bel 01 introduction

7/31/2019 Bel 01 Introduction

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WELCOME TOBASIC ELECTRONICS COURSE

DEVICES ANALOG CIRCUIT DIGITAL CIRCUIT

S. Kal, IIT-Kharagpur


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Basic Concept of Electronics

ELECTRONICS : A Science & Technology of Electrons

thefundamental negatively charged particles.



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Electrons are very obedient, magic particles. The valence electrons

in a metal are free. They move freely within the metal boundary,but require some little energy ( called workfunction ) to come outfrom metal.

Work Function a few eV, [1 eV = 1.602 X 10-19 Joule ]

( energy gained by an electron accelerated by 1 V p.d.)

Random motion of electrons

in metal by collision with nuclei Average drift of electrons



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Current in a metal wire has many effects :

1. Resistance effect heating ( I2 R ), potential drop (IR)2. Inductance effect magnetic field ( = L I )

3. Electric field or Capacitance effect ( Q = C V )

Electron flow in semiconductors can produce miraculouseffectsDiodes, Transistors, LEDs, Lasers, Detectors, Solar cells,Thermistors, SCRs etc., Integrated circuits, Microprocessors



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Electron flow in high vacuum

Can also do a marvel :

Vacuum tubes (triodes,

pentodes)

Cathode Ray Tube ( CRT )

( TV picture tube,

photomultiplier)

Thermionic Emission From a Hot Cathode

A rapidly oscillating electron emits Radio Waves.S. Kal, IIT-Kharagpur


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A BRIEF HISTORY OF ELECTRONICS

Evolution of Electronics1890 Hertz performs the first experiment on generation of

electromagnetic waves.

1894 Sir J. C. Bose first showed the propagation of radio

waves. Marconi also postulated the theory of radiowave propagation at the same time.

1895 H. A. Lorentz postulated the existence of discretecharges, called electron.

1897 J. J. Thomson experimentally verified existence ofelectron.

1897 Braun built the first electron tube.

1904 Fleming invented the diode, called valve.



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1906 De Forest put a third electrode (called grid) into theFleming valve and invented triode tube, which he

called an audion. The audion was the first amplifier.

1912 First application of electronics is Radio and birth of IRE

(Institute of Radio Engineers) in USA.

1930 Black and white TV introduced.

1950 Color TV began.

1963 Birth of IEEE took place.

Evolution of Transistors

1947 (Dec) Brattain, Bardeen discovered point contacttransistor, Shockley discovered junction transistor. Allthree of them were honoured by Nobel Prize in Physics in

1956 that was first Nobel prize in Engineering devices.



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Evolution of Transistors

1950 First grown junction transistor.

1951 Transistor produced commercially (first germanium and thensilicon)

1958 Kilby (Texas Instruments, USA) gave monolithic idea and hegot Nobel prize in 2001

1961 Fairchild & T.I. produced IC commercially.

Evolution of ICs

1951 Discrete transistor

1960 Small Scale Integration (SSI) [ 100 but < 1000 ]S. Kal, IIT-Kharagpur


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Evolution of ICs

1969 Large Scale Integration (LSI) [ > 1000 but < 10,000]

1975 Large Scale Integration (VLSI) [ > 10,000 ]1980 106 components per chip. Typical VLSI chip size in 1978: 3

x 5 mm2 area, 0.1 mm thick. Total 30,000 components, i.e.2000 components/mm2.

1998 Ultra large Scale Integration (ULSI), > 10,000 components/ mm2. 108 components per chip. Entire computer on singlechip (6 mm x 6 mm) area.

Evolution of Computers

1633 Schiokherd in Germany invented mechanical computer.

1833 First computing system analytical engine made byCharles Babbage.

1933 Electromechanical calculator. ( IBM, USA, size - 17m longand 3 m high )



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Evolution of Computers

1946 Electronic calculator by Eckest ( Pensylvania ). (18,000 vacuumtubes)

1948 General purpose small electronic calculator.

1954 First generation computer. ( IBM 650, tube version )

1959 Second generation computer. ( IBM 7090 / 7094 series,transistorversion)

1965 Third generation computer. ( IBM 360 system, IC version )

1970 Computer with semiconductor memory.

1978 Entire computer on a single chip 6 mm x 6 mm area.

1980 Microcomputer a general purpose digital processing and controlsystem.



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Electronics, as we know it today, to a large extent is a

semiconductor-based industry.

Over the last 30 years or so, the semiconductor industry hassuccessfully miniaturised integrated circuit (IC) chips tosqueeze huge numbers of transistors on a single thumbnail-

size wafer of silicon.

But to allow this we need extremely pure silicon, anexceedingly clean and smooth surface and absence ofdefects (contaminant, organic residue etc.)

