b-adrenergic receptors(Allosteric?) Feedback/feed forward inhibition vs competitive/non competitive vs. reversible/nonreversibleCREBChaperone protein that is in a barrel. keeps proteins in their shape before and afterLDH vs troponins I and TLiver cell integrity - ALT to AST = settings[]; ALT > AST in damage unless alcohol/cirrhosisBiliary excretory function of the liver - ALP and GGT. ALP also in bone, so when both elevated, bile duct obstruction/damage.ALP-1 bile duct = settings[]; ALP-2 bone.Serum alpha-amylase and pancreatic lipase - damage to the pancreas. Lipase/amylase >2 for ethanol-inducedalpha fetoprotein (AFP) for liver = settings[]; found in fetus instead of albumin.

A patient is rushed to the ER with an aortic aneurysm. Long limbs lenses of eyes dislocated. Connective tissue disorder.a. Defect in the formation of cross-links between tropoelastin moleculesb Lack of hydroxylated lysine and proline residuesc. Mutation in fibrillin-1d. Defect in lysyl oxidase, which reduces allysine residues

Klippel-FeilVACTERL2-mercaptoethanol and bME - break disulfide bondsSDS - breaks hydrophobic interactionsUrea and salts break hydrogen bondsAcids/bases break ionic bondsSpectrin and Ankyrin

Glutamic acid is mutated to valine in Sickle cell disease at point six in the betal chain.Lysyl hydroxylase and prolyl hydroxylase

Adrenergic-Adrenergic

GQactivationPLCbreakPIP2IP3 +DAG PKCupregulationGSactivationACcAMPPKAupregulationHistologyPancreatic cellsStriated duct, serous, mucousMacula adherensSatellite cellsExudateTransudateMonoblast

Gallbladder - simple columnar

Vagus NerveBranches into the pharyngeal nerveStimulates parietal cells to secrete intrinsic factor for Vitamin B12 absorption.Postganglionic parasympatheticPhrenic NerveSympathetic to the diaphragm

2/109A 69 year old woman complains of weakness in her arm. Muscle testing reveals weakness of the muscles in the extensor compartment of her arm but all other muscles are normal. CT angiography reveals atherosclerosis (narrowing) of the artery supplying the extensor compartment. Which artery has become occluded?A. SubclavianB. Deep brachialC. AxillaryD. BrachialE. Ulnar

Answer: D

40/109A 58 year old female is diagnosed witha number ofsmall growths in the posterior mediastinum. During surgery to resect thegrowths the surgeon realises that one of themon the body of a thoracic vertebra has involved one of therami communicans.If it is a white ramus that is involved, which nerve fibres are at risk oftrauma during the resection?A. Preganglionic sympatheticB. Postganglionic sympatheticC. Preganglionic parasympatheticD. Preganglionic sympathetic and visceral afferentE. Postganglionic sympathetic and visceral afferent

Answer: D

45/109A59 year old man undergoes radiographic examination to assess arthritic changes in his vertebral column. The radiologist notes osteophytes (bony outgrowths) in some of his cervical intervertebral foramina, especially theforamenbetweenC7 and T1. Which spinal nerve will be impinged upon by the osteophytes in this foramen?A. C5B. C6C. C7D .C8E. T1

Answer: D

59/109A quick way to identifytheindividual intercostal spaces is to use the sternal angle (of Louis), which is located at thelevel of the 2nd costal cartilages, and count down from there. The sternal angle lies at the level of which intervertebral disc?A. T1-2B. T2-3C. T3-4D. T4-5E. T5-6

Answer: C

101/109A neonate is born in a severely cyanotic state. Imaging studies reveal that the patient is suffering from the most common cause of congenital cyanotic heart disease. Whichis that cause?A. Tetrology of FallowB. Transposition of the great arteriesC. Atrial septal defectD. Ventricular septal defectE. Pulmonary stenosis

Answer: B

Describe in general the composition of the ECM related to fibrous proteins (name two), specialized proteins and gel-forming group. The ECM contains also the gel-forming group of proteoglycans.Type I: skin, bone, and tendon, cornea Type II: cartilage, inter-vertebral disk and vitreous body Type III: blood vessels, and fetal skin Ehlers-Danlos syndromes is a heterogeneous group of disorders due to hereditary defects of collagen synthesis. The biochemical defect can be a mutation of the pro- chain gene, most clinically important mutations are found in the gene for Type III collagen which can lead to lethal vascular problems.The buffer capacity is highest at the pKa.What happens to the -amino acid or a modified -amino acid when it is used to form biological active amines?

