Foreword

Where people live has a major effect on their life. If where they live is well-planned,well -designed and well -managed, their quality of life is likely to be a great deal betterthan that of those who live elsewhere.

Yet too many housing estates are designed for nowhere in particular. They can besoulless and dispiriting. All too often they are not well-connected to local servicesand promote dependency on the car.

Our policy guidance for the planning of new housing sets out a blueprint for a new and better approach. It forges a new link between planning and design to producebetter living environments. The prize is a better quality of life for all and the keyis good design.

In By Design, the guide to better urban design we published last year, we demonstratedthe fundamental principles that are common to good design and how these might beapplied. We are now taking this a stage further by focusing on the attributes that underliewell -designed, successful residential environments. In drawing up this guide we havelooked at a series of case studies, both of contemporary developments and places thathave stood the test of time. What these places have in common is that they illustratehow better attention to good design can enhance the quality of life experienced in theenvironment of our homes. One of the clearest lessons is that places should be designedaround people. People should always come first.

Better places to live challenges local authorities and developers to think moreimaginatively about design and layout. It is not a manual to be applied by rote ora substitute for using skilled designers. It is about promoting greater flair in creating better places in which to live.

Lord Falconer of Thoroton QC Sir Stuart LiptonMinister for Housing, ChairmanPlanning and Regeneration Commission for Architecture

& the Built Environment

Purpose of the guide

Planning Policy Guidance Note 3: Housing(PPG3) sets out a radical new approach toplanning for housing. It makes fundamentalchanges, both to the way we plan for new housingand the ambition we show for the places which webuild. Priority is given to the development ofurban brownfield sites before greenfield land.The old ‘predict and provide’ approach to housingneed has been abandoned and a new policy ofPlan, Monitor and Manage has been introduced.Underlining all this is the central concern thatplanning for housing should be about people,places and our environment.

PPG3 requ i res new devel opm ent of the high e s tqu a l i ty. It looks for the best use to be made of t h eland we have ava i l a ble and for new devel opm ent to be built in a su s t a i n a ble way, s en s i tive to then eeds of people and the impact it has on theenvi ron m en t . It ref l ects the principle that wh ere wel ive affects how we live , and the em phasis of bo t hthe urban and ru ral wh i te papers that bet terplanning and de s i gn of fers the pro s pect of a high erqu a l i ty of l i fe and opportu n i ty for all . In short , i tdemands the step - ch a n ge in qu a l i ty requ i red to break the mould of m ed i oc ri ty that hasch a racteri s ed so mu ch new housing devel opm en t .

The purpose of this guide is to help deliver thatchange. It does not set out new policy, rather it is acompanion to PPG3 and should be read alongsideit. It is a guide to better practice,not a patternbook. The guide aims to prompt greater attentionto the principles of good design,not constrainthought. It complements By Design1 and Places,Streets and Movement 2 by drawing together theprinciples of good urban design as they relate tothe residential environment. Its focus is the urbandesign principles and approaches which underpinsuccessful housing, not architectural treatment.Only by giving attention to these principles canthe quality of housing layout and design be raised.

There is much to learn from the urban design principleswhich underpin places which have worked over time andwhich remain popular today. Jesmond, Newcastle

Who should read the guide

The guide is aimed at all those involved in theplanning, design and development of new housingbut, in particular, at local planning and highwayauthorities, housebuilders and their professionaladvisors. It is relevant to the whole sp ectrum ofhousing, but a major focus is housing within thedensity range of 30 to 50 dwellings per hectare.The greatest challenge to current practice lies ini m proving the qu a l i ty of the ‘a ny wh ere , every wh ere’re s i den tial envi ron m ents that, typ i c a lly, have beenbuilt at around 20 to 25 dwellings per hectare.

Modern apartments combining good design with innovationin construction. Murray Grove, Hackney

PPG3 focuses development onto previously-developed land in urban areas, but the guide wil lbe equally relevant for those working to improvethe quality of new housing elsewhere, includingon the urban fringe. Too often development onthe edge of our towns has not only exhibited someof the poorest standards of layout and design, butalso has failed to support sustainable lifestyles.

The guide highlights many examples of bestpractice in a wide range of areas. The lessons tobe drawn from them are not unique to thelocations where they are found. They have anapplication to all new housing development.

This guide can help produce better design. Butdesigning attractive, sustainable and inclusiveplaces which can be enjoyed by all who use them,including elderly and disabled people, depends onthe skills of designers. This requires a culture ofinvesting in design. And it means designing for aparticular place and the needs of future residents.

The hope is that the bet ter practi ce high l i gh ted wi llact as a spur for furt h er innova ti on among those atthe cut ting ed ge of housing de s i gn and con s tru cti on .

‘We need an approachto the design and development of urbanareas which:

• makes efficient use ofthe available land and buildings and reducesthe demand for greenfield development;

• provides homes whichare attractive and environmentallyfriendly;

• encourages well laid outurban areas with goodquality buildings, welldesigned streets,andgood quality public open spaces;

• allows people to get towork easily and to the services they need likelocal shops and health and leisure facilities;and

• makes good public transport viable and makes walking and cycling attractiveoptions.’

Our Towns and Cities: the Future Delivering anUrban Renaissanceparagraph 4.20

The principles of urban design

The fundamental principles of u rban de s i gn arede s c ri bed more fully in By De s i gn. Th ey invo lveex pressing the main obj ectives of u rban de s i gnt h ro u gh the va rious aspects of the built form .

The objectives of urban design can besummarised as follows:

Character■ A place with its own identityContinuity and Enclosure■ A place where public and private spaces are

clearly distinguishedQuality of the Public Realm ■ A place with attractive and successful

outdoor areasEase of Movement■ A place that is easy to get to and move throughLegibility■ A place that has a clear image and is easy

to understandAdaptability■ A place that can change easilyDiversity■ A place with variety and choice

The aspects of the built form are described asfollows:■ Layout: Urban Structure – the framework of

routes and spaces that connect locally and morewidely, and the way developments, routes and open spaces relate to one another

■ Layout: Urban Grain – the pattern of thearrangement of street blocks, plots and their buildings in a settlement

■ Landscape – the character and appearance ofland, including its shape, form, ecology, naturalfeatures, colours and elements, and the waythese components combine

■ Density and Mix – the amount of developmenton a given piece of land and the range of uses.Density influences the intensity of development,and,in combination with the mix o f uses, canaffect a place’s vitality and viability.

■ Scale: Height – scale is the size of a building in relation to its surroundings, or the size of partsof a building or its details, particularly in relation to the size of a person. Heightdetermines the impact of development onviews, vistas and skylines

■ Scale: Massing – the combined effect of thearrangement, volume and shape of a building or group of buildings in relation to otherbuildings and spaces

■ Appearance: Details – the craftmanship,building techniques, decoration,styles and lighting of a building or structure

■ Appearance: Materials – the texture, colour,pattern and durability of materials, and howthey are used

‘We want our towns,cities and suburbs to beplaces for people – placesthat are designed, builtand maintained on the principle that peoplecome first. They shouldcontribute to the quality of life and encourage healthy andsustainable lifestyles.They should be placesin which we want to live,work, bring up our children,and spend ourleisure time’.

Our Towns and Cities: the Future Delivering an Urban Renaissanceparagraph 4.3

Urban apartments grouped around a shared green space. Here homes,landscape, routes for movement and parking are blend edseamlessly together to create an attractive and distinctive place to live. Barons Court, Hammersmith and Fulham

Making the change

PPG3 lays down a clear challenge both tohousebuilders and to local authorities to takedesign seriously. Good design is not an ext ra thatcan be ignored, it is central to creating moreattractive living environments and central todelivering sustainable developments through:■ making more efficient use of land;■ promoting better accessibility to local facilities

and public transport;■ supporting crime prevention and community

safety;■ creating more socially inclusive communities;■ promoting energy efficiency.

Many new housing developments fall short ofwhat can be expected from the new approach setout in PPG3. There has been a growing gapbetween the exemplars of best practice and thestandards achieved in the majority of cases.

Most recent housing developments have wastedland. PPG3 reported that more than half of newhousing was developed at densities of less than 20dwellings per hectare. As a consequence,manyplaces fail to sustain local facilities and publictransport.

All too frequently, inadequate thought has beengiven to safe, direct and convenient walking andcycling routes and insufficient attention has been paid to the relationship of spaces within and around the home. Too many housingdevelopments have turned their backs on thewider community and have focused instead onnarrowly defined markets and housing types.Communities are the poorer for it.

The responsibility for the unsustainable placesthat have resulted from poor design does not restsolely at the housebuilder’s door. Underlying manyof these shortcomings is a combination of localauthority planning and highway design standards.These have helped give impetus to the palette ofstandard house types and layout forms which havebeen developed to meet these requirements. Theresult has been residential environments that meetthese standards but lack any real quality ordistinctive sense of place.

Typical suburban housing 1990’s style with houses ar ranged around a road network designed for the car. Layouts such as this useland inefficiently and make viable public t ransport almost impossible

‘We are stronglycommitted to promotingearlier, greater and better-informed attention todesign wherever newdevelopment takes place...We believe that betterattention to designconsiderations from theoutset will help to a chievehigh quality places inwhich people live, workor relax,not just in townsand cities but in villagesand other rural areas aswell’

Our Countryside: TheFuture A Fair Deal forRural England paragraph5.7.3

The main route into a new neighbourho od. Everyone passesalong it, yet the houses turn their backs onto it.The result is asoulless place where pedestrians feel insecure and wheredrivers are ‘encouraged’ to drive fast

Housing which met planning and hig hway design standards,but which wastes space and fails to create any sense of placeor identity

Standard house types developed without proper regard fortheir context and setting.This scheme misses the opportunityto optimise housing capacity and undermines the character ofthe existing street

PPG3 provides the opportunity of a fresh startthrough:■ requiring local authorities to review critically

the standards they apply to new development,particularly in relation to road layouts and car parking provision;

■ encouraging more efficient use of land (housingdevelopment in the range of 30 to 50 dwellingsto the hectare net) and higher densities wherethere is good accessibility to local facilities and public transport;

■ requiring a better, and more appropriate mix of dwelling size, type and affordability in newdevelopment;

■ looking to applicants for planning permissionto demonstrate how they have taken intoaccount the need for good urban design and making it clear that local planning authoritiesshould reject poor design.

Delivering a fundamental change in the qualityand layout of new residential environmentsrequires investment in design and the appropriatedesign skills being brought to bear at the righttime. Above all, it requires a better understandingof the design principles which contribute to thecreation of successful residential environments.This is the purpose of this guide.

Efficient housing forms, such as the terrace,can be interpretedin very different ways and can meet a range of differenthousing requirements. What is common to both examples isthe creation of a coherent urban form and a commitment toquality design.Lickey Hills, Birmingham (top) MillenniumVillage, Greenwich (below)

‘New housing and residential environmentsshould be well designedand should make a significant contributionto promoting urban renaissance and improving the qualityof life’

PPG3: Housing,paragraph 1

Preparing the guide

Unlike previous design guides which have reliedheavily on a singular view of housing design, thisguide takes a more reflective approach. This isbased on the view that:■ the shortcomings in current practice are first

and foremost to do with basic issues of layoutrather than detailed issues of internalconfiguration, construction materials orarchitectural idiom;

■ we can learn from the best of contemporarypractice, but we can also learn a great deal fromthose residential environments which havestood the test of time,met the housing needsand expectations of many generations and which remain popular today;

■ the re s i den tial envi ron m ent must be seen in the ro u n d ; a pproaches wh i ch have given too mu ch em phasis to one issue (notably to accom m od a ti n gtraffic) have of ten failed because they dep a rted f rom other tri ed and te s ted principles ofu rban de s i gn .

This guide is based on a detailed examination ofboth historic and contemporary practice, drawingfrom a study of residential environments fromacross the country. While a number of thedevelopments included in the guide have wonHousing Design Awards3 for the quality of theirdesign, the guide deliberately draws from a widerange of different housing forms and contextsrather than looking solely at the very best ofcontemporary British housing design. Theresidential environments were selected to provideclear examples of practical approaches toimplementing the basic principles of good urbandesign in a variety of different contexts,and tohighlight both strong and weak points in theirdesign. Indeed, an important objective in theirselection was to include representation ofordinary, everyday housing as a counterfoil tosome of the better known examples. Thearchitecture illustrated in the guide will not,therefore, be to everyone’s taste.

The focus has been the attributes of successfulhousing environments. These are the transferablelessons that can contribute to the creation ofbetter residential environments in a wide varietyof different contexts.

The attributes of successful housing

A litera tu re revi ew and analysis of h i s toric andcon tem pora ry practi ce iden ti f i ed a nu m ber ofa t tri butes of su ccessful housing. These were te s tedby a sounding boa rd drawing on ex pertise from awi de ra n ge of disciplines working in a va ri ety ofb ack grounds - including arch i tect s , h i ghw ayen gi n eers , l a n d s c a pe arch i tect s ,p l a n n ers , house

bu i l ders and po l i ce of f i cers con cern ed with cri m epreven ti on . These attri butes provi ded a basis forthe analysis of s el ected re s i den tial envi ron m en t sand are ref l ected in the stru ctu re and con tent of the guide . The attri butes are set out bel ow,toget h er with a sign po s ting to the rel eva n tCh a pters of the guide .

ChaptersMovement A movement framework which is safe,direct and 2, 3 & 5

attractive to all usersMix A rich mix of housing opportunities 4Community A sense of neighbourhood and community ownership 2 & 4Structure A coherent structure of buildings,spaces,landscape 3 & 5

and routes for movementLayout Street layout and design which is appropriate 3 & 5

to use and contextPlace Attractive and clearly defined public and private spaces 5, 6 & 7Amenity Pleasant gardens and private amenity space 6 & 7Parking Convenient but unobtrusive car parking 5 & 7Safety A safe and secure environment AllSpace Well planned homes which provide space and functionality 6Adaptability Housing which is robust and adaptable to 6

changing requirementsMaintenance An environment which can be well maintained 6 & 7

over the long-termSustainability Housing designed to minimise resource consumption AllDetail Well considered detailing of buildings and spaces 7

Using the guide

The places which feature in this guide providemany important,and often straightforward,lessons that are relevant and applicable to newhousing development across the country. But theexamples used are not presented as either theGovernment’s or CABE’s preferred view ofarchitectural treatment, construction practices orsocial mix. Nor should the places drawn upon inthe guide be treated as model templates that canor should be copied in a simplistic manne r. Thatwould defeat the aim of this guide.

The guide has been written to prompt a holisticview of the design of residential environments. Itis ordered to reflect the necessary layering ofanalysis from understanding the context fordevelopment through to concerns of detaileddesign. For ease of use, it brings together withinindividual chapters particular attributes ofsuccessful housing. Other attributes offundamental importance - safety and security,robustness and adaptability, management andenvironmental performance - are over-archingconcerns which permeate each level of analysis.

The guide is divided into six further chapters asfollows:

■ Understanding the context(Chapter 2)

■ Creating a movement framework(Chapter 3)

■ Housing mix and neighbourhood(Chapter 4)

■ Housing layout and urban form(Chapter 5)

■ Space in and around the home (Chapter 6)

■ Thoroughness in design(Chapter 7)

Each chapter concludes with a short checklistsetting out the key questions to be addressed ifsuccessful residential environments are to besecured. The guide is supported by an Appendixwhich provides detailed information andcomparative data on the case study areas.

End notes:1 By Design. Urban

design in the planning system: towards betterpractice

2 Places, Streets and Movement:Acompanion guide toDesign Bulletin 32 Residential roads and footpaths

3 The Housing DesignAwards are sponsoredby the Department forTransport, LocalGovernment and the Regions,the National House–BuildingCouncil,the RoyalInstitute of BritishArchitects and the Royal Town Planning Institute. They arepresented annually forprojects or completedschemes of fouror more dwellingswhich reflect the highest standards in housing design.

The bigger picture

The successful integration of new housing with itssurrounding context is a key design objective,irrespective of whether a site lies on the urbanfringe or at the heart of a town centre.A crucialfirst step in achieving this is to develop a thoroughunderstanding of the context within which thenew housing will sit and then of the nature of thesite itself and its immediate surroundings. Thisinitial analysis will inform a whole range ofsubsequent design decisions including, forexample:■ scale and massing of development;■ framework for movement;■ mix of dwelling types and sizes;■ landform, landscape and ecology of the site;■ orientation of dwellings;■ mix of uses and provision of community

facilities;■ amount and arrangement of car parking.

While contextual analysis has traditionally focusedon issues such as landscape, townscape and theuse of appropriate materials, the objectives ofsustainable development and urban renaissancenow require a broader approach. In particular,greater emphasis now needs to be given to thelinkages between new housing and:■ local facilities and community infrastructure;■ the public transport network;■ established walking and cycling routes.

Making these linkages is fundamental toachieving more sustainable patterns of movementand to reducing people’s reliance on the car.Understanding a site’s relationship to localfacilities and to the public transport network istherefore not only an important element ofcontextual appreciation,it is also central to theconsideration of the extent to which a site may beappropriate for higher density development in thecontext of the guidance given in PPGs 3 and 13.

This chapter illustrates the form that contextualanalysis can take in a variety of different places. Itgives particular emphasis to accessibility on foot tol ocal fac i l i ties and the public tra n s port net work , butalso high l i ghts other con tex tual con s i dera ti ons1.

Site

New housing sensitively integrated into the established urbangrain. Webster’s Yard, Kendal

Here the new housing layout is informed by surroundinghistoric routes and the desire to create good communal spaces.Friars Quay, Norwich

‘New housingdevelopment of whateverscale should not beviewed in isolation.Considerations of designand layout must beinformed by the widercontext,having regard notjust to any immediateneighbouring buildingsbut the townscape andlandscape of the widerlocality.’

PPG 3: Housingparagraph 56

Access to facilities

Most urban sites have very rich settingscomprising existing communities, historicmovement patterns, a mix of uses and activitiesand many gen era ti ons of i nve s tm ent in com mu n i tyinfrastructure, technical services and facilities.

Having established a site’s broad setting in termsof its relationship to a city, town or village centre,a good starting point is to examine the area within10 minutes (about 800m) walking distance of thesite. This can help to identify the range of facilitieswhich residents may access comfortably on foot, aswell as opportunities to reach more distantfacilities by public transport.

The diagram of the Stanstead Road area belowillustrates how such analysis can be applied to oneof the case study areas in a mature inner suburb.Quality of access should be assessed in terms ofdistance and routes to local services, includingshops, schools, general practitioners’ surgeriesand so on.

In practice,this would be supported by analysis ofthe frequency of bus and train services and anassessment of the quality of pedestrian routes toall local destinations in terms of their safety,quality, gradients and crossing points. The studySustainable Residential Quality: exploring thehousing potential of large sites2 includes case studyanalysis illustrating aspects of such appraisal.

Analysis of the provision of local facilities andservices in the area around a site is also ani m portant first step in con s i dering the opportu n i ti e sto provi de new com mu n i ty fac i l i ti e s as part of thedevelopment. These issues are considered furtherin Chapter 4.

Contextual analysis of this type is simple andstraightforward, but it can alter significantlyperceptions of the development potential of a site,for example by demonstrating that it is muchbetter served by facilities and public transportthan may have been apparent from a cursoryinspection.

‘The Government placesparticular emphasis onthe importance ofintegrating decisions onplanning and transport inorder to reduce the needto travel by car. Localplanning authoritiesshould therefore....seek toensure that all housingdevelopments areaccessible by a range ofnon-car modes.’

