BilingualismDefinitions & Distinctions

Minimal and Maximal

Incipient bilingualism – minimal competence in a second language (e.g. tourists phrases and words)

“Native-like control” of two or more languages (Blomfield, 1933)

Balanced Bilingualism

Monolingual/Fractional view: “two monolinguals” in one person.

Holistic view: the bilingual has a unique linguistic profile; not the sum of two complete/incomplete monolinguals.

Balance Theory

Separate Underlying Proficiency: Two languages operating separately

Common Underlying Proficiency: Language attributes cross both languages like an exchange between the two.

Common Underlying Proficiency Model

Two languages are visibly different, but underneath both languages operate through the same central processing system (may be summarized in 6 parts).

Semilingualism/Double Semilingualism

Bilingual ability described in terms of deficiencies when compared with monolinguals

Term used pejoratively

Stages of Bilingualism

Early BilingualismNewborns prefer mother’s voice

“Babbling Stage” (10-12m.)

- Babbles in stronger language

- Demonstrates language-specific babbling features.

Child’s Language Choice

Parent’s attitudes to language choice and code-switching

Language competencies and metalinguistic abilities

Personality

Peer interaction

Storing Two LanguagesUnitary

Language System

Language 2

Language 1

Storing Two Languages (cont.)

The two languages develop both autonomously and inter-dependently, and this is partly a function of transfer between types of language combination (e.g. French-English compared with Mandarin-English) – Genesee (2001)

The Thresholds Theory

There is a relationship between cognition and degree of bilingualism, and that the further a child moves towards balanced bilingualism, the greater the likelihood of cognitive advantages (e.g. Toukomaa & Skutnabb-Kangas, 1977; Cummins, 1976).

Threshold Illustrations

Later Development of Bilingualism

Reasons for Second Language Learning

Societal- Assimilationist and subtractive (language

minority students learning English in the U.S.)

- Preservationist (e.g. Maori in NZ, Irish/Gaelic in England, Basque in Spain)

- Increase harmony between language groups (e.g. Canada)

Reasons (cont.)

Encourages economic and trade reasons (e.g. Singapore, China, Scandinavia)

Interactions across continents (e.g. European countries, Central & South American)

Promotes intercultural understanding and peace (September 11, 2001)

Reasons (cont.)

Individual- Promotes cultural awareness- Promotes cognitive development- Promotes affective attributes (moral

development, self-awareness, self-confidence, and social and ethical values)

- Promotes facility toward career and employment

High School ELL Class

The Age Factor

Younger second language learners are neither more globally aware nor less efficient and successful than older learners in second language acquisition

Children who learn a second language in childhood do tend to achieve higher levels of proficiency than those who begin after childhood.

In a formal classroom situation, older learners tend to learn quicker than younger learners. However the length of exposure (# of years of L2) is an important factor in language success.

Three Perspectives on Language

Language as a problem:

- Causes deficiency in learning

- Personality and social problems

- Causes disunity in the political arena (language is rarely the cause of conflict/strife)

Perspectives (cont.)

Language is a basic human rightLanguage rights concern protection from discrimination (e.g. Native Americans, Maori)Language rights are derived from personal, human, legal, and constitutional right.

Perspective (cont.)

Language is a natural resource

Promotes foreign trade, world influence, even peace

Bilingualism is an asset to both community and individual.