Biological active amines are formed by decarboxylation of the carboxyl group.

[this process needs pyridoxal phosphate (PLP from vitamin B6) as cofactor and patients with this vitamin deficiency show less formation of biological active amines. PLP is needed for formation e.g. of histamine, GABA, serotonin]Nitric oxide is formed from arginine via nitric oxide synthase.1.8 DNA turns for histones11 nm fiber - beads on a string.30 nm - chromatin fiber10 bases per turn at 0.34 nm between bases = 3.4 nm per turn.B-Normal (right hand) = settings[]; Z - Alternating purine/pyrimidine (left hand) = settings[]; A - denydrated3.6 residues per turn for alpha helicesWhat is the advantage to synthesize a larger precursor protein for eventual formation of short peptide hormones?

Peptide hormones are very powerful. It is necessary that they are only formed when needed and contain the correct amino acid sequence. The process of synthesis of a larger protein precursor is under genetic control and prevents formation of a faulty peptide hormone. mannose/mannose 6-phosphate

HistologyErythrocytes - 43% of blood volume.Osteoblasts - Build bone. Parathyroid hormone (PTH) increases bone resorption and calcium release through osteoblasts (osteoclasts don't have receptors for PTH).

Osteoclasts - Increase calcium content. Has calcitonin receptors to inhibit activity.

Osteocytes - In lacunae.Ribosomes formed in the nucleolus.Claudin - tight junctionZonula adherens - Cadherin, Ca2+Desmosomes - Intermediate filaments, desmocollin, desmogleinHemidesmosomes - IntegrinMyeloperoxidase - neutrophilsBlood stem cell - pluripotentProerythroblast --> basophilic erythroblast --> polychromatophilic erythroblast --> orthochromatophilicerythroblast --> reticulocyte --> mature red blood cellCilia - 9 + 2 doublets. Basal body - 9 triplets.

Myeloperoxidase is an enzyme most closely associated with:A. NeutrophilsB. EosinophilsC. BasophilsD. LymphocytesE. Monocytes

ANSWER: A

The single type of stem cell in the bone marrow from which all blood cells arise is called aA. Multipotential stem cellB. Omnipotential stem cellC. Colony forming unit (CFU)D. Progenitor (blast) cellE. Pluripotential stem cell

ANSWER: E

A shift to the left is a term used whenA. Eosinophil production exceeds neutrophil production in the bone marrowB. Monocyte production becomes greater than lymphocyte productionC. Very large numbers of immature erythrocytes enter the circulating bloodD. Large numbers of immature neutrophils (band cells) appear in the circulating bloodE. The red marrow is converted to yellow marrow

ANSWER: D

Which of the following pairs of hormones are mainly involved in controlling pancreatic exocrinesecretions?A. Insulin and glucagonB. Secretin and cholecystokininC. Somatostatin and gastrinD. Motilin and serotoninE. Glucagon and somatostatinANSWER: B

Which of the following is not produced by an enteroendocrine cell?A. ReninB. CholecystokininC. GastrinD. Vasoactive intestinal polypeptideE. SecretinANSWER: A

94. Collagen is A. The most abundant protein in the body. B. Assembled extracellularly. C. Composed of the amino acid, glycine, which makes up about one third of its amino acids. D. altered in patients with long term, low Vitamin C intake.

63. When comparing primary bone verses secondary bone A. Primary bone has an irregular array of collagen fibers whereas secondary bone has collagen fibers arranged in lamellae. B. Primary bone has a lower proportion of osteocytes per unit area than secondary bone. C. Primary bone has a higher mineral content than secondary bone. D. Primary bone can be found only in embryos and not in adults: secondary bone can be found in adults. E. All of the statements are correct.

Answer: A

95. The lamina propria is a specialized type of A. Loose connective tissue. B. Dense irregular connective tissue. C. Dense regular connective tissue. D. Reticular connective tissue. E. Mucoid connective tissue.