PPG 3: Housingparagraph 47

SiteLocal shopsPublic open spaceOpen spaceBus routePlace of worshipRailway stationSchoolHealth FacilityCycle route

Simple but informativeanalysis of a site’srelationship to localfacilities and the publictransport network.Thisanalysis of a site in a matureinner suburb used 1:10,000scale mapping and wasconducted as a desk exercisewith a follow-up site visit.The analysis points to a sitewhich is better served bylocal facilities and publictransport than may havebeen apparent from a more instinctive analysis.Stanstead Road,Lewisham

Housing development on the edge of an urbanarea can present particular challenges. The issue ishow to knit new development into the existingurban fabric, which may not have been plannedwith future expansion in mind. Even where it has,developers and local authorities may come underpressure from local residents to propose accessarrangements which are neither sustainable norsuited to the new development. These problemscan be difficult, but a positive approach is neededif long-term issues of sustainable movement arenot to be sacrificed for short-term convenience.

New housing on the urban edge making the connections(shown by arrows) with existing movement patterns.Poundbury, Dorchester

Issues of a more strategic nature arise wherehousing is being planned as part of a major urbanextension. Here the issues are not only to do withdirect connections, but also with ensuring that thenew development is complementary in scale andfunction to the existing settlement. In particular,planned urban extensions can provideopportunities to enhance the quality andfrequency of bus services to and from the towncentre. Such improvements will benefit not justnew residents, but all those living and workingalong the route3.

The forthcoming publication Planning andSustainable Access (DTLR 2001) provides moredetailed consideration of both the strategic anddetailed issues to be addressed in planning foraccess by a range of travel modes.

Poundbury has beendesigned as a mixedcommunity of 5,000 peopleon the outskirts ofDorchester. The intention isto complement rather thancompete with the existingtown centre, where themajor facilities (the market,hospital and principalshops) are located.The newdevelopment has a variety offacilities,includingworkplaces and shops foreveryday items, but for manyof their needs residentstravel the short distance tothe traditional centre.

SiteProposed expansionLocal shopsOpen spaceBus routeCycle routePlace of worshipRailway stationSchoolHealth Facility

The site and immediate surroundings

Understanding the opportunities and constraintspresented by the site and its more immediatesurroundings is a well established aspect ofdevelopment appraisal.

The analysis of a site’s immediate surroundingswill include an assessment of:■ landform and ecology;■ established building heights;■ landmark buildings or important landscape

features;■ pedestrian desire lines around and through

the site;■ views into and through the site;■ orientation of the fronts and backs of buildings

adjoining the site;■ hostile edges, ‘bad-neighbour’ uses and areas

of positive aspect;■ availability and capacity of utilities and

other services.

In addition, Crime Pattern Analysis can helpensure that the layout and design of new housingare informed by analysis of criminal activity in anarea and contribute to crime reduction objectives4.

The analysis of the site itself will includeconsiderations such as:■ landscape structure and the presence of

mature trees;■ important views out from the site;■ physical constraints such as ground

contamination, overhead power lines or steepslopes etc;

■ potential open space areas.

Fuller consideration is given to these and otheraspects of contextual analysis in By Design5.

Railway line Front aspect

Railway bridge

Major traffic route

Here orientating the fronts of dwellings away from a dominating railway line is an important structuringelement in the design. Isledon Village, Islington

A robust design response to an environment dominatedby elevated railway lines, roads and substantial buildings.Deansgate Quay, Manchester

Integrating new housing with a mature urban landscape

Highsett demonstrates the quality ofenvironment which can be created when therelationship between mature landscaping andnew housing is considered in detail. The site waspreviously a backland area within a large urbanblock containing mature deciduous trees, openspace and an orchard.

The layout and articulation of buildings havebeen heavily influenced by the location ofestablished trees. For example:■ bu i l d i n gs are arra n ged para ll el to lines of tree s ;■ special trees are organised to become a

set-piece within small informal greenspaces;■ pedestrian routes are organised to follow lines

of established trees.

In particular, new planting has helped to softenedges of some parts of the architecture, such aswhere creepers have been introduced along endgables as well as helping to define the frontboundaries of houses.

It is interesting to note that while, in general,guidance on the siting and design of open spaces(including that given in Chapters 4 and 5)emphasises the importance of buildingsoverlooking open space to provide goodsurveillance, Highsett shows that it is possible todepart from such principles.

However, it is important to appreciate that theopen spaces at Highsett work within the contextof a small and intimate development which isenclosed within a larger block. Hence the spacesare not subject to intensive use or general publicaccess. As always, much depends on the skills ofdesigners and in tailoring the design to theparticular characteristics of the site and itssurroundings.

The very close proximity at Highsett betweensome buildings and trees also requires verycareful attention. In such cases great care isneeded throughout the development process toensure that trees survive the building phase andhave enough space to spread their routes andbranches over time6.

Within the context of established trees,newplanting has been introduced to renew the stockof larger species and to provide a contrastingscale of landscape.

Tree trunks are seen as part of the building elevation

New planting has been introdu ced to sof ten building el em en t s

The canopies of trees have an impressive relationship to theroof line of houses

Pedestrian routes

Mature trees

Dwellings

Open space

Some key points

In terms of the particular issues examined in thischapter, the following key points should beconsidered:

Access to facilities and public t ransport

■ Has an adequate analysis been carried out ofthe site’s relationships to public transport and local facilities?

■ How has this analysis informed the design ofthe development? For example,in terms ofdensity, car parking provision and pedestrianroutes and entrances?

■ Does the development accommodate importantpedestrian desire lines through the site?

■ How does the provision of facilities relate toexisting provision in the surrounding area?

Townscape and landscape

■ How does the development respond to its context in terms of building heights,setbacks,use of materials and the establishedurban grain?

■ Has the potential of landform and local ecologybeen reflected in the layout?

■ Does it maintain important views of prominentbuildings or landscape features?

A joined-up approach

Most experienced designers will undertakecontextual analysis instinctively, building it intothe design development process in an intuit iveway. However, there can be real benefits inrecording this analysis so that the emerging designapproach can be related back to the initialappreciation. This can enable the wide range ofpeople with an interest in the development tounderstand the design approach and to contributeto its development and refinement.

The purpose of contextual analysis is to make apositive contribution to the process of designdevelopment. For this to be effective it isimportant that the different elements of analysisare conducted in an integrated and informativeway, rather than commissioned as discretepackages at different stages in the developmentprocess.

Design reviews, bringing together expertise from arange of different disciplines (as well asrepresentation from local community groups,local authority access officers and otherstakeholders),can play an important part indeveloping an holistic approach to the designprocess and ensuring that new housing is properlyintegrated with its surroundings. In this waycontextual analysis can inform designdevelopment at all levels, from the orientation ofroutes for movement (see Chapter 3) to issues ofdetailed architectural treatment (see Chapter 7).

Endnotes:1 Indicator 1 (Location)

of The Housing Quality Indicators can provide a helpful toolfor conducting this part of the contextualanalysis.

2 See pages 65 et seq.3 Sustainable Urban

Extensions:Plannedthrough Design(September 2000),a joint publication bythe Pri n ce’s Fo u n d a ti on ,English Partnerships,DETR and the Councilfor the Protection ofRural England,provides further adviceon designing urban extensions. See also theexample illustrated onpage 28.

4 Crime Pattern Analysisis carried out by the Police and is availablethrough liaison with the ArchitecturalLiaison Officer/CrimePrevention DesignAdvisor.

5 See pages 36-40. TheUrban DesignCompendium also has useful material and readers may also wish to refer to the UrbanDesign Alliance’sPlacecheck as an approach to contextualanalysis.

6 Further guidance can be found in BS 5837:Trees in Relation toConstruction.

Movement and place-making

The success or failure of a new developmentdepends significantly on how well connected it isto existing areas,especially in terms of access tolocal services. That is why, in the contextualanalysis of a proposed site,the question of how itwill link to established routes and facilities is soimportant. Communities of every shape and sizehave always relied on movement as their lifeblood,both within their area and in linking them to thewider world.

It is all too easy, however, for movement to seeman end in itself,shaping a development to theexclusion of other factors. This is particularlydetrimental when one form of movement is givenpriority above others, as happens when a roadlayout designed largely to the requirements ofvehicular traffic is allowed to dictate the wholecharacter of a development. Roads,streets andother routes have a multitude of functions inaddition to carrying traffic. As described in Places,Streets and Movement, places which have stood thetest of time are those where traffic and otheractivities have been successfully integrated andwhere the buildings and spaces, and needs ofpeople,not just of their vehicles, shape the area.Successful environments are those designed at thehuman scale with the needs of pedestrians inmind.

The rigidity and standardisation of most recenthousing layouts are partly the result of thedominance of motor vehicles. Layouts have beenbased on the geometry of vehicle movement, withthe natural result that residents find it easier to usetheir car than any other form of travel. In thesecircumstances the car is immensely convenient.But there are many journeys made by car which,with better planning, could be made by walking,cycling or public transport. The layout of housingdevelopment can have a significant influence onthat choice.

Whether it be infill or edge-of-town development,the quality of new housing depends on amovement framework based on the followingconsiderations:■ the integration of new development into

existing routes;■ provision for the maximum choice in how

people make their journeys;■ the control of vehicle movement and speed;■ the design of routes which reinforce the

character of the place;■ the location of shops and services near to

new housing.

Roads,streets and other routes have a multitude of functionsin addition to carrying traffic. Here houses, gardens,landscape and parking are integrated with movement routesfor cars and pedestrians

A road designed primarily to car ry traffic. Not only is it asoulless place, but its value to pedestrians as a safe walkingroute is also undermined by a lack of surveillance fromnearby houses

The way each form of movement is provided for,namely the location of bus stops, walking distanceto facilities, and the design of vehicle routes,isfundamental to the shaping of developments. ThisChapter looks at how these priorities have beenmet with reference to the case study areas. Theissues of traffic and movement are often thoughtto be insoluble, but evidence from schemes acrossthe country shows just how much is possible evenin the most challenging locations. The emphasishere is on general layout principles rather than ontechnical detail, which is already considered inPlaces, Streets and Movement.

The principles illustrated here are compatiblewith these technical requirements. Whatever thesite or size of development, provision for themobility of disabled and visually impaired peopleshould always be made where new build isconcerned,especially in the design of footways,crossings, parking (see Chapter 5) and access tofront doors.

Creating connections

Routes should lead where people want to go.Providing for the optimum variety of journeysmeans creating open-ended, well-connectedlayouts. Introverted, dead-end layouts limitpeople’s choice of how to travel, especially if theywant to walk, cycle or use the bus. They also limitthe adaptation or extension of the development.By contrast, a well-connected layout has manyadvantages:■ frequent points of access into and through

the development;■ more convenient,direct routes for pedestrians

and cyclists;■ better opportunities for the provision of bus

services through the site;■ clear views and easy orientation;■ traffic dispersal;■ scope in the long-term for adaptation

and change.

There is no standard formula for designing suchlayouts: much will depend on the local context(including local security issues) and how thedevelopment relates to existing areas.

The case studies demonstrate that these benefitscan be achieved on almost every kind of site. Forinstance, Canning Street, Liverpool represents atraditional grid layout, providing a hierarchy ofclear connections which work as well today aswhen the area was developed in the earlynineteenth century. At Rolls Crescent, Manchester,a major regeneration project has been used to re-establish routes severed by insensitive 1960sdevelopment,thus knitting the area back into thecity. Poundbury exemplifies how an edge-of-towncommunity can be laid out to maximise accessand allow for future expansion.

In essence,these and other examples illustrate twokinds of movement framework:■ infill developments: the maintenance or

extension of existing routes to create a permeable layout. A well-planned developmentcan help link toget h er the areas that su rround it;

■ edge-of-town developments: the creation of alayout which provides a series of connections tothe existing area and can easily be extended.

In this layout the journey from A to B is a long convoluted one.It does not allow for easy pedestrian journeys to neighbouringfacilities,making a car trip more likely to get from A to B

In this layout the journey from A to B is short,legible anddirect. It encourages pedestrian journeys to local facilities asthe preferred option

Pedestrian routes introduced to overcome poor connectionsoften result in routes which are not overlooked and areunattractive to pedestrians

Pedestrian-only routes should be designed as an integral partof the street network,as here

Routes and functions

The types of road and street which form amovement framework are crucial in d eterminingthe character of a development. Conventionally, inrecent years,their size and layout have been basedon estimates of vehicle capacity, rather than ontheir overall, multi-functional role. As well asdisadvantaging other street users,especiallypedestrians and cyclists, this has resulted in thesegregation of uses. Main routes have beendiverted around development and major uses(including retail facilities) located along thoseroutes. This fragmentation of the role oftraditional streets detracts from the viability ofsmall-scale uses, such as shops and services, whichrely on a local, predominantly walk-in, catchment.

A traditional street hierarchy as, for instance,inthe Canning Street area of Liverpool,is a reminderthat to have main routes passing through ratherthan around the edge of an area helps sustain avariety of uses and connections. It enhances theviability of bus provision and the mutual supportbetween public transport and other facilities.Onlywhen traffic levels on the principal route threatento sever an area is it necessary to consider the needfor alternative routes.

Main routes

Bus stops

Main routes pass through the area,not around it.Canning Street,Liverpool

Walking and cycling

If people are to be persuaded to leave their cars athome,the routes for walking and cycling demandparticular attention. Because they are simple, low-key modes of travel requiring no complexinfrastructure,they are all too easily neglected. Infact, the design of new housing can benefit greatlyfrom specialist design skills in respect of bothwalking and cycling.

Pedestrians and cyclists need routes which arepositive, safe, direct, accessible and free frombarriers. Generally streets which are designed forlow traffic speeds are safe for walking and cycling(ideally 20mph or less), especially when thedetailed layout design (of junctions,crossings andsurfacing) has their needs in mind. People feelsafer on streets where there is activity, where theycan be seen by drivers, residents and other users.

New housing fronting the street ensures that routes are clearlyoverlooked.Calne, Wiltshire

Routes are shared with footways clearly marked.Friars Quay, Norwich

Segregated pedestrian or cycle routes are notnecessarily the answer, except when they canprovide a more direct route from one place toanother than the road. Only a few of the casestudies incorporate segregated routes, and thenonly for very short distances. The success of mostexamples is based on their low speedenvironment, combined with the clarity of theirlayouts. Both Poundbury, Dorchester and ThorleyLane, Bishops Stortford illustrate how pedestriansand vehicles can coexist in shared-surface streets,generally designed to serve ten houses or fewer1.

Shared-surface access serving a small group of dwellings.Thorley Lane, Bishops Stortford

A bonus to cycling is a street layo ut wh i ch re s tri ct straffic movem ent but all ows a thro u gh ro ute forc yclists and pede s tri a n s , a link wh i ch is acon ti nu a ti on of the street ra t h er than a segrega tedro ute . Within su ch links there should be a cl e a rdem a rc a ti on bet ween the cycle and pede s trian paths.

Cycles and cars can share the same movement space on streetswith low traffic speeds. Greenland Passage, Southwark

Public transport

The idea of new housing linked to a railwaystation or a tram route, as so often happened inthe nineteenth century, is still a real possibility.But for most developments it is the bus thatmatters.A crucial aspect of the connectionbetween new and old development is the diversionor extension of an existing bus route, or theintroduction of a new one.

Putting to one side issues of subsidy, a certaincritical mass of development is needed to justify aregular bus service at frequent intervals, sufficientto provide a real alternative to the car. This willvary with context and route characteristics, butassuming stops at every 200-300 metres, ideallythis means densities above 40 dwellings perhectare, preferably with increased densities aroundthe stops2.

Higher density housing along a public transport routesupports a frequent bus service.Essex Road, Islington

The planning of the routes and location of stopsare also crucial. The case studies and otherevidence highlight that bus use depends on:■ routes which follow principal roads or streets

through the heart of the area;■ stops located where activity is concentrated,

near shops or a road junction;■ clear walking routes to the stops,including

road crossings.

None of the case studies included a bus priorityroute, but that is not to say that one should not beconsidered,especially for large-scale schemes.

Integrating new housing on urban edge with improvements in public transport services

A new urban extension in Ipswich is b eing planned together with enhanced bus services to the town centre.The high quality,high profile Superoute service will be introduced over four years as the development is completed to provide an ultimatefrequency of four buses an hour. The route has journey-generating uses at each end and an established residential area inbetween.This generates a two-way peak-flow and off-peak usage.The accessibility provided by the Superoute is contributingto the developer’s marketing of the development.

Managing the traffic

The varied uses of a typical street or road mayhelp provide interest, but may also be a source ofpotential conflict,especially between vehicles andother users. The resolution of these problems liesin using a combination of three approaches:■ the design of the overall block structure and

layout, including the length of streets and the spacing of junctions. This aspect is discussedfurther in Chapter 5;

■ the management of traffic flows throughthe street network;

■ the control of traffic speed.

Most housing areas are designed to concentratethe main traffic flows onto main roads, but trafficcan have an adverse effect on subsidiary streetsand roads unless through routes are restricted.The issue is how to rest rict traffic withoutdisadvantaging the free movement of pedestriansand cyclists.

Canning Street, Liverpool illustrates how selectivestreet closures in a historic layout achieves abalance between vehicles and other users passingthrough the area. The same technique is equallyvalid in new development. The barrier to vehiclesdoes not constitute a dead end, but is a naturalpart of the street overlooked by buildings. Ifnecessary, a barrier can be in the form ofremovable or retractable bollards, to allowemergency vehicles and disabled badge holders toget through, or rumble strips which can be crossedby a fire engine.

Select closures

Main route

Cycle &pedestrianroutes

Selective street closuresdirect traffic to the mainstreets while allowingpedestrians and cyclists afull choice of routes.Canning Street,Liverpool

S peed re s traint has usu a lly invo lved the use ofad d - on measu res su ch as speed humps andch i c a n e s , as com m on ly used to tra f f i c - c a l mex i s ting road s . In new housing devel opm ents thereis the opportu n i ty to con trol speeds using them i n i mum nu m ber of su ch devi ce s , by starti n gf rom first principles in how the area is to be laid out .

Traffic-calming added as an afterthought

Tight corners and pinch points in the street encourage driversto drive cautiously. Poundbury, Dorset

The lesson from countless traditional towns is thatthe overall arrangement of buildings and spaces,by obstructing forward vision, induces drivers togo slowly. The same effect can be achieved in newdevelopments by using the technique known as‘tracking’, as described in Places, Streets andMovement3. This method gives priority to thearrangement of buildings and spaces, with thecarriageway threaded through. As well as helpingcreate a traffic-calmed environment, tracking hastwo major benefits:■ it helps define the pattern of the spaces and

en cl o su res wh i ch ch a racterise a disti n ctive place ;■ it allows a reduction in unsightly traffic signage

and other highway clutter.

But even with the best layout based on theprinciple of tracking, features such as raisedcrossings and raised junctions may be necessary.These help indicate that the pedestrian shouldhave priority, as well as helping break up the street layout.

Tracking is an essen tial tool in the placem a k i n gproce s s . The most com preh en s ive example of t h euse of tracking in a housing layo ut is at Po u n d bu ry,where it has been successfully adopted in thedesign since the inception of the scheme in 1990.Other more recent developments, such as ThorleyLane illustrated here, have followed the lead butwith modifications.

At both Poundburyand Thorley Lane theprinciple of tracking hasbeen used to create goodstreet enclosure andinteresting spaces. AtPoundbury thefootpaths are laid outto follow the buildingline.This has a traffic-calming effect. AtThorley Lane thefootpaths follow thecarriageway, creating agreater emphasis on theroadspace

Footpath

Poundbury Thorley Lane

Layout of buildings and spaces has a traffic-calming effect. Friars Quay, Norwich

Some key points

In appraising the movement aspects of any newdevelopment,the following key points should beconsidered:

Streets and spaces

■ Is the development based on a high qualitynetwork of streets and spaces catering for allresidents and their visitors, or does it giveprimacy to the movement of vehicles?

