excavator to scoop as well as dump dirt or anything that has been dug up.

USED FOR - Clearing land/Digging trenches for utility pipesDURING - Earthworks/External Works

10

Piling rigs, also called pile drivers are used especially during the construction of the foundation of the buildings. These piling rigs are designed to drive piles into the ground. These piles are used for structural foundation and can be used in different soil conditions. Typical piling rigs use weights above the pile and and the weights are dropped, driving the pile into the Earth. There are many types of piling rigs such as the diesel piling rig and vibratory hammers. However for this construction site, hydraulic drivers are used instead due to the nature of the site as there are residential homes and build-up areas around the site. Hydraulic drivers uses hydraulic fluid inside cylinders to generate the driving force needed to push the pile down to the ground. Hydraulic drivers produces no vibration that could affect the stability of the soil and existing buildings around the site as well as being far quieter than diesel and vibration drivers.

Hydraulic Piling Rig

SteamrollerA steamroller is used to smooth out the land and the dirt roads within the site itself. It is mostly used to compact the land and the dirt roads to avoid heavy machineries to sink into the soft soil. A steamroller consists of one or two very heavy drums which compacts the land as the steamroller moves. The drums can be modified to make them heavier to compact harder stuff at the expense of speed or lubricated to prevent materials from sticking to the rollers.

USED FOR - Driving foundation piles into the groundDURING - Foundation

USED FOR - Compacting soft soil/Paving temporary dirt roadsDURING - Earthworks/Structural Construction (Flatten Dirt Road Evenly)

11

Concrete Mixer Truck

One of the most common construction material used in the site is concrete, where it is used as the roof and the support beam in conjunction with steel reinforcement. As such, a continuous supply of concrete is needed to ensure the building is completed on schedule. The concrete mixing plant is located outside the site, thus a concrete mixer truck is used to transport mixed concrete. To ensure that the concrete does not harden during transport, the agitator drum rotates continuously to ensure the concrete stays in a liquid form and does not harden and stick to the drum. An average concrete mixer truck can hold up to 4 to 6 cubic meters of concrete with a time limit of 90 minutes after it is poured into the trucks. The concrete is discharged through a chute and sometimes further transported using crane skips or concrete pumps.

USED FOR - Pouring and transporting prepared concrete to the siteDURING - Structural Construction (Floors/Roofs)

12

Backhoe LoaderA backhoe loader is essentially a combination of an excavator and a bulldozer in a smaller unit. It has a similar look to a tractor, the cab is located in the center with all round vision to enable the driver to operate either of the bulldozer bucket or the excavator bucket. Just like the mobile cranes, a backhoe loader has hydraulic outriggers which is deployed during excavation, as the backhoe loader does not have enough weight on its own to support itself during excavation. Due to its compact size, it can go to places with tight corners and spaces where other machineries can't. The back and front bucket can be switched with blades, grab buckets and borers to perform different tasks.

Boom Concrete PumpCommonly used in a mid rise buildings, these mobile boom concrete pump allows concrete to be pumped up high into the air and at a considerable distance. An electric or diesel pump pumps concrete up through pipes mounted on the boom and can be directed to any direction within its radius. This method is much faster than transporting concrete using cane skips and typically used where pouring concrete is time-critical. The boom can be moved around the site as it is mounted to a truck.

USED FOR - Providing and pumping concrete up to high placesDURING - Structural Construction (Floors/Roof)

USED FOR -Digging trenches for utility pipes/Excavating extra soil in tight spaces.

DURING - Earthworks/External Works

13

Dump TruckCommonly used to transport materials onto and off the construction site. The most common dumper used is the tandem dump truck, where the cargo is unloaded using a hydraulic operated tipping skip. These trucks can travel on rough terrain but they’re usually slow especially when carrying heavy loads.

GeneratorSeen alongside heavy machineries such as cutting machine, drills, portable concrete mixers and bending machines, these generators are needed to power these high-power machines as the main power supply is too far from the site or not enough wattage provided through the mains. Power outage is common within construction sites as new wires are laid or damaged during construction so a generator is needed to keep the construction on schedule. These generators are usually powered by diesel and very noisy.

USED FOR - Providing power to machineries and important facilitiesDURING - Entire construction phase

USED FOR - Transporting materials and excess soil/sand/wasteDURING - Earthworks (Soil/Sand/Foreign objects)/Structural Construction (Materials/Waste)

14

Site Office - Houses the operation office for the site. Plans, material samples and important documents are located here. Most of the operations carried out at the site are coordinated here.

Facilities

Inside a site office

Meeting Room - This room allows visitors and workers to communicate and conduct meetings/briefings without interruption from the noise outside. Progress reports, plans and schedules are pinned to the wall to be easily seen.

Inside the meeting room, where we are given a brief about the construction site.

Notice Board - Allows workers and inspection team to look at general announcements, flow charts and permits for the construction site itself.

Notice boards outside the site office

These facilities are temporary buildings that are used to provide services, information and convenience to the workers in the construction site. These buildings, such as site offices, storages, sanitary conveniences that will be removed upon completion of the construction etc. The facilities may be moved from time to time to a suitable location as construction progresses. Usually, these facilities are either located in a completed building or the carpark to minimise movement of the facilities as moving them costs thousands of ringgits.

Permit by the governing body of the city is still required even to setup the temporary facilities here as these buildings are considered service and office buildings. These permits are usually pinned onto the notice board outside the office for inspection by local authorities.

15

Storage - Located throughout the site. Materials delivered to the site are offloaded to the side of the road to be used later.

Materials being offloaded and stored outside

Trash/Dump Area - Located throughout the site. Waste materials are dumped into these big containers and are sent away once it is full.

One of the many dump areas around the site

Portable Toilets - Located just across the guard house and the site office and each worker has its own responsibility to keep the toilets clean at all times.

A typical portable toilet. They are found next to the guard house across the site office.

16

Shallow foundation - shallow foundation is a type of foundation which transfers building loads to the earth very near the surface, rather than to a subsurface layer or a range of depths as does a deep foundation.

Deep foundation - deep foundations extend down through unsuitable or unstable soil to transfer building loads to a more appropriate bearing stratum rock or dense sands and gravels well below the superstructure.

Pile foundation - A foundation (spread footing or grillage supported on piles). Usually consists of a base of spread footing on grillage supported by piles at their bottom. Piles distribute the load of structure to the soil in contact either by friction alone (friction pile)or by friction combined with bearing at their ends (end bearing pile).

Process1. Setting up Block setting out are done by licensed surveyors/contractor before any form of piling works are carried out. Which included the pile point numbering on site.

2. PilingThere are different type of piling machine such as drop hammer piling machines and Injection piling machine is used to drive in the piles. Those method is chosen to suit the condition of the site.