Answer: A

101. The nuclear envelope A. Is made up of two unit membranes. B. Is supported internally by intermediate filaments. C. Disappears during metaphase. D. Is studded on the outside by polyribosomes. E. Has all of the above features. Answer: E

103. Which of the following statements about intercellular junctions is TRUE? A. The maculae adherens forms a band completely surrounding the cell. B. The primary function of the gap junction is structural support. C. Desmosomes allow for the passage of small molecules between cells. D. Intracellular actin filaments insert into attachment plaques at the zonula adherens. E. Cadherins are primarily responsible for attaching cells to the extracelluar matrix.

Answer: D

AnatomyKidneys develop from the sacral level62 spinal nervesEndometrium conceptus - Decidua parietalisGranulosa cells of cumulus oophoricus turns into the corona radiataMajor calyces derived from the lower part of the dorsal mesogastrium

Histology:The thymus is composed of T cells, epithelial reticular cells and some macrophages. The thymus consists of a cortex and medulla with no germinal centers. Immature T cells arefound at the edges of the cortex. As they mature, they migrate deeper into the cortex and eventually leave as mature naive T-Cells through the venules of the medulla. In the lymph node, the cortex is made of primary follicles of resting B-cells and secondary follicles with germinal centers. The germinal centers are where B-cells are undergoing cloal expansion after binding antigen and receiving T-cell help. Most T-cells are located deeper in the cortex. Antigen-stimulated helper T-cells are formed when antigen is presented to them by dendritic (and possibly macrophages), deep in the cortex. B cells also bind their antigen in this region. B cells entering the lymph node travel through the cortex to a follicle. If they have bound antigen in the cortex, they attract antigen-stimulated T helper cells to the follicle, where T-cell help occurs. T-cell help in the spleen occurs in the periarteriolar lymphatic sheath (PALS). Close to, if not touching, the PALS are follicles of resting B-cells, a clone of which may give rise to a germinal center upon proper stimulation.

What is the purpose of de novo fatty acid synthesis? Where in the body does it take place? Where in the cell does it take place? Is there a regulated step? What is special?The fatty acid de novo synthesis takes place mainly in the liver and lactating mammary gland. The synthesis takes place in the cytosol, mitochondria are however needed to form citrate. There is a regulated step catalyzed by acetyl CoA carboxylase. It is special that malonyl CoA is formed in the regulated step and that many malonyl CoAs are then used by the FA synthase complex. Free palmitate is released which needs to be activated to palmitoyl CoA as palmitate itself has detergent character.

Carnitine is a molecule derived from amino acids (lysyl residue of a specific protein then methylation using S-adenosylmethionine, SAM).

Please work on the last three objectives for these lectures on your own. Prepare a concept map indicating the steps involved in the generation of ketosis in starvation and uncontrolled type I diabetes mellitus.Correlate laboratory data in ketoacidosis (laboratory data in blood and urine) to the clinical signs in the patient = settings[]; include hyperventilation.Explain the biochemical basis of occurrence of hypoglycemia and hypoketosis in the systemic fatty acid oxidation disorders [the liver gets back most of the bile acids/salts, but it does not get back the phosphatidylcholine. That is why in the liver, phosphatidylcholine is not only synthesized using dietary choline, but is also formed by 3x methylation of phosphatidylethanolamine using SAM]

How to differentiate components of nephroncorticomedullary vs medullary extra vs intra vs JG cellshow to distinguish bronchi section slidesnail bed / hair appendage??which lobes are clinically relevant of prostate??layers of tunica vaginalis???male / female epithelia???tunical albuginea??smooth muscle is coupled with cuboidal epitheliumAlveolar duct to sac-> knobs THICK VS THIN partschromophores- stem cellsmelanin lies on top of nucleusfine touch in which layer?? layerdeep touch granulosum lamina bodies aka membrane coating granules are in skin to give hydrophobic naturePeg cell cilliated are present for fallopian tube. contrast ciliated vs flat cell surfacespeg cell functions to nutrion to ovum, help spermdo cilliated cells increase / decrease??PARS convoluta- mostly PCT/DCTPCT is dirty lumen, less acidophilic PCT is microvilliPCT / DCT is 6:1 at least in DCT is closely arranged

PARS recta

PCTis like desendingDCT is like thick asc

medulla divides where thin vs thickthick is cortex

COLUMN OF BERTINI?!?