■ Is traffic-calming an integral part of thelayout design?

Connections

■ Will the development be well-connected toexisting routes,and will it allow links to bemade for future developments?

Travel choices

■ Does the development provide for all forms oftravel, including walking, cycling and public transport?

■ Is the density sufficient to support an efficient bus service?

Servicing the home

Modern houses are more heavily serviced thantheir predecessors. Some of these services have avisual impact on development, especially thearrangements for refuse vehicle access.

In some places it is possible to bring refusevehicles to the rear of the house, but generally theyuse the road at the front. Where that happens it isimportant that their requirements are met, but arenot allowed to dictate the layout. In particular, it ispossible to accommodate the turning space at theend of a closed-off street as part of thearrangement of buildings, rather than as a pieceof severe road geometry.

Turning circle for bin lorry

End notes:1 Shared surface streets

raise particular issues for disabled people.Further advice will beforthcoming on this issue as a result of anongoing project beingtaken forward byDTLR to provide goodpractice guidance oncatering for the needsof disabled peoplethrough the planning system.

2 Towards an UrbanRenaissance: TheReport of the UrbanTask Force page 61.

3 See page 55.

Direction ofphotograph

Turning places at the end of closed offstreets are definedby the arrangement of buildings.Thorley Lane,Bishops Stortford

Creating mixed communities

The cre a ti on of su ccessful re s i den tial envi ron m en t sis abo ut mu ch more than vi su a lly attractive de s i gn .It is also in essen ce abo ut providing opportu n i ti e sfor homes wh i ch re s pond to peop l e’s needs andproviding a fra m ework within wh i ch com mu n i ti e scan become establ i s h ed and grow.

Mixed neighbourhoods of people of different agesand economic status and with different lifestylesand different levels of mobility and independencecan provide a number of important communitybenefits. For example,they can:■ lead to a better balance of demand for

community services and facilities such as schools, recreation facilities and care forelderly people;

■ provi de opportu n i ties for ‘l i fetime com mu n i ti e s’where people can move home without leaving a neighbourhood;

■ make neighbourhoods more robust by avoiding l a r ge con cen tra ti ons of housing of the same type ;

■ enable community self-help such as with arrangements for child care, help with shopping, the garden or during the winterfreeze;

■ assist community surveillance with people coming and going throughout the day and evening, as compared to the dormitory suburbwhich becomes deserted during the working day, making the opportunities for crime easier.

The provision of a mix of housing types and uses1

can also contribute to the creation of moreattractive residential environments by enabling agreater diversity of building forms and scales. Forexample:■ apartments can give scale to local centres and

turn corners elegantly with continuous frontage;

■ town houses can contribute to more formal compositions of avenues, circuses and squares and help frame open spaces;

■ community buildings such as schools and health centres can be designed to give status tocivic spaces and provide a focus for community.

The provision of a range of housing in terms ofdwelling size, type and affordability as well asappropriate community facilities and services,such as open spaces, créches, daycare and healthservices, are all important in creating theframework within which communities can grow.

Providing a range of housing opportunities

A good mix of both housing types and sizes isimportant in creating a basis for a balancedcommunity. The case studies show that evencomparatively small developments can embrace awide mix of dwelling types.

The Rolls Crescent development at Hulmedemonstrates how design flair can deliver a verywide range of dwelling types within a coherentstreet scene. Within the scheme of 67 dwellingsthere are 11 different dwelling types ranging fromthree-storey, 5-bedroom houses to single-storey2-bedroom units designed to be wheelchairaccessible.

A range of different housing opportunities are well integratedto create a balanced community and a coherent street scene.Rolls Crescent, Hulme

Much recent housing has provided a limited rangeof tenure choices, often focusing on a narrowmarket segment or particular housing need. Evenwhere affordable housing has been provided aspart of a development, it has often been poorlyintegrated with homes developed for private rent or sale.

At Poundbury, more than 20% of the dwellingsprovided in the first phase of development are foraffordable rent. These are provided mainly insmall groups of between two and four dwellingswhich are scattered throughout the development.A key point is that in terms of building form andexternal appearance they are indistinguishablefrom the homes for private sale.

‘The Government believesthat it is important tohelp create mixed andinclusive communities,which offer a choice ofhousing and lifestyle. Itdoes not accept thatdifferent types of housingand tenures make badneighbours’

PPG3: Housing paragraph 10

Homes for affordable rent

Integrating special needs and general housing

Integrating different housing types and needs cangreatly enrich the quality of community life byengendering both a sense of belonging and a senseof respect for all.

However, care needs to be taken at all stages o f thedesign process to ensure that the range of housingneeds is fully understood (including taking expertadvice as appropriate) and to make sure that anypotential conflicts between the lifestyles ofdifferent groups are taken into account.

The successful integration of special and generalneeds housing can be helped by innovative designapproaches which deal with the requirements ofcare providers in relation to the place rather thanby building standard solutions.

The development of Webster’s Yard, Kendaldemonstrates the potential of such an approach.Here, 44 sheltered dwellings for elderly peoplehave been designed alongside a dozen houses andapartments for sale on a narrow, sloping towncentre site. The quality and richness of thedevelopment reflect the careful crafting of thescheme to fit its context and could not have beenachieved through the use of standard types.

Tenu re

S h a red

Coven a n t

Sa l e

Mi xed

The Trowbridge Estate,London

In an inner urban c ontext,the redevelopment of theTrowbridge Estate seeks to create a wide range of housingchoices.The result is a ‘pepper potting’ of differenthousing opportunities around the development.

Small groups of houses for affordable rent scatteredthroughout the first phase of development at Poundbury,Dorchester

Ground floorretail withapartmentsabove

Sheltereddwellingsaroundintimatecourtyards

Privatehouses for sale

Responding to the characteristics and the needs ofresidents through design. Webster’s Yard, Kendal

Open space at the heart of a community provides a sense ofidentity and a safe place to play. Boscombe, Bournemouth

Open spaces at the rear of dwellings have no civic value andoften become a source of nuisance

Medical centre at ground floor level with apar tments above.Isledon Village, Islington

Supporting the community

The analysis of the area surrounding a site (seeChapter 2) will build up a clear picture of theexisting facilities and services which residents willbe able to access conveniently on foot. This is animportant starting point in considering the needfor new community facilities and services in anarea and whether it may be appropriate andpossible (in terms of site size and the availabilityof funding) to provide these as part of the overalldevelopment of the site.

The key point is that the provision of new facilitiesand services should build on and enhance therange and quality of facilities already available inthe area, including residents’ access to them. Forexample, it may well make more sense to secureimprovements to the quality of an existing openspace or play area close to a site rather thanseeking additional provision on the site itself.Consultation with the local community can helpenormously in ensuring that proposals reflectcommunity aspirations as well as encouraginglocal people to take a stake in decisions about theirneighbourhood.

Some activities and uses (such as late nightentertainment or noisy sports or play) will beincompatible with the lifestyle aspirations of somepeople, but this need not necessarily require theactivities to be geographically separated fromdwellings. Many potential problems can beresolved through careful attention to detaileddesign and arrangements for long termmanagement. For example, by taking care in:■ locating noisy activities such as play facilities

for older children away from residents who maybe particularly sensitive to noise;

■ using the mix of different dwelling types (and lifestyles) to create buffers between quietareas and areas of intense use;

■ locating bedrooms away from noise sources.

These considerations of design and managementare important because often the easy option ofseparating activities and uses can contribute to thecreation of problem areas. For example, placingchildren’s play areas to the rear of dwellings, or inthe corner of a site where it cannot be overlooked,helps to create the conditions for nuisance andantisocial behaviour.

Some key points

In terms of providing a framework for thedevelopment of a mixed community, the followingkey points should be considered:

Housing mix

■ Does the development provide a range ofhousing opportunities in terms of dwelling types,size,affordability and accessibility?

■ How successfully have different types ofhousing been integrated with each other?

Community facilities

■ Has the need for any supporting communityfacilities and services been considered in relation to existing patterns of provision?

■ Has the provision of community facilities beenconsidered as a part of the urban designstrategy for the site?

With imaginative design, the provision ofcommunity facilities can not only supportcommunity development and meet needs, butalso help create a focus and sense of identity for aneighbourhood. Too often inadequate attentionhas been paid to this potential with:■ ‘a site’ for a school or open space being

provided as a planning requirement, rather thanas an integral part of an urban design strategy;

■ the facility being developed to meet the functional requirements of the user or providerwithout proper regard for its civic designpotential.

This can result in civic buildings being dispersedaround a site, rather than drawn together to createa community centre and a focus for the publictransport network.

The benefits of an integrated approach to urbandesign are illustrated at Isledon Village, Islington,London. In this case an intensive communityconsultation programme helped to definepriorities for the provision of community facilitiesand a vision of how these should be incorporatedinto the new residential neighbourhood.

The resulting development includes a variety ofcommunity facilities catering for a range of needsand has been successfully incorporated into thescheme. These include a medical centre at groundfloor level with apartments above,a nursing homefor elderly people with mental health problemsand a self-built nursery school with a communityroom and play facilities for local children.

End notes:1 The forthcoming

DTLR publicationMixed UseDevelopment: practiceand potential gives further considerationto the del ivery of m i xeduse development,including housing, in town centres

The importance of structure

This chapter is concerned with the structure ofthe residential environment: the arrangement andinter-relationships of streets, homes, gardens andplaces for leisure and parking.

Getting the structure of a residential environmentright is fundamental to the success of any area.Many of the best residential environments(in metropolitan,urban, suburban and villagesettings) display a very clearly defined andcoherent urban structure. This is characterisedby a framework of inter-connected routes whichdefine ‘blocks’ of housing, open spaces and otheruses. The resulting structure of blocks can beviewed at different levels. For example, largeneighbourhood blocks are defined by principalmovement routes. These are then divided by anetwork of local streets to define a series of streetblocks.

Movement routes define blocks of housing, open space andother uses.Letchworth Garden Suburb, Hertfordshire

The layout of housing within these street blockscan take a wide varie ty of forms including, forexample, streets,squares, courts, mews, circusesor avenues. The scale is intimate, grand orsomewhere in between. The fact that there is aunit which is larger than the individual home butsmaller than the district helps to contribute bothto a sense of scale and to a sense of belongingand community.

It is important to apprec i a te that some of our mosta t tractive and en du ring re s i den tial envi ron m en t sh ave the simplest of s tru ctu res and are of tennothing more than a regular pattern of rect a n g u l a rbl ock s . Th eir vi sual qu a l i ty comes not from thet wo - d i m en s i onal layo ut , but from the mix ofactivi ties and from the qu a l i ty in detailing of t h ebu i l d i n gs , the landscape and the interf aces bet weenthese el em en t s . The bl ock stru ctu re works in term sof providing direct and conven i ent ro utes form ovem en t , in making ef f i c i ent use of land and inproviding a tri ed and te s ted fra m ework aro u n dwh i ch a qu a l i ty place can be cra f ted .

Some of the most attractive and enduring residentialenvironments have the simplest of structures. In this classicstreet block structure,houses face the street, gardens run end-to-end and cars are mainly parked on the street.Thesense of quality comes from the detailed design of thebuildings,the corners and boundary treatments and fromthe mature landscape. Fox Lane,Enfield

‘Good design and layoutof new development canhelp to achieve theGovernment’s objectivesof making the best use ofpreviously-developedland and improving thequality and attractivenessof residential areas. Inseeking to achieve theseobjectives,local planningauthorities anddevelopers should thinkimaginatively aboutdesigns and layouts whichmake more efficient useof land withoutcompromising the qualityof the environment.’

PPG3: Housingparagraph 54

Many recently developed areas lack any sense ofcoherent urban structure. In particular, manysuffer from layouts which:■ are difficult to understand and to move

around within;■ create left over and ill-defined spaces;■ result in a haphazard arrangement of dwellings,

with houses turning their backs and blank facades towards important routes and spaces;

■ make walking and cycling inconvenient becauseof an introverted and dead-end movementframework.

In many cases these shortcomings reflect the rigidapplication of highway engineering standards interms of road hierarchies, junction separationdistances, sight lines and turning radii for servicevehicles. The result is often a sense of sprawl andformlessness and development which contradictssome of the key principles of urban design.

Another characteristic of many residentialenvironments which have failed the test of time isthat they have been based on experimental orconvoluted layouts. Often this has resulted in adevelopment performing very well in terms of oneor two objectives, but very poorly in otherimportant respects.

This does not mean that fu ture housing should simply copy the structure of historicenvironments. Requirements have changed,notleast in terms of accommodating the car, andthere are many aspects of historic practice whichcan be improved upon.

The key point is that the st ructure of theresidential environment needs to be createdwith a broad range of objectives in mind and in this respect there is much to learn from bothcontemporary and historic practice. The focusof this chapter is on drawing out these transferable lessons.

A block structure defined by a network of inter-connectedmovement routes has been a predominant form of housinglayout for centuries.Only relatively recently have structurescreated primarily for the car resulted in formless residentialenvironments characterised by a dead-end road system of‘loops and lollipops’

A coherent block structure is not just a feature of historic practice. It also forms the basis of a number of recent schemes whichhave also satisfied the requirements for servicing and road safety. Isledon Village, Islington

Direction ofphotograph

Perimeter blocks

The perimeter block structure has proved to berobust over time. In particular, perimeter blockscan provide for:■ good connections to the surrounding area

(see Chapter 3);■ efficient use of land;■ a clear distinction between the public and

private realms;■ a legible environment;■ good natural surveillance of the street with

windows and doors facing outwards.

Forms of perimeter blocks

The perimeter block can take a wide variety offorms including:■ regular rectangular or square blocks based

on a grid;■ concentric grids designed to promote access to

local centres or public transport routes;■ irregular layouts with a more ‘organic’ character.

Regular blocks Jesmond, Newcastle

Concentric blocks Poundbury, Dorchester

Irregular blocks Thorley Lane, BishopsStortford

The case studies show that these basic forms arenot mutually exclusive. Poundbury, for instance,combines an organic character with a concentricgrid layout focused on the local centre.

Different forms of perimeter block can impartdifferent characters to the streetscape. Compare,for example,the formal character of Jesmond,Newcastle with its uniform street widths andbuilding heights, with the more intimate characterof Thorley Lane, Bishops Stortford and its morevariable building line. However, despite thesedifferences of character, the underlying benefitsof the perimeter block remain.

Regular – almost a ‘grid iron’ – layout of blocks in a suburbancontext. Jesmond, Newcastle

Concentric blocks arranged to promote access to a localcentre. Poundbury, Dorchester

An irregular block structure providing an ‘organic’ andintimate character. Thorley Lane, Bishops Stortford

The arrangement of dwellings within theblock structure

A characteristic of perimeter blocks is thatdwellings face outwards towards the edge ofthe block and the public realm and there is acontinuity in the relationships between the fronts and backs of dwellings.

The arrangement of dwellings within the blockstructure and their relationship to the street andto other building elements are influenced bythe plan form of the dwellings themselves (forexample, wide frontage/shallow plan; narrowfrontage/deep plan; or square plan). Theorientation of windows is also an importantconsideration,particularly in relation to thetreatment of block corners.

Shallow and square plan dwellings provide greateropportunities to create varied street layouts andare much better suited to informal ‘organic’layouts than deep plan dwellings. Both ThorleyLane, Bishops Stortford and Poundbury,Dorchester show how a continuous but variedbuilding line can be created with a mix of dwellingfrontages, garden and garage walls.

By contrast, the historic case study areas (CanningStreet, Jesmond and Stanstead) show how narrow-frontage, deep plan forms can be utilised inpredominantly straight runs of terraces withcontinuous building frontages to provide a veryland-efficient layout in terms of both developmentdensity and the ratio of dwellings to street length.

A mix of square and shallow plan dwellings provides acontinuous street frontage. Rolls Crescent, Manchester

Narrow frontage, deep plan dwellings provide generousinternal space and use land efficiently. Stanstead Road,Lewisham

Houses

Different dwelling plans

Narrow frontage, Square plan with deep plan with through through aspectaspect

Wide frontage,shallow Wide frontage,shallowplan with through aspect plan with single aspect

Square plan with Square plan with through aspect corner aspect

Apartments

Designing for corners

The treatment of corners requires carefulconsideration,particularly where perimeter blocksincorporate sharp corners. The key design issuesinclude:■ maintaining a continuity of frontage and

visual surveillance;■ securing a direct relationship between habitable

rooms and gardens;■ ensuring privacy between habitable rooms

within the corner;■ allowing light penetration to garden space

and habitable rooms;■ articulating prominent junctions and

nodal points.

The case studies illustrate a range of differentapproaches to these issues with varying levels ofsuccess.Stanstead Road, Lewisham and, to a lesserextent, Jesmond, Newcastle highlight a commonshortcoming in Victorian housing with limited orno frontage along the short end of the block,thuscreating an area that is not overlooked and whichcan become a focus for nuisance and vandalism.

Blank gable ends can encourage graffiti and nuisance

The more recent case studies show how theseissues can be addressed through careful design.At Rolls Crescent, Hulme three-storey houses giveprominence to the corners, and the use of bothsquare and shallow plan dwellings allows thecorners to be turned with continuous frontage andaspect to the street, as well as allowing lightpenetration to the windows of habitable roomswithin the corner.

Rolls Crescent also succeeds in resolving therelationship between principal habitable roomsand private garden space within the corner. AtGreenland Passage, Southwark this issue is addressed by incorporating into the cornerssingle aspect apartments without private gardens.

Unusable space in the corner Creating space in the corner

Fitting in the gardens Relating gardens tohabitable rooms

Light penetration to Ensuring privacythe corner

Family houses with gardens on a corner. Rolls Cresent, Hulme

Block dimensions

There are no hard and fast rules in terms of theoptimum dimensions of a perimeter block; indeeda variety of different block lengths is important inadding richness to a neighbourhood. The casestudies highlight a number of key considerationsincluding:■ balancing land efficiency with the need to

provide convenient pedestrian routes throughan area and to important local facilities;

■ traffic management in terms of controllingvehicle speeds and discouraging rat-running (see Chapter 3);

■ the spatial needs of activities which are to beaccommodated within the blo ck.

The historic ‘long grid’ often achieved landefficiency at the expense of convenient pedestrianmovement and this explains why long residentialblocks were often orientated along the mainpedestrian desire lines. The Rolls Crescent schemeat Hulme represents the opposite extreme withvery short (70 x 80 me tres) square blocksproviding a very high degree of pedestrianpermeability through the area. Between these twoextremes, a block length of between 100 and 150metres would represent a general rule-of-thumb.

Decisions about the use of space within the blockare also a significant factor in determiningappropriate block dimensions. At Rolls Crescent,for example, the objective to provide a securesitting out and play area for use by immediateneighbours has resulted in a small and intimateurban block. By contrast, at Thorley Lane, BishopsStortford and Poundbury, Dorchester the decisionto accommodate car parking within the block hasresulted in much larger blocks.

58m

Rolls Crescent, Hulme

Thorley Lane, Bishops Stortford

Poundbury, Dorchester

Stanstead,Lewisham

75m

96m

98m

60m

75m

175m

60m

Access to back of block areas

A key consideration in the design of residentialblocks is the degree of public access provided toareas within the block. It is here that some of thesignificant choices and trade-offs need to be madebetween competing objectives. Principal amongthese is the tension between the arrangements forservicing (including car parking) and the securityof dwellings and garden areas.