3. After piling done, a pit is excavated to install the pile cap. Before installing the pile cap. Timber is then used as formwork on the concrete of the pile cap. The concrete must reach the requirement set by government which is Grade 30.

End bearing pile Friction pile

General Information - Referencing

24

Construction processSpecific case study - On site

Deep foundation is used in this project due to it was a medium rise rise semi D which is 4 storeys height and to ensure the load of the structure is transferred down through the upper weak layer of the topsoil to the stronger layer of subsoil below.

1.ExcavationPreliminary activity of the construction project. It starts from the pits for the building foundations and continues up to the handing over of the project. Excavator will dig a hole to set up piling work including position of each pile.

3.Pile load test After piling contractor are responsible to carry out a pile load test procedure shall be as JKR specifications or BS. 8004 and requirements shall be performed in accordance with the direction of the engineer.

2.PilingInjection method is used due to the noise level produced can not be higher than 95 decibels measures 15 m from the source. The deviation is controlled under 75mm on plan from its correct location.

4.Pile CapTimber is then used as formwork, rebar is added for reinforcement, pile stump reinforcement is added as well. Concrete is then pour into the timber formwork, inspection also take place in this phase.

5.Completion Timber formwork is removed after 28 days when concrete is set and completed piles was surveyed by a licensed surveyor to ensure the actual position of piles (pile offsets) in ‘As - Built’ piling plan, to be endorsed by the same surveyor.

25

Hydraulic Jack in PilingIn this particular project hydraulic jack piling machines is used for piling due to the site condition which is near to the government office areas and istana to minimize the noise produce and impact to the surrounding area.

1. Preparation for pitching pile(i) The nominated pile segment drawn towards the machine using the on-board crane.(ii) The pile then lifted by the on-board crane to facilitate the pile head to locate in the pile position.

2. Jacking Pile(i) Insert pile into the Jack-In system clamp by using the on-board crane.(ii) Clamped the pile and detach the crane cable.(iii) Final vertical check and positioning by moving in the X and Y direction.(iv) Commence jacking pile by applying jacking force onto the clamp device to press down the pile.

3. JointingThe pile will be joined in accordance to conventional method or by way of MIG / CO2 welding.

4. SetWhen the jacking pile reaches certain depth and refuses penetration at the desired corresponding pressure, the pile may have set. If required, dolly may be used to jack-in excess pile length to below ground level.

26

Reinforced Concrete pile

Precast Reinforced Concrete piles [ R.C. piles]

Advantages: 1. High load capacities, corrosion resistance can be attained, hard driving possible 2. Cylinder piles in particular are suited for bending resistance.

3. Cast in place concrete piles are formed by drilling a hole in the ground & filling it with concrete. The hole may be drilled or formed by driving a shell or casing into the ground.

Disadvantages: 1. Concrete piles are considered permanent, however certain soils (usually organic) contain materials that may form acids that can damage the concrete. 2. Difficult to handle unless prestressed, high initial cost, considerable displacement, prestressed piles are difficult to splice.

3. Salt water may also adversely react with the concrete unless special precautions are taken when the mix proportions are designed. 4. Cannot be driven if the diameter of the pile is very large or in a limited Space condition.

Precast concrete pile are formed using a high quality controlled concrete and reinforced by steel bars and usually came in a rectangular form. To carry the stresses during transportation and the loads from the structure precast concrete piles need heavy reinforcement. The condition of the soil may decided either the cast iron or steel shoe need to be added to the precast concrete piles to aid the driving process.

27

Pile Cap

Pile Cap - Piles are driven closely together in group or clusters that contain from two to twenty-five piles each. The load is distributed over the head of the piles in the group by means of a reinforced cast in-situ concrete pile cap. To provide structure continuity the reinforcement in the piles is bonded into the pile cap; this may necessitate the breaking out of the concrete from the heads of the piles to expose the reinforcement. The heads of piles also penetrate the base of the pile cap some 100mm to 150mm to ensure the continuity of the members.

1. Excavation to the required level with open cut slope at safe angle2.Blinding layer to the foundation level.3.Erect formwork by using plywood according to the pile cap design.4.Pile cap steel reinforcement is added.5.The base is cleaned up before concreting.6.Concrete discharging point will be established.7.Sufficient vibrating poker is used to compact the concrete.

Pile cap

Reinforcement bar

column

piles

Pile cap section

28

Pile Cap specification

R.C. piles specificationBS 8110 & BS 8004MS 1314 : 2004

1. Characteristic strength of concrete to be 45 N/mm²2. Ordinary Portland Cement (MS 522)3. Maximum size of aggregate to be 20mm (MS 29)4. Steel Reinforcement (MS 144 & MS 146)5. Mild Steel Plate (BS EN 10025 : 1993)6. Admixture Superplasticizer (BS 5975 - 3 :1985)

Capacity of pile group is the sum of the individual capacities of piles, but it is influenced by the spacing between the piles.The structural load is applied to the pile cap that distributes the load to individual piles. If piles are spaced sufficient distance apart, then the capacity of pile group is the sum of the individual capacities of piles. However, if the spacing between piles is too close, the zones of stress around the pile will overlap and the ultimate load of the group is less than the sum of the individual pile capacities especially in the case of friction piles, where the efficiency of pile group is much less.

In this project the most of the pile caps are 1 or 2 piles pile caps due to structural load of the semi-D does not need the large group piles pile cap to support. Thus the smaller piles group of pile cap is sufficient enough to support the structure which also reduce the cost and the piling duration.

29

SLABGeneral Information - Referencing

Definition :

Concrete slab, a very common and important structural element, are constructed to provide flat , parallel and horizontal surfaces as construction of floor , wall or ceiling .The depth of a concrete slab floor is very small compared to its span whose thickness ranges from 10 to 50 centimetres .Most of the slab are comprises of carefully worked out steel reinforcements in order to provide tensile strength to the structure which is Reinforced Cement Concrete Slab ( RCC Slab ) .Formwork differs with the kind of slab. For a ground slab, the formwork may consist only of sidewalls pushed into the ground whereas for a suspended slab, the form-work is shaped like a tray, often supported by a temporary scaffold until the concrete sets.

Slab can be classified into Ground Slab and Suspended Slab

Ground Slab Suspended Slab

31

Ground Slab

Type of soil condition :

There are several different variations in slabs. The type of slab you’ll need will depend on the type of soil you’re building on, and how reactive it is. Generally, the following classifications of soil are used:

● Class A - This denotes very 'stable' ground - mostly sand and rock, not affected by moisture

● Class S - Slightly reactive soil, slight movement due to moisture● Class M - Moderately reactive soil, moderate movement due to moisture● Class H - Highly reactive soil, a high amount of movement due to moisture● Class E - Extremely reactive soil, extreme movement due to moisture● Class P - 'Problem' soil, which experiences land slip, mine subsidence and so

forth.

