INDEX

A

Abbreviated configurations,278–281, 292

Absolute zero, 17, 398prediction of, and kinetic

theory, 422Acceptor, 872Accuracy, 19, 28

importance of, 27Acetate ion, 137, 658

as Brønsted base, 645structure of, 312

Acetic acid, 137, 658and acetate buffer system,

666–668equilibrium in a solution of,

142reaction of, with ammonia, 151structure of, 312

Acetylene, carbon-carbon triplebond in, 370

Acid and base constants, inverse relationships of,648, 686

Acid-base indicators, 684, 687Acid dissociation constant, 643,

685Acid-insoluble sulfides,

706–707, 717Acid ionization constant, 643,

685Acid salts, 145Acid solubility constant (Kspa),

706, 717Acid-base equilibrium

calculations, 663, 686simplifications made to,

653–656Acid-base indicators, 135, 165,

167Acid-base neutralization

reactions, 136, 167Acid-base reactions, prediction

of, 149–151Acid-base titrations, 678–684,

686acid-base indicators, 684calculation involving, 166–167changes in pH at equivalence

point, 678–684in chemical analyses, 165–167titration curve, 678, 686, 687

for diprotic acids, 683–684titration of a strong acid by a

strong base, 679–680titration of a weak acid by a

strong base, 680–683weak base-strong acid

titrations, 683Acidic anhydrides, 138, 167Acids, 135–143, 167

amphoteric substances as,610–611

Angstrom (Å), 13, 285, 292Animal cell membranes,

936–937Animal fats, 935Anions, 65–66, 79, 772–773,

936of acids, 187basic, 657–658, 686ionic crystals, 465

Annihilation radiation photons,827

Anode, 41, 772, 802, 813Anode mud, 812Antibonding electrons, 373Antibonding molecular orbital,

372, 380Anticodon, 944, 946Antimatter, 827, 847Antimony, 304–305Antineutrino, 826Aqueous solutions, 128

electrolysis reactions in,798–800

Argon-40, 842Aromatic hydrocarbons,

912–913, 945Arrhenius equation, 548, 560Arrhenius, Svante, 136, 548Arsenic, Lewis symbol for,

306–307Aspartame (NutraSweet), 938Association, 509–510, 511Asymmetric carbon atom,

902Atmosphere (unit), 405Atmospheric pressure, 220,

240measurement of, 391–393

Atom ratio, 44Atom size, 285–286

periodic trends in, 293Atomic fission, 823Atomic fusion, 823Atomic mass, 44, 78, 115,

116average, calculation of, 45experimental measurement of,

47Atomic mass unit (u), 13, 45,

78Atomic nucleus, discovery of,

42–43Atomic number (Z), 78, 80Atomic orbitals, 352, 356Atomic radiation, 824

alpha radiation, 825beta radiation, 825–826gamma radiation, 826–827

Atomic radii, 292Atomic scale, converting from

the laboratory scale to,90–91

Atomic spectra, 259–263, 292

in aqueous solutions, 136–137Arrhenius definition of, 136Brønsted-Lowry definition,

607classification of, 140–141conjugate acid-base pair, 608conjugate pairs, comparing the

acid-base strengths of,612–614

general properties common toaqueous solutions of, 135

nonmetal oxides as, 138reactions with metals,

187–189strengths of, 611strong, 634, 637with a weak base, reaction of,

150writing equations for

ionization reactions of,137–138

Actinides, 78periodic table, 50

Activated complex, 547, 560Activation energy, 543–544,

548–551, 560calculating from rate

constants, 550–551determining graphically,

548–550Active site, 559Activity series, 199

metals (table), 190–191and prediction of reactions,

191–192using, 192

Actual yield, 113, 115, 117Addition, significant figures

and, 21, 29Addition compounds, 327Addition polymer, 945Addition reactions, 911, 945Adenine, 941Adiabatic processes, 214, 240Aging, and free radicals, 553Alcohol carbon atom, 914Alcohols, 62, 901, 902,

913–916, 945defined, 914dehydration reactions,

915–916oxidation products of,

914–915reactions of, 914–917representation by the formula

ROH, 914and substitution reactions,

916–917Aldehyde group, 918Aldehydes, 914, 916–919, 945

ending of names of, 918–919hydrogenation/reduction, 919oxidation of, 919

Aliphatic compounds, 913Alkali metals, 79Alkaline battery (alkaline dry

cell), 806–807, 814Alkaline earth metals, 50, 79Alkalis, 50Alkanes, 61–62, 62, 902–904,