Servicing dwellings from within the block (such asat Jesmond, Poundbury and Thorley Lane) canimprove the appearance of the streetscape interms of car parking and refuse collection andenable residents to have access to the rear ofgardens. However, these advantages need to becarefully balanced against other concerns. Inparticular:■ rear servicing can undermine the security of

dwell i n gs by all owing stra n gers access to the re a rof dwell i n gs ;

■ without very careful attention to detaileddesign, rear parking courts and alleyways can become unpleasant and even hostile places;

■ rear courtyard parking can reduce the area available for back gardens and the coming and going of cars can detract from the tranquilityof garden areas.

The design of Poundbury successfully overcomessome of these concerns by incorporating dwellingsinto the rear courtyards to provide surveillanceand to create an attractive public space. Yet careneeds to be taken in replicating this model,both in ensuring that the design principles arecarried through as rigorously as at Poundbury,Dorchester and in taking account of the densityof development and the character of thesurrounding area.

The Stanste ad Road , Lewisham and Ro lls Cre s cen t ,Hulme case stu dy areas both ach i eve com p l eteenclosure of the back of block area. This helps tomake the rear of dwellings secure and thearrangement of rear garden to rear garden (as atStanstead) provides the opportunity forsubstantial landscaped areas within the block.However, it requires dwellings to be serviced fromthe front and cars to be parked on the street. Aparticular issue in respect of terraced houses canbe the need to carry garden equipment and wastethrough the house, unless a shared and gated frontaccess to back yards and gardens is provided. Thesame point applies to building maintenance and toany future building work at the back of the house.

Enclosed backs give securityto the rear of dwellings andprovide space for moregenerous gardens, butparking and servicing mustbe accommodated in thefront. Stanstead Road,Lewisham

Rear service alleys provideconvenient access to reargardens and can remove binstorage and clutter from thestreet. However, they raiseserious issues in terms ofsafety and securit y. Herebins in the alley also pr ovidea platform for burglars toscale the rear wall and gainaccess to the back of thehome. Jesmond, Newcastle

Parking in courts within theblock can improve thequality of the street scene,but this can haveimplications in terms of thesize,security and tranquilityof gardens.Thorley Lane,Bishops Stortford

Placing dwellings within theparking courts can help t oi m p rove natural su rvei ll a n ce .Here the design creates apublic space which has carsparked in it, rather than acar park. Poundbury,Dorchester

Extent of public access

Other block structures

Un til recen t ly, peri m eter bl ocks were the mostcom m on and robust form of housing layo ut, butt h ere are situ a ti ons wh ere a different form of l ayo utis appropri a te . These can inclu de con s tra i n ed site sor those wh ere a ‘s etp i ece’ devel opm ent is requ i red ,su ch as one overl ooking an important civic space .

Equally, perimeter blocks can accommodate avariety of layout forms within them. Specifically,cul-de-sac forms can work very well within awider block structure. This can add interest anddiversity as well as making good use of backlandareas within large development blocks.

Hi gh s et t , Ca m bri d ge shows how a seclu ded andi n ti m a te re s i den tial area with good pede s trian linksi n to the su rrounding area can be cre a ted within al a r ger bl ock . Wh ere su ch opportu n i ties are taken itis important that the scale and massing ofdevel opm ent within the bl ock re s pect that of t h ebu i l d i n gs forming the main bl ock and take acco u n tof the ex i s ting ori en t a ti on of f ronts and back s .

Unwin and Parker’s plan for Letchworth (1907),based on aperimeter block structure but with enclosed layouts withinlarger blocks and buildings on sp ecial sites

Buildings forming wider urban blockThird Phase of development at Highsett enclosed by wider blockPedestrian routes

Enclosed housing layout relying on a wider block structurewhich maintains continuity of frontage to the principal routesaround the block, Highsett,Cambridge

A pavilion building is ‘civic’ on all sides. Here the attributes ofthe perimeter block form are condensed into a single building.Deansgate Quay, Manchester

In looking at the degree of enclosure achievedin the case study areas, it is also important toremember that the historic case study areas featurehigher floor-to-ceiling heights than would be thenorm today. Hence,creating the same sense ofenclosure with the same number of building-storeys would require a reduced separationdistance between facing dwellings, for example asat Poundbury, Thorley Lane and Rolls Crescent.By contrast, at Isledon Road, monopitch roofshave been used to lend a larger scale to the street elevations.

Street widths and enclosure

Designing residential streets around the functionalrequirements of cars, service vehicles and utilities,with inadequate attention being paid to otherimportant amenity requirements, has been one ofthe greatest failings of much recent development.In comparison to the best historic residentialenvironments, the consequences have included:■ a loss of local identity through the widespread

application of the same standards;■ an incoherent relationship of dwellings to the

street and to each other;■ a lack of any sense of enclosure;■ the loss of front garden areas to hardstandings

for off–street car parking;■ the loss of boundary treatments, such as walls

and well-managed hedges, which define public and private space and articulate the boundaries between dwellings;

■ often an absence of street trees.

This street has a very good sense of enclosure. Street width and building heights are well related and the tall building atthe end of the street terminates the view. Greenland Passage,Southwark

Th ere are no hard and fast ru l e s . In deed the cases tudies show that streets can work at widths asva ri ed as nine metres (Ro lls Cre s cen t , Hulme) and 24 metres (Canning Street ,L iverpoo l ) . What isi m portant is that the space bet ween the bu i l d i n gsis con s i dered in rel a ti on to the scale of dwell i n gsand the activi ties taking place in the street . Forex a m p l e , Canning Street works well with a verywi de sep a ra ti on because the street is fra m ed by 12 -14 metre high bu i l d i n gs . In other caseslandscaping can help cre a te a sense of en cl o su rewh ere wi der spacing is requ i red bet ween dwell i n gs ,su ch as along principal movem ent ro ute s .

It follows from this that the design of streets needsto be tailored to the particular needs of the placeand its physical and social context and consideredin three dimensions.

9m

3m

18m

5m

12m

24m

9m

20m

‘Local planningauthorities should adoptpolicies which . . . focuson the quality of theplaces and livingenvironments beingcreated and give priorityto the needs ofpedestrians rather thanthe movement andparking of vehicles.’

PPG3: Housingparagraph 56

1:3 ratio, Halston Street, Hulme

1:2.2 ratio, Isledon Village, Islington

1:3.6 ratio, Cavendish Place, Jesmond

1:2 ratio, Canning Street,Liverpool

Varying ratios of street width tobuilding height

Setbacks

The setback of dwellings from the street is a keyconsideration in terms of:■ defining the character of the street;■ determining the degree of privacy given to

ground floor rooms;■ accommodating storage and service

requirements at the front of the dwelling.

It is no exaggeration to say that the success orfailure of a street can often depend on the designof a one or two metre setback between thedwelling and the footway.

Where dwellings are serviced from the rear, suchas at Poundbury, Thorley Lane and Friars Quay,dwellings can be pushed forward to the ‘ back offootway’ with no or very little setback to create avery intimate environment without compromisingeither the storage space for bins and utilities orease of access by service vehicles. Where this isdone, careful consideration needs to be given tothe design of front door and threshold areas,particularly in relation to security. At Poundburythe use of recessed porches helps to enhance thethreshold to the dwelling.

The other case studies show that even a verymodest setback of a metre or so can be sufficientto accommodate bin and cycle storage and provideprivacy to front rooms, while a setback of three tofive metres can provide for a small front garden.Issues of detailed design in relation to setbacksand thresholds are con s i dered furt h er in Ch a pter 7.

A zero setback. Poundbury, Dorchester

A minimal (1-2 metre) setback.Thorley Lane,Bishops Stortford

A small front garden (within a 3 – 5 me tre setback) providesprivacy and a buffer to the street. Stanstead Road,Lewisham

A larger front garden (within a 5 – 7 me tre setback) provides a landscape structure and setting for the house. Jesmond, Newcastle

Solar orientation

The orientation of dwellings in relation to the sunis important, not only in relation to thearrangement of gardens and principal habitablerooms (see Chapter 6), but also in influencing thepotential to reduce energy requirements withinthe home. For example, daylighting reduces theneed for artificial lighting and passive solar gainreduces the need for internal space heating.Emerging technologies involving the use ofphotovoltaic cells can convert solar radiation intoelectricity, while solar panels can provide a sourceof hot water for washing and heating.

The optimum orientation in terms of maximisingsolar potential is for dwellings to face southwards,with streets arranged in an east-west pattern andwith a generous separation between dwellings toprovide for full solar access. However, strictadherence to these principles can result in trade-offs against other planning and urban designobjectives. For example:■ the orientation of the street pattern also needs

to be considered in relation to pedestrian desirelines and connections to existing placesand routes;

■ orientating all dwellings towards the south can undermine the relationships between the frontsand backs of dwellings and reduce natural surveillance of the street;

■ very wide spacing between dwellings can result in an inefficient use of land and weaken a sense of street enclosure.

Denser urban apartment blocks require careful considerationto ensure good solar penetration to the interior of the block.Here a break in the building block at the third storey allowsgood sunlight penetration to an attractive communal space.Narrow Street, Tower Hamlets,London.

In fact, with careful orientation of streets and thearrangement of dwellings within the blockstructure, it is possible to provide goodopportunities for solar gain and daylightpenetration to habitable rooms, while at the sametime addressing other key principles of goodurban design.Once again, design decisions needto be made in the round to reach a consideredbalance between competing design objectives.

Direction of the sun

Standard perimeter South-facing terracesblock creates areas maximise solar gain of overshadowing but can compromise

other design objectives

Orientating blocks to the Breaks in the building formsun’s path reduces or reduced storey heights overshadowed areas increase solar penetration ofwithin the block the block

N

Public,private and communal space

Most residential environments comprise a mix of,public, private and communal spaces. It isimportant that the role of each space is clear andthat the boundaries between different types ofspace are clearly defined. Left-over space is wastedspace which in time is likely to become a source ofnuisance.

Rigid adherence to highway design standards,in this case sightlines between front driveways and the street,undermines thequality and utility of front gardens and blurs the distinctionbetween the public realm of the street and the private realm ofthe dwelling. Residents or visitors still find it mo re convenientto park on the st reet despite generous off- street parkingprovision

Here cars are parked on the street and public and pr ivatespace is clearly defined by walls,hedges and gates. ValleyDrive, Harrogate

Public open space is potentially one of acommunity’s greatest assets. The best open spacesare those which not only cater safely for play,exercise and relaxation, but which also provide anarea with a sense of identity and community. Inmany cases this will involve drawing the openspace to the heart of the neighbourhood to createan important structural element within the overallurban design strategy (see Chapter 4).

Open space can bring ch a ra c ter and qu a l i ty to a n ei gh bo u rh oodand provi de re s i dents with a pleasant out l oo k . Pa rk Mews ,Hulme

Where communal space is provided as internalgardens or courtyards in higher density housing,care needs to be taken to protect privacy and amenity to the rear of ground floor dwellings.This is successfully achieved in parts of GreenlandPassage where the ground floor of townhousesand apartments opens into a small patio area,which provides a buffer to the attractivecommunal garden beyond.

The addition of planting helps to define the boundarybetween private and communal space and creates a degree ofprivacy for private patios. Greenland Passage, Southwark.

Designing for privacy

Privacy is an important design objective inensuring that residents feel at ease within theirhome. It is also an area where general planningstandards prescribing minimum separationdistances between habitable rooms can frustratethe creation of attractive residential environmentsby denying the ability to provide privacy throughcareful design.

De s i gn can help cre a te privacy in a nu m ber of w ays :■ street design can influence the relationship

between facing dwellings. A varied building line(such as at Thorley Lane, Bishops Stortford and Poundbury, Dorchester) can create obliqueviews, allowing the fronts of dwellings to bebrought closer together than where facing viewsare direct, such as at Jesmond;

■ rooms needing less privacy, such as livingrooms and kitchens,can face the street with bedrooms and bathrooms located towardsmore private parts of the home;

■ windows can be designed in relation to the function of the room: generous windows forliving rooms overlooking the street or a garden;frosted windows for bathrooms; and smallerwindows for bedrooms. Bay windows provideoblique views down a street;

■ the careful orientation of primary and secondary windows can enable dwellings to bedrawn close together while still providingsurveillance of the public realm;

■ screening and landscaping can limit overlooking between facing rear windows.

Thus, while there are well established rules ofthumb (such as a minimum ‘back-to-back’distance of 20 metres), these need to be appliedflexibly in relation to the specific context and inthe recognition that the objective of privacy canoften be better secured through careful designrather than by physical separation alone.

Smaller kitchen windows balance the need for surveillancewith privacy. Isledon Road, Islington

A failure to consider the need for privacy can result in curtainsand blinds being permanently drawn

A varied building line creates oblique views across thestreet.Thorley Lane, Bishops Stortford

Creating a feeling of safety

Design has a crucial role to play in delivering andcreating a sense of safety and security. A key issueis that of natural surveillance. Streets which arewell overlooked and which have activity in themthroughout the day and evening benefit from thepresence and surveillance of residents and visitors.

G ood planning and de s i gn can help by en suring that:■ dwellings fronting the street have their principal

en tra n ce on to it;■ windows are designed to maximise overlooking

of the street;■ continuity of frontage and aspect is maintained

on corners;■ blank facades and areas which are not

overlooked are avoided;■ the mix of dwelling types and sizes encourages

activity in the street throughout the day and evening (see Chapter 4 on dwelling mix and neighbourhood).

Designing for safety and security should not beseparated from consideration of details such asthose addressed by Secured by Design and issues of long-term management; the latter beingparticularly important in relation to higherdensity apartment development. Considerationsof the number of dwellings to be served by acommon entrance and the introduction ofconcierge schemes can often prove fundamental tothe ultimate success of a place.

The archetypal ‘safe street’. Windows overlook it, doors open onto it, enabling people to see and be seen. Ideally, shrubbery wouldbe managed to a height which allows privacy but still provides for natural surveillance. Jesmond, Newcastle

Corner windows can provide views in several directions. Rolls Crescent, Hulme

‘Local planningauthorities should adoptpolicies which . . .promote design andlayouts which are safe andtake account of publichealth,crime preventionand community safetyconsiderations.’

PPG3: Housingparagraph 56

Accommodating parking

Wh ere and how cars are parked are crucial to thequ a l i ty of housing devel opm ent and to the ch oi ce speople make in how they travel . The level ofp a rking provi s i on and its loc a ti on are both equ a llyi m port a n t . Car own ers want to be able to parknear their home and to be able to see their car. Inm eeting these aspira ti ons the typical re sult is a car-dom i n a ted envi ron m ent with ‘car platform s’ i nf ront of houses or integral ga ra ges facing the street .

Cars dominating the housing frontage

This has a number of negative consequencesincluding:■ eliminating front garden space and the

opportunities for landscape and planting;■ blurring the distinction between public and

private space by preventing traditionalboundary treatments;

■ removing the opportunity to park onthe street;

■ introducing potential conflicts betweenpedestrians and cars which have to cross the footway to park.

In addition, dedicating car parking spacesto individual dwellings does not provide the same flexibility towards variations in carownership between households as communalarrangements do.

Instead of the dominance of cars parked in frontof houses,there are often opportunities to use a combination of dedicated and communalparking, especially in developments where securecommunal provision can be made an integral partof the overall site layout. The particular contextand requirements of a site can help to furnish anappropriate solution.

As a guide to establishing parking policies thatsupport sustainable development, PPG3 points toan upper threshold of 1.5 spaces per dwelling onaverage. It is to be exp ected that, with asustainable approach to parking, local authoritieswill revise their parking standards to allow forsignificantly lower levels of parking than havebeen the case recently, particularly fordevelopments:■ in locations where services are readily accessible

by walking, cycling or public transport;■ which provide housing where the demand for

parking is likely to be less than for familyhousing;

■ involving conversions where off-street parking is less likely to be successfully designed intothe scheme.

Whatever format of parking is chosen, specialaccount needs to be taken of those with restrictedmobility, espcially in getting in and out of parkedcars and approaching the front door of a house.

On-street parking

Most traditional terraced housing in many townsthroughout the country has adjusted well to theadvent of the car. Streets in inner suburbs, such asJesmond,although not designed for the car, showthat on-street parking can work. It is convenient,well overlooked from surrounding houses and isextremely efficient, both in terms of the amountof space required for parking and in providing forvariations in car ownership between households.On-street parking can also have a traffic-calmingeffect,helps to separate pedestrians from othertraffic and provides the opportunity to includeboundary treatment landscaping for dwellings.

On-street parking in a t raditional street. Jesmond, Newcastle

‘Parking policies shouldbe framed with gooddesign in mind,recognising that carownership varies withincome,age,householdtype,and the type ofhousing and its location.’

PPG 3 Housingparagraph 60

In new developments (or the upgrading ofexisting areas) there is much to be said foron-street parking, but with the ‘line of steel’interrupted at intervals.

On-street parking bays can be incorporated intothe overall width of the street, demarcated bypaving, trees and planting. There are two maintypes:■ parallel parking against the kerb. The example

illustrated is of streets with good surveillancefrom neighbouring houses;

■ Angled parking bays. These allow a greaterparking capacity than parallel parking, butbecause of the danger from reversing vehicles,they are only suitable for streets with lowtraffic speeds.

Parallel parking against the curb can have a traffic-calmingeffect.Canning Street,Liverpool

Right-angled parking bays (see also photograph below).Isledon Village, Islington

Right-angled and parallel parking. In this arrangement there is one space per dwelling and the parking bays are broken up by treeplanting. Isledon Village, Islington.

Courtyard parking

Communal parking in courtyards has gained abad reputation because of inadequately designedparking courts from the 1960s and 1970s, usuallylocated away from housing and therefore lackingsurveillance.

But more recently it has been shown that securerear courtyards can be a useful addition todedicated spaces in front of dwellings. Courtyardswhich work well exhibit three main characteristics:■ they are not car parks but places which have

parking in them;■ they are overlooked by adjoining houses, or by

buildings entered from the parking area;■ they normally include at most ten parking

spaces. If there are more spaces the courtyardlayout should be broken up.

The courtyard will usually be located at the centreof a street block, designed as an integral part ofthe development. Ideally, it will have more thanone access point, forming a route across the block,although in some locations concerns aboutsecurity may preclude that arrangement.

The entrance to a rear courtyard, betweenbuildings or through an archway, needs to respectthe street frontage. Over wide openings areunnecessary if serving ten spaces or fewer, andthey may damage the continuity of the street.

Houses within the rear courtyard provide natural surveillance.Poundbury, Dorchester

Narrow entrance arch to a rear courtyard. Black Notley, Essex.

A typical 1970’s development, with parking totally segregatedfrom housing and not overlooked

s

This arrangement of buildings creates a well overlooked space.Through routes increase natural surveillance from passingpedestrians. Poundbury, Dorchester

A courtyard formed by the arrangement of buildings. Herethere is no through route for pedestrians.Thorley Lane,Bishops Stortford

In–curtilage parking

Va rious arra n gem ents can help miti ga te the ef fect ofp a rking within the building curti l a ge . The simplestof these is to loc a te the ga ra ge or carport alon gs i dethe house, s et back from the building line. Ma nyp a rts of Th orl ey Lane, Bi s h ops Stortford show what can be ga i n ed from su ch a con f i g u ra ti on .Al tern a tively, in some loc a ti on s , the ga rage can be con cealed as part of a bo u n d a ry wall .

Basement and undercroft parking

The success of an infill development such asWebster’s Yard, Kendal depends upon the use ofbasement parking, without which the schemewould not have been viable. Apart from thefinancial equation,the advantage of putting carsunderground is that it preserves the streetfrontage. But,as with courtyard parking, muchdepends on the location and design of theentrance. Webster’s Yard provides a clever exampleof concealment.

