The University of Manchester Research

Belonging from afar: Nostalgia, time and memory

DOI:10.1111/1467-954X.12402

Document VersionAccepted author manuscript

Link to publication record in Manchester Research Explorer

Citation for published version (APA):May, V. (2016). Belonging from afar: Nostalgia, time and memory. sociological review.https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-954X.12402

Published in:sociological review

Citing this paperPlease note that where the full-text provided on Manchester Research Explorer is the Author Accepted Manuscriptor Proof version this may differ from the final Published version. If citing, it is advised that you check and use thepublisher's definitive version.

General rightsCopyright and moral rights for the publications made accessible in the Research Explorer are retained by theauthors and/or other copyright owners and it is a condition of accessing publications that users recognise andabide by the legal requirements associated with these rights.

Takedown policyIf you believe that this document breaches copyright please refer to the University of Manchester’s TakedownProcedures [http://man.ac.uk/04Y6Bo] or contact uml.scholarlycommunications@manchester.ac.uk providingrelevant details, so we can investigate your claim.

Download date:05. Aug. 2021

1

Belongingfromafar:Nostalgia,timeandmemory

VanessaMayMorganCentreforResearchintoEverydayLives

Sociology

UniversityofManchester

Abstract

Belongingisafundamentallytemporalexperiencethatisanchorednotonlyinplacebutalsotime,

yetthisdimensionofbelonginghassofarremainedunder-researched.Basedonananalysisof25

BritishMassObservationProjectaccountsIarguethatafocusonthetemporallocationofbelonging

contributestoourknowledgeabouthowmemoryisusedtocreateasenseofbelonging,andthe

consequencesthishasfortheself.Thepaperisstructuredaroundtwointerrelatedarguments.First,

thatthetemporallocationofbelonging–eitherinthepastorthepresent–hasconsequencesfor

howtimeisexperiencedandhowmemoryisutilisedincreatingasenseofbelonging.Second,that

nostalgicbelongingfromafar,ofwhichthreetypesareidentifiedintheMOPaccounts,shouldnot

beunderstoodmerelyasawayofdisengagingwiththepresent.Pastsourcesofbelongingcan

endureinavirtualsensethroughtheactofnurturingtheconnectioninmemoriesandcanbeused

to‘warmup’andgivevitalitytothepresent.Thusthispapercontributestoourunderstandingof

howpeoplecancreativelyusedifferentformsoftemporalbelongingtocreateasenseofa

continuousself.

Keywords

Belonging,time,self,nostalgia,memory

2

Wordcount:7,990

Introduction

Thispaperisconcernedwithhowpeopleengagememorywhenconstructingasenseoftemporal

belonging.Thedatacomprise25writtenaccountsfromtheMassObservationProject(MOP)written

in2010bypeopleagedbetween44and91livinginGreatBritain.Belongingisheredefinedasa

senseofeaseapersoncanhavewiththemselvesandwiththeirsurroundings(May,2011;Miller,

2003).Muchoftheexistingliteratureonbelongingfocusesonbelongingasanchoredinparticular

placesandterritoriessuchasneighbourhoodsornationsinwhichpeoplefeel‘athome’(e.g.Savage

etal.,2005;Antonsich,2010;Yuval-Davis,2011).Ofparticularinteresttoscholarshasbeenwhat

happenstopeople’ssenseofbelonginginthecontextofgeographicalmobility,principallyamong

transnationalmigrants(e.g.,Ramírez,2014;Binaisa,2011;Passerinietal.,2007).Whileatemporal

lenshasbeenusedtoexploretheconstructionofcommunitiesandnationalidentity,thatis,

collectiveformsofbelonging(Monteiro,2015;Bastian,2014;Golden,2002),theredoesnotasyet

existsufficienttheorisationoforempiricalresearchonthetemporalityofbelongingasexperienced

byindividuals.Thispaperoffersanimportantcontributionbyexploringhowpeopleengagememory

tocreatedifferentformsoffeelingathomeintime,andtheconsequencesthishasforhowwe

understandtemporalselves.

Inarecentstudywithpeopleagedover50,StewartMuirandIbegantoexplorethe

temporalnatureofbelonging,andfoundthatpeoplecanexperienceasenseoftemporal

displacementastheyage(MayandMuir,2015).This,weargued,couldleadtoasenseofbelonging

fromafar(cf.Fields,2011),thatis,ofbuildingone’ssenseofbelonginginthepast.Inanotherpaper

thatanalysesthesameMOPdataasthepresentpaper(May,N.d.a),Iarguethatthistypeof

nostalgicbelongingseemsmorepronouncedamongthoseagedover70,partlyduetoaprocessof

3

temporalmigrationthat,similarlytoterritorialmigration,leadstolivingina‘strangeworld’(cf.

Westerhof,2010).Inthepresentpaper,Idevelopfurtherthisconceptualworkbyexploringinmore

depthhowpeopleconstructasenseofbelongingintime,withaparticularfocusonnostalgic

belongingtothepast.Indoingso,Iofferacritiqueofnormativedepictionsofnostalgiaasan

uncreativeformofconservatismbyarguingthatwhenlookedatfromtheperspectiveofbelonging,

mobilisingthepastcanenliventhepresent.

Thestructureofthepaperisasfollows:Ifirstoutlinethetwosetsofliteraturethatthis

papercontributesto,namelyontemporalselves,withaspecificfocusonmemory,andonnostalgia.

Ithengoontodescribethedataandmethodsused,beforemovingontodiscussthefindings.Two

argumentsunderpinthispaper.First,thatbelonginginthepresentinvolvesadifferentexperienceof

timeandutilisesadifferenttypeofmemorythandoesbelongingthatisanchoredinthepast.

Second,thatnostalgicbelongingfromafar,ofwhichthreetypesareidentifiedintheMOPaccounts,

canbeusedtocreateasenseofbelonginginthepresentwhenthepresentofferslittleornosources

ofbelonging.Thusafundamentalelementofbelongingiswhereintimepeoplefeelathome,which

inturnhasconsequencesforhowtheycanconstructacoherentsenseofself.

Selfandmemory

Therewouldbeno‘I’withoutapast,andoursenseofselfisforgedoutofmemories,‘always

recollected,foreverbeingputtogether(again),re-membered,afterthefact’(Sayer,2004:76).This

iswhatAlbert(1977)callsthe‘temporalcomparisonprocess’whichinvolvesaback-and-forth

movementthroughtimeaswecompareourpastandpresentselves,bywhichweconstructa

culturallyappropriatesenseofacoherentself.Thepresentpaperinvestigateshowbelongingis

temporallylocatedandhowmemoriesworkintheconstructionofbelongingand,consequently,of

theself.