BULGING NUCLEUS

VASA recta find out differentials

nephron goes from glomerulus to DCT

collecting duct is shared and makes up uniferous tubule

lobule is half of pars convoluta on both sideslobe is pyramid plus cortex

True lumen in infundibulum of fallopian tube, can always trace to center

FSH differentiates something primordial to primary oocytes (at puberty)

VAS DEFFERENS: 3 well defined SMC layers inner long mid circsmall lumen, epithelium is simple cuboidal

GIVES EJACULATORY FORCE

URETER has

mammary glandactive when minimal stroma lots of secretionfat in both

B is in white pulp of spleen

OPEN CIRCRBC is disposed in white flex can squeeze throughold stale / sickle get stuck / phagocytized

What is little/literal cells elongated epithelium

T is

Hassals corpusc- calcified ERC?? only in medulla ENDOTHELIA-reticular cells

placenta tertiary layers??

21st day have tertiary??fertilzation

trophoblast has both layers mesosomething with fetus

where does HCG come from??

HCG maintains corpus leuteum to synthesize progesterone until

placenta has well defined outter layer and internal blood vessels with meso in betweenthis is tertiary dev of placenta'

thin skin looks like pseudostratisfied

pylosebaceous hair glandmyopithelium / arrector pilli musclehair follicle

eccrine is straight to skin

stratified cuboidal is only going to be sweat glandapocrine gland is not apocrine secretion, actually merocrineejects into sweat gland

Only active after puberty that's why you start stinking

secretory portion is lighter

weird donuts rbc is tunica albugenea

tunica propria is

leydig are known is interstitilal cells between tunical layers

ovum and follicular cells use glycoproteins to prevent multi-sperm

glycocalyx of basement menbrane / podocytes will stain PAS

reticular fibers allow for volume accomodation

GERMINAL CENTERS (b cell)= secondary tissue, inner cortex questions on

light colored area is sinus of medulla

thing that looks like glomerulus is actually mamary gland

stereocilia reabsorbs, it's much like microvilli

activin vs inhibin

FSH action on secondary oocytes / vs after ovulation

acts on fllicular cells

LH -> THeca internal cells??germinal epithelium is cuboidal, functionlessCilliated pseuostratified with stereocilliaT cells are perilymphatic sheethlitteral chords of ERC / eccrine sweat gland has stratified cuboidal / columnarishdark / clear / myoeductal portion exretory or apocrineparacortex T cell in viral infectionhumoral outercortexLayers

renal corpuscleinternadensa??????? vera laminaexternadermischeck out lymph tonsil pharyngeal has mix stratifiedno cryptslingual has shallow crypts mucuspalatine crpyts have descimatedchief- parathyroid, darkoxyphil- uknowinnreticular layer mostly type Imerckels -stratum basalevibrationpusceles- vibration, deeppapillary- loose for vascularity CHECK OUT PROSTATE

citrate acidlipidproteolyticwhiteprostate yellow sugar mucouslipochromepilosebaceous unitphases of Uterus during cyclemid 40's slidessecretoryprogesteronelutealglycerophospho something to mature sperm70false lumenactivated by testosteronechromophobes- unknown or stem or dying reverts corneaABCDElunglymph tissueslensFNH final review

1 Sertoli cells anndd continuous capillary2 B3 E4 D5 A E6 Afferent vessel capsular border subcapsular sinus intermediate medullary sinus hillum efferent vesselDc7 C8 a9 b10 e11 b12 b13d14c A15 b16 d A17 c18 b A19 b20 c E21 B 22 b C23 a24 Ciliary body posterior pupil anterior body trabecular meshwork canal of schlemm vesselse25 ENeuron axons in tangled formation are phosphorylated Tau proteins