Car parking structures have a rigid geometrybased on the dimensions of a parking bay, but thisshould not be allowed to dictate the shape o f thebuilding above.

Car clubs

Car clubs eliminate the need to own a car byallowing residents to hire vehicles as and whenthey need them. People wanting to use the c lubsimply pay a small annual f ee. The vehicle is thencharged by the time hired and the distance driven,the operator covering insurance and maintenancecosts.

Although car clubs are common in otherEuropean countries,none of the case studies hadone in operation or proposed. In terms of housinglayout, a successful car club offers the prospect ofa development with much reduced parkingprovision and thus, in some cases, significantlyhigher densities.

Town houses with integral garages. Ingress Park, Greenhithe

View of New Inn Road,leading to basement car park at theend of the street.The treatment of the car park entrancepreserves the street frontage. Webster’s Yard, Kendal

This underground car park is well lit and has se veralpedestrian access points. Webster’s Yard, Kendal

Some key points

In terms of creating a robust structure for theresidential environment, the following key pointsneed to be considered:

Structure

■ How does the development address the need fors tru ctu re? By fo ll owing a peri m eter bl ock form,by working within a larger block structure oras a pavilion building responding to its setting?

Movement

■ Is the block structure consistent with the objectives of the movement framework(see Chapter 3) in terms of desire lines to local centres, public transport and other facilities?

Security

■ Are streets, parking areas, open spaces and playareas overlooked by dwellings?

■ Are the back of block areas secure? If publiclyaccessible, what measures have been taken toreduce the opportunities for antisocial behaviour?

Corners

■ Where perimeter blocks take a rectangularform, how have corner issues been resolved?

■ Is continuity of aspect maintained? How areissues of light, privacy and access to gardenspace resolved within the corner?

Parking

■ Do the requirements for car parking and its layout on site undermine the environmentalquality of the scheme?

Open Space

■ Have public open spaces helped to shape the urban design strategy for the site?

■ How do dwellings relate to open space in termsof their frontage and scale?

Cycle storage

One great advantage of cycling is that it is door-to-door, but the problem of where to keep abicycle is often a deterrent to using this form oftransport. The wide hallways of 19th centuryhouses can accommodate one or two bicycles, butthe tighter spaces of much recent housing militateagainst that solution. Storing cycles on a wall rackis one alternative or, more convenient still,theprovision of an enclosed ground floor space forcycles: that space could also be used for a pram,buggy, wheelchair or electric mobility scooter.

Cycle storage

The inclusion of convenient but secure cycle storage at thefront of dwellings,particularly terraced housing, requires verycareful design. In this example,cycle storage is provided in arecessed space below the kitchen window

Thinking about space in and around the home

The case studies include examples of how theplanning of internal space integrally with externalspace can produce and enrich the sense of qualityand disti n ct iden ti ty both within the dwelling andof the nei gh bo u rh ood as a wh o l e . Equ a lly, wh enthese rel a ti onships bet ween internal and ex tern a ls p aces are not given adequ a te con s i dera ti on ,ch a racteri s tics wh i ch undermine the overa ll qu a l i tyof the development can emerge, for example:■ living rooms lacking privacy;■ external spaces without surveillance;■ inadequate treatment of threshold areas;■ lost opportunities to benefit from orientation

and views.

The lack of distinctiveness and quality whichcharacterises so many modern housing schemescan often be attributed to the design of layoutforms and the application of standard housingtypes in a manner which fails to consider therelationships between internal and external spaces.

This chapter is not intended to be a guide tointernal space planning or standards (becausepointers can be found in a number of existingpublications1) but aims instead to stimulatethinking about the issues involved. The need forthis thinking also arises in relation to otherfactors, including:■ greater interest in flexible internal space,

as exemplified by loft developments and live/work units;

■ recognition of the benefits of housing whichcan ad a pt to the ch a n ging requ i rem ents ofre s i den t s

■ greater emphasis on orientation to lowenergy solutions.

Density and space

It is a common misunderstanding that higherhousing densities need to result in lower standardsof space around and within the home. While largedetached houses will tend to be more spaciousthan town centre apartments,the case studiessuggest that it is possible to provide generousliving space and,at the same time, achieve higherdevelopment densities.

The case stu dy devel opm ents com p l eted within thelast decade (for example,at: Thorley Lane, BishopsStortford; Rolls Crescent, Hulme; GreenlandPassage, Southwark; Poundbury, Dorcheser; andDeansgate Quay, Manchester) provide spacestandards which match or better those commonlyfound in the private sector, or those currentlyrecommended for public sector development2.

Spacious town houses arranged on four floors, close toNorwich City Centre.This scheme achieves a net density of 34dwellings per hectare. Friars Quay, Norwich

These Victorian town houses (as originally built) provide adensity of 41 dwellings per hectare while still achieving agenerous amount of internal space by today’s standards.Canning Street,Liverpool

Generously-sized back gardens provide space for children’splay and ecology. In this case a mix of three and five bedroomhouses was developed at a density of 31 dwellings per hectare.Stanstead Road,Lewisham

The earlier and historic case study areas such as:Canning Street,Liverpool, Jesmond, Newcastle,and Stanstead Road, Lewisham also provide spacestandards which would be considered generous bytoday’s norms at densities in the range of 30 to 50dwellings per hectare and above.

A key factor in making this possible is the efficientprovision of space for vehicle movement and carparking. The design principles relating to theseissues are considered in more detail in Chapters 3and 5.

Whatever the scale of the dwelling or form ofdevelopment,maximising utility and creating asense of space are likely to depend upon suchfactors as:■ the potential for daylight penetration;■ the relationship to outdoor space, whether that

is provided by a balcony, garden, street or park;■ the ability to provide multi-use rather than

single-use spaces;■ the efficiency of planning internal circulation

and locating kitchens, utility rooms, toiletsand bathrooms.

The advantages and disadvantages of the ‘wet core’uses (for example, kitchens,bathrooms and utilityrooms) being to the front, to the rear or in thecentre of the dwelling need to be carefullyconsidered in terms of functionality, lighting andvisual impact. Ground floor street side windowsgenerally need to be small and elevated.Large‘picture’ windows on the street side of the housewill tend to result in a public facade dominated bydrawn blinds and curtains, with a loss of naturallight to the dwelling and a loss of surveillance ofthe street.

It is important to analyse the relationship betweenthe block size and frontage width in relation tointernal and external space issues. The potentialfrequently exists to explore housing andapartment forms which use well planned andnatural lighting devices to create quality solutionsfor deep-plan and narrow-frontage dwellings.Equally, the use of either single or double aspectapartments needs particular attention in relationto the quality of s p ace to be en j oyed . Prom i s i n gopportu n i ties to en h a n ce the qu a l i ty of ex ternal and internal space tend to em er ge at corn ers and street bl ock en d s .

Potential for daylight penetration fully exploited throughorientation, glazing, with supporting kitchen,bathroom andcirculation space located away from the main elevations.St Mary’s Square, Bury St Edmonds

Here the planning and use of internal space are well related toexternal space. Millennium Village, Greenwich

Multi-use space linking hall,kitchen,dining and living areas.Millennium Village, Greenwich

Compact circulation and kitchen space planning maximiseliving space. Prince of Wales Road,London

Relating indoor and outdoor space

In seeking to relate indoor and outdoor space,the starting point needs to be an analysis oforientation and po ten tial sources of l i ght and vi ews .Rooflights, open stairwells, mezzanine sections,varying ceiling heights, or steps and corners in theplan, can all help to bring daylight into the core ofthe dwellings.

A mezzanine level exploits light for two levels of habitablespace. Homes for Change, Hulme

As well as this ‘inside-to-outside’ analysis, an‘outside-to-inside’ analysis is also desirable. Howwill the street impact on the dwelling in terms ofits privacy and security, light and sunlight and thedefinition of the public realm and the privateexternal and internal space? How will streetplanting affect the dwelling and what factors needto be considered in defining the scale, form andtreatment of the ‘threshold space’ and windows?

The consequence of failing to consider the relationshipsbetween outdoor and indoor space. Here car parking on araised deck compromises the privacy (and potentially thesecurity) of first floor apartments resulting in permanentlydrawn blinds. Deansgate Quay, Manchester

Large windows provide good daylight penetration, but alsocreate a feeling of vulnerability with little pr ivacy from thestreet

Small windows provide a greater feeling of security in thehome, but also reduce the potential for daylight penetration

Large windows together with small garden setbacks canprovide a solution.The use of this room is a furtherconsideration, because kitchens and living rooms havedifferent functional and privacy requirements

A successful balance between an active streetfrontage and privacy can be aided by making theground floor level significantly higher than thepavement level. However, this poses difficulties forwheelchair access,and carefully consideredsolutions are needed. These may involve welldesigned ramps,level rear access at a higher le vel,or well tailored solutions to specific circumstances.Some developments have addressed the issuesthrough the street-side ground floor being givenover to the ‘front’ door, lobby, storage and parking space.

This wheelchair ramp has blurred the distinction betweenpublic and private space with the unintended consequence ofproviding a place for children to cycle and skateboard,causingnuisance to residents. Rolls Crescent, Hulme

External space to the rear requires similar analysis,whether this is private, communal or a mix ofboth. At ground floor level,the best solutions willprovide a sharing of space, from the garden intothe house and from the house into the garden,allowing for different patterns of living during thesummer and winter months. Above this,thepotential for balconies and roof gardens, bothprojected and recessed,should be explored.A keyconsideration is that balconies should be useableand not merely decorative. This raises specificissues, not only about size but also involvesthinking about orientation, views, the circulationpatterns of the internal space,massing forms suchas stepped structures as well as constructionmethods.

In the design of any urban housing block,theoptimum internal planning of each unit is likely tovary according to which side of the street the unitfaces. For ex a m p l e , a north or east-facing kitch enf acing the street has merit in terms of an activef ron t a ge , ease of access for del iveri e s , com fort inuse and goes hand in hand with the po ten tial forsolar gain to the living and other habi t a ble room son the south and west side s .

Conversely, on the opposite side of the street,living rooms, deeper gardens and balconies facingthe street may be appropriate, with the ‘wet core’of the house to the rear. Longer rear gardens mayalso be appropriate here to avoid their beingexcessively shaded. Other factors will inevitablycome into play, such as views and access to openspace,the adverse impact of a very busy road orpavement on the edge of the development, slopingsites, existing trees to be retained or the potentialfor new tree planting. It is important to analyse,weigh and balance all these issues before arrivingat a fully considered design resolution.

Kitchen location Living room location

Solar orientation is an important consideration in thelocation of the principal habitable rooms. In this example,dwellings on different sides of the street have their livingrooms arranged for optimum solar orientation

Lengthening rear gardens to take account of solar orientationcan ensure that each garden receives an equal amount ofsunlight

Flexibility, adaptability and change

Many homes are still sold in terms of the numberof bedrooms, reception rooms and bathrooms, butmodern construction methods (including theprefabrication of wide-span floors) can providelarger, multi-purpose spaces or space whichresidents can then subdivide to meet their ownparticular requirements.

Open plan and cellular forms imply differenttrade-offs and lifestyle choices. These include:

Open Plan CellularMay reduce market Market normacceptabilityFlexible FixedSpatially efficient Spatially inefficientAcoustic problems Acoustic separationImproves daylight Reducespenetration daylight penetration

The use of partition doors between habitablerooms can provide some of the benefits of a largeflexible space combined with the ability to formtwo smaller and separate rooms. Closing down aroom can, for example, form a temporary guestbedroom or a quiet area for home-working oropen it up to create a more generous space forentertaining or children’s play. Careful planning ofcirculation spaces such as landing areas can alsoensure that they perform more than their strictlyutilitarian function of providing access tohabitable rooms, and become multi-use spaces intheir own right.

Space broken into small cells to separate out uses

Merged space joins uses together

Borrowed garden space provides an extension to ahabitable room

Adaptability

History suggests that the demand for differenttypes of housing and for different uses in an areawill evolve over time, both in response to changingsocio-economic circumstances and to changingperceptions of an area. Both the Jesmond,Newcastle and the Stanstead Road, Lewisham casestudy areas have taken on a richer mix of housingtypes over time through the conversion of somedwellings to apartments, while Canning Street,Liverpool has seen some of its dwellings convertedfirst to apartments,then to commercial use andfinally back to single family houses.

Certain historic housing forms have proved very adaptable tochanging requirements. Here,large town houses built forwealthy merchants have been converted to apartments andoffices.Canning Street,Liverpool

The important design principle which flowsfrom this is that dwellings and residentialneighbourhoods which are designed to beadaptable will prove more robust over time thanthose which have been tailored tightly to aparticular need. For example:■ steel and concrete frame construction can create

broader spans which make the reconfigurationof internal space easier than where dwellings arebuilt in a cellular form with loadbearing walls;

■ vertical stacking of kitchens and bathrooms can simplify the provision of additional services;

■ compact vertical circulation with ready means of escape can make larger houses more suitable for sub-division into apartments or commercialuse;

■ the use of solid floors can reduce noise transmission.

These con s i dera ti ons may be parti c u l a rly rel evant intown cen tre and ed ge - of - cen tre loc a ti ons wh ere thedemand for different uses is likely to ch a n ge over ti m e .

Meeting the changing needs of residents

The needs of a household will evolve as a result ofchanging circumstances as well as a consequenceof evolving social and workplace trends. Thesechanges may result in the need for more,less ordifferent domestic space, or in using the availablespace for different purposes.

‘Lifetime homes’ are designed to be adaptable toresidents changing requirements and, particularly,in terms of providing for reduced personalmobility3. Taking the implications of reducedmobility into account in the initial design of thedwelling can ensure that the home can be adapted,for example, to provide:■ a stair lift;■ a room downstairs which could be used as a

bedroom;■ access to a downstairs toilet which can be

adapted to include a shower.

‘Smart’ technology is increasingly being usedwithin the home, especially to provide support toolder, less mobile people. For example, to fostercontact with wardens and carers, to detect falls orlack of movement within the home or simply tocut off the water before a bath overflows. Onceagain, the installation of such technology inexisting homes can be made easier and cheaper ifit is provided for in the initial design. Skirtingducts, for example, which are easily accessible, canallow new cabling to be installed with minimaldisruption.

Smart technology can play an important role in supportingresidents and reducing resource consumption

The option of creating additional living space orof making existing space meet needs better canenable a household to adapt to changingcircumstances without its occupants having tomove home by:■ extending the dwelling to the rear or side

(but also possibly upwards);■ converting loft space into living space;■ reconfiguring existing space to form differently

sized rooms.

Initial design and choices of construction methodcan have an important bearing on this potential.At a broader level, the provision of a wide range ofhousing opportunities across a neighbourhoodcan enable people to move to more suitablehousing while maintaining family and friendshipties or retaining continuity in children’s educationor childcare.

Using loft spaces can be an eff ective way of meeting the needfor more living space within the home.The potential for loftconversion can be as enhanced by careful attention to rooftruss design as well the potential to modify the int ernal layoutto satisfy fire regulations

Energyissues

Flexibiltiy Lifetimehomes

Green

issues

Su s t a i n a bi l i ty Dwellingdesign

Smarttechnology

Deliveringservices Com mu n i c a ti on s

Monitoring

Designing to maximise flexibility and choicein the use of internal and external space

The floor plans illustrated below show thepotential for housing to be designed which isadaptable to changing occupier requirements.This particular housing was designed as partof an experimental scheme for BirminghamCity Council by Shillam+Smith Architecture,and Urbanism.

The design approach emerged from aprogramme of consultation with the localcommunity, a large proportion of which is ofSouth Asian origin. This identified the firstpriorities for new homes as being affordabilityand space. To accommodate this,the houseswere designed to be 20% larger thancomparable new housing, but built for the sameprice, which meant a simple, no-frills layout.However, the houses were designed to beextendable so that residents could stamp their own identity on their homes.

The structure selected was a concrete frame,andextensions were intended to be within thecapability of a local builder or a DIY enthusiast.In this way, housing could be provided whichcould accommodate the diversity of family typeswe find today. For example, people could decidewhether they wanted a single living roomor two, and exactly how they wanted bedroomarrangements. As families grow, and as residentsbecome more affluent, the house could beextended to meet changing needs.

The basic shell, although simple, was robust, andsatisfied the needs of building regulations andlifetime homes. Houses were also designed so that people can carry out a business from the ‘front room’ or even convert it into a shop.

CirculationKitchens & bathroomsBedroomsLiving rooms & dinning roomsBalcony or terrace

Basic unit 4 bedroomsopen-plan living

4 bedrooms2 living rooms

Large groundfloor extension

Ground flooroffice

Ground flooroffice

Some key points

In thinking about space within and around thehome, the following key aspects needs to beconsidered:

Internal / External Relationships

■ Has an analysis been made of the relationshipsbetween internal and external space and has thisinformed the development of the scheme?

Places and Spaces

■ Have external spaces – to the front and rear ofdwellings,and those common to more than onedwelling – been thoroughly planned as qualityspaces and as an integral part of thedevelopment?

Adaptability

■ Do the layout and design of dwellings allowfor future adaptation to meet changing needs?

■ Have dwellings been designed so as to provideviable opportunities for future extension?

Innovation

Current practice can prove restrictive in terms offlexibility in space planning, both internally andexternally.

However, there is an emerging body of newpractice and some local autho rities are proving farmore open to change and innovation than others.It is important to remain in touch with the‘leading edge’ exemplars of practice andregulation. The potential for re-thinking of terraceand deep-plan housing and apartment design, oflight wells, roof gardens and balconies,overlooking distances and rear garden lengths andquality communal gardens through imaginativedesign should be encouraged rather than fallingon the tried, tested and readily permissible. Thisprocess can go hand in hand with initiativesoptimising solar gain, energy efficiency and ‘lifetime homes’.

End notes:1 See , for ex a m p l e , Pa rt C

of S t a n d a rds and Q u a l i ty in Devel opm en t :a Good Practice Guide(National Housing Federation 1998) and Ch a pters 5-9 of the Ho u s i n g QualityIndicators (DETR and the Ho u s i n gCorporation 2000).

2 See, for example,Standards and Qualityin Development: AGood Practice Guide,(National Housing Federation 1998).

3 Designing LifetimeHomes (JosephRowntree Foundation1997) provides a detailed explanation ofthe concept of lifetimehomes and providesguidance onappropriate designstandards.

Design thinking, building technology and residents’ aspirations are continually evolving. Murray Grove, Hackney

The importance of thoroughness

The richness and sense o f quality seen in the bestenvironments are the consequence of carefulconsideration of the detailed design of thebuildings and the spaces and interfaces betweenthem. This is the focus of this Chapter. It isconcerned with the architecture,the ‘streetscape’ -the hard and soft landscape - and the thresholdbetween private and public space. These are theconcerns which will ultimately distinguish thequality of place created. However well plannedand structured,a disappointing scheme is likely toresult if it is not well executed at the level of detail.

This Chapter cannot and does not purport to be adetailed design manual. There is a great deal ofrelevant material elsewhere on the many aspectsinvolved. The key messages of this Chapter arefirstly, that detailed design is a key element in thecreation of places of enduring quality andsecondly, that regardless of the design guidanceprovided, high quality design,especially in relationto matters of detail,needs highly skilled designe rs.

It needs to be emphasised that there is no singleappropriate design response.Quality comes inmany forms. Indeed,in order to be responsive andfitting to different contexts, it is important torecognise the validity of a diverse range ofapproaches.

The lesson which is most clearly conveyed by thecase studies is the fundamental importance of acoherent and integrated approach to the detaileddesign of a place.

