Big BlueBig Blue70% market share from 1950’s onward

Any new entrant had to:

1)1) compete with their hardware 2)2) compete with their software 3)3) find a niche IBM did not serve already

Just after IBM introduced the vacuum-tube 709 (1957)

Philco tried to compete with its surface-barrier transistors

IBM countered the next year with the 7090 and Philco failed by 1964

Able to mete out technology at a pace that did not render installed machines obsolete too quickly

Kept punch cards alive from the 1930’s thought the 1960’s and beyond

Only company to make a profit making big machines in the 1950’s

IBM 709Data processing system

The Counterbalancing The Counterbalancing Influence of the Influence of the

American GovernmentAmerican Government

Military support also important even as far Military support also important even as far back as ENIACback as ENIAC

After Korean War – large increases in After Korean War – large increases in spending for basic researchspending for basic research

BeforeBefore - military decided what research - military decided what research they wantthey want

AfterAfter - researchers themselves decided - researchers themselves decided

DDynamic ynamic RRandom andom AAccess ccess MMemoryemory

one-transistor memory cellsone-transistor memory cells store each single bit of information as an store each single bit of information as an

electrical charge in an electronic circuitelectrical charge in an electronic circuit major increases in memory densitymajor increases in memory density widely adopted throughout the industrywidely adopted throughout the industry in widespread use today in widespread use today

Robert H. DennardRobert H. Dennard

DRAMDRAM19661966

The MinicomputerThe Minicomputer Born - Chippewa Falls, Born - Chippewa Falls,

Wisconsin Wisconsin

Adolescent hobby – Adolescent hobby – electronicselectronics

Fought in WWII in Europe Fought in WWII in Europe and the Pacificand the Pacific

Returned home to study Returned home to study electrical engineering and electrical engineering and mathematicsmathematics

Started work for ERA and Started work for ERA and then UNIVAC then UNIVACSeymour CraySeymour Cray

1925 - 19961925 - 1996

Cray’s early contributionCray’s early contribution the CDC 160 the CDC 160

Navy Tactical Data System Navy Tactical Data System (NTDS)(NTDS) one of the first one of the first transistorized machines transistorized machines

1960 - Designed the model 1960 - Designed the model 160 for CDC to handle 160 for CDC to handle input/output for their 1604input/output for their 1604

It had 12 bit word lengthIt had 12 bit word length

Able to access primary memory of 8000 wordsAble to access primary memory of 8000 words

6.4 micro-second clock cycle 6.4 micro-second clock cycle

What Cray had invented was, in What Cray had invented was, in fact, a minicomputer.fact, a minicomputer.

Minicomputer not a direct Minicomputer not a direct competitor to mainframescompetitor to mainframes

MainframeMainframe

Operated on 36 bitsOperated on 36 bits

Other registers handled Other registers handled addressingaddressing indexing indexing extra digits generated extra digits generated

Too big and expensive to Too big and expensive to be used for one purpose be used for one purpose onlyonly

MinicomputerMinicomputer

Operated on 12 bitsOperated on 12 bits

Instruction codes more Instruction codes more complexcomplex

Small enough and cheap Small enough and cheap enough to be bought for enough to be bought for one purposeone purpose

Equipment CorporationEquipment Corporation

Kenneth OlsenKenneth Olsen

Innovative architectural featuresNot just machines with transistors replacing tubesNo channelsI/O proceeded directly to the core memory itself

Old woolen mill in Maynard, Massachusetts

Harlan Harlan AndersonAnderson

Corporate culture Corporate culture 180º opposites180º opposites

Only IBM had the right to modify their leased machines

Digital sold and encouraged user modification

As a result, the PDP series found a multitude of uses

to control and monitor

factories transportation systems nuclear power plants

etc

PDP- 8 controlling potato picker

Printed manuals on inexpensive paper Gave away users manuals for free to anyone Published detailed specifications of their

products

Flip Chip ModuleFlip Chip Module

User Manuals

PDP- 8PDP- 8

Conjuncture of performance, Conjuncture of performance, storage, packaging and storage, packaging and priceprice

Word length – 12 bitsWord length – 12 bits

6 kb expandable to 48 kb6 kb expandable to 48 kb

Used indirect addressing to Used indirect addressing to increase functional word increase functional word sizesize

35,000 additions per second35,000 additions per second

PDP-8PDP-8

Logic modules mounted Logic modules mounted on two towers on two towers

Discrete circuits not Discrete circuits not integratedintegrated

$18,000$18,000

Over 50,000 soldOver 50,000 sold

www.pdp8.netwww.pdp8.net has a running has a running PDP8 that anyone can control PDP8 that anyone can control through a Java applet, plus a through a Java applet, plus a webcam to show the results webcam to show the results

Teletype CorporationTeletype CorporationModel 33 ASRModel 33 ASR

(automatic send and receive)(automatic send and receive)

Input/output device for early Input/output device for early mini-computersmini-computers

Functioned as a type-writerFunctioned as a type-writer

Printed onto a roll of Printed onto a roll of continuous papercontinuous paper

Sent a code indicating what Sent a code indicating what key was pressed directly into key was pressed directly into the computerthe computer