It may appear surprising, but the basis of all these high-techgadgets is just sand (silicon)



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PRESENT ERA BEGINS WITH THE INVENTION OF

SOLID STATE ELECTRONICS

S.KAL, IIT- KHARAGPUR

Microelectronics Historical Perspective

Point Contact Transistorinvented in 1947 byBardeen, Brattain,

Schockly at BellTelephone Laboratories

- Nobel prize in 1956

Oxidation demonstratedin 1953 by Brattain andBardeen at BellTelephone Laboratories

Courtesy: Lucent Technologies, Bell Labs Innovations


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US Patent # 3,138,743Filed Feb. 6, 1959

Integrated Circuit 1958



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Nobel Prize in 2000

Jack Kilby

ICs in the early 1960s (four

BJTs and several resistors)

ICs in the early 1990s (over

one million MOS transistors )


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Pure silicon has a relatively high electrical

resistivity By adding ppm level of special impurities

(dopant), resistivity can be lowered by manyorders of magnitude

There are two types of mobile carriers(electron & holes) in Si: Donordopants willincrease the electron concentration;

Acceptordopants will increase holeconcentrations

Good dielectrics such as SiO2 and Si3N4 can

easily be formed from silicon.

Why silicon for VLSI ?



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Silicon ICs Status & Trends


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Modern CMOS

Beginning ofSubmicron CMOS

Deep UV Litho

90 nm in 2004

Presumed Limitto Scaling

Moore's Law10 um

1 um

100 nm

10 nm

1 nm

1970 1980 1990 2000 2010 2020

34 Years ofScaling History

Every generation Feature size shrinks by 70% Transistor density doubles Wafer cost increases by 20% Chip cost comes down by

40%

Generations occur regularly On average every 2.9 years

over the past 34 years Recently every 2 years

Silicon ICs Status & Trends


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Silicon MicroelectronicsSilicon wafers(~ 4 12 inches)

Silicon Chip

(~ 2 cm sq.)

Currently > 100 Mtransistors / chip

Projection 2014:~ 20 Btransistors/ chip


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On Size and Scale !


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CMOS Device - 2006

Design0.100.13 m

Channel length0.05 m

fT

100 GHz

tOX= 1.52.0 nm

Source & drain3050 nm deep

Shallow trench

isolation PolySi gate

Self - alignsilicide contacts

S.KAL, IIT- KHARAGPUR


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High Performance Technology Requirement Table

Year Units 2003 2006 2009 2012 2015 2018

Lgate nm 45 28 20 14 10 7

EOT A 13 10 8 7 6 5

Vdd V 1.2 1.1 1.0 0.9 0.8 0.7

Vth V 0.21 0.21 0.16 0.14 0.12 0.11

Parasitic

(RSD)

Ohm

m180 171 144 116 88 60

Cg F/m7.4E-16 5.7E-16 5.8E-16 4.4E-16 3.5E-16 2.7E-16

Cpara F/m 2.4E-16 2.3E-16 1.9E-16 1.5E-16 1.2E-16 8.0E-17

Psatic W/m4.0E-07 6.1E-07 7.7E-07 9.9E-07 2.6E-06 3.9E-06

tD

(NAND)

pS 30.24 18.92 12.06 7.47 4.45 2.81

(Data from 2003 ITRS)

Equivalent Oxide Thickness (EOT) = Td

/ ( K/Kox

) ; using high-K dielectric

of thickness Td and relative dielectric constant K. Kox = 3.9 (SiO2)


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What Is Nanotechnology?

The Working Definition:

Nanotechnology refers to any application of science that deals withelements between 100 nanometers and a tenth of a nanometerin size, in which size is critical to the applications ultimate purpose

A Real World Comparison:

2004

2014

486DX

10 Hydrogen atoms 1 nanometer


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What Drives The Nano-

semiconductor Technology? The Digital Devices

The Relentless Craving For More

Functions At Reduced Cost


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Digital Devices:The State Of TheIndustry

INNOVATION CONVERGENCE SOCIAL TRANSFORMATION

Driven ByThree MajorDisruptive

Forces


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First Major Disruptive Force:

Digitization Of Everything


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Second Major Disruptive Force:

Connectivity Everywhere

hi d j i i


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Third Major Disruptive Force:

New Media

Movie Hall

Radio

Lap-top & Cell-phoneHome TV

Teenagers now spendmore time on cell phone

than on TV
http://images.google.com/imgres?imgurl=http://www.reviewsonline.com/images/article/tosh4000.jpg&imgrefurl=http://www.reviewsonline.com/TOSH4000.HTM&h=200&w=200&sz=10&tbnid=8KFzpXcIqPQJ:&tbnh=99&tbnw=99&start=32&prev=/images%3Fq%3Dlaptop%2Bcomputer%26start%3D20%26hl%3Den%26lr%3D%26ie%3DUTF-8%26sa%3DN


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Personal Computer: The Emerging

Consumers

C ll Ph Th E i


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Cell Phones: The EmergingConsumers

Th E i C


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The Emerging Consumers Change In Business Model

Example: Personal Computer

The Emerging Consumers


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The Emerging Consumers Change In Business Model

NEW DELHI, India, August 8, 2005, Times of

India Texas Instruments hasannounced the availability of

its single-chiptechnologyforcell phone makers inemerging markets Ourcustomers can use thistechnology to make ultra-low-cost handsets

affordable in largely untappedconsumer markets such asIndia, China, South America,Eastern Europe and otheremerging marketsRichard Templeton, CEO, TI

Example: Mobile Phone

TEXAS INSTRUMENTS DELIVERSINDUSTRY'S FIRST INTEGRATED SINGLE-

CHIP SOLUTION FOR MOBILE PHONES


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In Summary, The BusinessDrivers For The Emerging

Consumer Products Are

More FunctionsScaling andIntegration

Higher Revenue($/in2 of Si)

Higher DeviceYield

Faster TechnologyRamp

AcceleratedDefect Learning


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Transducers

Devices, components

Circuits

Functional Blocks

Electronic System

Basic Electronics


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TransducersA transducermay be defined as any device that converts energy inone form to other form.