In a quality place,the components from which itis made are fully resolved. This requires a fusion ofall elements; the building, landscape and theinterface between them. All components need tohave been designed and constructed with theoverall scheme, its character and quality, in mind.The best schemes do not appear to comprisebuildings,a road and the bits in between, butrather form a place where the elements belongseamlessly to each other.

This is all too often not the case. The architectplans the buildings and general layout; theengineer designs the roads and services andnegotiates with the authorities involved; thelandscape architect then deals with the spaces inbetween. On occasion, certain of these designprofessions are not involved at all.A sense ofcompleteness and cohesion is unlikely to emergefrom such an approach,especially where the keyvisual elements at the interfaces (fences, walls andso on) are ‘retro-fitted’. The road, in particular, hasto be designed as an element of the urbanlandscape as well as being fit for purpose. Equally,the landscape design needs to complement thebuildings and vice versa.

All details handled in a thoroughgoing way to create a quality place. Upper Brook Hill, Woodstock

‘In determining planningapplications,localplanning authoritiesshould reject poor design. . . applicants forplanning permission forhousing developmentshould be able todemonstrate how theyhave taken account of theneed for good layout anddesign and how theirproposals reflect theguidance set out in thisPPG.’

PPG3: Housingparagraph 63

Building elements

The quality of the building can be spoilt by poorattention to detail. The individual elements ofwhich buildings of any kind are composed havea key role in determining their quality. Tocontribute successfully to the whole they need tobe well designed in their own right, and arrangedin a coherent and legible way which is consistentwith the overall architectural approach. The partscontribute to a whole which has integrity. This isnothing to do with architectural styles, or,necessarily, with tradition. The best domesticarchitecture of all ages has abounded withinvention and even fun.

It is at the level of the individual elements that theviewer makes the connection with the humanscale, an important part of achieving places ofquality. When the elements are brought togetherin a coherent way, whether with deliberateuniformity or deliberate variety, they build up to alarger scale - the house,the block,the street -which in turn is comprehensible. For example, theterraced housing at Greenland Passage, Southwarkprovides a useful illustration of the skillfularrangement of the elements of a facade whichmakes use of modelling and shadow and sets up arhythm. The strength of the detailed design is suchthat it can successfully accommodate garage doors.

Splendid articulation and rhythm of gables,bays,balconiesand the facade create a human scale despite the large bulk ofthe building. Elgin Avenue, Maida Vale

The same success as illustrated above can also be achievedwith contemporary forms and materials. Century Court,Cheltenham

Building elements

The building elements which require carefulattention in detailed design include:■ doors■ windows■ porches■ roof structures■ lighting■ flues and ventilation■ gutters, pipes and other rainwater details■ balconies■ garage doors■ ironmongery and decorative features■ flashings

It is vital not only to view these elements inisolation, but also to consider how they cometogether to form the whole and to examinecarefully the ‘joins’ between the elements.

Strong design treatment of windows and balconies drawsattention away from potentially intrusive garage doors whichare also skilfully handled. Greenland Passage, Southwark

A good corner. The ground floor internal planning of schemesof this type is very important to create an acceptable internalliving space. Narrow Street, Tower Hamlets

There is also a danger of seeing the detailed designresponse as either ‘traditional’ or ‘modern’. Suchdebates about style can get in the way ofproducing a distinctive quality response to thedesign challenges involved. Traditional materialsand design ideas can be used in a totally modernway. Conversely, new materials and cutting-edgeconstruction technologies can be deployed tocreate a comfortable human scale architectureand, where appropriate, reflect traditional styles.

The scale of the terrace is articulated at roof height by theelegantly glazed dormers and the occasional change in planand height. Jesmond, Newcastle

Modelling, colour, shadow and clear detailing throughout.Note the frosted glass for privacy in the lower level windowsand the discrete venting of the undercroft parking. However,the steps would not meet current requirements for levelaccess.Ocean Wharf, Tower Hamlets

Whatever the language and idioms of thearchitecture, there is a need to understand theirstructure and logic as well as appearance. Theseissues affect design subtly and at different scales.In any design or idiom, the approach needs toinvolve an iterative process between the massingand form of the building and its d etailedcomponents. As with everything else in this guide,there is no substitute for design skill.

A well articulated roofline,a strong horizontal parapet andwell proportioned fenestration all contribute to the quality ofthis scheme. Even the guttering and vents are used topunctuate the facade and contribute to the sense ofproportion. Brightlingsea Place, Tower Hamlets

The elevational components are carefully designed to relate tothe overall form and mass of the scheme. Coptic Street,Camden

Interface elements

Doorways, thresholds, gardens and the enclosuresto gardens need particular attention in order toappear a fitting and integral part of the overallscheme. The entrance and threshold of buildingsare intensively used and many competing needshave to be co-ordinated in their layout and design.The design can be enhanced by:■ using a limited palette of materials;■ detailing the composition of railings and walls

to create a permeable front boundary while screening or containing the elements;

■ including a porch or stoop which can absorbstorage space within its flank walls withoutcompromising security concerns;

■ organising storage arrangements so that viewsfrom public areas and from windows within thehome are not interrupted;

■ carefully detailed lighting which can provide an attractive sense of welcome as well as security.

The interface elements

The interface elements which require carefulattention in detailed design include:■ bin storage■ cycle storage■ external lighting■ meter boxes■ service entries■ inspection boxes■ storage for recycling of waste■ cool storage for home deliveries■ windows and glazing■ walls,hedges, fences,and gates■ space for drying clothes

These elements need to be considered anddesigned as an integral part of the overall scheme.A simple test is that if the elements are hardlynoticeable then the design is successful.

A traditional brick wall provides good privacy and security torear gardens. Friars Quay, Norwich

A simple, clear and composed threshold.Lighting,security,meters and planting all accommodated and the wall height isjust at a level which hides the bin.Chillingworth Road,Islington

The interface at the rear of dwellings can also beimportant, especially where communal gardens,courts or rear access are involved. As the FriarsQuay, Norwich case study shows, the traditionaltwo metre high rear wall can provide good qualitysecurity and privacy to ground floor rooms andgarden/patio areas. The communal or public facesof walls and fences benefit from well defined andmaintained planting. Low or close boarded fencesare difficult to handle in these respects.

The potential impact of courtyard parking on theprivacy and quality of rear garden space requiresvery careful consideration, Poundbury, Dorchesterillustrates an ingenious response where some ofthe dwellings face the courtyards (see page 57).

Without careful design rear courtyard parking can underminethe privacy and quality of rear gardens as well as reducing thespace available for gardens

Landscape

Landform, natural features and their ecology arealways important. Trees, shrubs,flowers and grassand their containment require particularattention. The retention and use of existing treesand, on occasion, walls, ramps, steps and hedgescan give a sense of maturity and distinction. Newplanting needs careful and specialisedconsideration according to locale and p racticality.Soils,drainage, sunlight and shelter are criticalfactors as well as the use, where possible, ofnative species.

Where close to buildings,a strong maintenanceregime is essential for hedges,shrubs and grass. Allplanting elements need well defined edges whichcan be formed by properly designed walls, kerbs,tree grilles and the like. Using the positioning ofthe buildings, rather than the road and statutorysetbacks, or sight lines remains the most effectiveway of defining the space. The principle of‘tracking’ is useful here (see Chapter 31).

Well planted front gardens perfectly suited to the scale of thebuildings. Isledon Village, Islington

The design of sitting-out areas provides a framework forplanting in an intimate cour tyard. Webster Yard, Kendal

Landscape elements

The landscape elements which require carefulconsideration in detailed design include:■ trees, flowers, grass and other planting■ the carriageways, footways and floorscape■ cycle–ways■ kerbs■ steps and ramps■ fences,walls, hedges and gates■ inspection boxes and covers■ tree grilles■ street signage■ street lighting■ seats■ bollards■ railings■ public art■ wayleaves and easements

The detailed alignment of carriageways, footpathsand any front garden or threshold space before thebuilding edge involves the consideration of manyelements including: pedestrian, cycle and vehicleneeds; on-street parking and service requirements;underground services; and landscape features.

The street needs to be considered as an importantelement of detailed design.A well-designed spacewill accommodate street furniture, signage andother elements in a calm, unemphatic way. Ingeneral, this is often a case of ‘less’ being ‘more’.

It is always important to avoid clutter. Buildings,walls and fences can in some circumstances beused to mount road signs and lighting upon, butattention to the need for wayleaves and easementsto allow for their installation and maintenance willbe important. Cables should be undergrounded asfar as possible. Inspection boxes should berecessed in the planting and street furnitureshould not clutter pavements.

S h rubs and trees screen parking areas and sof ten the ‘ j oi n’bet ween the bu i l d i n gs and the street . Bed ford Co u rt , Don c a s ter

‘Landscaping should bean integral part of newdevelopment andopportunities should betaken for the retention ofexisting trees and shrubs,and for new plantings.’

PPG3: Housingparagraph 52

No signs,no bollards,no road markings and simple lighting.A clutter-free environment. Friars Quay, Norwich

Retro-fitting of bollards and signs rather sp oil a well plannedlocal space. Isledon Village, Islington

The floorscape is particularly important. Trafficcalming measures need to be designed in as anintegral part of the layout and draw from a wellchosen palette of materials. There are places whereshared surfaces will be appropriate and vehiclescan be slowed by such devices as narrowcarriageways and surfaces of setts,paviors andslabs. Again, less can be more.

Good quality lighting can make an importantcontribution to the attractiveness of an area, interms of the quality of its appearance during bothdaylight hours and night time,as well as to itssafety and public security. There is increasingemphasis on lighting for walking, cycling andamenity as well as driving and upon the reductionof light pollution. It is important that lightingengineers are involved at an early stage in theproject design. The design of the columns andluminaires in obviously critical. There are otherpossibilities – wall mounting, bollards withintegral lights, and ground level up-lighters whichare appropriate in some circumstances.

Consistency and continuing commitment

Creating high quality residential environmentsrequires a continuing commitment to quality anddetailed design right through to the com p l eti onand handover of the sch em e . Th ere are a nu m ber ofa reas wh ere atten ti on is import a n t :■ avoiding ‘retro-fittings’ and ‘bolt-ons’;■ consulting early with statutory, regulatory and

adoption agencies and specialist advisers onsuch matters as lighting, security and roadsafety;

■ determining the nature of future maintenance,adoption and service regimes and responsibilities. This is particularly importantfor landscape planning and design.

Attention to these matters can help both to avoidobvious or glaring mistakes and to create a senseof quality through the harmony of all thecomponents. Indeed, ingenious detailed solutionsin resolving such matters can enrich a scheme.

Rigorous attention to detail and the integration of landscapeand building elements. Century Court,Cheltenham

Children’s play dictated the need for a gate to this familyhousing scheme. The gate is celebrated as public art and liftsthe whole scheme. Dragon Court,Camden

The quality of the public realm can beundermined through:■ the lack of a full landscape plan and

specification as part of the design of the schemesubmitted for planning approval;

■ inadequate and unrealistic budgets forexternal works,particularly for hard and soft landscape;

■ a tendency for the budgets for these items to bereduced in an attempt to cover over-runs in work undertaken earlier in the constructionprocess;

■ the problems of accommodating late additions,e s pec i a lly those requ i red by the adopti on agen c i e s .

These issues apply to all forms of housingdevelopment, but it is important to appreciate thatas the density of development rises and/or theintensity of use increases,so too does theimportance of a complete and robust landscapetreatment.

The overriding objective has to be to generate aculture where there is a commitment to thecreation of enduring value through investment inthe landscape and associated works rather thancost minimisation. The selection of materials forthe external works always needs to be subject tothe same rigour as has been applied to thebuildings themselves.

Timber fence on indeterminate alignment and without aplanting edge lets down this scheme

Here the relationship with the street is maintained with carparking in a semi-basement,set back from the footpath andthe boundary wall. Holland Park, Kensington

Integral garages can create a lifeless, dead frontage effect whileat the same time not accommodating many cars. Here qualityis further eroded by the mismatch between the raised surfaceand the length of cars on the forecourt as well as by oil stainsand painted road markings

Some key points

In appraising the detailed design of any newdevelopment,the following key points should beconsidered:

Completeness

■ Does the scheme feel complete,integrated and cohesive in architectural,engineering and landscape terms?

■ Have each of the building, interface and landscape elements been considered in detaileddesign terms?

■ Are all the difficult and potentially intrusiveelements in the elevations, the doorways and thresholds and in the street dealt with in a manner which will make them almost unnoticeable?

Application of design skills

■ Has the design team included the full rangeof skills (in architecture, urban design,engineering, landscape architecture and otherspecialisms appropriate to the characteristics ofthe site) needed to create a quality residentialenvironment?

■ Have these skills been deployed in an integratedway throughout the design process?

Thinking ahead

■ Is there evidence in the detailed design ofconsultation and advance planning with the service agencies,the planning, building and adoption authorities?

■ Is there a full landscape plan, detailedspecification and budget? Is there real commitment to its implementation as an integral part of the development?

Distinctiveness

■ Is the scheme tailored to reflect its circumstances and surroundings or is it the application of standard housing types and layout forms?

■ Has there been an effort in the architectureand space planning to create a distinctive and quality place? Are the corners dealt with authoritatively? Is there any left-over space?

End notes:1 Places Streets and

Movement: acompanion guide toDesign Bulletin 32 (DETR 1998) is a keyreference for the designof movement routes in residential areas.

Thorley Lane is located on the periphery of Bishops Stortford,an historic market town in Hertfordshire. The scheme formspart of the much larger St Michael’s Mead Development. Thesite is accessed through earlier suburban detached and semi-

det ach ed housing arra n ged in a pattern of c u l s - de - s ac wh i chs eems to have been dict a ted largely by highw ay standard s .Th orl ey Lane shows how a place of d i s ti n ct qu a l i ty can becreated on the urban ed ge.

Thorley Lane includes a number of positive features:• The development creates an urban environment that

displays many of the Essex Design Guide principles, but the architectural style is sometimes inconsistent with an eclecticuse of traditional building materials;

• Houses have been set forward to the street to form a continuous built frontage.A two metre buffer betweenthe street and the building line also provides a degreeof privacy for residents;

• There is a high level of natural surveillance and a sense of place;

• Pinch point gateways and curves to the street limit visual monotony and create varied spatial experiences along the route, particularly for the pedestrian.

However a less satisfactory aspect of the development is thatparking takes up a high proportion of the site.

Thorley Lane,Bishops StortfordOverview

Evaluation

Built1997

Lead designerMelville Dunbar Associates

DeveloperCountryside Properties

Local authorityEast Hertfordshire District Council

Garden 3 Storey house Garden Garage Parking court Garage Backgarden

2 Storeyhouse

Frontgarden

f / w c / w f / w 2 Storeyhouse

Back garden Garage

A A

N

The site Area of detailed analysis Photo position

f / w = Footway c / w = Carriageway

5

2

1

5 4 3 2 1 0 5 10 15 20 25 metres

4

A A

The natural curve in the street slows cars, reduces visual monotony and provides a varied spatial exp erience,particularly for the pedestrian.

Houses have been set forward to the street to form a continuous built frontage offering a high level of natural surveillance and sense of place.

Because of its location,the development is unashamedly tailored tocommuting. Parking courts are accessed through openings in the street frontage.

The architectural style is often eclectic.

The potential of building corners and entries has not alwaysbeen fully exploited.

Analysis of built form components within the area ofdetailed analysisArea of detailed analysis 0.9 ha.Number of dwellings: 28Dwelling mix: 2+3+5-bed terraced(16 house types) 2+3+4-bed detached

3+4-bed semi-detachedDensityDwellings per hectare: 31Habitable rooms 133per hectare:Floorspace per hectare: 5440m2

Space in and around the home3-bed house: 108 m2

Typical garden area for 114 m2

a 3-bed house:5-bed house: 234 m2

Typical garden area [for 149 m2

a 5-bed house]:Car parkingParking spaces per 1.9dwelling:Parking within 0building curtilage:On-street: 0%Parking courts/ 49%dedicated off-streetbays/shelters:Garages: 51%Overall land budgetDwellings footprint: 26%Private gardens: 38%Communal outdoor space 0%and courtyards:Roads, footpaths and 36%parking:

The Stanstead Road area is located between Catford andForest Hill in south-east London. The area was developedbetween 1885-1914 to meet the growing demand for suburbanmiddle-class housing and to exploit the opportunitiesprovided by the developing railway and tram networks.Within our area of detailed analysis,two main house styles

were originally built: firstly, five-bedroom semi-detachedh o u s e s , fo ll owed by a later devel opm ent of t h ree - bed roomterraced houses on the classic bye - l aw pattern . A nu m ber ofdwell i n gs of e ach type have since been su b - d ivi ded into flatsfor sale or ren t , ref l ecting a strong demand for small er hom e sclose to good su bu rban rail con n ecti ons to Cen tral Lon don .

There are many positive features of this area. These include:• The format of the street block which creates a highly

permeable form and allows for on-street parking;• The original sizes of dwellings are robust for future

adaptability;• Adequate garden size allows for a variety of different uses

and the boundary treatments create a high le vel of privacy;• Building frontage and garden walling provides complete

enclosure of private rear gardens.

Convers ely, over time a large nu m ber of f ront ga rdens havebeen converted into of f - s treet parking space s , wh i ch hasu n derm i n ed the qu a l i ty of the street scen e . Th ere is also a highl evel of s treet and front ga rden clut ter due to the lack ofs c reening for bi n s . In com m on with Vi ctorian housing thetre a tm ent of corn ers has re su l ted in areas of de ad fron t a ge ,s ome of wh i ch have su f fered from gra f f i ti .

Stanstead Road,LewishamOverview

Evaluation

f / wFrontgarden

2-storey house 2-storey housePrivate garden2-storey house Frontgarden

f / w Carriageway

f / w Frontgarden

2-storey house

Built1885-1914

Lead designer/developerDeveloped by speculativebuilders on 99-year leases

Local authorityThe Local Authority was LewishamLocal Board. The relevant buildingcontrols were the London BuildingActs, supervised by a DistrictSurveyor

A A

Carriageway

Frontgarden

f / w

N

The site Area of detailed analysis Photo position

A A

f / w = Footway c / w = Carriageway

2

5

3

41

5 4 3 210 5 10 20 metres

The perimeter street layout yields a robust and permeable form.

Large,semi-detached houses form spacious family homes or two/three smaller apartments.

Good sized gardens provide for a variety of uses.

Building frontage and garden gates completely encloseof rear gardens.

Stanstead Road contains a mix of uses, such as the Post Office;that supports the local community.

Analysis of built form components within the area ofdetailed analysisArea of detailed 2.1 ha.analysis :Number of dwellings: 66 dwellings

(98 dwellingsincludingconversions)

Dwelling mix 5 – bed semi-detached(2 house types): 3 – bed terraced housesDensity (as originally built)Dwellings per hectare: 31Habitable rooms 220per hectare:Floor space per hectare: 5483m2

Space in and around the home5-bed semi-detached 204 m2

house:Typical garden area: 172 m2

3-bed terraced house: 171 m2

Typical garden area: 130 m2

Car parking (not including front garden parking)Parking spaces 1.2per dwelling:Parking within the 0%curtilage of building:On-street: 100%Communal outdoor 0%space and courtyards:Garages: 0%Overall land budgetDwellings footprint: 26%Private gardens: 55%Parking courts/ 0%dedicated off-streetbays:Roads, footpaths and parking 19%

Poundbury forms a planned urban extension on the westernedge of Dorchester. The 168 hectare site adjoins existinghousing on the east and agricultural land to the south andwest; a bypass lies to the north.Phase One is 7.5 hectares in

size; our area of detailed analysis within this phase is onehectare and is mainly composed of three and four bedroomterraced and detached houses.