Ground Slab can be divided into several sub-categories :

1. Stiffened raft slab

Pre-poured concrete beams set in channels through the middle of the slab, creating a kind of supporting grid of concrete on the base of the slab ,suited to Class M, Class H and Class E soils .

2. Waffle raft slab

These slabs are constructed entirely above the ground by pouring concrete over a grid of polystyrene blocks known as 'void forms'. Waffle raft slabs are generally suitable for Class A,Class S, Class M, Class H and Class E soils These types of slab are only suitable for very flat ground. On sloping ground or with more complex designs, a stiffened raft slab is normally the better option

3. Infill slab

Infill slabs are simply poured between existing walls, so no formwork is required.The masonry wall and concrete slab must be separated from one another because they shrink or expand at different rates. If they are not separated the risk that the slab may develop unsightly cracks along the wall edge is increased.Can only be constructed on Class A or Class S sites

32

The choice of type of slab for a particular floor depends on many factor , the design loads, required spans, serviceability requirements, and strength requirements are all important .For beamless slabs, the choice between a flat slab and a flat plate is usually a matter of loading and span.

There are several types of Reinforcement design in RCC Slab criteria :

● One-way slab - Main reinforcement is provided in only one direction , cast integrally with parallel supporting beams .

Suspended Slab & Beam

● Two-way slab - Main reinforcement is provided in 2 way direction, cast integrally with supporting beams on 4 sides of square bays.

● Waffle slab - Main reinforcement is provided in 2 way direction with supporting ribs to able to carry heavier loads and span longer distances .

● flat slab - Does not have beams and girders for reinforcement .Loads are transferred directly to the supporting concrete columns.

32

Construction Process of SlabSpecific Case Study - On Site1. Excavate2. Construct form3. Prepare subsurface

a. Spread sand or gravel and level b. Install drains ,pipes ,utilities c. Install moisture barrier

4. Install reinforcement bar 5. Constructing special forms6. Pouring the concrete7. Embed anchors

33

1. Excavate

At this point , the building has already been located and batter boards are in place .Now, trenches or excavations are made for the footings ,drains ,and other floor features. These must be deeper than the rest of the slab.The locating and digging for slab footings is the same as for foundation footing ,The trenches can be be dug and rough lines are used for guides. The excavation are then checked for depth level for main utility lines .

2. Construct the forms

After the excavation is done ,the corner are relocated. Lines are restrung on batter boards and the corners are plumbed .Lumber is brought to construct the forms . Monolithic forms are made like footing forms which top board is placed and leveled first with the corner ,Next ,sand or gravel is dumped inside the form area .

Batter boardTrenches for piping

3. Preparing the Subsurface● First of all ,the ground under any type of slab must be prepared for moisture control . Water must be kept

from seeping up through a slab and drained from under the slab .Outside moisture can be reduced by using good siding methods and stepped up the edges of the slab using bricks .Once the sand is leveled, the moisture barrier is laid .As a rule, plastic sheet are used for moisture barrier to cover the whole subsurface area .The strips should overlap at least 2 inches at the edges .

34

● All the opening in pipes are then covered to prevent them from clogging with dirt or concrete. Metal or plastic pipes are used for the drain while conduit which laid under the the slab are used for electrical wires .

● Insulating the edges .Insulation is laid around the outside edges after placement of the moisture barrier which is called perimeter insulation .The insulation is extended to the bottom of the footing area at least 12 inches and rigid foam of 1 inch thick is used .

35

4. Install Reinforcement Bar

Concrete is a material which is strong in compression and weak in tension and if the member is overloaded its tensile resistance may be exceeded leading to structural failure. Hence steel bar are used to provide the tensile strength for RC Slab .Reinforcement is placed as near to the outside fibres as practicable , a cover of concrete over the reinforcement to protect the steel bar from corrosion and to provide a degree of fire resistance .

Condition before loading

Condition after loading

36

Type of ReinforcementSpecific Case Study - On Site

● Format A , Square mesh is type of steel reinforcement fabric is used in our site with ○ standard sheet size ~ 4.8m long x 2.4m wide○ standard roll size ~ 48m and 72m long x 2.4m wide

● Grade notation : Mild steel ○ Grade 250 or 250N/mm² characteristic tensile strength ( 0.25% carbon ,

0.06% sulphur and 0.06% phosphorus )

● Square twisted steel bars○ Standard bar diameter ~ 6,8,10,12,16,20,25,32 and 40mm

37

5. Constructing special forms

Special form such as stepped edge helps drainage to prevents rainwater from flowing onto the floor .Lower surface area are common for garages , entry way and so forth.The extension form is built inside the outer form as a nailing base .The lower area can then be leveled separately .

6. Pouring the concrete

After the corner of the forms are levels with a transit , the volume of concrete needed is estimated .When pouring is ready ,the builder spread ,carry and level the concrete .As the concrete is poured , it was spreaded and tamped by using a board or shovel .Tamping helps get rid of air pocket to make the concrete solidly fill all the form. This is done with a long board called a strike-off .

Darby concrete

Bull floats concrete

38

Beam Structure details Specific Case Study - On Site

Grou

nd F

loor

Firs

t Fl

oor

Seco

nd F

loor

39

ColumnsGeneral Information - Referencing

A column or pillar in architecture and structural engineering is a structural element that transmits, through compression, the weight of the structure above to other structural elements below .Most of the high rises building uses Reinforced Cement Concrete techniques include our site construction . In an RCC framed structure, the load is transferred from a slab to the beams then to the columns and further to lower columns and finally to the foundation which in turn transfers it to the soil. The walls in such structures are constructed after the frame is ready. Cement concrete is strong in compressive strength but weak in tensile strength. To increase tensile strength in the structure ,we use mild steel bars in cement concrete. Usually steel bars are roughened or corrugated to further improve the bond or cohesion between the concrete and steel .Curing of all concrete is done at least for 20 days.

40

Construction Process of RCC ColumnSpecific Case Study - On Site

1. Column layout work

2. Column reinforcement work

Location of columns are determined practically on the site. It is done by laying rope according to grids shown in the drawing and then mark the location of columns related to rope.In drawing , column locations are shown related to grid-line with dimension which in field, ropes are our grid-line. So we place columns related to rope-line by measuring dimension shown in the drawing.

After marking the column locations, we then start to place reinforcement as instructed in the structural drawing.The rebar diameter, number , rebar spacing and shape are determined to be as approved drawing and bar bending schedule .Rebar and existing concrete slab are then presented for inspection before placing shutters .Prior to erecting the shutters , box out and cast in items are installed .