4

Rememberingisoneofthewaysinwhich‘theselfattemptstoanchoritselfinthischanging

worldofpeopleandthings’(Prager,1998:125),thatis,toachieveasenseofbelonging.Memoryisa

crucialpartofthe‘unendingworkofselfhood’whichentailsaligningourmemories‘withthe

memoriesofotherswhomattertous’and‘organizingandlocatingoneselfinrelationto’one’s

culturalenvironment(PickeringandKeightley,2015:43;Prager,1998:125).Ifweareto‘livein

relationtoothersinthepresent’,wemustbeableto‘organizeourpastasmemory’inwaysthatare

meaningfultoothersinourculture(Prager,1998:123,194;PickeringandKeightley,2015;Misztal,

2003;Wang&Brockmeier,2002).Forexample,inWesterncultures,peopletendtoviewtheirselfas

continuousandanchoredinthepast.Rememberingisinotherwordsaculturalpracticethathelpsto

embedusinthesocialrelationsandinstitutionsaswellassymbolicsystemsofoursociety,thus

bindingustooursocialgroup(Wang&Brockmeier,2002:58;Prager,1998:198-199).

Akeytheoristoftime,memoryandselfisHenriBergson,whoseinfluenceonmemory

studiesisconsiderable(e.g.Coleman,2008;Misztal,2003).Yethisworkhasalsobeencritiquedfor

beingdifficulttoemployinsociologicalresearchduetoitsabstractandpsychologicalnature.The

presentpaperoffersanillustrativeexampleofhowBergson’stheoriesonmemorycanbeutilisedin

empiricalsociologicalresearch.Thekeyfunctionsofmemoryfortheself,accordingtoBergson,are

toweavetogetherpastandpresent,andto‘gathertogethermultiplemomentsofdurationand

contractthemintoasingleintuition’(Guerlac,2006:122).Bergson(1988[1896]:80-81)identifies

twotypesofmemory:‘memory-in-action’,thatis,memoriesthatareimprintedinourbodyand

enactedinthepresent,forexampleintheformofhabitualpractices,andmemory-imagesofpast

eventswhichweconsciouslyrecollectbypullingbackfromthepresentandtravellingdown‘the

slopeofourpast’.Atthispoint,ournebulouspurememory‘comesintoviewlikeacondensing

cloud’andbecomesmoredistinct(Bergson,1988[1896]:134;Guerlac,2006:141,144).AsIexplain

below,thesetwotypesofmemory,memory-in-actionandmemory-images,arerelatedtodifferent

typesoftemporalbelonging:belonginginthehereandnowandbelongingfromafar.

5

Atthepointatwhichthememory-imagematerializes,it‘leavesthestateofpurememory

andcoincideswithacertainpartofmypresent’(Bergson,1988[1896]:140).Ourpresentneedsand

interestsguidewhichaspectsofpurememorybecomesharpenedintomemory-images:‘memory,

ladenwiththewholeofthepast,respondstotheappealofthepresentstate’by‘presentingtoit

thatsideofitselfwhichmayprovetobemostuseful’(Bergson,1988[1896]:168-169).These

memory-imagestheninterveneinthepresent,becomingpartofperceptioninthepresent,thus

borrowingtheirvitalityfromthepresent(Deleuze,1988:68-69;Bergson,1988[1896]:153,168,

240).Ourmemory-imagesguidehowweactandthinkinthenow,and,asIarguebelow,amemory-

imageofpastbelongingcanbecomeaperceptionofbelonginginthenow.Inotherwords,memory

canbeusedtoameliorateapresentlackofbelonging,whichintheMOPaccountsisexpressedin

theformof‘biographicalnostalgia’(Bartholeyns,2014).

Nostalgia

MostoftheMOPaccountsanalysedinthispaperevinceabelongingfromafarthatariseswhenthe

MOPwritersexperiencealackofbelonginginthepresentandturntotheirmemoriesofthepastto

seekasenseofbelonging.Theseaccountsareimbuedwithnostalgia,abittersweetemotionthat

comprises‘apersonalcontemplationofavaluedexperienceinthepast…thatonedoesnotexpect

tohaveagain’(DickinsonandErben,2006:223).ThetermnostalgiacombinestheGreekwords

nostos(home)andalgia(painorsorrow),entailing‘apainofloss’butalso‘aregretfulkindof

pleasure’asoneengagesinpleasantmemories(DickinsonandErben,2006:223;Boym,2001).

DickinsonandErben(2006)notedthatatthetimeoftheirstudy,FredDavis’sYearningforYesterday

(1979)wastheonlyempiricalsociologicalstudyonthesubjectofnostalgia.Therehaverecently

appearedahandfulofstudiesonhowpeopleexperienceandexpressnostalgiaintheireveryday

lives(e.g.Duyvendak,2011;Strangleman,2012;Bartholeyns,2014;Ahmed,2015),butthedatabase

6

searchesIconductedyieldedmostlypublicationsinthefieldsofculturalstudiesandpsychology.

ThereforeIconcludethathownostalgiaisexperiencedbyindividualsremainsanunder-studied

phenomenoninsociology.

Nostalgiawasoriginallyusedtorefertoapathologicalyearningforone’shomecountry,but

hassincecometodescribeageneralsenseoflossandregret,akindofmourningforthe

impossibilityofreturnbecausethelonged-forobjectofone’sdesireexists‘somewhereinthe

twilightofthepast’,unattainable(Boym,2001:13;PickeringandKeightley,2006:920;Duyvendak,

2011).Nostalgiaalmostinvariablyrelatestoasenseofunhappinesswiththepresent,againstwhich

thepast,orrather,anidealisedversionofthepast,isfavourablycompared,andthusinvolvesan

awarenessofthedistancebetweennowandthen(PopovandDéak,2015;Lowenthal,1989;Boym,

2001;Blunt,2003;Ritivoi,2002).

Thoughoftenunderstoodasafailuretocopewithchange,adefeatistattitudetothe

presentandfuture,andakindofretreatintoanidealisedpast(Ritivoi,2002:20;Pickeringand

Keightley,2006:920;Byrne,2007),amorenuancedunderstandingofnostalgiaisnecessary.

Nostalgiahasbeenfoundtoactasa‘defencemechanism’inthefaceofchangebecauseitcanhelp

‘maintainastableidentitybyprovidingcontinuity’,thusofferingprotection‘againstthefeelingthat

timepassesquickly,leavingnotrace’(Ritivoi,2002:9,132;Bartholeyns,2014:67;Milligan,2003;

Davis,1979).AsIwillgoontoarguebelow,nostalgiacanbeusedasatechniquetobringwarmth

andvitalitytothepresent.Argumentshavealsoemergedagainstthecommonlyheldviewof

nostalgiaasaconservativeforcethatnegatesbeliefinthefutureandprogress,insteadhighlighting

itscreativeandevenradicalpotential.Nostalgiaisnotnecessarilyjustaboutharkingbacktoan

idealized(andpartlyfictionalized)past,butcanalsobeacriticalinterventioninthepresentthat

recognizes‘aspectsofthepastasthebasisforrenewalandsatisfactioninthefuture’,aformof

questioningandchallengingcontemporaryconditionsandideologiesthatis‘bothmelancholicand

utopian’(PickeringandKeightley,2006:921;Strangleman,2012;Bonnett,2016;LaBarba,2014).

