Modified Stems, Leaves and RootsRoot vegetables: Root vegetables such radish, beetroot, and carrot are underground organ that lacks buds or leaves or nodes; however, they have root hairs. Buds, leaves, and nodes are the characteristic features of shoot! Root vegetables are generally storage organs, enlarged to store energy in the form of carbohydrates. 

Underground stem: Underground stem such as bulbs (e.g. onion), corms, rhizomes, and tubers are having nodes, leaves, and/or buds. They are modified plant structures that derive from stem tissue but exist under the soil surface. * Bulb - Short, upright organ used by plants for food storage or reproduction, with specialized leaves modified into thick flesh scales. E.g. onion, garlic, tulips, and lilies. * Corm - Short, upright, hard or fleshy stems covered with thin, dry papery leaves. A corm consists of one or more internodes with at least one growing point, with protective leaves modified into skins or tunics. E.g. Colocasia, gladiolus, and banana. * Rhizome - With reduced scale like leaves. The top can generate leafy stems while the bottom can produce roots. E.g. ginger and iris. * Stolon - Horizontal stems that run at or just below the soil surface with nodes that root and long internodes, the ends produce new plants. When above ground they are called "runners". E.g. Silverweed, lily-of-the-valley, and spider plant. * Tuber - An enlarged fleshy end of a stem, generally from rhizomes but often also referring to thickened roots too. A stem tuber forms from thickened rhizomes or stolons. E.g. Potatoes. A tuberous root or storage root, is a modified lateral root, enlarged to function as a storage organ. E.g. sweet potato, cassava, Yam and Dahlia. 

Stem: A stem is one of two main structural axes of a vascular plant. The stem is normally divided into nodes and internodes, the nodes hold buds which grow into one or more leaves, inflorescence (flowers), cones or other stems etc. The internodes distance one node from another. The term shoots is often confused with stems; shoots generally refer to new fresh plant growth and does include stems but also to other structures like leaves or flowers. 

Spleen spleen plays important roles in regard to red blood cells (also referred to

as erythrocytes) and the immune system.[2] It removes old red blood cells and holds a reserve of blood, which can be valuable in case of hemorrhagic shock, and also recycles iron. The spleen synthesizes antibodies in its white pulp and removes antibody-coated bacteria and antibody-coated blood cells by way of blood and lymph node circulation.

The pulmonary artery carries deoxygenated blood from the heart to the lungs. 

common hepatic artery is a short blood vessel that supplies oxygenated blood to the liver, pylorus (a part of the stomach), duodenum (a part of the small intestine) and pancreas.

The renal arteries normally arise off the side of the abdominal aorta, immediately below the superior mesenteric artery, and supply the kidneys with blood.

common carotid arteriesare arteries that supply the head and neck with oxygenated blood

The islets of Langerhans are the regions of the pancreas that contain its endocrine (i.e.,

hormone-producing) cells. Hormones produced in the islets of Langerhans are secreted directly into the blood flow by (at least) five types of cells. In rat islets, endocrine cell subsets are distributed as follows:[3]

Alpha cells producing glucagon (15–20% of total islet cells)

Beta cells producing insulin and amylin (65–80%)

Delta cells producing somatostatin (3–10%)

PP cells (gamma cells) producing pancreatic polypeptide (3–5%)

Epsilon cells producing ghrelin (<1%)

 

PART XVI

SPECIAL PROVISIONS RELATING TO CERTAIN CLASSES  330.       Reservation of seats for Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes in the House of the People.  331.       Representation of the Anglo-Indian community in the House of the People.  332.       Reservation of seats for Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes in the Legislative Assemblies of the States.  333.       Representation of the Anglo-Indian community in the Legislative Assemblies of the States.  334.       Reservation of seats and special representation to cease after seventy years.  335.       Claims of Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes to services and posts.  336.       Special provision for Anglo-Indian community in certain services.  337.       Special provision with respect to educational grants for the benefit of Anglo-Indian Community.  338.       National Commission for Scheduled Castes.338A.      National Commission for Scheduled Tribes.  339.       Control of the Union over the Administration of Scheduled Areas and the welfare of Scheduled Tribes.    340.     Appointment of  a Commission to investigate the conditions of backward classes.    341.     Scheduled Castes.    342.     Scheduled Tribes.

 PART XVII

OFFICIAL LANGUAGECHAPTER I.—LANGUAGE OF THE UNION

  343.       Official language of the Union.  344.       Commission and Committee of Parliament on official language.

CHAPTER II. REGIONAL LANGUAGES  345.       Official language or languages of a State.  346.       Official language for communication between one State and another or between a State and the Union.  347.       Special provision relating to language spoken by a section of the population of a State.

                CHAPTER III.LANGUAGE OF THE SUPREME COURT,HIGH COURTS, ETC.

  348.       Language to be used in the Supreme Court and in the High Courts and for Acts, Bills, etc.  349.       Special procedure for enactment of certain laws relating to language.

CHAPTER IV.-SPECIAL DIRECTIVES  350.       Language to be used in representations for redress of grievances.