41

3. Column formwork

4. Pouring concrete into column

The formwork has been erected to retain the wet concrete and resist the initial hydrostatic pressure .Clamps or yokes are used at equal centres for batch filling and at varying centres for complete filling in one pour to keep the thickness of the formwork material to a minimum . Column forms are located at 75 to 100mm high concrete plinth or kicker which has the dual function of location and preventing grout loss from the bottom of the column formwork .

Crane , concrete bucket , pumps ,chute and shovel are used to spread concrete. Concrete are delivered within 75 minutes after adding the water to the cement and compacted within 45 minutes of arrival . Mechanical vibrators are used to prevent formation of construction joint with the previous layer which has not taken initial settlement .

Concrete bucket

42

Column and Beam Layout PlanSpecific Case Study - On Site

● ALL BEAMS SHALL BE 200 X 600 UNLESS OTHERWISE STATED .● ALL CONCRETE GRADE SHALL BE G30 .● ALL SLAB SHALL BE 125mm THICK UNLESS OTHERWISE STATED .● ALL DISCONTINUOUS SLAB REINFORCEMENT TO BE BRC A8(T) X 75D UNLESS OTHERWISE STATED .● ALL DISTRIBUTION BARS SHALL BE T 10-200 UNLESS OTHERWISE STATED .

● RC ROOF BEAM ADMIX CRYSTALLINE WATERPROOFING ADDITIVE RC ROOF

Lower Ground Floor Ground Floor First Floor Second Floor

43

Column ScheduleSpecific Case Study - On Site

44

Walls

A wall is a continuous, usually vertical structure, which is thin relative to its length and height. The prime function of an external wall is to provide shelter against wind, rain and the daily seasonal variations of outside temperature normal to its location, for reasonable indoor comfort.

General Information - ReferencingFunctional requirements :

The function of a wall is to enclose and protect a building or to divide space within a building.

- Strength and stability- Resistance to weather and ground moisture- Durability and freedom from maintenance- Fire safety- Resistance to the passage of heat- Security- Aesthetics

45

Types of walls

Loadbearing wall

Wall that bears a load resting upon it by conducting its weight to a foundation structure.The materials most often used to construct load-bearing walls in large buildings are concrete, block, or brick. Depending on the type of building and the number of stories, load-bearing walls are gauged to the appropriate thickness to carry the weight above them.

● Housing● Tall buildings

Non-load bearing wall

Walls that are only intended to support themselves and the weight of the cladding or sheathings attached. Non-load bearing walls provide no structural support and may be interior or exterior walls. Materials are wood framing, light gauge steel framing, concrete masonry units, curtain walls.

● Wall partition● Protection from the elements

46

Masonry wall systemMasonry walls consist of modular building blocks bonded together with mortar to form walls which are structurally most efficient in compression.

The most common types of masonry units are:

● Bricks● Concrete block

Masonry bearing are typically arranged in parallel sets to support wood, steel, or concrete spanning system. It provide strong spatial definition and enclosure, weather protection, and an integral and durable wall finish with a single material.

Mortar :

Used to joint masonry units together, bond reinforcing steel to the masonry, and seal the masonry wall against wind and rain penetration. It consists of Portland or masonry cement, hydrated lime, aggregate, and water.

47

Bricks Bricks are walling units within a length of 337.5mm, a width of 225mm and a height of 112.5mm. Standard size of brick is 215mm x 102.5mm x 65mm.

Types of brick :

● Clay bricks● Calcium silicate bricks ( sand-lime )● Concrete bricks

Dimension :

Special bricks

Types of bricks

48

Brickwork

Running Bond Common Bond Stack Bond

Flemish Bond Dutch Bond English Bond

The simplest pattern which is used in cavity and veneer walls.

Similar to running bond except for a header course at every 5th, 6th or 7th course.

Units do not overlap, longitudinal reinforcement is required in unreinforced walls.

Each course consists of alternating headers & stretchers.

Alternating stretching and heading courses Pattern consist of alternating stretcher and header courses.

49

Types of Mortar JointTooling compresses the mortar and forces it tightly against the mortar and forces it tightly against the mortar. Tooled joints provide maximum protection against water penetration and are recommended in areas subject to high winds or heavy rains. In trowled joints, the mortar is cut or struck off with a towel. The most effective of these is the weathered joint since it shed water. Raked joints are for interior use only.

Jointing :Finish of the mortar joints between bricks that is fairface.

Pointing :Filling mortar joints with a mortar selected for colour and textured to brickwork.

50

Wall finishes

Plastering

Plaster is a wet mixed material applied to internal walls as a finish to fill in any irregularities in the wall surface and to provide a smooth continuous surface suitable for direct decoration.

Painting

Function : To provide an economic method of surface protection and decoration to building materials and components which is easy to clean and maintain.

Wall Tiling

Bedding of internal wall tiles are considered to be inert in the context of moisture and high temperature environment.

Gypsum plaster

Types of tiles :Glazed wall tileCeramic mosaic tileQuarry and Paver tiles

51

Masonry wall

Brick - common clay brick ( 18mm x 98mm x 68mm )

Specific Case Study - On Site

Solid Masonry: Solid masonry walls consists of solid load bearing clay bricks unit. Adjacent wythes in both bearing and nonbearing walls bonded with metal ties.

Stretcher bond/ Running bond is used.

Metal ties Metal ties

Mortar joint :Concave , flush and raked joint are used.

Concave Flush Raked ( Interior only )

52

Masonry wall

Specific Case Study - On Site

First floor plan

Legend :

Internal wall

External wall

Load bearing wall

Non-load bearing wall

53

Construction of Masonry wall1. Preparation2. Laying the bricks3. Filling the leads

Preparationi. Mix the Mortar Mix with water until smooth, plastic-like consistency.

ii. Make a dry run by laying a course of stretcher bricks along the chalk line for the entire length of the wall.

iii. Remove the dry course from the foundation, then throw a mortar line on the foundation.

iv. Furrow the mortar with the point of trowel. Divide the mortar cleanly with the trowel.

54

Construction of Masonry Wall

Laying the bricksi. Lay the first course of stretcher bricks in the mortar. Beginning with the second brick, apply mortar to the head joint end of each brick

ii. Make sure that the head joint thicknesses correspond with your chalk marks.

iii. Throw another mortar line alongside the first course, then begin laying the second, or backup, course.

iv. Before beginning to lay the second, or header, course, cut two bricks to half length.

Vi. Use the two half bricks to begin the second, or header, course.

vii. To finish the second course of the lead, lay three header bricks and make sure that they are plumb and level.

viii. Build another lead on the other end of the foundation. As the mortar begins to set, it is best to stop laying bricks and use a concave jointer to finish the mortar joints.