7

Thepresentpaperaimstocontributetothisconceptualprojectofreconfiguringnostalgiaasan

analyticaltoolbyfurtheraddingtoourunderstandingofnostalgiaasacreativewayinwhichpeople

engagewithchangesbroughtonbythepassageoftime.ButbeforeIgoontodiscussthefindings,I

firstdescribethemethodsofdatacollectionandanalysis.

Methods

TheMassObservationProject(MOP),fromwhichthedataforthispaperderive,isawritingproject

begunin1981thataimstoconstructanarchiveofeverydaylifeinBritain(Sheridan,1993).MOPhas

recruitedapanelofvolunteerwriters,around500atanyonetime,whothreetimesayearreceivea

directiveaskingthemtowriteaboutparticulartopics.Thearchiveofresponsesiskeptatthe

UniversityofSussexandisavailabletoresearchersuponapplication.In2010,Icommissioneda

directiveonbelongingthataskedMassObserverstowriteabouttheirexperiencesofbelongingin

relationtoarangeofsources,includingpeople,placesandculture,andtoalsoreflectoninstances

whentheyhavenotbelonged.TimewascentralinthattheMassObserverswereinstructedto

reflectuponchangesintheirsenseofbelonging,andtoconsiderpossiblereasonsforthesechanges.

Itisthereforeunsurprisingthatreminiscenceiscentralintheaccountsthatweresentin.

Thebelongingdirectivereceived185responses,somehand-writtenandotherssentinas

digitalfiles,ofwhich25areanalysedinthepresentpaper.Thissubsamplewasderivedinthe

followingmanner.First,Iidentifiedaccountswherethewritersovertlyaddressedtheissueoftime.

Analysisofthese62accountsispresentedinseparatepapersexploringbelongingacrossthelifetime

andthedurationofbelonging(May,N.d.a;May,N.d.b).Forthepresentpaper,IchosethoseMOP

accountsthatexplicitlyreferredtothetemporallocationofbelongingandtothedynamic

movementbetweendifferenttemporallocations.Aswillbeexplainedbelow,belonginginthe

presentorfuturerarelyspurredtheMOPwriterstoconsidertimeassuch,whereaspastbelongings

8

sincelostpromptedwriterstomakeexplicit‘theslopeoftheirpast’(Bergson,1988[1896]:81)that

theymustdescendinordertobringforthmemory-imagesofthelostbelonging.

Most,butnotall,oftheMOPwritersprovidethefollowingbasicdemographicinformation

aboutthemselves,asrequested:age,gender,maritalstatus,occupationandplaceofresidence.

WhilethemajorityoftheMOPpanelofwritersarewomen(Kramer,2011),mencompriseoverhalf

ofthepresentsample(N=15).Thisgenderbalanceisinteresting,thoughIamwaryofdrawingmany

conclusionsfromitgiventhesmallsamplesize.Furtherresearchisrequiredtoinvestigatewhether

nostalgiaisaparticularlymaleactivity.Perhapsunderstandably,giventhatnostalgiaissomething

believedtobeespeciallystronglyexperiencedbyolderpeople(cf.May,N.d.a),overhalfofthe

writersareagedover70(N=14),andtheaverageageis71(spanningfrom44to91).Themajority

(N=19)workinorareretiredfromwhite-collaroccupationsrangingfromteachertoseniormanager,

twohave(had)blue-collaroccupations,oneisahousewife,oneisoffworkduetolong-termillness

andtwodonotindicatetheirformeroccupation.All25MOPwritersareassumedtobewhite

becausenoneofthemmentiontheirethnicity–itistheprivilegeofthemajorityethnicgroupto

considertheirethnicityasthenormandthereforenotrequiringexplanation(e.g.Byrne,2006).The

samegoesforsexuality:onlyonegaymanmentionshissexuality,andtherestareassumedtobe

heterosexual.

Theanalysisofthelargersubsampleof62accountsbeganwitharoughthematiccodingof

thematerialinordertoidentifythetopicsthatwerecoveredinrelationtotime.Thefollowingstep

wastoundertakeanalyticalcodingofthesethemes,whichledtotheconstructionoftemporalcodes

suchas‘temporarybelonging’and‘belonginginthepast’.Thesewerethenfurtherrefinedinto

conceptualcodessuchas‘lifecourse’,‘temporallocationofbelonging’and‘durationofbelonging’.It

isatthisstagethatIwasabletoidentifythe25MOPaccountsthataddressedthetemporallocation

ofbelonging.Ithenperformedacloseranalysiswhichfocusedonwhereintimepeoplebuildasense

ofbelongingandhow,payingattentiontothetemporalwordsusedbythewriterstodescribe

9

belonging(e.g.sudden,gradual,permanent,temporary),whichtemporaldimensionscametothe

foreinconnectionwithwhichtypesofbelonging,andhowtheseexperienceswereevaluated.Inow

moveontodiscussthefindingsoftheanalysis,beginningwiththetemporallocationofbelonging,

thatis,whereintimetheMOPwritersbuildtheirsenseofbelongingandthedynamicmovement

betweendifferenttemporallocations.

Belonginginandthroughtime

Anexaminationofthetemporallocationofbelongingrevealsthattimeitselfisasourceofbelonging

andaninterpretiveresource.Whentalkingaboutbelonginginthepresent,theMOPwriterstend

nottoexplicitlyreflectontimeitself–andnonedidsoinrelationtobelonginginthefuture–but

whenitcomestobelongingthatislocatedinthepastthatisrememberedinthecontextofpresent

non-belonging,thedisjuncturebetweenpastandpresentcomestothefore,givingrisetoaccounts

thatevokeasenseof‘belongingfromafar’.

OnlyfourMOPwritersexplicitlydiscussedtimeinrelationtobelonginginthepresent,and

comparedthistotheirpastsenseofbelonging.Theseaccountscouldbecharacterisedas‘anti-

nostalgic’onesthatfollowalineardevelopmentaltrajectorywhereratherthan‘clingingto’old

memories,thewriterssaytheyhave‘goton’withtheirlives.Theirbelongingisanchoredinthe

present,andtheytalkofhowtheirsenseofbelonginghasshiftedorrelocatedovertime,suchthat

pastformsofbelongingnolongerresonate:‘IfinditdifficulttorelatetowhereIonceresidedor

rememberthesitesIusedtofrequent’(L1504,M84,married,retiredadministrator)i.Thisshiftin

belongingandlackoffeelingsof‘homesicknessorregret’isnotviewedbythefourwriters‘asa

negative’,butinsteadas‘theresultofgettingonwithyourlife’andas‘anindicationoftheabilityof

humanbeingstoadapt’(H3821,M58,married,teacher;W3176,M69,married,retiredteacher).