     350A.                      Facilities for instruction in mother-tongue at primary stage. 350B.      Special Officer for linguistic minorities.  351. Directive for development of the Hindi language.

PART XVIII

EMERGENCY PROVISIONS  352.       Proclamation of Emergency.  353.       Effect of Proclamation of Emergency.  354.       Application of provisions relating to distribution of revenues while a Proclamation of Emergency is in operation. 355. Duty of the Union to protect States against external aggression and internal disturbance.  356.       Provisions in case of failure of constitutional machinery in States.  357.       Exercise of legislative powers under Proclamation issued under article 356.  358.       Suspension  of provisions of article 19 during emergencies.  359.       Suspension of the enforcement of the rights conferred by Part III during emergencies.359A.      [Repealed.]

      360.        Provisions as to financial emergency.

Unitary stateA unitary state is a state governed as one single unit in which the central government is supreme and anyadministrative divisions (subnational units) exercise only powers that their central government chooses to delegate. The great majority of states in the world have a unitary system of government.

Unitary states are contrasted with federal states (federations) and confederal states (confederation):

In a unitary state, subnational units are created and abolished and their powers may be

broadened and narrowed, by the central government. Although political power in unitary states

may be delegated throughdevolution to local government by statute, the central government

remains supreme; it may abrogate the acts of devolved governments or curtail their powers.

The United Kingdom is an example of a unitary state. Scotland, Wales, and Northern

Ireland have a degree of autonomous devolved power. But such devolved power is

delegated by the Parliament of the United Kingdom which may enact laws unilaterally

altering or abolishing devolution.

Ukraine  is another example of a unitary state (see Constitution of Ukraine). The Republic of

Crimea within the country had a degree of autonomy and is governed by its Cabinet of

Ministers and legislative Council. In the early 1990s the republic also had a presidential post

which was terminated due to separatist tendencies that intended to transfer Crimea to

Russia. In 2014, following a referendum, Crimea declared independence from Ukraine and

rejoined the Russian Federation. However this vote was declared illegal by the United

Nations General Assembly and has not, as of yet, been recognised.

Many unitary states have no such areas having any degree of autonomy. Subnational areas

can not decide any own laws. Some examples of such countries

are Sweden, Norway, Denmark and Ireland.

Federal state

In federal states, by contrast, states or other subnational units share sovereignty with the central

government, and the states constituting the federation have an existence and power functions

that cannot be unilaterally changed by the central government. In some cases, it is the federal

government that has only those powers expressly delegated to it.

The United States is an example of a federal state. Under the U.S. Constitution, power is

shared between the Federal government of the United States and the U.S. states, with

the tenth amendment explicitly denoted as "The powers not delegated to the United States

by the Constitution, nor prohibited by it to the States, are reserved to the States respectively,

or to the people." Many federal states also have unitary lower levels of government; while

the United States is federal, the states themselves are unitary under Dillon's

Rule – counties and municipalities have only the authority granted to them by the state

governments under their state constitution or by legislative acts. For example, in the U.S.

State of Connecticut, county government was abolished in 1960.

Devolution (like federation) may be symmetrical, with all subnational units having the same powers and status, or asymmetric, with regions varying in their powers and status.

Planning Commission (India)The Planning Commission is an institution in the Government of India, which formulates India's Five-Year Plans, among other functions. It is located at Yojana Bhawan, Sansad Marg, New Delhi. Rudimentary economic planning, deriving the sovereign authority of the state, first initiated in India in 1938 by Netaji Subhash Chandra Bose when he was the Congress president and drafted by Meghnad Saha. The British Raj also formally established a planning board that functioned from 1944 to 1946. Industrialists and economists independently formulated at least three development plans in 1944.Some scholars have argued that the introduction of planning as an instrument was to transcend the ideological divisions between Gandhi and Nehru[1] Some other scholars have argued that Planning Commission as a central agency in the context of plural democracy in India needs to carry out more functions than rudimentary economic planning.[2]

After India gained independence, a formal model of planning was adopted, and accordingly the Planning Commission, reporting directly to the Prime Minister of Indiawas established on 15 March

1950, with prime minister Jawaharlal Nehru as the chairman. The Planning Commission does not derive its creation from either theConstitution or statute, but is an arm of the Central/Union Government.

Finance Commission of IndiaThe Finance Commission of India came into existence in 1951. It was established under Article 280 of theIndian Constitution by the President of India. It was formed to define the financial relations between the centre and the state. The Finance Commission Act of 1951 states the terms of qualification, appointment and disqualification, the term, eligibility and powers of the Finance Commission. As per the Constitution, the commission is appointed every five years and consists of a chairman and four other members. Since the institution of the first finance commission, stark changes have occurred in the Indian economy causing changes in the macroeconomic scenario. This has led to major changes in the Finance Commission's recommendations over the years. Till date, Thirteen Finance Commissions have submitted their reports.

Contingency fundA contingencies fund or contingency fund is a fund for emergencies or unexpected outflows, mainly economic crises. In the early part of the nineteenth Century the Civil Contingencies Fund was created in the United Kingdom. It is held by the Treasury, and its use is regulated by the Miscellaneous Financial Provisions Act 1946.[1] It may be used for urgent expenditure in anticipation that the money will be approved by Parliament, or for small payments that were not included in the year's budget estimates.