6 to 10 characters/second6 to 10 characters/second

ESC and CTRL keysESC and CTRL keys

Used Used ASCIIASCII--AAmerican merican SStandard tandard CCode for ode for IInformation nformation IInterchangenterchange

Snow White and the Snow White and the Seven DwarvesSeven Dwarves

Or The BunchThe Bunch –General Electric & RCA

Time sharing and Time sharing and System/360System/360

Each user had the illusion that a Each user had the illusion that a complete machine and its software were complete machine and its software were at his or her disposalat his or her disposal

Happened in the milliseconds between Happened in the milliseconds between the typist’s keystrokes and ability of the the typist’s keystrokes and ability of the computer to fetch and execute simple computer to fetch and execute simple instructionsinstructions

OS/OS/360360

Family of 3 control programsFamily of 3 control programs

PCPPCP ((PPrimary rimary CControl ontrol PProgram)rogram) processed jobs sequentiallyprocessed jobs sequentially

MFTMFT (Multiprogramming with a Fixed

number of Tasks)) multitasking, fixed multitasking, fixed number of concurrent tasks, number of concurrent tasks, each w/ a preset memory each w/ a preset memory allocationallocation

MVTMVT (Multiprogramming with a Variable

number of Tasks) varying numbersvarying numbers of tasks, memory size could of tasks, memory size could change dynamicallychange dynamically

JCLJCL (Job Control Language) batch-batch-scripting languagescripting language

State of the art computer graphic rendering in 1964 State of the art computer graphic rendering in 1964

Digital Mona Digital Mona LisaLisa

H. Philip Peterson of Control Data Corporation H. Philip Peterson of Control Data Corporation

CDC 3200 computer and a "flying-spot" scanner CDC 3200 computer and a "flying-spot" scanner

The production process - 14 hours to complete The production process - 14 hours to complete

Contained 100,000 pixels plotted using numerals, Contained 100,000 pixels plotted using numerals, sometimes overprinted for density. sometimes overprinted for density.

Printed on sepia tone paper w/ India ink. Printed on sepia tone paper w/ India ink.

A first of its kind scanning processA first of its kind scanning process

1965 Fuzzy logic1965 Fuzzy logicto process approximate data

- such as « about 100 »1965 -fuzzy sets1965 -fuzzy sets

1973 -analysis of complex 1973 -analysis of complex systems and decision systems and decision processesprocesses

1979 -possibility theory 1979 -possibility theory and soft data analysis. and soft data analysis. Lofti ZadehLofti Zadeh

University of California, BerkeleyUniversity of California, Berkeley

Soft ComputingSoft Computing

fuzzy logic fuzzy logic neural network theory neural network theory probabilistic reasoning probabilistic reasoning

belief networks belief networks evolutionary computing evolutionary computing

DNA computing DNA computing

chaos theory chaos theory

parts of learning theory parts of learning theory

Achievements of BISCAchievements of BISCBerkeley Initiative Soft ComputingBerkeley Initiative Soft Computing

fuzzy reasoning (set and logic) fuzzy reasoning (set and logic)

new soft computing algorithms for intelligent, semi-new soft computing algorithms for intelligent, semi-unsupervised use of large quantities of complex dataunsupervised use of large quantities of complex data

uncertainty analysisuncertainty analysis

perception-based decision analysis and decision perception-based decision analysis and decision support systems for risk analysis and managementsupport systems for risk analysis and management

computing with wordscomputing with words

computational theory of perceptioncomputational theory of perception

precisiated natural language  precisiated natural language 

БЭСМ USSR 1965БЭСМ USSR 1965

BESMBESM stands for "Большая Электронно-Счётная stands for "Большая Электронно-Счётная Машина" Машина"

(Bolshaja Elektronno-Schetnaja Mashina) in (Bolshaja Elektronno-Schetnaja Mashina) in Russian, Russian,

"Large Electronic-Computing Machine" or simply "Large Electronic-Computing Machine" or simply "Large Computer"."Large Computer".

19651965 BASIC BASIC (Beginners All Purpose Symbolic Instruction Code)(Beginners All Purpose Symbolic Instruction Code)

programming language by Thomas Kurtz programming language by Thomas Kurtz & John Kemeny, Dartmouth College& John Kemeny, Dartmouth College

Packet switchingPacket switching, funded by ARPA was , funded by ARPA was developed developed

The first The first supercomputersupercomputer, the Control , the Control Data CDC 6600, was developed Data CDC 6600, was developed

The integrated circuitThe integrated circuit

"The future of integrated electronics is the future "The future of integrated electronics is the future of electronics itself. of electronics itself.

The advantages of integrationThe advantages of integrationwill bring about a proliferation will bring about a proliferation of electronics, pushing thisof electronics, pushing thisscience into many new areas.science into many new areas.

Integrated circuits will lead to such wonders asIntegrated circuits will lead to such wonders as home computers ..." home computers ..."

Gordon Moore 1965Gordon Moore 1965

Co-founded 1968

Cray Cray SupercomputersSupercomputers

Cray I 1976

Question:What company makes the fastest computer?

Answer:Wherever Seymour Cray is working now.

More supercomputersMore supercomputers