10

Intheremaining21accounts,thetemporallocationofbelongingliesinthepast,whilethe

presentoffersreducedornosourcesofbelonging.Iborrowthenotionofbelongingfromafarfrom

Fields(2011)tointerprettheseaccounts.Inherstudyofcommunityintegrationamonghomeless

peoplewithmentalhealthissueslivinginNewYork,someparticipantsexpressedasenseof

belongingfromafartoaplacetheyhadpreviouslylivedinandmovedawayfrom.InMayandMuir

(2015),weused‘afar’todenotetemporaldistance,and‘belongingfromafar’todescribeasituation

whereapersonfeelsagreaterconnectiontoatimethatliesinthepastthantheydotothepresent.

Itisperhapsnotsurprisingthatsuchbelongingfromafarisexperiencedbyolderwriters,asIdiscuss

elsewhereinrelationtoageing(May,N.d.a).

Iproposethattimebecomesmorenoticeableinbelongingfromafarthanitdoesin

belonginginthehereandnowbecausetheseutilisedifferenttypesofmemorythatengagewiththe

relationshipbetweenpastandpresentindifferentways.Bergson’s(1988[1896])distinctionbetween

memory-in-action–recollectionthatisembodiedhabitinthepresent–andmemory-images–

recollectionthatisarepresentationofthepast–isusefulinthinkingthisthrough.Asenseof

belonginginthehereandnowisenactedinthepresentasweengageinhabitualwayswithour

surroundings(May,2013:88-89).Whenfeelingsuchasenseofbelonging,wetendnottostopto

consciouslyconsideritortorememberthoseinstancesthathelpedusgainourcurrentsenseof

belonging–theymerelybecomepartandparceloftheoverallsenseofbelongingthatwe

experience.Thememorythatisenactedinthepresent‘nolongerrepresentsourpasttous,itactsit’

(Bergson,1988[1896]:82,emphasesinoriginal).ThisisakintothelivingpastthatColeman(2008)

describeswhereourminddoesnotmakeaseparationbetweenpastandpresent(cf.Bergson,

1988[1896]:82).Goingagainstconventionalunderstandingsofmemoryas‘thepresent

rememberingofapastevent’,ColemandrawsonBergson’snotionofdurationtoexplainthat‘the

pastisnotwhathashappened…butwhatis(still)happening’andthat‘[e]nduringthingsarenot

whatabodyhaslivedthroughbutwhatabodyisliving(through)asnon-lineardurations’(2008:93).

11

Inthisway,‘thingsthatstay’donotspeak‘toalinearprogressionofpasteventswhichsurviveinto

thepresentandfuture’,butratherdemonstratehowthepastcanbetransformedandassembled

anewsuchthatitintensifiesthepresent.Thiskindofdurationinvolvesthepastandthepresent

‘existingsimultaneously’(Coleman,2008:96).Isuggestthatbelonginginthehereandnowislikely

toinvolvesuchanexperienceofthepastandthepresentaswovenintoeachother,whichmight

helpexplainwhymostMOPwriters,whentalkingabouttheirsenseofpresentbelonging,donottalk

aboutthepassageoftimeorthedifferencebetweennowandthen.

Thedurationthatisexperiencedinrelationtobelongingfromafarisofasomewhat

differentcharacter.Becausebelongingfromafarentailsanawarenessofthedifferencebetween

pastandpresent,andofthetemporaldistancebetweenthem,timeisconceivedofaslinearrather

thancyclical.Thepastisnotalivingpastinthepresent,existingsimultaneouslywiththepresent,

butamemory-imageofthepast.Inbringingthismemory-imagetoconsciousthought,the‘slopeof

ourpast’(Bergson,1988[1896]:81)isverymuchinview,creatingacleardistinctionbetweenthen

andnow.TherearethreetypesofbelongingfromafartobediscernedintheMOPaccounts,eachof

whichengagesadifferentmodeofnostalgia:temporaldislocationwhichentailsareluctantnostalgia

thatisimpliedratherthandirectlyexpressed;temporaldisplacementwhichevokesplacenostalgia;

andtemporalmigrationthatisassociatedwitheranostalgia.Inowgoontodiscusseachofthesein

turnwithaparticularfocusonwhethersuchnostalgicrecollectionscanbemobilisedtocreatea

senseofbelonginginthepresent.

Temporaldislocationandreluctantnostalgia

AtoneextremearethoseMOPwriterswhoindicateasenseofprofoundtemporaldislocation,of

havinglosttheirnicheincontemporarysocietyandpresenttime.Thefocusoftheseaccountsison

thesenseofdis-easefeltinthepresent.Suchtemporaldislocationonlyemergesintheaccountsof

12

writersagedover70.Forsome,temporaldislocationresultsfromfeelinglessrelevantinthecurrent

socio-culturalcontextwheretheirvaluesandopinionshavebecomeoutmoded(MayandMuir,

2015;May,N.d.a),asisthecaseforonewriterinhislate80swhoportrayshimselfas‘beyondthe

usefulstageoflifeandbelievinginvaluesnolongerinvogueandthereforenolongercountingfor

much’(R1418,M88,retireddecorator).Similarly,aretiredlibrariandescribesherincreasingsenseof

dislocationinherjobthankstothe‘theintroductionofcomputersintoourworkinglife’,whichled

toherfeeling‘leftout’andhereventualdecisiontotakeearlyretirement(T2543,F76,single,retired

libraryassistant).Thewriteraddsasacaveatthatsheremainswithoutacomputerand‘never’uses

theinternet,‘butdon’tfeelleftout,infactIenjoynotbeingpartofcomputersociety!’Thesetwo

writersdonotexplicitlystatethattheyhavelostanything,buttheiraccountscanbereadasaform

ofnostalgiathatcritiquescontemporaryconditions.

Forothers,theirsenseoftemporaldislocationhastodowiththedeathofcontemporaries,

leavingthem‘literallysurroundedbymementosoftheirmeaningforme;photographs,gifts,letters,

picturepostcards,andIamengulfedbymemories’(R2143,M88,married,retiredchartered

engineer).Onewriternoteshow‘MostAllofmyfriendshavediedormovedawaytoliveinhomes

soIhavenoclosefriendsnow’(G2134,M91,retiredcivilservant).Increasinginfirmitycanalsoplace

restrictionsonone’smobilityandhenceone’sabilitytosocialise:‘AgeinghasmeantthatIseefewer

people&cannotmaketheconnectionsIusedto’(W2244,F81,married,retiredteacher).