Bullous pemphigoid- hemidesmosomes

Pemphigous vulgarus- Full (desmoglian)

kartagener- bad motor proteins, can't use cillia, infertile spermLymph

What stain best visualizes stromal fiber connective tissue of lymph nodes?Silver nitrateIs silver nitrate silver stain, and is this the optimal stain for reticular fibers, and are reticular fibers main component of lymph nodesHow do lymphocytes enter lymph nodes?What cells are unique to the thymus??What are epithelio- reticular cellsWhat constitutes red pulp of spleen?What constitutes white pulp?What leukocytes are affected / abnormal in DiGeorge's / thymic aplasia?T-cellsWhere is the blood thymic barrier? Solely the coretex of the thymusWhat are germinal centers of lymph node?What is a central organ of the lymph?What is a peripheral organ?What are major immunoglobulins of B-lymphocytesHassall's corpuscles??Supposedly no known functionWhich are not found ln the Thymus??Lymph nodulesT lymphocytesHassall's corpusclesCortexEpi-reticulo cellsHow does lmyph flow through a node??Small many afferent lymph vesselsCapsuleSubcapsular sinusintermediate sinusmedullary sinushillusCentral efferent vessel(Thymus is the only lymph tissue that does not have afferent vesselWhat is the mechanism for lymphocytes to re-enter blood from lymph??Why is the blood-thymus barrier important??This barrier, which is only in the cortex, protects or shields developing t-lymphocytes from exposure to circulating (self-) antigensWhere are B-lymphocytes not found? Probably where T- are madeThymusWhere is the highest concentration of T cells in lymph??It is the inner (para-) cortexWhere is the highest concentration of T cells in spleen??Learn the spleenWhat is the open theory of circulation?It probably has to do with how spleen has sinusoidal? capillaries Would germinal centers with active carcinoma have the most abundant oragnelles be??Microtublesrough ERperoxisomessecretory granzlysosomesB-T barrier??Cortex

Q#24Congenital adrenal hyperplasias (CAH) are rare genetic diseases due to overstimulation of the adrenal cortex by ACTH. What is found in patients with CYP 17 deficiency?

Masculinization of femalesDeficiency of aldosteroneDeficiency of cortisolStimulated estradiol synthesis Stimulated testosterone synthesis

Q#25The most common of the rare diseases of CAH is the deficiency of CYP 21. Which steroid hormone is less synthesized in these patients in addition to less cortisol synthesis?

ProgesteroneDHEATestosteroneEstradiolAldosterone

Q#43What is special about medium-chain fatty acyl CoA dehydrogenase? This enzymeneeds NAD+ as coenzymeis needed for the complete oxidation of palmitoyl CoAacts only on dietary medium-chain fatty acyl CoA is found in both, cytosol and mitochondriacatalyzes the second oxidation step of -oxidation

Heparan sulfate binds lipoprotein lipase (activated by ApoC-II) to endothelial cells.

Lysosomal storage diseases also include the group of sphingolipidoses. Which enzyme is deficient in the sphingolipidoses Tay Sachs, Fabry, Gaucher and Niemann-Pick Disease, respectively?

Tay Sachs Disease: hexosaminidase AFabry Disease: -galactosidaseGaucher Disease: glucocerebrosidaseNiemann Pick Disease: acid sphingomyelinase

Which compounds accumulate in Tay Sachs, Gaucher, Fabry, Niemann-Pick Disease, respectively?

Tay Sachs Disease: GM2 accumulateGaucher Disease : glucocerebrosides accumulateFabry Disease: globosides (ceramide trihexoside) accumulateNiemann-Pick Disease Type A and B: sphingomyelin accumulates

What are key words for Tay Sachs, Gaucher, Fabry and Niemann-Pick Disease, respectively? How are these patients clinically described?

Tay Sachs: cherry-red macula and onion shell-like inclusions. Patients have rapid, progressive fatal neurodegradation, blindness, muscle weakness, seizures.

Gaucher: crumpled tissue paper appearance of cytoplasm. Patients have hepatosplenomegaly and osteoporosis of long bones. Most common LSD.

Fabry: reddish skin rash (bathing suit distribution). Patients have kidney and heart failure, and burning pain in lower extremities.

Niemann Pick: cherry-red macula and foamy appearing cells. Patients have hepatosplenomegaly, and neurodegeneration in Type A.

Describe the differences between Niemann-Pick Disease Type A and Type B.

Niemann-Pick Disease Type A is the classic infantile form. Patients have severe rapid neurodegeneration and severe mental retardation. Life expectancy is to 2-3 years.