906–907, 945and chain reactions, 910straight-chain, 906

Alkenes:and addition reactions,

911–912double bonds, 912and geometric isomerism,

911hydrogenation, 912IUPAC nomenclature,

910–912Alkyl groups, 907–909, 945Alkynes, IUPAC nomenclature,

910–912Allotropes, 860, 893Allotropy, 860Alpha emitters, 831Alpha-particle experiment,

42–43Alpha particles, 825, 847Alpha radiation, 825, 847Alpha rays, 42Aluminum, 195, 865

aluminum-27, 835and electrolysis, 810–811

Aluminum ore, 869Aluminum oxide, 625, 637American Chemical Society,

divisions of, 2Amide bond, 927Amides, 920–921, 945

as amine derivatives ofcarboxylic acids, 921

Amines, 139, 917–918, 945basicity of, 917protonated, 917–918

Amino acid side chain, 937Amino acids, 945�-amino acids, 937Ammonia, ionization of, in

water, 139Ammonium cyanate, 7Ammonium hydroxide, 145fnAmmonium ion, 78Ammonium nitrate, 78Amorphous solids, 462, 473Ampere (A), 802Amphiprotic substances,

610–611, 636Amphoteric substances,

610–611, 636Amplitude, 252Amu, See Atomic mass unitsAmylopectin, 934Amylose, 933

I-1

brady_index_i01-i14hr 10/26/07 2:19 PM Page 1

Atomic theory, 28Dalton’s, 35, 78experimental foundation for,

38and law of multiple

proportions, 38–39as a model of nature, 4–5

Atomic weight, See Atomic massAtomization energy (�Hatom),

757–758, 761, 764Atoms, 4, 28

concept of, 35internal structure of, 40modern experimental evidence

existing for, 39outer shell, 278with unpaired electrons,

272–273Atto- (prefix), 12Aufbau principle, 273Autoionization (self-ionization)

of water, 625–626, 637Average, 18Average atom, 45Average bond energies, A.24Average kinetic energy, 212Average molecular kinetic

energy, 212Avogadro, Amedeo, 90, 401fnAvogadro’s number, 90, 115,

116using to relate the macroscopic

and microscopic worlds,90–91

Avogadro’s principle, 401–402,425

Axial bonds, 340Azimuthal quantum number,

269

B

Background radiation, 840, 847Badge dosimeter, 837Balance, 14–15

analytical, 15Balanced chemical equation, 35,

571–574Balanced equations, 57, 79,

103–104, 115coefficients in and mole-to-

mole reactions amongreactants and products,105–106

equivalencies obtained from,106, 117

guidelines for, 104sequence of conversions using,

107, 117Balanced ionic equations,

criteria for, 135, 168Ball-and-stick models, 4Balmer, J. J., 259Band of stability, 830–834, 847Bar (unit), 220, 393, 425Barometer, 391–392, 425

Brownian motion, 59, 79Buckminsterfullerene

(buckyball), 861, 893Buffers, 652, 685, 687

calculating change in pH,671–673

calculating the pH of,667–668

calculations, simplifications in,669

defined, 666enabling the control of pH,

666–673neutralizing additons of strong

acid or base, 666–667preparing with desired pH,

669–671and swimming pools, 667

Buret, 167Butane, 901By-product, 113

C

Calcium phosphate, 92Calcium sulfate dihydrate,

76–77Calorie (cal), 211Calorimeters, 219Calorimetry, 219

computing qv and qp using,220–221

Carbocation, 912, 916Carbohydrates, 932–933Carbon, 864, 869, 892,

901–902, 904–905and formaton of allotropes,

860fullerenes, 861Lewis symbol for, 306fnmolecular forms of, 860

Carbon-12, 45Carbon-14 dating, 539–540,

842Carbon black, 194Carbon dioxide, 138Carbon disulfide, 7Carbon monoxide, 233–234,