Notablehereincomparisonwiththetwotypesofbelongingfromafardiscussedbelowis

thatthefocusliesonthepresentasopposedtothepast.Memoryisnotbeingexplicitlyutilisedby

thesewriters,andthepastinwhichtheypresumablyfeltmoreateaseinisnotdescribedinany

greatdetail.Thenostalgiaisimplied,becauseitisnot‘theobjectlostinnostalgia’thatisexplicitly

regretted(DickinsonandErben,2006:230).Instead,theregretthatisexpressedpertainstothe

present.Butthankstotheculturalsalienceofnostalgiaasafeeling,bydepictingsovividlywhytheir

presentissuchanuncomfortabletemporallocation,theauthorsareabletoindirectlycommunicate

13

tothereaderthatthepastwassuperior.WhereasDickinsonandErben(2006:225)arguethatthe

senseoflossassociatedwithnostalgia‘isbothmournedandaccepted’,theimplicationintheseMOP

accountsoftemporaldislocationisthatthewritersexistinanostalgiclimbobetweenmourningbut

notfullyacceptingthelossofthepast,meaningtheyareunabletousetheirmemoriesasa

techniquetoregulateorbufferanunpleasantpresent(cf.Ritivoi,2002;Bartholeyns,2014).Instead,

nostalgiaworks(implicitlyandreluctantlyinthiscase)tocommemorateapastself,butindoingso,

‘commit[s]itimplacablytothepast’(Ritivoi,2002:150).Isuggestthatthesewritershavenotmerely

migratedtemporally,butaretemporalexileswhofinditincreasinglydifficulttobelonginthehere

andnow.

Temporaldisplacementandplacenostalgia

Thesecondtypeofbelongingfromafar,whichisdirectedtowardaparticularplacelostintime,Icall

temporaldisplacement.Incontrasttotemporaldislocation,whichisanall-encompassingexperience

ofdis-easeinthepresent,temporaldisplacementisamoreboundedexperience,insomecasesfelt

solelyinrelationtoplace.Indeed,theseMOPwritersaremorelikelytoexpressageneralsenseof

belongingtootheraspectsoftheirpresentlives.

OneMOPwriterdevotesthefirstfewpagesofheraccounttoallthethingsshefeelsshehad

to‘leavebehind’whenatage12,shemovedwithherparentsandsiblingsfromWalestoEngland.

ThislongingforWalesisonethathasnotabatedeven70yearsaftertheevent:‘IhavemissedWales

allmylife’(S496,F83,widow,retiredaftervariousjobsincludingshopwork,pastrycook,WLA,

poultryfarm,cleaningjobs).Othersevokeasenseofbelongingfromafartoaplacelostintime

becausetheplacehasnotremainedthesame.Thisisillustratedbyonewriterwhosaysshe‘still

feel[s]aconnectionwith’herhomecity‘althoughitisnearly50yearssinceIlivedinthearea’,yet

shealsoknowsthat‘wereItoreturnIwouldnotfeelIbelonged–therewouldhavebeentoomany

14

changesforthat’(L2281,F77,retiredteacher).Thustemporaldisplacementmeansthatasenseof

belongingtoplaceisnotanchoredintheplaceasitisnow,butinmemoriesoftheplaceasitwasin

thepast.Forsome,visitstotheplacecanacttotriggersuchhappymemoriesandbringtheirold

senseofbelongingtothesurface.Onewriterdescribeshowarecentvisittohischildhood

neighbourhood,whichheleftin1947,‘wasquiteabelongingexperienceformeafteralltheseyears’

(W1893,M76,widower,retiredseniorproductionmanager).Similarly,thefollowingwritertellsthat

‘astrongsenseofbelongingreturns’wheneverhevisitstheneighbourhoodhegrewupin,the

familiarspotsgivingrisetohappymemoriesof‘longsummerdays,childhoodgamesandfishingits

brookwithhome-maderodsandnets’(R1418,M88,widower,retireddecorator).Thissamewriter

statesthatalthoughtheneighbourhoodhehasresidedinforthepast36yearshasundergonesome

negativechanges,‘happymemoriesoftimespastoutweighminordisadvantagesanditisstillhome’.

Thisisaclearillustrationofhowmemoriesofpastbelongingcanbeusedtocreateasenseof

belonginginthepresent,ifnottothepresent.Theroleofnostalgiahereistobringpastandpresent

intoactivedialoguewiththehelpofmemoriesthat‘collapsetemporaldistance…dissolvingany

sharpdissociation’betweenpastandpresentsuchthatthey‘seemasone’(PickeringandKeightley,

2015:160).Theaccountsabovedescribeinstanceswherethesensoryexperiencesofplacemean

thatoneistransportedintothepastinsuchawaythatitbecomesalivingpast(Coleman,2008).

TheseareexamplesofwhatBoym(2001)callsreflectivenostalgiathatreflectsuponthepositive

valuethattherememberedpastcanhaveinthepresent.

OtherMOPwriterssaytheyprefertonotrevisittheiroldhauntsforfearoftarnishingtheir

memories,andthuslosingtheirsenseofbelongingfromafar.Theseaccountsengagerestorative

nostalgiathatlongsforalosttime(Boym,2001).Onewritertellsofhowshehasbegun‘tofeelmore

“athome”inidealised,nostalgicrecollectionsofplacesI’dhauntedinmyyoungerdays,ratherthan

thechangedoutofrecognitionrealityIcouldsoeasilyvisitifIchoseto’(M3190,M52,married,civil

servant).Anotherwriterremarksthatshehasnointerestinvisitingheroldhometownbecause‘I

15

knowtheplacehaschangedalot,andIsupposeIprefertokeepthegoodmemoriesintact’(M388,

F79,married,formerlecturer).Thesewritersfearthatratherthandissolvinganytemporaldistances,

sensoryexperiencesofplacewillheightenthe‘regretofabsenceandchange’thattheyexperience

inthenow(PickeringandKeightley,2015:163).Theirsenseofbelongingtothisthispastplace

endures,butnotasthelivingpresentdescribedbyColeman(2008),butsolelyintheirmemories.

Regardlessofwhetherornotthepastcomesalive,alloftheaccountsofplacenostalgiaare

tingedwithsadness,perhapsbecausethewritersareawarethatinordertoreachthissenseof

belongingtheymusttraveldowntheslopeoftheirpast(Bergson,1988[1896]:81),anactthat

remindsthemthattheplacetheyfeelasenseofbelongingtonolongerexists.However,the

pleasantmemoriesofitareabletoevokepastfeelingsofbelonging.Thusplacenostalgia,though

perhapspainfulinthatitbringstotheforewhathasbeenlost,alsobringswithitthepleasureof

rememberingapastsenseofbelonging(cf.DickinsonandErben,2006).