55

Construction of Masonry Wall

Filling the leads

i. Stretch a mortar's line between the completed leads, then begin laying the outer course. Work from both ends of the wall toward the middle. When you reach the final brick, mortar both sides of it and push it straight down to squeeze the mortar out from the joints.

ii. Move the mortar's line to the back of the wall and begin laying the backup course.

iii. The fifth, or top, course is laid exactly like the first. Move the mason's line up, throw a mortar line, and begin laying the bricks. Apply a generous amount of mortar on the face of each brick, then shove the brick firmly into place

iv. To build a higher wall, simply build more five-course leads at each end of the wall.

vi. Scoop mortar onto the trowel and use the concave jointer to fill in the joints on the top course.

56

Internal Wall Finishes ( Plastering )

Internal wall finishes can be classified as wet or dry. The traditional wet finish is plaster which is mixed and applied to the wall in layers to achieve a smooth and durable finish suitable for decorative treatments such as paint and wallpaper. Most plaster are supplied in 25kg paper sacks and require only the addition of clean water or sand and clean water according to the type of plaster being used.

Process of Application :

1. Preparation

Undercoat - 8mm to 10mm thick (2hrs)Finishing coat - 2mm thick (1 hr )

2. Undercoating 3. Finishing

57

Installation of Porcelain wall tiles

1. Preparation of mortarMix thoroughly the appropriate thinset to a toothpaste consistency.

2. Apply mortar First apply mortar using the flat side of the trowel to promote substrate contact. Then, using the recommended notch trowel at a 45-degree angle, spread the mortar uniformly in a ridged pattern. Continue applying mortar in a straight pattern.

3. Set tilesPress tile into mortar with a slight twisting motion. Check often for uniform lines

4. Spacers It is advisable to use tile spacers to ensure accurate spacing between the tile.

5. Tap down tilesTo prevent any voids or air pockets under the tile, use a grout float or rubber mallet and carefully tap the top of each tile to ensure complete contact with mortar.

6. Allow tiles cure for 24hrs without disturbance.

58

Stairway

Construction designed to bridge a large vertical distance by dividing it into smaller vertical distances, called steps. A set of steps formed or constructed to allow vertical movement, safely, from one level to another, rising in one direction between floors as a straight flight of steps. It is the vertical access between floors in buildings.

General Information - Referencing

Requirements :

● Strength and stability● Ease of use● Fire safety● Control of impact sound● Safety in use● Durability● Aesthetics

Function of staircase :

● Provide circulation between floor levels● Provide a safe travel between floor levels● To allow easy movement ● Important links of building in circulation scheme● A stairways may be approached and departed either axially or

perpendicular to the stairs run.

59

Stairway

General Information - Referencing

Stair terminologyBaluster/Spindle - the vertical member, plain or decorative,that acts as the infill between the handrail and baserail (ortread if cut string).Continuous Handrail - using straight lengths of handrailconnected to handrail fittings and ramps, the handrail flows overthe tops of newel turnings creating a continuous run of handrail.Newel - accommodates the strings, handrails and treads/risersof stairs.Nosing - the edge of the tread projecting beyond the face ofthe riser and the face of a cut string.Rake - the pitch of the stairs.Riser - the board that forms the face of the step. Themaximum individual rise for domestic flights is 220mm.Tread - the top or horizontal surface of a step.Winders - are radiating steps narrower at one end that areused to change the direction of a stairs through 90° or 180°.

60

Stairway

General Information - Referencing

Materials of staircase

1. Bricks stair- Mostly founded in village area- It’s very much easy and less costly- Fire resistive- Consumes more space due to absence of waist slab- Not attractive/ decorative- Mostly used at entrance of the building

2. Stone stair- Stronger compared to the brick stair- Fire resistive- Mostly found in temple areas- Need dressing, skilled masons are required- Less costly except ornamental stones

3. Concrete stair- Widely used in residential and commercial buildings- Strongest compared to all- Fire resistive- Used as permanent staircase- Can be moulded in various shapes

4. Wooden stair- Mostly temporary used- Less costly- Afraid of fire hazard- Easy to construct- Least strong among all

5. Metal/Steel stair- Strong and ductile- High cost- Commercial purpose- High load carrying capacity- Less thick

61

Stairway

General Information - Referencing

Stair Plan types

(a)Straight flight stairs with or without intermediate landing

(b) Straight flight stairs

(c) Quarter-turn stairs

(d) Half-turn stairs

(e) Branching stairs

(f) Open-well (half-turn) stairs

(g) Open-well stairs with quarter-turn landing

(h) Part-circular stairs

(i) Spiral stairs

(j) Helicoidal stairs

62

Stairway

Specific case study - On SiteOpen riser steel stairs ( timber covered )Consists of no handrails and risers so that there is a space between the treads, with treads overlapping each other by at least 16mm ( not suitable for disable used , but had been solved by an elevator ).

● Steel staircase ( 16mm(T) steel plate with 6nos of 10 mm diameter anchor stud )

● Timber flooring ( Solid Merbau ) ● Rise 176mm● No opening which will allow 100mm diameter sphere to pass through ● Each steps overlap 16mm● No handrail

Section drawing

63

Stairway - stair plan type

Specific case study - On Site

L-shaped / Quarter landingThe L shaped stair is a variation of the straight stair with a bend in some portion of the stair. This bend is usually achieved by adding a landing at the bend transition point. The bend is often 90 degrees.

First floor plan

Advantages :Visually interesting. Provide a visual barrier between floors, have better privacy. Helps in sound transmission. The landing provides a place to rest while ascending.

Disadvantages :Harder to build. Handrails required more skill to construct.

Applied on every floors except 2nd floor.25 number of steps.

64

Stairway - stair plan typesSpecific case study - On Site

Straight RunRises from floor to floor in one direction with/without an intermediate landing . Physically tiring & psychologically forbidding. 12’ max between landing.

Second floor plan

Advantages :Easiest to go up and down. Easy to built. Straight stairs only need to be connected at the top and the bottom(no intermediate supporting structure is required)

Disadvantages :Used up a fair amount of linear space. Does not offer privacy. Required landing to breakup the span.

GARDEN STAIRCASE Riser: 171.43mm (21 nos.of riser) Tread: 300mm

2nd floor stairway Riser : 171.43mm Tread : 300mm (21 nos. of steps

65

DOORS & WINDOWS

Doors and windows are very special components of walls. Doors and doorways provide approach from the outside into the interior of a building as well as passage between interior spaces. Doorways should have large spaces which allow people to move through easily and accommodate the moving of furnishings and equipment. Doorways should be located so that the patterns of movement they create between and within spaces are appropriate to the uses and activities housed by the spaces.

Windows allow for simultaneous control of the passage of light, air, and sight through walls. There are various sizes of windows which affects not only the physical appearance of a building, but also the natural lightning, view potential and spatial quality of the building’s interior spaces.