377–378Carbon nanotubes, 861, 893Carbon rings, 904Carbon-carbon double bond,

367–368Carbonic acid (H2CO3), 138,

151Carbon-oxygen double bond,

368Carbonyl group, 918Carboxyl group (CO2H), 312,

902Carboxylic acid, 919–922Carboxylic acids, 312, 902, 945

amides as amine derivatives of,921

esters as derivatives of, 920Catalysis, 557

I-2 INDEX

Base dissociation constant, 643,646, 685

Base-insoluble sulfides, 707, 717Base ionization constant, 643,

685Base units, 10–11Bases, 135–143, 167, 946

amphoteric substances as,610–611

Arrhenius definition of, 136Brønsted-Lowry definition,

607classification of, 140–141conjugate, 607conjugate acid-base pair, 608conjugate pairs, comparing the

acid-base strengths of,612–614

general properties common toaqueous solutions of, 135

naming, 145strengths of, 611strong, 634, 637as substances that give OH� in

water, 138–139weak, 142

Basic anhydrides, 139, 167, 623Basic oxygen process, 871, 893Batteries:

alkaline battery (alkaline drycell), 806–807

as example of galvanic cells,805–810

lead storage battery, 805–806principal advantage of, 806

lithium ion cells, 808–809lithium-manganese dioxide

battery, 808nickel-cadmium storage cell

(nicad battery), 807nickel-metal hydride batteries,

807–808zinc-manganese dioxide,

806–807Bauxite, 869Becquerel (Bq), 836, 847Becquerel, Henri, 836Bent molecule, 344Benzene ring, 912Beryllium, 289–290

electronic structure of, 274Lewis symbolm for, 306fn

Beta emitters, 831–832Beta particles, 825–826, 847Beta radiation, 825–826, 847Bi- (prefix), 145Bidentate ligands, 873, 893Bimolecular collisions, 555Binary acids, 143, 615, 637

periodic trends in the strengthsof, 614–615

Binary compounds, 68–69, 79Greek prefixes, 70–71

Binary ionic compounds, 79Binnig, Gerd, 39Biochemicals, 930–939

Biochemisty, 930–939defined, 930

Biodegradable polymers, 931Biological systems, hydrogen

bonds in, 435–436Bioplastics, 931Black iron oxide, 97–98Black phosphorus, 863, 893Blast furnace, 893Body-centered cubic (bcc) unit

cell, 458–459, 473, 474Bohr, Niels, 262, 292Bohr’s theory, 262–263, 269Boiling point, 450–452, 473,

474and intermolecular attractions,

451–452normal, 451, 473solutions, 500–503

Boiling point elevation, 501,511, 512

using to determine molarmasses, 502

Boiling water reactor, 844Bomb calorimeter, 223, 240Bomb calorimetry, 223–224Bond angles, 339

and valence bond theory (VBtheory), 354–355

Bond dipoles, 349Bond energy, 308, 331,

757–761, 761defined, 757

Bond length, 308, 331Bond order, 322, 331, 332

and electron pairs, 373–374Bond properties, correlation

between bond order and,322, 332

Bonding domains, 341Bonding molecular orbitals,

372, 380Boron, 861

Lewis symbol for, 306fnBoundary, of heat flow, 214Boyle, Robert, 396Boyle’s law, 396–397, 399, 412,

425ideal gas, 397

Bragg equation, 463, 474Bragg, William Henry, 463Bragg, William Lawrence, 463Branched chains, 904, 945Branching, 924–925, 945Branching steps, free radical

chain reaction, 553Brandt, Hennig, 857fnBreaking weak bonds, 219Brimstone, 856Brine, electrolysis of, 812–813Bromine, 144–145Brønsted, Johannes, 606–607Brønsted-Lowry acids and bases,

606–607, 636, 637strengths of, 611–619

Brown, Robert, 59

brady_index_i01-i14hr 10/26/07 2:19 PM Page 2

Catalysts, 521–522, 560biological, enzymes as, 559defined, 557heterogeneous, 557, 558–559homogeneous, 557–558and position of equilibrium,

584and rates of reaction, 557–559

Cathode, 41, 772, 802, 813Cathode ray tube, 41Cathode rays, 41Cathodic protection, and iron

corrosion, 781Cations, 65, 79, 772–773

acidic, 657, 657–658, 686ionic crystals, 465and octet rule, 303

Cell membranes, in animals,and lipid bilayers, 936–937

Cell notation, and galvanic cells,773–774

Cell potential-ion concentrationrelationship, and Nernstequation, 790–792

Cell potentials, 775–782, 782defined, 775experimental, and

determination of ionconcentrations, 793–794

and free energy changes,787–790

Cell reactions, 796defined, 771

Cellulose, 194, 934Celsius scale, 16–17Centi- (prefix), 12Centimeters (cm), 13Cerium(III) sulfate, 489Cesium-137, 845Chain reactions, 553Change of state, 447–448, 473Charcoal, 195–196Charge, 40, 65, 68, 135, 175,