Temporalmigrationanderanostalgia

Inthethirdtypeofbelongingfromafar,temporalmigrationbecomesexplicitaswritersfondly

rememberaparticularerawhentheyexperiencedasenseofbelongingsincelost.Thefocusofthese

accountsoferanostalgiaisfirmlyonpasttimes.TheMOPwriterstendtolocatethislostperiodof

belongingintheformativeyearsoftheirchildhoodoryoungadulthood(cf.ShawandChase,1989;

Davis,1979;Dickinson&Erben,2006;Ritivoi,2002).Thisisatimewhenyoungadultstypically

becomeindependentandformanadultself.Itwouldseemthatforsome,theseformative

experiencesarecrucialtotheirself-identityevendecadeslater,andthereforeonesthatthey

continuetofeelasenseofbelongingto.ThisismostclearlyillustratedbythefollowingfourMOP

writers.

16

Thefirsttwowriterssaytheyexperiencedtheirstrongestsenseofbelongingwhenthey

attendeduniversity.Onewriterinher70sdescribeshowshe‘reallyfeltIbelongedthere’,making

heryearsatuniversity‘someofmyhappiest’(P1282,F72,married,retired,carertograndchildren).

Thesecondwriterinher40snamesuniversityas‘[t]heplaceImostbelongedinmylife’,aplace

wheresheexperienceda‘senseofcompletebelonging…inawayIhadneverdonebeforeorsince’

(A2801,F44,single,unabletoworkduetolong-termillness,previouslytrainingtobeasolicitor).Her

subsequentsevereillness,whichhasmadeitimpossibleforhertoworkorstudy,hascontributedto

hersenseofnon-belonginginthepresent.Thewriterusesheryearsatuniversityasherbenchmark

intermsofwhatbelongingcanbe,andhopestointhefutureagainexperienceasenseofbelonging.

Insayingthis,thewriterexemplifieshownostalgiaisnotmerelyaboutseekingontologicalsecurity

inthepast,butcanalsobe‘ameansoftakingone’sbearingsfortheroadaheadintheuncertainties

ofthepresent’(PickeringandKeightley,2006:921).

ForthefollowingtwoMOPwriters,theperiodthatevokesnostalgiaisatimeintheiryouth

whentheyfeltpartofabroadersharedculture.Thefirstwriter,whoinhisadolescencebecamepart

oftheNewRomanticsmusicmovement,noteshow‘nowthatIamolder,thereisn’tthesame

“larger”thingsthatIcouldfeelapartof’,leavinghimandhisfellowNewRomantics,‘castadriftas

individualisticloners’(F4395,M47,single,BritishCouncilofficer).Thesecondwriterreminisces

wistfullyaboutthe‘working-classculture’ofhischildhood(B2710,M80,married,retired

clergyman).Whathasbeenlostisa‘networkofdifferentgenerations’,‘localpubs’,‘shared

traditionsandmemories’and‘close-knitcommunitylife’.TheseMOPwritersconstructapersonal

pastforthemselvesthatevokesasenseoftogethernessandvitalitythathassincebeenlostand

theiraccountscanthereforealsobereadasexpressionsofasharedsenseofnostalgicbelongingto

anerawhen‘ourgeneration’flourished(Shaw&Chase,1989;Milligan,2003;MayandMuir,2015).

SuchaccountspresentageneralisedsenseofuniformpastnessthatPickeringandKeightley(2014:

88,90)defineasregressivenostalgiathatpurposivelyselectscertainaspectsofthepastby

17

‘screeningoutwhatisundesirable’,thuscreatingapastthatis‘closedoffinitsownlonged-for,but

nowunreachable,landscape’.Game(2001:227)indicatesthatsuchnostalgiacanhinderaperson

fromexperiencingbelonginginthepresent,becausethiswouldrequire‘[l]ettinggoofnostalgic

longings’.ButIwishtocomplicatethisviewofnostalgiaasnecessarilyentailingasenseof

disconnectioninthepresent.Nostalgia,thoughitisbydefinitionaproductofacertainsenseof

disengagementwiththepresent,doesnotprecludeexperiencingasenseofbelonginginthe

present.Itcanindeedbeusedtobridgethegapbetweenpresentnon-belongingandpastbelonging

(Ahmed,2015:166).Nostalgiacanbeusedasatechniquetoconnectwithasenseofbelongingin

thepastthatisthenusedto‘warmup’andgivevitalitytoableakpresent,andisthusevidenceof

thecreativewaysinwhichpeoplecanestablishtemporalagency(Flaherty,2012).Thisissimilarto

whatBartholeyns(2014:55,60)calls‘self-inducednostalgia’,atechniqueoftheselfthataimsto

‘renderthepresentmorepoignant’.

Conclusions

Thispaperhelpsfillanotablegapinthebelongingliteraturethathasnotsufficientlyexplored

temporalaspectsofbelongingastheyareexperiencedbyindividuals,andcontributestoour

understandingofhowmemoryismobilisedinbelongingfromafarasopposedtobelonginginthe

now.Furthermore,notmuchempiricalsociologicalresearchonnostalgiaasexperiencedbypeople

existstodate.Giventhatthereisculturalvariationinhowpeopleperceivetimeandreminisce

(Misztal,2003;Wang&Brockmeier,2002),itislikelythattheresultsarenotstraightforwardly

applicabletoothersamples.TheMOPwritersinthisstudywereallWhiteBritishpeople,manyof

themmiddleclass.Furtherstudyisrequiredtoascertainforexamplehowexperiencesofsevere

deprivationordiscriminationaffectthetemporallocationofbelonging,andthetypesofnostalgia

thatpeopleengagein(cf.PopovandDéak,2015;Byrne,2007).Nevertheless,thefindingsofthe

18

presentpaperdohavewidertheoreticalimplicationsforhowsociologistsconceptualisebelonging

becauseitaddstoourunderstandingofbelongingasfundamentallytemporal,thatis,asalways

constructedsomewhereintime;ofhowmemoryisutilisedtoconstructasenseofbelonging;andof

whatdifferenttypesofnostalgiatellusaboutthetemporalself.

Whenwetalkofapersonwhofeelsasenseofbelonging,weperhapstendtoassumethat

thisbelongingisexperiencedinrelationtothehereandnow.TheMOPaccountsanalysedabove

showthatthereisanotherkindofbelongingthatisnottetheredtothepresentbutratherappears

intheformofbelongingfromafarwhereitismemoriesfromthepastthatevokeasenseofpast

belongingthatbringspleasure(andpain)inthepresent.Ihavealsoarguedthatdifferenttemporal

lociofbelongingareassociatedwithdifferentexperiencesoftimeandengagedifferenttypesof

memory.Belonginginthenow,wherepastexperiencesarepartandparcelofourpresentinthe

formofmemory-in-action(Bergson,1988[1896]),islesslikelytospurusontomaketemporal

comparisonswiththepast(cf.Albert,1977)thanisbelongingfromafarwhichentailsre-imagining

thepastinoppositiontothepresent.Whenthedifferencebetweenthepresentandthepast

becomespalpableinthisway,timeisexperiencedaslayered,whichmakesitmorenoticeable.