Materials of the Doors

•60mm Solid Nyatoh Door

•40mm Nyatoh Core with Nyatoh Plywood

•40mm Nyatoh Core with Waterproof Board Plywood

•40mm Nyatoh Frame with Nyatoh Louvers

•Timber door frame with hardwood Red Balau

•Sub frame with Keranji

Nyatoh Door

Characteristic of Nyatoh Door

● a trade name for the wood of a number of hardwood species.

● pale pinkish or reddish wood.● commonly discovered in Philippines, Indonesia or India.● low-cost● Is relatively soft wood compared to most exotic

hardwoods

Advantage of Nyatoh wood

● To effectively tackle climate change we must remove carbon from the atmosphere as well as reduce net carbon emissions into the atmosphere. Wood manages to achieve both of these.

● Exposure to wooden furniture and fittings has real and measurable health and wellbeing benefits. It helps lower heart rate and stress responses and encourages greater interaction between people.

● Wood itself is a natural insulator due to air pockets within its cellular structure. ● It is consistently the most cost-effective source.● Wood is naturally beautiful and aesthetically pleasing.

Disadvantage using Nyatoh wood

● reported to cause irritation to mucous membranes● faces a risk of extinction in the wild● doesn't have much natural resistance to rot or insects and deteriorates rapidly if left outdoors

without the protection of a finish.● Wood is a hygroscopic material. This means that it will adsorb surrounding condensable vapors and

loses moisture to air below the fiber saturation point.

General Information - Referencing

67

Construction ProcessAs shown in the illustration below, panel doors are made from a framework of stiles and rails that hold wood panels. This construction method is common because it minimizes the effects of wood’s tendency to shrink, warp, and swell with variations in humidity.

Sub Frame System

Consists of a sub frame and a main frame.

● The sub-frame is installed at the early stage of construction. The installation of the main frame will only commence after the completion of the internal trades.

● Sub frame is fabricated with a smaller width (about 10mm) than the main frame to allow adjustment for any misalignment.

The advantages of sub frame system are:

● Prevent damages to the main frame and save cost and time from undesirable abortive works.● No staining of door frame by cement mortar and paint.

68

Types of the windows used on the siteSpecific Case Study - On Sitea) fixed glass windowsb) top hung windows

Fixed Glass Windows-A window that cannot opened-function is limited to allowing light to enter-no ventilation is possible-maintaining the ambient temperature inside the house-Designed mainly for providing view and for aesthetics purposes

Top Hung Windows-the sash is connected by friction stays at the top of the window frame-Designed mainly for providing view, admitting light and allowing for natural ventilation-Allows airflow through almost the entire area of the window opening

69

Aluminium Frame Glass Windows

Aluminium Frame Glass Window is the only window that has been built on the site.

Advantages of using aluminium:-Aluminium has a high strength-to-weight ratio, meaning it is durable yet lightweight.-Aluminium naturally generates a protective oxide coating and is highly corrosion resistant.-Completely impermeable and lets neither light aroma or taste substances out.-Achieve the highest standard for air and water infiltration and structural integrity.-provides architecture, theme-matching and color flexibility advantages. Disadvantages of using aluminium:-Aluminium doors will oxidate. This oxidation appears as white residue and pitting (cavity).-Aluminium can be water-stained easily.-Aluminium can corrode quickly if suitable precautions against electrolysis are not taken.-Welding of Aluminium requires specialized equipment and training compared to standard welding of steel.

70

Installation of the window main frame

Methods of installing the window on siteA) Cast-in Window SystemB) Sub- Frame System

A) Cast-in Window SystemThe implementation of cast-in window system requires coordination between the window fabricator and the precaster.

Proper handling and protection are important throughout the precast process, delivery and erection of the precast wall panels. Protection of the frames should remain intact throughout the construction phase to avoid physical damages to the frames, which could be costly to rectify or replace.

B) Sub-Frame System The sub-frame system comprises a subframe which is either cast in or anchored to the wall. The main frame is then installed onto the subframe at a much later stage of the construction.

1. Position the subframe using aluminium plates and ride up block.

2. Insertion of stiffeners near the anchoring/bolting points

3.Sealing of anchor/bolt heads and joints between external wall and subframe.

4.Fitting the main frame onto sub-frame.

71

Definition

Roof can be defined as the external upper covering of a house or other building, a frame for supporting, the highest part or summit. Besides, it also defined as something that in form or position resembles the roof of a house, as the top of a car, the upper part of the mouth and etc. It also can be a noun that refers to a house.

7.1. GENERAL INFO (REFERENCES)7.1.1. TYPES OF ROOFGable roof designs are one of the more simple styles when it comes to roofs. The gable roof style looks like an inverted/upside down V. Gable roofs are not ideal for areas with high wind because they easily can catch the wind much like a sail would.

Flat roofs are common especially with commercial buildings. Flat roofs are definitely the most simple roof to build because they have little to no pitch. The most common types of roofing systems used with flat roofs are rubber roofing systems.

Hip roofs are a common residential style roof. This type of roof is more difficult to construct when compared to flat roofs and gable roofs because they have a more complicated truss and rafter structure. A hip roof style roof has four sloping sides with zero vertical roof lines/walls. Hip roofs can be both square and rectangular.

Gambrel roof is best descript as barn roof. It is most commonly used on barns. However, it is also used in residential construction. This type of roof has the benefit of providing a good amount of space in the attic. In fact, it provides so much extra space that it is often turned into bedrooms or other living areas.

Dutch hip roof is basically a hip roof with a small gable at either end. The gables can be used as ventilation.

Shed roof is basically a flat roof but has more pitch. It is frequently used for additions on homes or other roof styles.

73

Mansard roof is a french design and is more difficult to construct than the hip or gable roof.

Butterfly roof is not a roof style that is widely used.The style provides plenty of light and ventilation but is not the effective when it comes to water drainage.

Winged gable roof varies slightly from the tradition gable roof. It varies by extended outwards from the peak of the roof.

Frame roof is very popular for churches, cottages, homes, and other structures. The roof acts as both the roof and the walls for a structure.

Folded plate roof has limited use in single family homes. It looks like a series of small gable roofs placed side by side of each other.

ROOF MATERIALSAsphalt shingles are the most commonly used steep slope/residential roofing material used on roofs in the United States. Asphalt shingles vary in quality and are produced by multiple manufacturers.

Wood shake shingle is the inspiration for the modern day asphalt shingles. Similar to the asphalt shingle, the wood shake overlaps each other making the roof or siding weather proof. A down side to shake is that they often need more maintenance than newer asphalt or fiberglass shingles. An upside to shake the unique rustic look they give to a structure.

Slate shingles are created out of a sedimentary rock. This rock can be split into thin sheets that are ideal for roofing shingles.

Metal is a very common material used for roofs. There are many different types of metal roofing systems available. The types of metal used with available systems varies from zinc to steel, copper, aluminum, and tin.