870Charge, conduction of,

772–773Charge to mass ratio, e/m, 41Charles, Jacques Alexandre,

397Charles’ law, 398–399, 425

and kinetic molecular theoryof gases, 421

Chelate effect, 875–876, 893Chelates, 873, 893Chemical bonds, 79, 298–337,

434defined, 298

Chemical change, 7, 28Chemical energy, 208, 239Chemical equations, 57, 79

guidelines for balancing, 104,117

linking amounts of substancesin a reaction, 103–110

specification of states ofreactants/products in, 58

Concentrations, 128, 511defined, 154and dilution of solutions, 158of ions in a solution of a salt,

161, 169of ions in a solution of

electrolytes, 161–162Condensation, 447, 927Condensation polymer, 927,

945Condensation polymerization,

928Condensed states, 433Condensed structures, 903Conduction of charge, 772–773Conformations, 360Conjugate acid-base pair, 608,

636in a Brønsted-Lowry acid-base

reaction, identifying,609–610

Conjugate acids and bases,607–610

determining the formulas of,608–609

Conjugate pairs, comparing theacid-base strengths of,612–614

Conservation of mass, law of,36, 78, 80

Constant pressure, heat ofreaction at, 225, 240

Constant-pressure calorimetry,determining heats ofreactions in solution by,225–227

Constant volume, heat ofreaction at, 223, 240

Constructive interference, 264Continuous energies, 261Continuous spectrum, 259, 292Contributing resonance

structures, 327, 328Conversion factor, 21, 28Conversion sequence, 93, 116Conversions, 13Cooling curves, 453, 473Coordinate covalent bonds, 327,

331Coordination complexes, 712,

717, 872, 893isomers of, 880–884rules of nomenclature for,

876–878, 894Coordination compounds, 712,

872Coordination number,

878–879, 893Copolymer, 927Copper, 187–188

electron configuration,280–281

reaction of, with concentratednitric acid, 188

Copper chloride, 74fnCopper oxide ores, 869

INDEX I-3

Chemical equilibrium, 142,167, 568–604

equilibrium mixture,composition of, 570–571

meaning of reactants/productsin, 570

position of, 579Chemical formulas, 5, 35,

54–55, 79, 80, 92, 115,116

and amounts of substances ina compound, 91–94

counting atoms in (example),56–57

writing, 75using the significant figures

convention, 70–73Chemical kinetics, 519Chemical laws, and Dalton’s

atomic theory, 35–36Chemical nomenclature, 35Chemical properties, 8–9, 28Chemical reactions, 2, 5, 28, See

also Rates of reaction;Reactants

Chemical symbols, 5Chemical system, expansion of,

727–728Chemistry:

biochemistry, 930–939defined, 2, 28organic, 4

Chirality, 881, 881–882, 893Chloride ion, 77Chlorine, 176, 811, 856Chlorine bleach, 177Chlorophyll, 93, 219

absorption of light by, 256Cholesterol, 905Chromium, electron

configuration, 280–281Chromium(III), 77Chromium(III) chloride, 77Chromium(III) nitrate, 76Chromium(VI) oxide, 625, 637cis, use of term, 911cis isomer, 880–881, 893Cladding, 844Clausius-Clapeyron equation,

454Clean Shower (product), 715Closed-end manometers, 394,

395–396, 425Closed systems, 214Closest-packed structures,

461–462Coal, 195–196Cobalt-54, 827Codon, 944, 946Coefficient of an ion in the

solubility equilibrium,mistake to avoid, 701–702

Coefficients, 57Coke, 869, 870, 893Collagen, 553Collapsing atom paradox, 251,

268

Colligative properties, 496,510–511, 511

Collision theory, 543–548, 560activation energy, 543–544minimum molecular kinetic

energy, 543–544molecular orientation, 543reaction rates and rising

temperature, 544–545Color perception, 887Color wheel, 888Combined gas law, 398,

398–400, 425, 426Combustion, 176, 193, 199Combustion analysis, 100Combustion reaction, 100Common ion, 669Common ion effect, 669, 717

molar solubility equations,700–701

Common names, 79Competing reaction, 113, 115Complementary colors, 887Complex ions (complexes),