Niemann-Pick Disease Type B is the visceral chronic form. Patients have almost no neurodegeneration and life expectancy is to early adulthood.Angiotensin II:A potent vasoconstrictor, stimulates release of aldosterone and sodium retention through aldosterone.Bradykinin:A stimulator of sensory pain endings, a potent vasodilator that increases capillary permeability. This peptide is involved in inflammation, causing pain and edema.Endothelin:A powerful vasoconstrictor and stimulator of the heart. It also contracts smooth muscles in different organs. This polypeptide of 21 amino acid residues is produced by endothelial and some other cells.Glucagon:A polypeptide of 29 amino acid residues secreted by pancreatic cells. Glucagon stimulates the breakdown of liver glycogen, gluconeogenesis in the liver, and fatty acid mobilization from the adipose tissue.Oxytocin:A nonapeptide synthesized in the hypothalamus and released into the circulation through the posterior pituitary. It is a powerful stimulator of uterine contraction and contraction of smooth muscle in the myoepithelial cells of the mammary gland.Somatostatin:A hormone produced by pancreatic d cells, hypothalamus, and certain intestinal cells. This peptide of 14 amino acid residues inhibits the secretion of insulin and glucagon by the pancreas.Vasopressin:(antidiuretic hormone, ADH) Causes smooth muscle contraction and antidiuretic effect through the increase of water reabsorption in renal tubules.Classic salt wasting (SW) congenital adrenal hyperplasia (CAH) is generally diagnosed during infancy and is due to a mutation in the gene coding for P450c21. It generally presents with hypokalemia, hyponatremia, hypotension, hypovolemic shock, and hyperandrogenemia. The latter causes masculinization, which degree can be severe if it goes untreated. Rarely, masculinization can be complete, and one can have patients that are so fully masculinize that they were actually drafted during WW II. At least in one case, the patient had a menstrual cycle, which presented as episodes of transurethral bleeding.Mutations of the genes coding for P450c17and 3-HSD are associated with ambiguous genitalia in males. However, deficiency of P450c17is accompanied by hypertension, hypernatremia, and hypokalemia. Whereas, deficiency of 3-HSD is characterized by hypotension, hyponatremia, and hyperkalemia.The two most important enzymes in the peripheral conversion of androgens are P450aromand 5-reductase which converts testosterone into 17-estradiol and 5-dihydrotestosterone (DHT), respectively. Estradiol is responsible, at least in part, for the establishment of normal male sexual behavior. In children, DHT is required to induce the development of secondary sexual characteristics = settings[]; thus the presence of a normal 5-reductase is essential. However, after puberty, target tissues become sensitive to testosterone, thus allowing for the development of secondary sexual characteristics even in the absence of DHT.In the ovaries, lutropin (LH) has theca cells P450sccfor its major stimulatory target, and its purpose is to stimulate the production of androgens. Similarly, follitropin (FSH) has granulosa cells P450aromas its major stimulatory target, and the result is the stimulation of estrogen synthesis.62. NIDDM (type 2) has each of the following characteristics (symptoms) EXCEPT forA. HyperglycemiaB. ObesityC. Near normal insulin in serumD. KetosisE. Polyuria

Show answerCorrect Answer: D

Feedback A: Types 1 and 2

Feedback B: Type 2

Feedback C: Type 2

Feedback D: Type 1

Feedback E: Types 1 and 2Anatomy:Pudendal nerve: S2, S3, S4

HistologyPalatine tonsil: Deep - dense fibrous connective tissue. Deep tonsillar crypts. Stratified squamous, non-keratinizedPharyngeal tonsil: Tonsillar pleats - incomplete capsule with respiratory epithelium (nasal) + stratified squamous non-keratinized (oral).Lingual tonsil: Thin connective tissue capsule., stratified squamous non-keratinized. See lingual glands.

Extracellular matrix: Scurvy - Poor hydroxylation of tropocollagen for stable triple helix collagen fibrilsEhler Danlos Type IV - Defect in collagen type III (reticular fibers).Marfan Syndrome - Defect in fibrillin-1

Cholera - modifies Gs protein. Unable to hydrolyze GTP, resulting in excessive cAMP amounts --> sodium loss via diarrhea. Spherocytosis - Defective spectrin is unable to bind to Band 4.1 protein to yield biconcave results in anemia due to destruction.