The scheme demonstrates the successful application of anumber of urban design principles:• Continuous street facades,largely uninterrupted by

parking bays or garages. Cars are parked within internal courtyards, on-street or in bays located in residents’ back gardens. This reinforces the distinctionbetween public and private space with building facades built along the back-of-pavement line;

• Street lighting and signage, and,more importantly, roadgeometry, demonstrate a creative response to local authority standards. There is very little segregation ofpedestrians and vehicles, but vehicle speeds are kept lowby the careful alignment of streets.

• Social housing is well integrated with private housing in terms of both location and external appearance;

• Traditional materials have been used consistentlythroughout the scheme;

• There are impressive levels of maintenance and visual surveillance of the private and public realms. The formeris achieved by covenants imposed on homeowners and the latter by on-site management control. There is little evidence of vandalism or crime.

Poundbury,DorchesterOverview

Evaluation

N

Built1993 onwards

Lead designerLeon KrierAlan Baxter and Associates

DeveloperDuchy of CornwallCG Fry & SonMorrish Builders, Guinness Trust

Local authorityWest Dorset District Council

A A

The site Area of detailed analysis Photo position

f / w 3-storeyhouse

Private gardenand garage

Private garden 2-storey house Private garden+ garage

2-storey house f / w c / w 2-storey house Private garden

A A

f / w = Footway c / w = Carriageway

3 1

2

4

Sharedc / w + f/ w

f / w

5 4 3 2 1 0 5 10 15 20 25 metres

Continuous street facades,unbroken by parking or garages.

Street lighting,signage and road geometry, show a creative responseto local authority standards.

Social housing is well integrated with pr ivate housing in terms both of its location and its external appearance.

There are high levels of maintenance and natural surveillanceof all properties.

While the amount of parking at Poundbury, Dorchester is high,its arrangement provides residents with the choice of in-curtilageparking or larger back gardens.

Analysis of built form components within the area ofdetailed analysisArea of detailed analysis: 1 haNumber of dwellings: 34Dwelling mix 3 + 4 bed detached(21 house types): 2, 3 + 4 bed terraced

Office + 3 bed flatDensityDwellings per hectare: 34Habitable rooms 170per hectare:Floorspace per hectare: 7186m2

Space in and around the home3-bed house: 94m2

Typical garden area: 43m2

4-bed house: 116m2

Garden area 54m2

Car parkingParking spaces 2.5per dwelling:Parking within building 35%curtilage:On street: 17%Courts /dedicated 9%off-street bays:Garages: 39%Overall land budgetDwellings footprint: 25%Private gardens: 34%Communal outdoor 0%space and courtyards:Roads, footpaths and 41%parking:

The Canning Street area is loc a ted close to the cen tre Liverpoo land is in close prox i m i ty to the Un ivers i ty and the An gl i c a nCa t h ed ra l . The latter cre a tes an impre s s ive back d rop wh i ch isvi s i ble from many streets in the are a .

The area was developed between 1835 and 1845 to providesome of the first housing beyond the city centre. Thedwellings in the Canning St reet area were originally designedas three to four storey five-bedroom family houses.

Many of these dwellings have been sub-divided into flats,some housing students. The only regulations in force at thetime of construction were over sewerage and paving.Part of our area of detailed analysis also includes EgertonStreet, which is a street of two-storey three-bed terracedhouses. The majority of these dwellings are still three-bedhouses.

Successful qualities of the area of analysis are:• The scale of the street combined with the building heights

engender a feeling of openness and space, despite the relatively high densities. Pavements are generously sized forthe pedestrian and street lighting is good;

• A continuous building frontage provides surveillance of thestreet as well as encouraging street activity. There is also a clear separation between the public street and the privatedwelling through the combination of a continuous frontageand a short enclosed buffer of planting;

However some of the end-of-terrace blind flanks of buildingshave attracted grafitti as well as abandoned refuse.

The back alleys are also a point of concern. Although well-maintained and well-lit, providing a suitable location forbin collection and servicing, they also create concerns onsafety and security issues.

Canning Street,LiverpoolOverview

Evaluation

Built1835-1845

Lead designer / developerSpeculative builders, on 75-year leases

Local authorityCity of Liverpool

f / w c / w f / w4 storey house 4-storey house

N

The site Area of detailed analysis Photo position

f / w = Footway c / w = Carriageway

A A

A

A

Buffer Buffer

5 4 3 2 1 0 5 10 15 20 25 metres

Street widths are overly generous and only just balanced by the height of the buildings. Wide pavements help to create a sense ofsafety for the pedestrian.

Continuous frontage provides for good street surveillance as well as for on-street activity.

Views of Liverpool’s Anglican Cathedral enhance the area.

Blank facades attract vandalism as well as abandoned litter.

Active frontages are formed by ‘wrapping’ a building around a street corner.

Analysis of built form components within the area ofdetailed analysisArea of detailed analysis 1.9 haNumber of 78 originaldwellings: now 250 dwellings

through subdivisionDwelling mix 5 – bed town houses(Two original 3 – bed houseshouse types):DensityDwellings Originally 41per hectare: dwellings/ hectare

(current density 119 dwellings/ hectare)

Original habitable rooms 341per hectare:Floorspace 9919 m2

per hectare:Space in and around the home5-bed townhouse: 204 m2

Typical garden area: 81 m2

3-bed terrace house 92 m2

Typical garden area: 19 m2

Car ParkingParking spaces 1.5per dwelling:Parking within building 0%curtilage:On-street: 85%Parking courts/ 3%dedicated off-streetbays/shelters:Garages 12%Overall land budgetDwellings footprint: 37%Private gardens: 35%Communal 0%outdoor space and courtyards:Roads, 28%footpaths and parking:

Highsett was developed between 1959-1964. Its 4 hectare siteis divided into three distinct types of housing: Phase one: TheQuad (flats and large communal garden); Phase two: The ‘L’shaped (2-storey houses) and Phase three (our case studyarea): a cul-de-sac of townhouses. The development benefitsgreatly from its location just outside the centre of Cambridgeand from the existing mature landscape.

Highsett is built in a gault brick, typical of East Anglia; roofsare pitched inwards to a central gutter and roof glazing is usedto light bathrooms and staircases. By present-day standards,rather large areas of glazing are used. The houses are arrangedin short terraces with small private walled gardens.

Successful features of the area of detailed analysis are:• Each house has a w ell-screened private garden or courtyard;• There are safe, overlooked areas for children to play in;• bin stores, bicycles and meter boxes can also be

easily accommodated in these enclosed front gardens;• A mix of short terraces fronting the street as well as those

positioned in parallel,help to provide a high level ofnatural surveillance onto pathways and communal spaces,but not necessarily onto the street;

• Mature landscaped areas, albeit that some trees are veryclose to the buildings.

The area of detailed analysis demonstrates that a clear divisionof private and public space is important. However, one blockappears to have been originally designed with a communal

back, but subsequently the space has been subdivided andused for private parking.

Other concerns are the poor design of the grouped garages as a long row with a large area of hardstanding in front. It is not clear whether these are viewed as satisfactory byresidents, as some have converted their forecourts intoparking spaces.

Although the site is structured as a cul-de-sac, it is quitepermeable, due to its numerous pedestrian paths, but theconfiguration of the site and these multiple pathways,someenclosed by walls, and the proximity to an urban environment must create some security risks.

Highsett,CambridgeOverview

Evaluation

Built1959-1964

Lead designerEric Lyons & Partners

DeveloperWates, Rattee & Kett

Local authorityCambridge City Council

f / w2-storey house Frontgarden

Communal garden CarparkingTown houses Town houses Back gardenc / w f / w

N

The site Area of detailed analysis Photo position

A A

f / w = Footway c / w = Carriageway

3

5

2

5 4 3 2 1 0 5 10 15 20 25 metres

4

The careful design of the front gardens provides space for bins,bicycles and meter boxes.

There is a high level of surveillance onto pathways and communalspaces, but not necessarily onto the street.This must create some security risks.

The external architectural design of the houses is straightforwardand does not suffer from the more negative features of their period.

One block appears to have been originally designed with a communal back, but the space has b een subdivided and is usedfor private parking.

It is not clear whether the garages are viewed as satisfactory byresidents,as some have converted forecourts into parking spaces.

Analysis of built form components in the area of detailedanalysisArea of detailed 0.4 ha.analysis:Number of Dwellings: 18Dwelling mix: 2-storey terrace2 house types 3-storey townhouseDensityDwellings per hectare: 45 Habitable rooms 203per hectare:Floorspace per hectare: 4953 m2

Space in and around the home2-bed house: 88 m2

(2-storey)Typical garden area: 23 m2

4-bed house: 120 m2

(3-storey)Typical garden area: 63 m2

Car ParkingParking spaces 1.2per dwelling:Parking within building 17%curtilage:On-street: 5%Parking courts/ 22%dedicated off-street bays:Garages: 56%Overall land budgetDwellings footprint: 24%Private gardens: 43%Communal 7%outdoor space and courtyards:Roads, 26%footpaths and parking:

Jesmond is a Victorian suburb to the north east of the centreof Newcastle. Our detailed area of analysis examines the two and three storey terraces between Queens Road andGro s ven or Road . The 4 hect a re site ori gi n a lly con t a i n ed 173

dwellings. Today, as the result of conversions of houses intoflats, this total has risen to about 189 dwellings. Most housesin this area contain four bedrooms and often an average ofseven habitable rooms per dwelling.

There are many positive aspects of the area, including:• The location of the area in terms of its strong public

transport connections and the lower reliance on the car;• On-street parking is along the terraces. The street also

promotes a robust and permeable form,especially in terms of accessing surrounding shops and public transportfacilities. Corner treatments have also been considered in the terrace design;

• There are no street trees, but the local scene is enhanced byextensive personalisation and landscaping;

• Adaptation of spaces has led to the use of back alleys forgarages, extensions and courtyard gardens;

Outside the area of detailed analaysis large front gardens areoften used as the primary play space. However, this raisessecurity concerns and requires children’s play to be closelysupervised.

The back alleys are a point at issue. Although well-maintained,well-lit and providing a suitable location for bin storage andservicing, they also raise concerns over safety and security.

Jesmond,NewcastleOverview

Evaluation

2-storey house Frontgarden

f / w c / w f / w Frontgarden

2-storey house Back garden Rear alley Back garden 2-storey house Frontgarden

f / w c / w

Built1870-1885

Lead designer/developerBuilt by speculative builders

Local authorityNewcastle City Council

A

A

N

The site Area of detailed analysis Photo position

A A

f / w = Footway c / w = Carriageway

15

4

5 4 3 2 1 0 5 10 20 metres

On-street parking slows down traffic and creates activityon the street.

Where large front gardens are sunny they are often usedas a play space. However, this would require close supervision,given their proximity to the street

There are high levels of personalisation and landscaping.

The perimeter block form provides direct and wellover-looked pedestrian routes.

Back alleys provide an area to store rubbish and allow accessinto back spaces for car parking, but this raises concernsabout safety and security.

Analysis of built form components within the area ofdetailed analysisArea of detailed analysis: 4 haNumber of Dwellings Originally 173(173 houses): dwellings

(Today 189 dwellings)

Dwelling mix 3 + bed(2 house types): terracedDensity (as originally built houses)Dwellings 43per hectare:Habitable rooms 253per hectare:Floorspace per hectare: 4846 m2

Space in and around the home4-bed house: 297 m2

Typical garden area 58 m2

for a 4-bed house:Car parkingParking spaces 1.8per dwelling:Parking within building 0%curtilage:On-street: 89%Parking courts/ 0%dedicated off-street baysGarages 11%Overall land budgetDwellings footprint: 41%Private gardens: 26%Communal outdoor 0%space and courtyards:Roads, footpaths and 33%parking:

Friars Quay is located in the Colgate area at the centre ofNorwich, bounded on one side by the River Wensum. Severalhistoric churches surround the site,creating an attractive andvaried streetscape. In the 1970s, a partnership between the

City of Norwich and local developer RG Carter Ltd wasformed to redevelop this prominent city centre industrial site.The scheme of 40 four bedroom townhouses also includednine ground floor flats,intended for the elderly.

Friars Quay displays a number of strengths in its design:• As a development, Friars Quay responds successfully to its

city centre location;• Although the scheme has a strong urban feel, this is

softened through the diversity of planting and boundarytreatments;

• Various parking techniques have been adopted, includingon-plot parking when the cur vature of the road permits it.

• The natural curve of the street also prevents visual monotony and slows car speeds down;

• Pedestrians have been given high priority and most communal areas are well overlooked and attractivepedestrian places.

The only negative aspect to highlight is the uncertainrelationship of the fronts and backs of terraces to each other.This also results in rear gardens facing on to the public realm,although the gardens are well enclosed by brick walls.

Friars Quay,NorwichOverview

Evaluation

Built1974

Lead designerFielden and Mawson Architects

DeveloperCi ty of Norwi ch and RG Ca rter Ltd

Local authorityCity of Norwich

A

A

4 storeyhouse

Communal garden c / w Privategarden

3 storey Communal garden Privategarden

4 storey Garden f / wPrivategarden

River

N

The site Area of detailed analysis Photo position

f / w = Footway c / w = Carriageway

1

2

34

5

Sharedc / w + f/ w

5 4 3 2 1 0 5 10 15 20 25 metres

A A

The scheme meshes with its sur rounding context.

The curve of the street prevents visual monotony, slows carsdown and allows for on-plot parking.

The scheme provides well overlooked pedestrian and communal areas.A mix of house types provides street surveillanceat different times of the day.

The building form represents an efficient use of space.

The attractively varied roofscape is visible from street level.

Analysis of built form components within the area ofdetailed analysisArea of detailed analysis 0.9 haNumber of 49 originalDwellings: dwellings

(50 dwellings today)Dwelling mix 4-bed houses(3 dwelling types): 1-bed flats

4-bed houses above groundfloor flats.

Density (as originally built)Dwellings 54per hectare:Habitable 183roomsper hectare:Floorspace 4392 m2

per hectare:Space in and around the home4-bed house + 177 m2

integral garage :Typical garden 55 m2

area for a 4-bed house:1-bed flat: 52 m2

Typical garden nonearea for a 1bedflat:Car ParkingParking spaces 1.5per dwelling:Parking within building 26%curtilage:On-street: 16%Parking courts/ 28%dedicated off-streetbays/shelters:Garages: 30%Overall land budgetDwellings footprint: 24%Private gardens: 13%Communal 16%outdoor space and courtyards:Roads, 47%footpaths and parking:

The site lies within the area developed as the infamouscrescent blocks of the 1960’s. Since 1991, under Hulme CityChallenge, the area has undergone total regeneration. RollsCrescent is a built response to the Hulme Design Guide and itcould be said that this development provo kes the sense ofcom mu n i ty and spirit ex pre s s ed in the Gu i de .

The site follows a very traditional street layout and formsthree distinctive perimeter blocks on the 1-hectare site. Thedevelopment consists of a varied mix of house types on one,two and three storeys. Four of the 67 houses have beendesigned specifically for wheelchair access. Ramps have alsobeen positioned outside a further four three-bedroomdwellings,intended for the elderly.

There are many positive aspects of Rolls Crescent:• The varied building heights and the enhanced corner

treatment help to create positive focal points along both sides of the street;

• Front doors face directly onto the street, improvingpublic surveillance;

• There is a wide mix of dwelling types, tenure and size;

• The building line is behind a two-metre deep buffer zone,which provides space for rubbish, storage, meter boxes,cycles,and allows for personalisation. This design also reinforces the public/private divide.

Arguably a negative aspect of the development is the small sizeof private and communal gardens, although, the communalspace does lend a sense o f community to the development.

Rolls Crescent,HulmeOverview

Evaluation

2 Storeyhouse

Buffer f / w c / w f / w 2 Storey house Private back garden Communal garden Private garden 2 Storey house Buffer f / w c / w

Built1997

Lead designerECD Architects

DeveloperNorth British Housing Association

Local authorityManchester City Council

A

A

N

The site Area of detailed analysis Photo position

A A

f / w = Footway c / w = Carriageway

3

5

Buffer

14

2

5 4 3 2 1 0 5 10 20 metres

The site offers a varied mix of dwellings,including one-storey disabledunits.On-street parking effectively reduces traffic speeds.There are only six off-street parking bays and these are designated for the disabled.

Two metre wide zones in the front of buildings allow for bin storage,meter boxes,cycle storage and personalisation.

Arising from the variety and mix of dwelling types,the roofscape presents an attractive skyline profile and creates interest from street level.

There is a distinct buffer zone between the street and the building line.

Internal courtyards provide small, overlooked, yet secure privategardens and a small c omunal courtyard.

Analysis of built form components within the area ofdetailed analysisArea of detailed analysis 1.23 ha.Number of 67Dwellings(67 Houses):Dwelling mix Houses:(11 dwelling types): 2-bed houses 2 bed house (wheelchair accessible)

2-bed houses (3 types)3-bed houses (5 types)4-bed houses (wheelchair accessible)5-bed houses

DensityDwellings 54per hectare:Habitable rooms 233per hectare:Floorspace 4961.1m2

per hectare:Space in and around the home2-bed house 80.5 m2

Typical garden area for a 2-bed house:3-bed house: 95 m2

Typical garden area 48 m2

for a 3-bed house:Car ParkingParking spaces 0.8per dwelling:Parking within building 11%curtilageOn-street 89%Parking courts/ 0%dedicated off-street baysGarages 0%Overall land budgetDwellings footprint: 28%Private gardens: 33%Communal 9%outdoor space and courtyards:Roads, 30%footpaths and parking:

Greenland Passage,Southwark

Greenland Passage is located on the edge of Greenland Dockadjoining the River Thames, within London Docklands.Surrey Quays is the nearest local centre, which isapproximately one kilometre from the development. Thescheme combines the refinement of Danish construction witha typical British housing form. The development comprisestwo perimeter blocks, which include private and semi-privategardens.

A terrace of townhouses with integral garages and a nine-storey tower of flats also forms part of the area of detailedanalysis. Car parking is located either within one of threeunderground car parks, or in the integral garages alongFinland Street and South Sea Street.

A number of strong features can be identified:• The scheme combines a permeable road network with two

perimeter blocks which have partly enclosed cour tyards;• There is good pedestrian access into the site via Greenland

Dock. Roads are unu su a lly wi de in place s , up to ei ght metre s ;• Housing types and designs are quite varied, yet Royal Court

has a strong sense of enclosure and repose. This is partlydue to the enclosure formed by the King Frederick Tower atthe end of the vista and the use of three-storey townhouses;

• The scheme contains a very high proportion of designatedparking spaces. One space per dwelling has been allocatedas a com bi n a ti on of ga ra ge s , both integral and under gro u n d ;

• On-street parking provides additional spaces and allowsfor as many as two spaces per dwelling.

Non et h eless parking su pp ly appe a rs to be a significant issue in Greenland Pa s s a ge . Some veh i cles are parked on public open space along the Th a m e s . The site is qu i te rem o te in its l oc a ti on from public tra n s port ,i n c reasing depen dency on the car.

Overview

Evaluation

Built1988

Lead designerKjaer and Richter

DeveloperAarhus Ilsef UK

Local authorityLondon Borough of Southwark

f / w Garden 3-storey townhouse

f / w c / w f / w Private garden 5 storey flats f / w c / w3-storey townhouse

Private garden Underground car park

N

The site Area of detailed analysis Photo position

A A

f / w = Footway c / w = Carriageway

5

1

3

2

A

A

4

5 4 3 2 1 0 5 10 15 20 25metres

There is good pedestrian access into the site via Greenland Dock.Roads are unu su a lly wi de in places and some are as mu ch as ei ght metre s .