712–714, 717, 717–718,871–876, 893

chelate effect, 875–876combining metal ions with

anions or neutral moleculesto form, 712–713

formation constant (Kform),713–714, 718

formation of, and solubility ofa salt, 714–717

formulas for, 874–875instability constant (Kinst),

713–714stability constant, 713

Compound nuclei, 847decay modes, 835defined, 834–836and production of synthetic

elements, 835–836Compounds, 6, 28, 91, 100

calculating amount of, byanalyzing one element,92–93

formulas of, 55ionic, 35, 79

naming, 72–73ions in, 64–65mole concept, 87–88molecular, 35, 79

common names for, 72naming, 70–73, 75

rules for, 77–78percentage composition, 94ratio of atoms in, 96

Compressibility, 441–442, 472Concentrated solution, 128,

167Concentrated sulfuric acid, 491Concentration tables, 586–587,

598–599Concentration units,

conversions among,494–495

brady_index_i01-i14hr 10/26/07 2:19 PM Page 3

Copper refining, andelectrolysis, 811–812

Core, 292Core electrons, 278Corrin ring, 892Corrosion, 195, 199Coulomb (C), 775, 802, 815Counting by weighing, 87Covalent bonding, 298Covalent bond, 331, 332

bond length, 308coordinate, 327, 331defined, 308double bonds, 311, 331electron pair bonds, 308–310and electron sharing, 308–315electronegativity, 314–317nonpolar, 315and octet rule, 310–311partial charges at opposite

ends, 312–314polar, 312potential energy, 308single bond, 311, 331triple bond, 311, 331

Covalent crystals, 466, 473Crick, F. H. C., 941Critical point, 473Critical temperature, 473Cross-linking, 928–929Crystal field splitting, 885–886,

893, 894Crystal field theory, 884–886,

893and colors of complex ions,

887–888and geometries other than

octhedral, 889–892and magnetic properties of

complexes, 888–889and relative stabilities of

oxidation states, 886–887Crystal lattice, 457Crystal structures, 457–458Crystalline solids, 456–462, 473Crystallization, 129Crystals, types of, 466

identifying from physicalproperties, 467

properties of, 466, 474Cubic closest packing (ccp),

461–462, 473Cubic lattices, 458–459Cubic meter (m3), 14Cupric sulfate, 74Curie (Ci), 837, 847Curie, Marie, 837Cyanide ion (CN�), 72Cyclohexane, 904Cyclooctasulfur, 862Cytochromes, 891

D

d orbitals, 283–284, 292, 356Dacron, 928Dalton, John, 38, 413

defined, 769electrochemical reactions,

stoichiometry of, 801–805electrolysis, 796–801galvanic cell concentrations,

and cell potentials,790–795

galvanic cells, 770–775practical applications of,

805–813reduction potentials, 782–787

Electrode reactions, 772, 814Electrodes, 41

charges on, 773inert, 796name assignment, 772

Electrolysis, 730–731, 796–801aqueous solutions, electrolysis

reactions in, 798–800calculations related to,

802–804defined, 796industrial applications,

810–813prediction of, using standard

reduction potentials,801–802

products, using standardreduction potentials topredict, 800–801

and reactive metals, 864Electrolysis cell, 796–797Electrolysis reactions, in aqueous

solutions, 798–800Electrolytes, 129, 167

strong, 130, 140Electrolytic cell, 796, 802

conduction in, 797–798Electrolytic conduction, 772Electrolytic contact, 772Electromagnetic fields,

physiological effects of,258

Electromagnetic radiation,251–258, 883

absorption of, 256views of, 252

Electromagnetic spectrum, 254,292

Electromagnetic waves:categorization of, by

frequency, 254–255defined, 252

Electromotive force (emf), 775Electron affinity (EA), 290–291,

292, 308irregularities in the periodic

variations in, 291periodic trends in, 290, 293

Electron capture, 827–828, 847Electron cloud, 281

and atomic properties,284–291

Electron configurations,273–275, 292

abbreviation, 278–281shorthand, writing, 278–279

I-4 INDEX

Dalton (atomic mass unit), 45Dalton’s atomic theory, 35–39, 78

and chemical laws, 35–36Dalton’s law of partial pressures,

413, 416, 425, 426, 499and kinetic molecular theory

of gases, 421Data, 3, 28De Broglie, Louis, 263–264De Broglie relation, 264, 268De Broglie’s equation, 264Debye units, 313Deca- (prefix), 71Decay constant, 837Deci- (prefix), 12Decimal multipliers, 28