Most of the transducers either convert electrical energy intomechanical displacement and /or convert some non-electricalphysical quantity ( such as temperature, light, force, sound etc. ) toan electrical signal.

In an electronic instrumentation system, the functionsof transducer are two-fold :

to detect or sense the presence, magnitude and

changes in the physical quantity being measured

to provide a proportional electrical output


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Classification of Transducers :

Passive transducers they require an external power supply and theiroutput is a measure of some variation in a physical parameter such as

pressure, resistance and capacitance etc

Self-generating transducers they do not require an external powersource. However they provide an electrical output when stimulated bysome physical form of energy


Transducer


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Listing of different transducers :

1. Mechanical Strain gauge type for measuring force, torque andpressure etc.

2. Thermal Thermistors, thermocouples

3. Optical Photoconductor, photodiode, photovoltaic ( solar) cells

4. Acoustical Microphone

5. Chemical pH meter

6. Nuclear Geiger-Muller tube, ionization chamber

7. Biological Electrocardiograph (ECG) and Electro-encephalograph( EEG )



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Classification based on Electrical principle involved:

A better way of classifying transducers is to arrange themaccording to the basic electrical measuring principle involved inconverting the physical quantity (or its variations) into correspondingelectrical quantity (or variations).

Such an arrangement is given below :

(a) Variable resistance Type

1. Strain and pressure gauges

2. Thermistors, resistance thermometers

3. Photo conductive cell

4. Chemical conductive meter

5. Contact thickness gauge etc.S. Kal, IIT-Kharagpur


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(b)Variable inductance Type

1. Linear variable differential transformer (LVDT)

(c)Variable capacitance Type

1. Capacitor microphone 2. Dielectric gauge

3. Pressure gauge

(d) Voltage

divider Type

1. Potentiometer position sensor 2. Pressure actuated voltagedivider

(f) Voltage generating Type

1. Piezoelectric pick up 2. Thermocouple

3. Photovoltaic (Solar) cell 4. Rotational motion tachometer



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Electronic circuits together with digital displays have made measuring

gadgets much more reliable, accurate and easy to handle.

For example a PH tester is an extremely important equipment for achemical laboratory.

Advantages of the PH Tester.

(a) It is accurate (upto 0.1 PH) and reliable.

(b) By pressing a button it is possible to freeze the reading (as in a stopwatch)

(c) It switches off automatically after a fixed time interval.

(d) The body is made of polymers which are physically and chemicallydurable.

(e) The electronics used in this gadget is not complex, and yet, even achild can use this device.



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Functional Blocks using passive components

1. Potential Divider

2. R-C FilterR2 is replaced by a capacitance, C, the circuit behaves like a low passfilter

I = V1 / ( R1 + R2 )

V2 = V1R2 / ( R1 + R2 )

highV,smal l

smal lveryV,high

RCj

V

Cj/R

Cj/VV

)ZR/(VZV

),ZR/(VI,Cj/Z

CC

CC

2

2

1

1

1

12

112

11

11

1



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This is the characteristics of a low pass filter.Assume 1 = 1/CR1, V2/V1 = 1/[1+j/1]

21

11

121

2

112

/|V/V|,At

;)/([/|V/V|

Thus, V2 = 0.707 V1,

1 is called cut-offfrequency or 3 dB point.



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3. C-R Filter

R1 is replaced by a capacitance, C, the circuit behaves likea high pass filter

1

12

2

212

2122

21

11

1

1

RCj

VRCj

Cj/R

RVV

)ZR/(VRV

CjZ),ZR/(VI

,Cj/Z

C

CC

C


high, V2 very high ( approaches V1)

small, V2 very small ( almost zero)


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Assume 2 = 1/ CR2, V2/V1 = 1/ [ 1+ 2 / j]

21

11

122

2

212

/|V/V|,At

;)/([/|V/V|

Thus, V2 = 0.707 V1,

2 is called cut

offfrequency or 3 dB point.



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FURNACE

TEMPERATURE

CONTROL

pH METER ANDCONTROL



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PURELY ELECTRONIC APPLICATIONS



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COMPUTER SYSTEM



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A Fiber Optic DataTransmission System

Remote instrumentation

system using voltage-to-frequency converter and a

frequency-to-voltage

converter

Digital Readout Remote

instrumentation System

bel 01 introduction

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