Membrane roofing products are used on flat roofs. Some of the various brands or variations of rubber roofs are modified bitumen, thermoplastic membrane, epdm, single ply, tpo, cpa, cpe, nbp, and others.

Tile is one of the more expensive materials used for roofs. Although the traditional clay tile is probably the most well known tile material it is not the only one. Other materials that are used to create tile products are metal, concrete, slate, and various synthetic compositions.

74

FROM SITE VISIT

7.2.1. SITEThe site we visited is an A 4-storey semi-detached house, which is located in Wilayah Persekutuan Putrajaya, Malaysia. The project name is Astana P8. The proposed construction and completion is 56 units landed strata 2 ½ and 3 ½ storey residential, a recreation centre, a connection park, infrastructure work and other associated works at plot 8-4G, precinct 8 Putrajaya.

7.2.2. ROOF ON SITEThe roof type on the site, ASTANA　 P8, the 4-storey semi-detached house, is metal deck roof.

7.3. METAL ROOF DECK7.3.1. INTRODUCTIONMetal Roof Deck is designed for flat, pitched, or arched construction on virtually all types of buildings. Roof deck is commonly used because it is strong, light in weight, economical, and easy to install.

7.3.2. TYPES1.Type “A” Roof Deck is a 1 1/2" deep, narrow rib, structural metal roof deck section that provides a wide support surface for various types of roofing materials, and thinner rigid insulation. Roof deck products act alone in transferring horizontal and vertical loads into the building frame, and do not work compositely with other building materials. Type A metal roofing deck is available in 22, 20, 18, and 16 gauge with either a galvanized (G60 or G90) finish or prime painted (gray or white) to inhibit rust while in transit (primer is not a finish coat). Material is typically in stock in 20 gauge, G90 or Gray Primer in 36” cover width.

2.Type “B” Roof Deck is a 1 1/2" deep, wide rib, structural metal roof deck section that provides a support surface for various types of roofing materials, and 1” or thicker rigid insulation. Roof deck products act alone in transferring horizontal and vertical loads into the building frame, and do not work compositely with other building materials. Type B metal roofing deck is available in 24, 22, 20, 18, & 16 gauge with either a galvanized (G60 or G90) finish or prime painted (gray or white) to inhibit rust while in transit (primer is not a finish coat). Material is typically in stock in 22, 20 & 18 gauge, G60, G90 or Gray Primer in 36” width.

Specific case study - On Site

75

3.Type “F” Roof Deck is a 1 1/2" deep, intermediate rib metal roof deck that provides an economical roofing system of structural load carrying capacity and roofing insulation materials. Roof deck products act alone in transferring horizontal and vertical loads into the building frame, and do not work compositely with other building materials. Type F Metal Roof Deck is available in 22, 20, & 18 gauge with either a galvanized (G60 or G90) finish or prime painted (gray or white) to inhibit rust while in transit (primer is not a finish coat). Material is typically in stock in 22 & 20 gauge, G90 or Gray Primer in 36” cover width.

4.Type “N” Roof Deck is a 3" tall, deep rib metal roof deck, that is designed to provide an economical roofing support surface when longer spans are required between roofing supports. Roof deck products act alone in transferring horizontal and vertical loads into the building frame, and do not work compositely with other building materials. Type N Metal Roof Deck is available in 22, 20, 18, & 16 gauge with either a galvanized (G60 or G90) finish or prime painted (gray or white) to inhibit rust while in transit (primer is not a finish coat). Material is typically in stock in 20 & 18 gauge, G60 or Gray Primer in 24” cover width.

76

CONSTRUCTION PROCESS

1. Pre Start: Prior to commencement of deck installation, a system of fall protection and safe access must be in place.

2.Weather conditions: Decking bundles should not be opened if all the sheets in the bundle cannot be fixed or left in a safe condition at the end of the shift. Consideration must be given during periods of bad weather and any unfixed sheets should be secured at the end of each day by using a temporary strap secured to the frame or decking.

3.Supporting structure: Fixings the minimum bearing requirements for the decking are 50mm on steelwork (this is increased to 60mm where sheets are to receive thru deck welded shear studs) and 70mm on masonry or concrete.

4.Access to Level: Wherever possible the decking installation should be planned to commence from the corner of a building or phase, so that the number of leading edges are limited.

5.Laying decking sheets: Using the access provided, the installer should straddle the first bundle of decking to remove the banding. The first decking sheet will then be pushed out onto the steelwork to be used as a working platform from which to lay the remaining sheets in that bay. Decking sheets should then be lapped together, lined up and fixed into place once the adjacent bay has been laid and the troughs of the decking have been lined through.

77

6.Cutting / Notching: Decking sheets are detailed to be delivered to site at the correct square cut length. Where decking ribs sit over beams that are to receive welded shear studs, around columns and other protrusions, notching is required. This should be carried out by trained operatives using petrol driven disc cutters with appropriate blade or plasma cutters.

7.Decking fixings: Fixing of the deck and edge trim to the supporting steelwork will be carried out using low velocity powder actuated cartridge tools ('shot firing') or in certain circumstances using self-tapping screws.

8.Side Laps: The side laps of decking sheets are stitched together using self--tapping screws, installed with 110v screw guns, provided to side laps at maximum 1.00m centers.

9.Sealing and finishing off: Gaps up to 5mm are acceptable as they are not sufficient to allow concrete aggregate to escape. Note: The decking is not intended to provide a watertight finish and a degree of fines and water seepage can be expected from the panel ends and joints.

10.Edge trims: Generally supplied in 3.00m standard lengths, each length should be fixed at the perimeter and straps fixed at centers as indicated in Edge Trim & Flashings section with self-tapping screws.

11.Forming holes and openings: Where trimming steels are provided, the decking sheets may be cut to suit the size of the opening and edge trim installed. Where there is no supporting steelwork the voids will need to be decked over. The opening should then be formed by the concreting contractor who will box out the opening prior to pouring the concrete.

Some types of openings require no special treatment. Prior to placing of concrete the opening is boxed out. When the slab has cured the deck is cut by others, using a non-percussive tool.

78

We are appreciate that Ar. Sateerah Hassan assisted us to choose the site and arranged the time for us to have a meet up with the person in charge of the site in the chosen construction site. Furthermore, we also get to know about the profession skill of architects, project manager, and contractor in the during the construction, not only that we also have an brief idea about the job scope of each professionals that take part in construction project. We learnt the importance of doing construction drawings , finding relevant data about structures in a design process, which is a complex work to do and need long time to complete the tasks. Through this project we learnt the process how does an design idea translated into reality. Teamwork among each members in this group is also the key to complete this project efficiently. Last but not least, we felt lucky to have an opportunity to visit a site which is under construction to enhance our knowledge of building construction.