as SI prefixes, 12Decimal numbers, and their

rational fractions, 98Decomposition, 5Definite proportions, law of, 6,

36, 78, 79Degrees Celsius, 13Dehydration, 56

as elimination reaction,915–916

Deka- (prefix), 12Delocalization energy, 379, 380Delocalized molecular orbital,

378–379Delocalized orbitals, 380�E, internal energy change,

211, 225�G, free energy change, 738�H, enthalpy change, 225�S, entropy change, 734Density, 25–26, 28

using to relate a material’smass to its volume, 26–27

of water, as a function oftemperature, 26

Deoxyribose, 940Derivative of a carboxylic acid,

920Derived units, 11Destructive interference, 264Deuterium, 846Di- (prefix), 71Diagonal relationship, 288Dialysis, 503–504, 511Dialyzing membrane, 504, 511Diamagnetic substances, 273, 292Diamond, 860, 893Diaphragm cell, 813Diatomic molecules, 54–55, 79,

103dipole moments/bond lengths

for (table), 313elements occurring naturally

in, 54–55Diethyl ether, 913Diffraction, 264–265, 292Diffraction pattern, 463Diffusion, 417–418, 441–442,

472Dihydrogen phosphate ion, 145Dilute solution, 128, 167

Dilution, 167problems, 158, 169

Dimers, 510Dimethyl ether, 901Dimethylamine, 140Dipeptide, 938Dipole moment, 313, 331, 332Dipole-dipole attractions, 435,

440, 472Diprotic acid, 137, 718Disaccharides, 932–933, 945Discrete energies, 261Dispersion forces, 437Dissociation, 167

and chemical equations,130–131

ionic compound, 129–131Dissymmetric shapes, 350Distorted tetrahedron, 345Division, significant figures and,

20, 29DNA, 940–941, 946

double helix, 941, 946replication, 941–942, 946

through base pairing,941–942

and synthesis of polypeptides,942–943

Donor atom, 712, 872, 893Dot-density diagram, 281–282Double bonds, 311, 331, 341

and sigma and pi bond,366–367

Double replacement reactions,146, 167

Downs cell, 811Ductility, 79

metals, 52Dynamic chemical equilibrium,

569–571Dynamic equilibrium, 142, 167,

447–448, 472, 597

E

E85, 62Ease of evaporation, 472EDTA, 873–874, 893Effective collisions, 543, 547, 560Effective nuclear charge, 284,

292Effusion, 417–418

and nuclear energy, 419Einstein, Albert, 257–258, 822Einstein equation, 822, 847,

848Electric dipole, 312Electric discharge, 41, 47, 259Electrical balance, 135Electrochemical changes,

defined, 769Electrochemical reactions,

stoichiometry, 801–805Electrochemistry, 769–819

cell potentials, 775–782and free energy changes,

787–790

brady_index_i01-i14hr 10/26/07 2:19 PM Page 4

and structure of the periodictable, 275–281

Electron density, 281, 282, 292

Electron domains, 341, 380Electron microscope, 266Electron pair bonds, 308–310Electron pairs, and bond order,

373–374Electron sharing, and covalent

bonds, 308–315Electron spin, 271–273

atoms with unpaired electrons,272–273

discovery of, 272spin quantum number, 272

Electron transfer, 299–305Electron volts (eV), 826–827,

847Electron waves, represented by

wave functions, 268–269Electronegativity, 314–317,

331and periodic table, 315periodic trends in, 315, 332and reactivities of

metals/nonmetals,316–317

Electronic structure, 273–275Electrons, 35, 40, 41, 78, 80,

772core, 278mass of, 40measuring the charge and mass

of, 41outer, 278properties of, 263–271volume of, 40

Electroplating, and electrolysis,810, 814

Elementary process, 552, 560Elements, 5, 28, 78, 100

chemical symbols used toidentify, 5–6

compounds, 6electron configurations of, A.1mixtures, 6relative atomic masses of,

44–45Elimination reaction, 945e/m, charge to mass ratio, 41Emission spectrum, 259Empirical constant, 260Empirical facts, 3, 28Empirical formulas, 96, 115

calculating from masscomposition, 96–97

calculating from mass data,96–97

calculating from percentagecomposition, 99–100

determination of, 96, 116from indirect analyses,

100–102from mass percentages, 99

Enantiomers, 881, 893End point, 166, 167, 678

Families of elements, periodictable, 50

Faraday, 802Faraday constant, 788, 802, 815Faraday, Michael, 41, 802Fatty acids, 935, 945–946Femto- (prefix), 12Fermi, Enrico, 842Film dosimeters, 836First approximation, 665First law of thermodynamics,