Belongingfromafarinotherwordsmeansthatwebecomealerttothefactthatinordertorecall

memory-imageswemusttraveldowntheslopeofourpast(Bergson,1988[1896]:81),whichinturn

createsanawarenessofthetemporaldistanceofpastandpresent,andofthedifferencesbetween

them.Intheprocess,pastbelongingendures,butonlyinone’smemories,whichnowbecomethe

sourceofbelonging.Memoryasitworksinbelongingfromafaris,forthemostpart,notthe‘living

past’thatsubvertslinearchronologythatColeman(2008)foundinherstudy.Instead,theMOP

writers’nostalgicaccountsmakeuseofalinearchronologywherethepastisexperiencedaslost

‘forever,exceptinmemory’(DickinsonandErben,2006:227;cf.ShawandChase,1989;Boym,

2001).

19

Thefindingsofthispaperarealsoimportantforthestudyofnostalgiabecausetheyfurther

complicateourunderstandingofwhatnostalgiaisandtheroleitcanplayinnegotiatingbetween

differenttemporallocationsofbelonging.Threetypesofbelongingfromafarwerediscernedinthe

MOPaccounts,eachevokingadifferenttypeofnostalgia:temporaldislocationorexileasaresultof

becomingamemberoftheolderandless‘relevant’generation(reluctantnostalgia);temporal

displacementwhereaplacelostinthepastevokeshappymemories(placenostalgia);andtemporal

migrationthatresultsinrememberingfondlyapastagainstwhichthepresentcompares

unfavourably(eranostalgia).Allthreetypesofnostalgiasayasmuchaboutthepresentastheydo

aboutthepast(cf.PopovandDéak,2015;Strangleman,2012;Pickering&Keightley,2006).When

werememberapasttimeorplace,ourconsciousnessactualisesthatparticularmemoryas

somethingthatisofimporttothepresentmoment(Bergson,1988[1896]).Consequently,woven

intoanymemory-imageisitsrelationshiptothepresent.Ourpresentconditionandperspective

influenceswhatwerememberandhow,andthereforeournarrativesaboutthepastarealwaysalso

aboutourpresentandexpectedfuture(Bergson,1988[1896];Prager,1998;Bruner,1991;

Brockmeier,2000;Monteiro,2015).Inmovingtowardsthisfuture,thepastcanbeusedasa

resourceforcritiquingwhathasbeensetasideinthepresent(PickeringandKeightley,2006:937).

AsnotedbyPickeringandKeightley(2006:926),nostalgiaisacomplexwayof‘orientingto

andengagingwiththepast’,notmerelyanexpressionofsentimentalregret.Astheanalysisabove

hasaimedtoshow,nostalgiacanbeawayofcreativelymakingsenseoftheever-changingpresent

andanunknownfuture.Furthermore,Iarguethatnostalgiacanbeusedasatooltoallowechoesof

pastbelongingtotraveluptheslopeofmemoryinordertocreateasenseofbelonginginthe

presentinasituationwherethepresentitselfdoesnotofferasourceofbelonging.Thus,in

belongingfromafar,itisthepastthatlendswarmthtothepresent,andnotviceversaasBergson

(1988[1896])originallyproposed.Nostalgiashouldthereforenotbeunderstoodmerelyasawayof

disengagingwiththepresent,becauseitcanalsobeusedtofeelengagedinthepresentby

20

connectingwithasenseofbelonginginthepast.Nostalgiathusallowsforasenseofcontinuityof

self,evenunderchangingexternalcircumstances(cf.Ritivoi,2002;Milligan,2003).Inotherwords,

eventhoughoursourcesofbelongingmightdisappearfromourlivesasactual,theycanendure

throughtheactofnurturingtheconnectionorsenseofbelonginginmemory.Thesourceof

belonging,andthustheselfthatthissenseofbelongingsupports,canendure,evenifonlyina

virtualsense,inmemory.

Acknowledgments

IamgratefultotheMOPwriterswhosogenerouslysharedtheirpersonalexperiencesofbelonging

andtotheTrusteesoftheMassObservationArchive,UniversityofSussexforpermissiontouse

quotationsfromtheMassObservationProjectmaterial.MysincerethanksalsogotoKinneret

Lahadandthetwoanonymousreviewersfortheirvaluablecommentsonearlierdraftsofthispaper.

References

Ahmed,A.,(2015),RetiringtoSpain:Women’sNarrativesofNostalgia,BelongingandCommunity,

Bristol:PolicyPress.

Albert,S.,(1977),‘Temporalcomparisontheory’,PsychologicalReview,84(6):485-503.

Antonsich,M.,(2010),‘Searchingforbelonging:Ananalyticalframework’,GeographyCompass,4(6):

644-659.

Bastian,M.,(2014),‘Timeandcommunity:Ascopingstudy’,Time&Society,23(2):137-166.

21

Bartholeyns,G.,(2014),‘Theinstantpast:Nostalgiaanddigitalretrophotography’,inNiemeyer,K.,

(ed)MediaandNostalgia:YearningforthePast,PresentandFuture,Basingstoke:Palgrave

Macmillan:51-69.

Bergson,H.(1988[1896]),MatterandMemory(trans.N.M.Paul&W.S.Palmer),Brooklyn,NY:Zone

Books.

Bergson,H.(2001[1889]),TimeandFreeWill:AnEssayontheImmediateDataofConsciousness

(trans.F.L.Pogson),Mineola,NY:DoverPublications.

Binaisa,N.,(2011),‘Negotiating“belonging”totheancestral“homeland”:Ugandanrefugee

descendents“return”’,Mobilities,6(4):519-534.

Blunt,A.,(2003),‘Collectivememoryandproductivenostalgia:Anglo-Indianhomemakingat

McCluskieganj’,EnvironmentandPlanningD:SocietyandSpace,21:717-38.

Bonnett,A.,(2016),TheGeographyofNostalgia:GlobalandLocalPerpsectivesonModernityand

Loss,London:Routledge.

Boym,S.,(2001),TheFutureofNostalgia,NewYork:BasicBooks.

Brockmeier,J.,(2000),‘Autobiographicaltime’,NarrativeInquiry,10(1):51-73.

Bruner,J.,(1991),‘Self-makingandworld-making’,JournalofAestheticEducation,25(1):67-78.

Byrne,B.,(2007),‘England–whoseEngland?Narrativesofnostalgia,emptinessandevasionin

imaginationsofnationalidentity’,SociologicalReview,55(3)509-530.

Coleman,R.,(2008),‘“Thingsthatstay”:Feministtheory,durationandthefuture’,Time&Society,

17(1):85-102.

22

Davis,F.,(1979),YearningforYesterday:ASociologyofNostalgia,NewYork:FreePress.

Deleuze,G.,(1988[1966]),Bergsonism(transH.TomlinsonandB.Habberjam),NewYork:Zone

Books.