Pulmonary ciliary dyskinesia + situs inversus == KartagenerAlzheimer - phosphorylation of tau proteinsAstrocytes - glial cells for vascular support, blood-brain barrier, neuronal migration. Contain glial fibrillary acidic proteins. Proliferation after damage forms scars (multiple sclerosis). 80% of brain tumors are astrocytomas.Hofbauer cells - phagocytic cells in villiSyncytiotrophoblast - human chorionic gonadotropinHutchinson-Gilford Progeria Syndrome - Defect in laminin A (nuclear scaffold protein), resulting in accelerated aging.Werner Syndrome - Defect in WRN gene for RecQ helicase, resulting in accelerated aging.Growth hormone - inhibited by somatostatin.Prolactin - inhibited by dopamine.Inhibin secreted by Sertoli and granulosa cells inhibit FSH production.Calcitonin from parafollicular/clear/c-cells directly inhibit osteoclast activityChief cells from the parathyroid secrete parathyroid hormone, which activate osteocytes to secrete osteoclast stimulating factor - increases serum calcium, decreases serum phosphate. Chief - darker vs oxyphil

Nipple:Lipid secretion via apocrine secretion.Protein secretion via merocrine secretion.Desmosomes - cadherins and desmoplakins

Q#27The metabolism of HDL is still very much in discussion but so far it is agreed upon that HDL2 delivers cholesteryl esters to the liver in the reverse cholesterol transport. With which receptor will HDL2 most likely interact?

A is correct: SR-B1.

[HDL2 interacts with SR-B1 and hepatic lipase which may cleave some phospholipids of HDL]correctSR-A [is incorrect, SR-A acts as scavenger receptors]LDL receptor [is incorrect, HDL do not contain apo B-100 ]LDL-receptor related protein (LRP) [is incorrect, LRP recognize apo E in remnants]CM remnant receptor [is incorrect, specific for chylomicron remnants]

Q#17Which of the following injury markers in the blood is the most specific for liver damage due to ethanol abuse? Increased levels ofE is correct: serum GGT increases after ethanol abuseAlanine aminotransferase [ is incorrect, it a marker for general acute hepatocyte damage]Aspartate aminotransferase [is incorrect, it a marker for general hepatocyte damage] AST/ALT ratio smaller than 2 [is incorrect, AST/ALT larger than 2 is correct] d Albumin [is incorrect, the levels are not increased, they can be decreased in cirrhosis] e -glutamyl transpeptidase [is correct]

Q#41A 15 year old girl has been admitted to the Burns unit. She has had severe burns when there was an accidental fire in the house. She has been on fluid and electrolytes on admission and her blood pressure has been stabilized. On the third day in the hospital, which of the following metabolic changes would you expect?D is correct: the change would be an increased rate of muscle proteolysis.

A decrease in circulating cortisol[is incorrect, cortisol level would be increased]An increase in ketone body production[ is incorrect, ketone body production is not increased in patients with trauma]Inhibition of hormone sensitive lipase in adipose tissue[is incorrect, hormone sensitive lipase in fat cells will be activated]correctA decrease in the metabolic rate[is incorrect, the metabolic rate will be increased](Recapitulate the hormonal and metabolic changes in the ebb phase, flow phase and anabolic phase following trauma)

Hormone sensitive lipase is found only in the adipocytes. As a results, lipolysis occurs only in the adipocytes.Asians glow due to acetaldehyde buildup. Acetaldehyde dehydrogenase deficiency/low activity

Neurological examination of a 66-year-old woman reveals a loss of touch sensations on the left side of the face. Brainstem lesions responsible for these sensory losses may be located in:

A. left pons and right midbrain

B. right pons and left midbrain

C. left and right pons and left midbrain

D. left and right pons and right midbrain

E. left and right pons and left and right midbrain

Answer Key:D

Physiology FinalRenalMaximum transport rates for glucose, PAH?Glucose:Threshold: 200 mg/dLTransport maximum: 375 mg/minPAH:Threshold: 0 mg/dLTransport maximum: 80 mg/minK sparing diuretisc inhibit function of H+ ATPase in principal cellsJ receptors

