biology of cancer - effects of cancer on the patient - year 1
TRANSCRIPT
Biology of Cancer:
What effect does cancer haveon the patient?
Second only to heart disease as a cause of deathCauses much human suffering
Cancer results from damage to DNA which can either be acquired or inherited
All cancers are not the same it is not a single disease
The outcome and prognosis of the cancer ◦ Depends on the cell type and origin◦ The tissue of origin
DISEASE BURDEN
Hereditary Breast Cancer
The type of cancer cell will have a big impact on treatment modalities ◦ ie surgery versus chemotherapy versus no
treatment The progression of the cancer depends on
the cell type in which the cancer arose.
Some cancers are more slow growing and less likely to spread than others
1. Reproduce despite normal constraints that inhibit cell proliferation and clonal expansion -ie a cancer cell loses control over the cell cycle and cell division
Normally a cell only divides following stimulation by growth factors or hormones
2. Cancer cells invade and colonize territories normally reserved for other cells
Characteristics of Cancer cells
Cancer : Unregulated Cell Growth
Autonomous/deregulated cell growth defining feature of all cancers (neoplasms)
Deregulated cell growth not necessarily due to increased cell proliferation - critical balance between
Cancer is caused by the accumulation of genetic alterations that confer a survival advantage to the cancer cell
• Changes may result in:◦ -increased cell growth◦ -resistance to apoptosis◦ -altered tissue invasiveness◦ -angiogenic proliferation
(formation of new blood vessels)◦ -ability to escape immune surveillance
Genetic nature of cancer is reflected in the clonal nature of the cancer cells◦ i.e. daughter cells inherit the properties of the
mother cell • Recognition that cancer is a genetic
disease has lead to intensive effort to characterize genes responsible which has lead to new therapies
CANCER IS CLONAL
The change from a normal cell to a cancer cell is called cell transformation◦ Cancer cells don’t look like normal cells◦ The pathologist uses the change in the
appearance of the cell to diagnose the cancer
Cancer cells show – enlarged nucleus, changes to the cytoskeleton, loss of specialized features
There is a spectrum in the changes in appearance of the cancer cell
With some highly malignant cancers it is impossible to tell the cell of origin
Much data to suggest as a cancer develops there is the accumulation of genetic errors and increasing change in cell appearance
Photographs of cells collected by scraping the surface of the uterinecervix (the Papanicolaou or “Pap Smear” technique).
Appear under the microscope like the tissues they came from◦ Remain localized and do not spread◦ Usually do not cause problems unless they grow
in a confined space ie. the brain
Benign Tumours
Do not resemble the tissue or cell of origin◦ Often have irregular structures, large variable
nucleus, little cytoplasm, evidence of mitosis, little specialized structures
• Invade surrounding tissues
Malignant Tumours
Cancers invade other tissues and spread to other parts of the body – this is called metastasis
• Metastasis can be local or distant
• Spread of cancer may depend on the type of cancer ie some are more likely to spread than others◦ eg. small cell lung cancer usually metastatic at
time of patient presentation
Cancer Metastasis
Metastasis occurs in several stages and can occur via several routes
• Local • Lymphatic • Blood
For cancer cell to metastasize it requires genetic change
• These changes lead to change in the cells function and appearance
• Decreased ability of the cells to adhere to neighbouring cells
• Increased ability of the cancer cells to move
Cancer cells extend into surrounding tissue by degrading extracellular matrix
-ie. secrete proteolytic enzymes- cancer cells migrate into lymphatics and blood vessels
Cancer cells need to be able to provide an adequate blood supply◦ Angiogenesis – development of a new microcirculation
Cancer cells that acquire these characteristics have a growth advantage, will be clonally selected and given a suitable environment will grow and proliferate
The cancer cell acquires growth advantages via mutations to DNA -ie cancer is a genetic disease
• Daughter cells inherit the genetic mutations and therefore inherit the growth advantage
• Cancer cells from an individual cancer tend to look the same - all related as the daughter cells inherit the same abnormalities
Even when a cancer has spread the origin of the cell can usually be traced back to a single cell of origin
• The original cancer cell has a growth advantage – it can grow, divide and invade better than normal cells
The cancer cell has undergone a transformation which gives it a growth advantage
Cancer cells are clonal
Different types of cancer occur as there are many different cell types in specific tissues and organs
• About 85% of all cancers are Carcinomas arising from the skin, and epithelial cells that line the organs - examples include breast cancer, lung cancer, colon cancer
• Sarcomas arise from bone, muscle, blood vessels
• Lymphoma arise from lymphoid cells and leukemias from white cells of the bone marrow
Cancer has both local and distant effects
What effect does cancer have on a patient ?