80

SITE & SAFETY2016. (2016, March 18). What is a steam roller? (with pictures). Retrieved April 19, 2016, from http://www.wisegeek.com/what-is-a-steam-roller.htmAustralia, S. W. (2014). General guide for Scaffolds and scaffolding work. Retrieved 15 May 2016, from http://www.safeworkaustralia.gov.au/sites/SWA/about/Publications/Documents/865/Scaffolds-Scaffolding-Work-General-Guide.pdfBackhoe Loader. (n.d.). Retrieved 27 April 2016, from http://img.directindustry.com/images_di/photo-g/40329-4460141.jpgCAT Excavator. (n.d.). Retrieved 26 April 2016, from http://174.120.222.34/~bihmequi/wp-content/uploads/Excavators-324EL-2.jpgChudley, R., Greeno, R., Chudley, R., & Greeno, R. (2010). Building construction handbook (7th ed.). Oxford: Butterworth-Heinemann.Concrete pumps and concrete pumping information - the concrete network. Retrieved April 26, 2016, from http://www.concretenetwork.com/concrete/concrete_pumping/Earplug. (n.d.). Retrieved 27 April 2016, from https://nsprod.blob.core.windows.net/article/Protect-workers--hearing-with-the-world-s-most-popular-polyurethane-foam-ear-plug-_16000681_800602328_0_0_14035179_300.jpgFire ABC. (n.d.). Retrieved 27 April 2016, from https://fireextinguisherdepot.com/media/catalog/product/cache/1/thumbnail/600x/17f82f742ffe127f42dca9de82fb58b1/a/b/abc_10lb.jpgFirst Aid. (n.d.). Retrieved 27 April 2016, from http://img.allw.mn/content/www/2010/01/top-10-first-aid-kits/Softsided-First-Aid-Kit-piece_top-first-aid-kits.jpgInc, B. H. (2009, November 26). What is excavator? How excavator works? Retrieved April 19, 2016, from http://www.brighthubengineering.com/structural-engineering/57382-how-an-excavator-works/http://www.dosh.gov.my/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=1563:occupational-accidents-statistics-by-sector-until-december-2015&catid=522&Itemid=1370&lang=enKenya Hire Concrete Mixer Truck. (n.d.). Retrieved 27 April 2016, from http://equiphirekenya.com/images/slider2/Concrete-Mixer-Truck.jpgEXTERNAL WORKChudley, R., Greeno, R., Chudley, R., & Greeno, R. (2010). Building construction handbook (7th ed.). Oxford: Butterworth-Heinemann.Designing Buildings Wiki The construction industry knowledge base. (n.d.). Retrieved May 26, 2016, from http://www.designingbuildings.co.uk/wiki/External_works#Minor_building_works_and_ancillary_buildings Basic Setting Out of a Building. (2009). Retrieved May 26, 2016, from https://warunathejana.wordpress.com/2009/05/29/basic-setting-out-of-a-building/External Works Information. (n.d.). Retrieved May 26, 2016, from http://www.theconstructioncentre.co.uk/products/external-works/ Construction Technology , Level Two Part 1, by R.L.Fullerton Excavation Construction. (n.d.). Retrieved May 26, 2016, from http://wollamconstruction.com/excavation-construction/ WORK PROCEDURE - EXCAVATION -Civil Engineering Home. (2010). Retrieved May 26, 2016, from http://theconstructor.org/practical-guide/work-procedure-excavation/1632/ FOUNDATIONPILE FOUNDATION SELECTION BASED ON SOIL DATA. (2014). Retrieved May 19, 2016, from http://theconstructor.org/geotechnical/pile-foundation-selection-based-on-soil-conditions/9461/Piling Method. (n.d.). Retrieved May 20, 2016, from http://site.jackinpile.com.my/main/3129/index.asp?pageid=76698Types of Foundation and Methods of Construction of Foundation. (n.d.). Retrieved May 19, 2016, from http://www.aboutcivil.org/foundation-types-construction-methods.htmlPILE INSTALLATION METHODS -Civil Engineering Home. (2010). Retrieved May 18, 2016, from http://theconstructor.org/geotechnical/pile-instalation-methods/1812/Deep foundation.types and design. (n.d.). Retrieved May 20, 2016, from http://www.slideshare.net/sashadurrani/deep-foundationtypes-and-designSUPERSTRUCTURETypes of Stairs. (n.d.). Retrieved May 20, 2016, from https://www.keuka-studios.com/types-of-stairs/TYPES AND DESIGN OF STAIRCASES. (n.d.). Retrieved May 20, 2016, from http://www.engineeringcivil.in/2016/02/types-and-design-of-stair-cases.htmlTypes of wall materials. (n.d.). Retrieved May 20, 2016, from http://www.build.com.au/types-wall-materialsGorse, C. A. (2012). Barry's introduction to construction of buildings (2nd ed.). Singaore: Ho printing Singapore Pte.Ching, F. D. (1991). Building Construction Illustrated (2nd ed.). Canada: John Wiley & Sons,Inc.R. C. (2010). Building Construction Handbook (8th ed.). UK: Elsevier.Types of Construction. (n.d.). Retrieved May 24, 2016, from http://oer.nios.ac.in/wiki/index.php/Types_of_ConstructionDOORS & WINDOWSHttps://www.bca.gov.sg/professionals/iquas/. (n.d.). Retrieved May 25, 2016.Allen, E., Thallon, R., & Iano, J. (2011). Fundamentals of residential construction. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley.Chudley, R., & Greeno, R. (2004). Building construction handbook. Oxford: Elsevier Butterworth-Heinemann.http://inspectapedia.com/Energy/Vertical_Glazing_Repair.php. (n.d.). Retrieved May 25, 2016.http://www.arcadiainc.com/products/system/WindowHardware/WindowSubframes. (n.d.). Retrieved May 25, 2016.Huntington, W.C, Mickadeit, R. E., & Cavanaugh, W. (1981). Building construction: Materials and types of construction. New York: Wiley. ROOFThe American Heritage® Idioms Dictionary (2002, 2001, 1995 ) - Roof - dictionary.com - retrieved on 17th May 2016 from http://www.dictionary.com/browse/roofRoofpedia (2016) - Types of Roof - roofpedia.com - retrieved on 17th May 2016 from http://roofpedia.com/roof-types/MetalDeckDirect (2010) - Roof Deck - metaldeckdirect.com - retrieved on 17th May 2016 from http://www.metaldeckdirect.com/index_RoofDeck.htmStructural Metal Decks Limited (2013) - Metal Decking Specialist - smdltd.co.uk - retrieved on 17th May 2016 from http://smdltd.co.uk/wp-content/uploads/2014/12/SMD_Technical_Manual.pdf

81