NeuroscienceDistal nerve axotomyEphapses - Leakage of signal into peripheral/adjacent junctions and activating them.Cerebellar lesion:AtaxiaPostureIntention tremorDysmetria - Overshooting when pointing. Wrong distanceDysarthriaDysdiadokinesiaTranscortical Sensory vs. Transcortical Motor aphasiaHaloperidol - Dopamine blocker?Haldol? - Antipsychotic? High affinity to D2 receptors --> Tardive dyskinesiaReticular formation - two branchesPhenothiazines - Block D2 receptorsReserpine - Depletes dopamine storesMPTP - damages substantia nigra compactsParkinson tremor - 5HzCN VII - AICA

Chromosome 1 - Presenilin 2 for AlzheimerChromosome 14 - Presenilin 1 for AlzheimerChromosome 19 - ApoE for sporadic Alzheimer

Cerebellum and hippocampal long term potentiation/depressionNMDA receptors vs. AMPA receptorsWhere do metabotropic glutamate receptors fit in?

Uncal herniation:Right uncal herniation due to right intracerebral hypertensive hemorrhage:Left extensor plantar response?!Melatonin output supraoptic nucleus MelanopsinCerebellar tractsCerebellar cognitice affective disorder (CCAS) - Posterior cerebellum: Emotional blunting, depression, disinhibition, psychotic features (Dysmetria of thought).

PhysiologyEndocrineGeneral (central/peripheral) thyroid resistance:1. Increased T3 and T4.2. Inappropriately low thyroid stimulating hormone3. Euthyroid (normal thyroid) or hypothyroidism.

Thyroid hormone synthesis:1. Uptake of I-2. Oxidation: I- --> I23. Iodination of tyrosyl residues on thyroglobulin molecule4. Coupling of iodotyrosines to form iodothyroninesRenalConstrict/dilate afferent = effect on GFR and renal blood/plasma flow

Constrict/dilate efferent = effect on GFR and renal blood/plasma flowIncreased efferent arteriolar resistance --> Decreased peritubular capillary hydrostatic pressureDecreased efferent arteriolar resistance --> Increased peritubular capillary hydrostatic pressurePhosphate reabsorption - Motocan Question Number 226 for Renal

BEHS 640Piaget's2. Preoperational (pre-logical) stage: 2 - 7 years.Ability to pretendEgocentric - can only see the world through their eyesLack of compensation - Notices only one feature instead of multiple features: height and width for area.3. Concrete operational (logical) stage: 7 - 12 years.Logical thoughts; mental manipulation of objects and processesYes compensation --> yes conservation4. Formal operational (abstract) stage: 12 - adultAbstract thinking/hypothesizingHigher order:SynthesizeAnalyzeEvaluate

Kohlberg's Theory of Moral ReasoningLevel I: Pre-conventional - Personal benefitStage 1. Punishment orientationStage 2. Reward orientationLevel II: Conventional - Normal thoughts/expectationsStage 3. Good boy/girl - Avoid disapprovalStage 4. Authority orientation - Uphold social rulesLevel III: Post-conventional - Personal principlesStage 5. Social contract orientation - Own thoughts, acts within social restraints with attempts to changeStage 6. Ethical principle orientation - Principles are the greatest priority. Acceptable to transgress.

Erikson's theory of psychosocial development65 years: Integrity vs. despair - Wisdom

DevelopmentNewborn:Abnormal/absent primitive reflexes at birth:RootingSuckingPalmar graspMoro reflex - disappears at 3 monthsBabinski - 1 to 1.5 years.Persistent fisting at 3 months - neuromotor deficitsAbsent smile at 3 months - visual, attachment, maternal depression, child abuse/neglectFailure to reach for objects at 6 months - motor, visual, cognitiveAbsent babbling at 6 months - hearingStranger anxiety - 8 - 9 monthsSeparation anxiety - 6 - 9 months.Persistent mouthing at 12 months - cognitiveAdvanced non-communicative speech at 1.5 years - developmental, cognitiveRegression/lack of normal development

Childhood: 3 - 12 yearsEarly: 3 - 6 yearsInjury to traumaCommunicable diseases

Middle: 6 - 12 yearsBy age 7 - 90% brain mass, handednessChronic medical conditionsInjuryLearning/attention disorderAdolescence: 12 - 19 yearsBecoming independent

Mortality - U.S.