Dickinson,H.&Erben,M.,(2006),‘Nostalgiaandautobiography:Thepastinthepresent’,

Auto/Biography,14:223-244.

Duyvendak,J.W.,(2011),ThePoliticsofHome:BelongingandNostalgiainWesternEuropeandthe

UnitedStates,Basingstoke:PalgraveMacmillan.

Fields,D.,(2011),‘Emotionalrefuge?Dynamicsofplaceandbelongingamongformerlyhomeless

individualswithmentalillness’,Emotion,SpaceandSociety,4(4):258-267.

Flaherty,M.G.,(2012),‘Ageandagency:Timeworkacrossthelifecourse’,Time&Society,22(2):

237–253.

Game,A.,(2001),‘Belonging:Experienceinsacredtimeandspace’,InMay,J.andThrift,N.(eds),

Timespace:GeographiesofTemporality,London:Routledge:226-239.

Golden,D.,(2002),‘Belongingthroughtime:NurturingnationalidentityamongnewcomerstoIsrael

fromtheformerSovietUnion’,Time&Society,11(1):5–24.

Guerlac,S.,(2006),ThinkinginTime:AnIntroductiontoHenriBergson,Ithaca,NY:CornellUniversity

Press.

Kramer,A-M.,(2011),‘Kinship,affinityandconnectedness:Exploringtheroleofgenealogyin

personallives’,Sociology,45(3):379-395.

23

LaBarba,M.,(2014),‘Creativenostalgiaforanimaginedbetterfuture:IlTrenodelSudbytheItalian

migrantfilmmakerAlvaroBizzarri’,inNiemeyer,K.,(ed)MediaandNostalgia:YearningforthePast,

PresentandFuture,Basingstoke:PalgraveMacmillan:179-190.

Lowenthal,D.,(1989),‘Nostalgiatellsitlikeitwasn’t’,inShaw,C.andChase,M.(eds),TheImagined

Past:HistoryandNostalgia,Manchester,ManchesterUniversityPress:18-32.

May,V.,(2011),‘Self,belongingandsocialchange’,Sociology,45(3):363-78.

May,V.,(2013),ConnectingSelftoSociety:BelonginginaChangingWorld,Basingstoke:Palgrave

Macmillan.

May,V.(N.d.a)‘“Eachdecadealtersyoursenseofbelonging”:Belongingacrossthelifetime’,

unpublishedmanuscriptsubmittedforpublicationtoBritishJournalofSociology.

May,V.,(N.d.b),‘Whatdoesthedurationofbelongingtellusabouttheself?’,unpublished

manuscriptsubmittedforpublicationtoTime&Society.

May,V.andMuir,S.,(2015),‘Everydaybelongingandageing:Placeandgenerationalchange’,

SociologicalResearchOnline,20(1):8http://www.socresonline.org.uk/20/1/8.html.

Miller,L.,(2003),‘Belongingtocountry–Aphilosophicalanthropology’,JournalofAustralian

Studies,27(76):215-23.

Milligan,M.J.,(2003),‘Displacementandidentitydiscontinuity:Theroleofnostalgiainestablishing

newidentitycategories’,SymbolicInteraction,26(3):381-403.

Misztal,B.A.,(2003),TheoriesofSocialRemembering,Buckingham:OpenUniversityPress.

24

Monteiro,B.,(2015),‘Nostalgiaandthesocialperceptionofthepast:Theethnographicrevisitofan

industrialcommunity(1980and2010)’,Time&Society,epubaheadofprintDOI:

10.1177/0961463X15577272.

Passerini,L.,Lyon,D.,Capussotti,E.andLaliotou,I.(eds.),(2007),WomenMigrantsfromEastto

West:Gender,MobilityandBelonginginContemporaryEurope,Oxford:BerghanBooks.

Ramírez,C.,(2014),‘“It’snothowitwas”:TheChileandiaspora’schanginglandscapeofbelonging’,

EthnicandRacialStudies,37(4):668-684.

Ritivoi,A.D.,(2002),Yesterday’sSelf:NostalgiaandtheImmigrantIdentity,Lanham,MD:Rowman&

Littlefield.

Pickering,M.,andKeightley,E.,(2006),‘Themodalitiesofnostalgia’,CurrentSociology,54(6):919–

941.

Pickering,M.andKeighthley,E.,(2014),‘Retrotypingandthemarketingofnostalgia’,inNiemeyer,

K.,(ed)MediaandNostalgia:YearningforthePast,PresentandFuture,Basingstoke:Palgrave

Macmillan:83-94.

Pickering,M.&Keightley,E.,(2015),Photography,MusicandMemory:PiecesofthePastinEveryday

Life,Basingstoke:PalgraveMacmillan.

Popov,A.andDéak,D.,(2015),‘Makingsenseofthe‘difficult’past:Transmissionofpoliticalheritage

andmemory-workamongyoungpeopleacrossEurope’,SociologicalReview,63(S2):36–52.

Prager,J.,(1998),PresentingthePast:PsychoanalysisandtheSociologyofMisremembering,

Cambridge,MA:HarvardUniversityPress.

Ricoeur,P.,(1981),‘Narrativetime’,inMitchell,W.J.T.(ed.),Onnarrative,Chicago,IL:Universityof

ChicagoPress:165-186.

25

Sayer,D.,(2004),‘Incognitoergosum:Language,memoryandthesubject’,Theory,Culture&

Society,21(6):67–89.

Schwartz,O.,(2009),‘Goodyoungnostalgia:CameraphonesandtechnologiesofselfamongIsraeli

youths’,JournalofConsumerCulture,9(3):348-376.

Shaw,C.andChase,M.(eds),(1989),TheImaginedPast:HistoryandNostalgia,Manchesterand

NewYork:ManchesterUniversityPress.

Sheridan,D.(1993),‘WritingtotheArchive:Mass-Observationasautobiography’,Sociology,27(1):

27-40.

Strangleman,T.,(2012),‘Workidentityincrisis?Rethinkingtheproblemofattachmentandlossat

work’,Sociology,46(3):411–425.

Wang,Q.andBrockmeier,J.,(2002),‘Autobiographicalrememberingasculturalpractice:

Understandingtheinterplaybetweenmemory,selfandculture’,Culture&Psychology,8(1):45–64.

Westerhof,G.J.,(2010),‘“Duringmylifesomuchhaschangedthatitlookslikeanewworldtome”:

Anarrativeperspectiveonmigratingintime’,JournalofAgingStudies,24:12–19.

iEachMOPwriterisgivenauniqueidentifier,consistingofaletterandnumbercombination.Ialsoindicatethegenderofthewriter(Mformale,Fforfemale),followedbyage,familystatusandoccupationiftheseareknown.Placenameshavebeenomittedtoprotecttheanonymityofthewriters.Allextractsaretruetotheoriginal,typographicalandgrammaticalerrorsincluded.