• Cancer displaces normal adjacent tissue • The function of the tissue deteriorates as
the normal cells are replaced by cancer cells which cannot perform the normal cells specialized function◦ -ie bone marrow – making blood cells.
Leukemias replace normal bone marrow◦ -ie Brain tumours replace normal brain tissue
with a specialized function◦ • Cancer cells are immature and cannot carry
out specialized function
LOCAL EFFECTS - 1
Cancers can block vital passages • The mass of a local or metastasized tumour
may become very large -i.e. colon cancers may grow locally and block the
lumen of the bowel so that it becomes obstructed, even in the absence of distant metastasis
• Tumours may block the normal arterial, venous or lymphatic supply leading to significant symptoms
LOCAL EFFECTS- 2
Cancer cells have a very rapid growth and turnover
• The proliferation of cancers leads to a high metabolic rate
• Cancer cells compete with normal cells for nutrition and blood supply
• Other organs may break down their own proteins to nourish the cancer – patient may lose a lot of weight
Effects of cancer on the patient
Patient may experience weight loss, fatigue, tiredness. When weight loss is massive and dramatic and the patient becomes profoundly wasted – called cachexia
• Occasionally cancers may secrete hormones which will cause distant effects even when the cancer has not spread – so called non metastatic manifestations of cancer
- ie lung cancer secretes cortisol
Cancer spread or metastasis is a common cause of cancer related deaths
• Cancer spread ◦ –distant – via lymphatics lymph nodes, lymphatics and
eventually drain into the venous circulation, lungs, heart, and via circulation to other organs
◦ - via blood stream - circulation –distal organs • Cancer spread may be local – block a vital organ - compress vital local tissues, nerves and blood
vessels and block lymphatics
Specific mechanical factors may regulate where a cancer spreads
• The site of the primary tumour ◦ ie colon or breast or kidney and where the
venous drainage from that organ drains to. • For example the liver is the main site of
spread from colon cancer
Mechanical Factors which regulate metastatic deposition
The actual size of the cancer cell may regulate the retention of the cell in specific organ systems.
• Both the lung and the liver are frequent, serious sites for the spread of cancer. This may relate to the size of the cancer cells (20 micron) versus the site of the capillaries in these organs – 3-8 micron, so the cancer cells get stuck and then adhere and grow in that site
1/10 women will get breast cancer Many men will get prostate cancer Patients with breast and or prostate
cancer frequently get bone metastases (may not relate to having an aggressive tumour)
Bone metastases ◦ – lead to hypercalcaemia◦ - osteolytic lesions (holes in bone )◦ - fractures◦ - osteoporosis
Why do cancers preferentially spread to somesites?
Lytic
Blastic
Bone metastasis is often classified as either a |osteolytic or b | osteoblastic, and one of these effects is
usually predominant. For example
◦ metastases from breast and lung tumours are generally osteolytic, whereas metastases from prostate cancer are generally osteoblastic.
◦ However, most blastic metastases have a resorptive component, and most lytic lesions are accompanied by some attempt at repair or bone formation.
Types of bone metastases
Cancers may spread specifically to bone because the bonematrix or cytokines secreted by the cancer such as PTHRP
enhance cancer growth
Effects – • May cause severe pain • Weaken bone and causes pathological
fractures • Weaken bone and cause deformities –
nerve compression, spinal cord ompression as a result of vertebral body collapse
• Hypercalcaemia
Cancer Spread to Bone
Some cancers may reappear decades after the excision of the primary tumour and there may have been no evidence of cancer for years – cancer dormancy◦ • Seen with cancer of the breast and melanoma
Several studies have suggested cancer dormancy may result from failure of the cancer micrometastasis to develop its own blood vessels – therefore the tumour may survive but not expand.
Cancer Dormancy
The reasons why the tumour may suddenly start to grow years later may relate to its acquisition of an increased blood supply
• Novel therapeutic strategies in anti-angiogenic therapies may stop tumour proliferation in metastasis
Alberts et al. Molecular Biology of the Cell 4th ed • Karp. Cell and Molecular Biology 4th ed • Purveset al. Life 6th and 7th ed • Cancer in Australia 2001. Report by Australian
Institute of Health and Welfare (AIHW) 2004 • Jameson JL. Principles of hormone action. Oxford Textbook of Medicine, 3rd ed. 1996; pp. 1553-1573 • Swartz, M.H. Textbook of Physical Diagnosis.
History and Examination (1989) • Nature Reviews Cancer 2002, 2: 573-580, 584-
590
REFERENCES