The development combines a permeable road network with twoperimeter blocks which have partly enclosed courtyards.

King Frederick Tower at the end o f the vista and the thr ee-storeytown-houses along Royal Court help to cr eate a sense of enclosurefor the street.

Lattice fencing fails to provide privacy to all private rear gardens.Only where mature planting has b een added is there really a sense of privacy.

A lack of clear distinction between public and private spacehas resulted in cars being parked on the footway.

Analysis of built form components within the area ofdetailed analysisArea of detailed analysis 1.2 haNumber of Dwellings: 82Dwelling mix 1+2 - bed apartment(4 dwelling types) 2+3 - bed duplex

3 - bed town hosesDensityDwellings per hectare: 68 dwellings/

hectareHabitable rooms 233per hectare:Floorspace per hectare: 10,886m2

Space in and around the home3-bed townhouse 159m2

in Royal Court:Typical garden area: 69m2

3-bed townhouse in 162m2

Queen of DenmarkCourt:Typical garden area: 31m2

Car parkingParking spaces 2.1per dwelling:Parking within building 0%curtilage:On street: 53%Parking courts/ 31%dedicated off-streetbays/shelters:Garages: 16%Overall land budgetDwellings footprint: 23%Private gardens: 11%Communal outdoor 35%space and courtyards:Roads, footpaths and 31%parking:

Isledon Village is a 2.9 hectare site located in Finsbury Park inNorth London. The development contains 211 dwellings,which represents the relatively high density of 73 units perhectare, while offering a broad mix of tenures.Flats as well aslarge family homes provide residents with a range o f lifestylechoices in the development. The scheme also includes anursing home for elderly people, people with mental health

problems and disabled people, a self-built nursery, communityfacilities,a doctor’s surgery, workspaces and open spaceincorporating a children’s play area. The site was originallyproposed as a National Fashion Centre, but through acommunity-led planning initiative,the Finsbury Park ActionGroup won planning permission for a mix of homes and jobsand a health and community centre.

Isledon Village has many positive features:• A mix of tenure in blocks of flats,maisonettes and houses,

with social housing to rent, shared ownership, home equity,and a nu rsing home for people with mental health probl em s ;

• A high proporti on of houses and flats have wh eel chair acce s s ;• Strong block structure and clear definition of public and

private space. The block structure also prevents access intorear gardens, avoiding security issues.

• Di f ferent car parking tech n i ques make a po s i tive con tri buti on to the street. Lateral tree planting encloses the street width, enhancing pedestrian priority.

The use of one-way streets is considered one of the maindownsides of the development.A two-way movement wouldhave slowed cars down further and enhanced the l evel ofs a fety on the site .

Isledon Village,LondonOverview

Evaluation

Built1992

Lead designerHTA Architects

DeveloperConsortium

New Islington & Hackney HA,Circle 33 Housing Trust,ASRAGreater London HA, Kingsland HA,KUSH HA, Am Viet HA, Arhag HA

Local authorityLondon Borough of Islington

Privategarden

3 storeyhouse

Buffer Offstreetparking and

f / w

Offstreetparkkng and

f / w

c / w 3-storeyhouse

Priva tega rden

c / w Offstreetparking and

f / w

3 storeyhouse

3 storeyhouse

Buffer

A A

N

The site Area of detailed analysis Photo position

f / w = Footway c / w = Carriageway

Offstreetparkkng and

f / w

1

4

3 5

2

A A

5 4 3 2 1 0 5 10 15 20 25 metres

The scheme is a posit ive contribution to the surrounding streetsand to a degree reduces the severance caused by Isledon Road.

One-way traffic flow increases vehicle speed, reducing the levelof pedestrian safety, and adding to signage.

Varied parking provision,as well as lateral tree planting, extends the pedestrian zone and reduces the apparent width of the road.A combi-nation of parking formats includes on-street and off-street parking.

Many of these two metre wide buffer zones display a high level of personalisationand maintenance, but due to the size of these gardens,those that are not attendedto do have a detrimental effect on the environment as a whole.

There is a clear distinction between public and private space in the scheme.

Analysis of built form components in the area ofdetailed analysisThe siteArea of detailed analysis 2.9 haNumber of 211dwellings:(60 Houses and 151 flats)Dwelling mix: Flats:10 dwelling types 1,2,3+4 bed flats with

wheelchair access1,2,3,4 and 6 bed houses

DensityDwellings per hectare: 73Habitable rooms per hectare: 238

Floorspace per hectare: 8036 m2

Space in and around the home 2 bed apartment: 69.5m2

Typical garden area for 38 m2

a ground floor flat:Typical garden area for None/share ofan upper level flat: communal

garden3-bed house: 104m2

Typical garden area 50-88 m2

for a 3-bed house:Car parkingParking spaces 1.1per dwelling:Parking within building 6.5%curtilige:On-street: 37%Parking courts/ 50%dedicated off street bays:Garages: 6.5%Overall land budgetDwellings footprint: 32%Private gardens: 25%Communal outdoor 22%space and courtyards:Roads, footpaths and 22%parking:

Deansgate Quay is located in the heart of Manchester CityCentre at the edge of the Castlefield regeneration area. Thesite lies between the A57M and the railway; the one hectare

site is almost bisected by the Bridgewater Canal.The seven-storey building, contains 102 one, two and threebedroom apartments and maisonettes.

Densgate Quay has many positive attributes:• The development sits well in its robust context. Its form,

scale and massing fit comfortably with the large and confident historic industrial buildings;

• L a r ge wi n dows of fer attractive vi ews out of the site , but can l e ad to issues of det a i l ed de s i gn . On occ a s i onspers on a l i s a ti on has lead to ae s t h etic probl em s ;

• Al t h o u gh the site does not contain any open space , the s ch eme attem pts to give each dwelling its own balcony.A floa ting island for wi l dl i fe is propo s ed on the Ca n a l ;

• Private car parking spaces are not allocated to eachdwelling, but are purchased separately. The majority of carparking spaces are located in dedicated bays; and some car spaces have been tucked out of sight under the railwayarches. Offices located on the ground floor create natural surveillance and promote activity around the site during the day.

A significant shortcoming however is the addition of a poorlydesigned parking deck which seriously undermines the qualityof the scheme;

Deansgate Quay,ManchesterOverview

Evaluation

f / w c / w f / w 7-storey appartementbuilding

Built2000

Lead DesignerStephenson Bell Ltd

DeveloperCrosby Homes (North West)Ltd

Local authorityManchester City Council

N

The site Area of detailed analysis Photo position

f / w = Footway c / w = Car riageway

43

A

c / wf / w f / w

A

5 4 3 2 1 0 5 10 20 metres

Deansgate Quay sits comfortably in the context of itshistroic industrial urban fabric

Large windows offer attractive outlooks to the Castlefield Quar ter.

Large windows can lead to visual problems when flats arepersonalised.

Private car parking spaces are not allocated to each dwelling,but are purchased separately.

A poorly designed parking deck undermines the scheme and removes privacy from first floor apartments.

Analysis of built form components within the area ofdetailed analysisArea of detailed analysis 1 haNumber of 102Dwellings:Dwelling mix 1 - bed , 2 & 3-bed apartm en t s(5 dwelling types): 2 & 3-bed du p l ex apartm en t sDensityDwellings 102per hectare:Habitable 278rooms perhectare:Floorspace 9954 m2

per hectare:Space in and around the home2-bed 71 m2

apartment:Typical garden 3 m2

area for a 2-bed:3-bed 164 m2

apartment:Typical garden 36 m2

area 3-bed:Car ParkingParking spaces 0.8per dwelling:Parking within building 0%curtilage:On-street: 0%Parking courts/ 91%dedicated off-streetbays/shelters:Garages: 8%Overall land budgetDwellings footprint: 15%Private gardens: 0%(NB does not includebalconies)Communal 0%outdoor space and courtyards:Roads, 85%footpaths and parking:

Webster’s Yard is located in the centre of Kendal. The three-storey development follows the pattern of existing lanes andyards, which run in an east-west direction from Highgate.Sixty-two dwellings are provided by the development and 40of them are for sheltered housing. The scheme comprises aseries of long, narrow courtyards with a pedestrian passage

running through the centre. The main entry into the site isthrough a pedestrian gate opening from Highgate. Anundergroundcar park provides parking spaces for 29 cars, allocated to the 24 private dwellings. Traditional materials are used to createa scheme which is successfully in keeping with its context.

Positive aspects of the scheme include:• A good range of different housing types including a

combination of houses, flats and sheltered housing units;• Its east-west orientation maximises views to the south and

north. Landscaping in the adjacent Almshouses Sandes’Hospital Cottages, and the position of Webster’s Yard

relevant to the adjacent yards helps to improve views fromthe windows and balconies within the development;

• The provision of attractive outdoor spaces in the form ofsemi-private communal gardens and courtyards.

It is unfortunate however that some of the architect’s originaldetails have been compromised during the constructionprocess.

Webster’s Yard,KendalOverview

Evaluation

Built1987

Lead designerMike Walford Architects

DeveloperRussell Armer

Local authoritySouth Lakeland District Council

3 storeyprivatehouse

5 4 3 2 1 0 5 10 15 20 25 metres

2 storey pr ivate houses with garage b elow 3 storey sheltered homes Flats above shops f / w c / w

A A

N

The site Area of detailed analysis Photo position

f / w = Footway c / w = Carriageway

4 25

1 3

The scheme provides a good range of housing types,includinga combination of houses,flats and sheltered housing units.

Adjoining yards enhance views from the site.

Semi-private and communal gardens and courtyards arefeatures of this high density, town centre site.

Some of the architect’s original details have been compromised during the design-and-build process, but the Dowker Arch in the lower courtyard is closer to the original design.

Raised walkways and ‘deck access’ work well in this case, given the intimate nature of the scheme.

Analysis of built form components within the area ofdetailed analysisArea detailed analysis: 0.35 hectaresNumber of Dwellings: 62(40 Sheltered homes,8 houses, 6 flats and 8 flats above shops)Dwelling mix: Sheltered homes4 dwellings types Houses and flats in

upper/lower yardsFlats above shops

DensityDwellings per hectare: 177Habitable rooms 477per hectare:Floorspace per hectare: 11,658 m2

Space in and around the home3-bed house: 117m2

Typical garden area: 22 m2

2-bed apartment : 62 m2

Typical garden area for Access toa ground floor flat + communalupper flat: courtyard & gardenCar parkingParking spaces 1.2 (for privateper dwelling: housing only)Parking within building cur tiliage: 0%On-street: 0%Parking courts/ 0%dedicated off-street bays:Basement garage: 100%Overall land budgetDwellings footprint: 60%Private gardens: 4%Communal outdoor 23%space and courtyards:Roads, footpaths and 13%parking:

Further Reading 1

Aldous, T. (1992) Urban Villages, London, Urban Villages Group.

Association of Chief Police Officers (1999) Secured by Design Standards, London, ACPO.

Bentley, I. et al (1985) Responsive Environments: a manual for designers, London, Architectural Press.

Birmingham City Council (2001) Places for Living: Revised Residential Design Guide for Birmingham, Birmingham, Department of

Planning and Architecture.

Brewerton, J. & David, D. (1997) Designing Lifetime Homes, York, Joseph Rowntree Foundation.

Building Research Establishment,(1995) Environmental Standard: Homes for a Greener World, London,BRE.

Burnett, J. (1978) A Social History of Housing 1815-1970, London, Routeledge.

Ca l t h orpe , P (1993) The Next Am erican Metropolis: Ecol o gy, Co m mu n i ty and the Am erican Dre a m, New York , Pri n ceton Arch i tectu ral Pre s s .

Carmona,M (2001) Housing Design Quality: through policy, guidance and review, London,Spon.

Chambers, J. (1985) The English House, London, Methuen London Ltd.

Colquhoun,I.(1999) RIBA Book of 20th Century British Housing, Oxford, Butterworth-Heinemann.

Colquhoun,I & Fauset, P. (1991) Housing Design in Practice, Harlow, Longmans.

Colquhoun,I & Fauset, P. (1991) Housing Design: An International Perspective, London, B.T. Batsford Ltd.

County Surveyors Society, (1999) Code of Good Practice for Street lighting, London, Institution of Lighting Engineers.

Daunton,M.J,(1983) House and Home in the Victorian City, London,Edward Arnold.

DETR (1998), Planning for Sustainable Development: Towards Better Practice, London,DETR.

DETR (1998), The Use of Density in Urban Planning, London,DETR.

DETR (1998) A New Deal for Transport Better for Everyone,The Government’s White Paper on the Future of Transport, London,

The Stationery Office.

DETR (1998) Pl a ce s , Stre ets and Movem en t ,A Co m panion Guide to De s i gn Bull etin 32, ( Re s i den tial Roads and Foo tp a t h s ) , Lon don ,D E T R .

DETR (2000) Planning Policy Guidance Note 3: Housing, London,DETR.

DETR (2000) Our Towns and Cities: the future - Delivering an urban renaissance, London, The Stationery Office.

DETR (2001) Our Countryside: the future - A fair deal for rural England, London, The Stationery Office.

DETR (2001) Planning Policy Guidance Note 13: Transport, London,DETR.

DETR & CABE (2000) By Design: urban design in the planning system - towards better practice, London, Thomas Telford Publishing.

DETR & DTi (1999) Planning for Passive Solar Design, Watford,BRECSU & BRE.

DETR & Housing Corporation (1999) Housing Quality Indicators: Research Report and Indicators, London,DETR.

DETR,RIBA, RTPI & NHBC,(1997 -2001) Home A Place to Live: Housing Design Awards, Birmingham, Housing Design Awards Office.

English Partnerships and the Housing Corporation (2000) Urban Design Compendium, London,English Partnerships.

Frey, H.(1999) Designing the City Towards a More Sustainable Urban Form, London,E & FN Spon.

Guinness Trust (1996) Planning and Architecture Guide, High Wycombe, Guinness Trust.

Guinness Trust (undated) Landscape and Design Guide, High Wycombe, Guinness Trust.

Hall, P. and Ward,C.(1998) Sociable Cities, Chichester, John Wiley.

National Housing Federation (1998) Car Parking and Social Housing, London, National Housing Federation.

Harris,R.& Larkham, P. (1999) Changing Suburbs: Foundation,Form and Function, London,E & FN Spon.

Hass-Klau,C et al (1992) Civilised Streets: a Guide to Traffic Calming, Brighton,Environmental and Transport Planning

Hulme Regeneration Limited,(1994), Rebuilding the City: A Guide to Development in Hulme, Manchester, Hulme Regeneration Ltd.

Jackson,A.(1973). Semi-Detached London, Frome, Butler & Tanner Ltd.

Joseph Rowntree Foundation,(1995) Made to Last: Creating Sustainable Neighbourhoods and Estate Regeneration, Joseph Rowntree

Foundation.

Karn, V. & Sheridan L. Housing Quality: A Practical Guide for Tenants and Their Representatives, York, Joseph Rowntree Foundation.

Katz P (1994) The New Urbanism: Towards an Architecture of the Community, New York, McGraw-Hill.

London Planning Advisory Committee (1998) Sustainable Residential Quality: New Approaches to Urban Living, London,LPAC.

Lon don Planning Advi s ory Com m i t tee (2000) Su s t a i n a ble Re s i d en tial Quality: Expl o ring the Housing Poten tial of La rge Si te s, Lon don ,L PAC .

Lynch,K.(1984) Good City Form, Massachusetts,MIT Press.

Lynch,K.(1990) The Image of the City, Massachusetts,MIT Press.

Manchester City Council,(1997), A Guide to Development in Manchester, Manchester, Department of Planning.

Muthesius,S.(1982) The English Terraced House, New Haven / London, Yale University Press.

Na ti onal Housing Federa ti on , (1998) St a n d a rds and Quality in Devel opm ent: A Good Pra cti ce Gu i d e, Lon don , Na ti onal Housing Federa ti on .

National Housing Federation and Home Trust (1993) Accommodating Diversity: Housing Design in Multicultural Society, London,

National Housing Federation.

Oliver, P.,Davis,I & Bentley, I.(1981) Dunroamin: The Suburban Semi and its Enemies, London, Barrie & Jenkins Ltd.

Osborn,S.& Shaftoe,H.(1995) Safer Neighbourhoods? Successes and Failures in Crime Prevention, Safe Neighbourhoods Unit.

Pascoe, T. (1999) Evaluation of Secured By Design in Public Sector Housing, London,BRE & DETR.

Pharoah T (1993) Traffic Calming Guidelines, Exeter, Devon County Council.

Prince’s Foundation,English Partnerships,DETR & CPRE (2000) Sustainable Urban Extensions: planned through design, London, The

Prince’s Foundation.

Rogers,R.(1997) Cities for a Small Planet, London, Faber and Faber.

Rogers,R.(2000) Cities for a Small Country, London, Faber and Faber.

Ru dl i n , D. & Fa l k ,N . (1999) Building the 21st Cen tu ry Home: The Su s t a i n a ble Urban Nei gh b ou rh ood, Ox ford , But terwort h - Hei n em a n n .

Saint,A. et al,(1999) London Suburbs, London, Merrell Holberton Publishers Ltd.

Scottish Enterprise (1997) Streets Ahead, Glasgow, Scottish Enterprise.

Scottish Environmental Protection Agency (2000) Watercourses in the Community: a guide to sustainable watercourse management in the

urban environment, Stirling, SEPA.

Sherlock,H.(1991) Cities Are Good For Us, Glasgow, Paladin.

TRL consultants (2001), A Road Safety Good Practice Guide, London,DETR.

Urban Design Group, (2000) The Community Planning Handbook, London,Earthscan.

Urban Task Force (1999) Towards an Urban Renaissance, London,E&FN SPON.

Wines,J (2000) Green Architecture, London, Taschen.

1 This list of further reading is not intended to represent a comprehensive listing of all the publications relevant to housing layout anddesign. Other relevant publications are listed in the further reading se ctions of By Design,the Urban Design Compendium and in manyof the other publications set out ab ove. The inclusion of publications here does not imply any endorsement on the part of eitherDTLR or CABE to their content.

Acknowledgements

Better Places to Live: By Design was prepared by consultants Llewelyn-Davies in association with Alan Baxter & Associates.

The consultants would like to thank the many people and organisations who have contributed to the guide, both as specialist advisorsand as members of the Sounding Board which was convened to advise the project. Thanks are also due to officials at both the DTLR and CABE who acted as the Steering Group for the project.

Image CreditsBeechcroft,page 72 (bottom)Countryside Properties,page 83 (image 4)Duchy of Cornwall,page 18 The Geo Information Group, page 10HTA,page 25 (image 2)HTA,page 39HTA,page 41 (bottom right)Jestico + Whiles,page 74 (bottom left)Local Authorities of South Yorkshire (diagrams page 25)Peabody Trust ,page 69 Peter Cook/ VIEW, page 4Peter Cook/VIEW, page73 (bottom left)Peter Cook/VIEW, page77 (top right)Phil Sayer, page 8 (right)Phil Sayer, page 61 Phil Sayer, page 63 (right)Phil Sayer, page 64 (left)PRP Architects,page 35 (bottom left)Shillam & Smith,page 68TC Communications,page 11 (bottom right)TC Communications,page 63 (images 1 & 2 right)

All other images Llewelyn-Davies/Alan Baxter & Associates

Ordnance Survey MappingAll mapping is reproduced from the OS map by the Department for Transport, Local Government and the Regions with the permissionof the Ordnance Survey on behalf of The Controller of Her Majesty’s Stationery Office (c) Crown copyright. All rights reserved.Unauthorised reproduction infringes Crown Copyright and may lead to prosecution or civil proceedings.Licence Number GD272671.