The Contingencies Fund Act 1974 sets the size of the fund as two percent of the amount of the government budget in the preceding year.

When Parliament votes to approve the urgent expenditure, the monies are repaid into the Contingencies Fund. As Parliament is effectively forced to approve actionsex post facto (after they've happened), the Treasury's use of the fund is actually scrutinised in detail by the Public Accounts Committee.

The Constitution of India authorized[4] the parliament to establish a contingency fund of India. Accordingly parliament enacted the contingency fund of india act 1950.The fund is held by the finance secretary on behalf of the president of India and it can be operated by executive action. The Contingency Fund of India exists for disasters and related unforeseen expenditures. In 2005, it was raised from 50 to Rs 500 crore.

Consolidated Fund of IndiaThis term derives its origin from the Constitution of India.

Under Article 266 (1) of the Constitution of India, all revenues ( example tax revenue from personal income tax,

corporate income tax, customs and excise duties as well as non-tax revenue such as licence fees, dividends

and profits from public sector undertakings etc. ) received by the Union government as well as all loans raised

by issue of treasury bills, internal and external loans and all moneys received by the Union Government in

repayment of loans shall form a consolidated fund entitled the 'Consolidated Fund of India' for the Union

Government.

Similarly, under Article 266 (1) of the Constitution of India, a Consolidated Fund Of State ( a separate fund for

each state) has been established where all revenues ( both tax revenues such as Sales tax/VAT, stamp duty

etc..and non-tax revenues such as user charges levied by State governments ) received by the State

government as well as all loans raised by issue of treasury bills, internal and external loans and all moneys

received by the State Government in repayment of loans shall form part of the fund.

The Comptroller and Auditor General of India audits these Funds and reports to the Union/State legislatures

when proper accounting procedures have not been followed.

Public Accounts Committee (India)The Public Accounts Committee (PAC) is a committee of selected members of Parliament, constituted by the Parliament of India, for the auditing of the expenditure of the Government of India.

The PAC is formed every year with a strength of not more than 22 members of which 15 are from Lok Sabha, the lower house of the Parliament, and 7 from Rajya Sabha, the upper house of the Parliament.[1] The term of office of the members is one year. The Chairman is appointed by the Speaker of Lok Sabha. Since 1967, the chairman of the committee is selected from the opposition. Earlier, it was headed by a member of the ruling party. Its chief function is to examine the audit report of Comptroller and Auditor General (CAG) after it is laid in the Parliament. CAG assists the committee during the course of investigation. None of the 22 members shall be a minister in the government.

The Estimates Committee, constituted for the first time in 1950, is a Parliamentary Committee consisting of 30 Members, elected every year by the Lok Sabha from amongst its Members. The Chairman of the Committee is appointed by the Speaker from amongst its members. A Minister cannot be elected as a member of the Committee and if a member after his election to the Committee, is appointed a Minister, he  ceases to be a member of the Committee from the date of such appointment. [For composition of the Committee 2003-2004 see pages 3-4]. Names of all previous Chairmen of Estimates Committee are given on pages 4-5.Term of Office:The term of office of the Committee is one year.

COMMITTEE ON PUBLIC UNDERTAKINGS The Committee on Public Undertakings consists of 22 members comprising 15 members elected by Lok Sabha every year from amongst its members according to the principle of

proportional representation by means of single transferable vote and 7 members elected by Rajya Sabha in like manner and nominated by that House for being associated with the Committee.

The system of election ensures that each party/ group is represented on the Committee in proportion to respective strength of the Houses.Process of Election

Every year, a motion is moved in the House by the Minister of Parliamentary Affairs or the Chairman of the Committee, if in Office, calling upon members of the House to elect from amongst themselves 15 members to the Committee on Public Undertakings. After the motion is adopted, a programme fixing the dates for filing the nominations, withdrawal of candidatures and the election, if necessary, is notified in Lok Sabha Bulletin Part-II. On receipt of nominations, a list of persons who have filed the nomination papers is put up on the Notice Board. In case the number of members nominated is equal to the number of members to be elected, then after the expiry of the time for withdrawal of candidature the members nominated are declared elected and the result published in Bulletin Part-II. If the number of members nominated after withdrawals is more than the number of members to be elected, election is held on the stipulated date and result of election published in Bulletin Part-II.

Another motion is moved in Lok Sabha  recommending to Rajya Sabha to nominate sevenmembers of that House for being associated with the Committee. After adoption, the motion is transmitted to Rajya Sabha through a message. Rajya Sabha holds election of members to the Committee and  communicates to Lok Sabha the names of members elected.Appointment of Chairman

The Chairman of the Committee is appointed by the Speaker from amongst members of the Committee.Minister not to be Member of the Committee

A Minister is not eligible to be elected as a member of the Committee and if a member, after his election to the Committee, is appointed a Minister, he ceases to be a member of the Committee from the date of such appointment.

Term of OfficeThe term of office of the members of the Committee does not exceed one year.