222, 240, 241, 727, 761First-order reactions, 528,

534–539First shell, 269Fissile isotopes, 848Fission isotopes, 843Flotation, 868, 893Fluids, supercritical, 471Fluorine, 892, 910Formal charges, 331, 332

defined, 323used in selection of Lewis

structures, 321–326Formation constant (Kform),

713–714, 717, 718Formation costants of

complexes, A.26–A.27Formic acid (HCHO2), 607,

647–648Formica, 928Formula mass, 88, 115, 116Formula unit, 63, 79Forward reaction, 142Fossil fuels, 906Fraction, petroleum, 906Fractional distillation, 906Franklin, Benjamin, 41Franklin, Rosalind, 941Free elements, 54, 79Free energy, 738, 761Free energy diagrams, 749–750Free radical chain reactions, 553Free radicals, 847, 924

and aging, 553and health, 554

Freezing point, estimating usinga colligative property,501–502

Freezing point depression, 501,511, 512

using to determine molarmasses, 502–503

Frequency factor, 548Frequency (�), 252, 292Fuel, 814Fuel cells, 809–810Fuel core, 844Fuller, R. Buckminster, 861Fullerenes, 861, 893Functional groups, 902–903,

905, 945, 946and polar reactants, 903–904and water solubility, 905

Fusion reactions, as source ofenergy in stars, 846

INDEX I-5

Endergonic reactions, 739Endothermic reactions, 240

and heat, 218–219Energy, 239–240

calorie (cal), 211chemical, 208, 239conservation of, 821–822defined, 207of electrons in atoms,

261–262heat, 210–211internal, 211–213joule (J), 210–211kilocalorie (kcal), 211kilojoule (kJ), 210–211kinetic, 208, 210, 239, 241kinetic molecular theory, 239law of conservation of, 209law of conservation of energy,

240measuring, 219molecular kinetic, 239potential, 208–210, 239, 241stored, 208thermal, 210

Energy density, 807, 814Energy levels, 261, 292English system of units, 13Enthalpy, 225, 240, 728

standard enthalpies offormation, 236–238

using, 236–238Enthalpy change (�H), 225,

240, 728Enthalpy diagrams, 230–231,

240preparing, 231–232

Enthalpy of solution, 484Entropy, 733–734, 762

and physical state, 735sign of entropy change (�S)

for a chemical reaction,736–737

and temperature, 734–735units of, 742and volume, 734

Entropy change (�S), 734Enzymes, 522, 560, 945

as biological catalysts, 559as proteins, 939

Equation of state for an idealgas, 405

Equatorial bonds, 340Equatorial plane, 345Equilibrium:

approach to, 571, 598position of, 456in a solution of acetic acid,

142in a solution of weak base

ammonia, 143Equilibrium calculations, 685

simplifications of, 596, 599,662–666

Equilibrium concentrations,using to determineequilibrium constants,585–597

Equilibrium constants, 572, 597determination of, 789–790estimating from free energy

changes, 753–757Equilibrium equations,

manipulating, 574–575,598

Equilibrium law, 572–574, 597,598

combining/scaling/reversing,574–575

for gaseous reactions, writingin terms ofconcentrations/pressures,575–578

Equilibrium vapor pressure, 473of a solid, 450of the liquid, 448–449

Equivalence point, defined, 678Equivalencies, 26, 28Errors, in measurements, 18–19Esters, 920, 945

as derivatives of carboxylicacids, 920–921

splitting by reaction withwater/base, 920–921

Ethanol, 62, 110–111, 916Ethene, 366–368Ethers, 913–916, 945Ethyl alcohol, 62, 901, 902Ethylene, bonding in, 366–368Ethylene glycol, viscosity, 444Ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid

(EDTA), 715Evaporation, 444–447, 472

cooling effect produced by,445

defined, 444–445rate of, 445–447, 473

Exa- (prefix), 12Exact numbers, 21, 28, 29Excess reactant, 111Excited states, 259Exergonic reactions, 739Exons, 943, 946Exothermic reactions, 240

and heat, 218–219Expansion work, 221, 240Experimental percentage

compositions, 95–96Experimental rate laws,

551–556Explosion, 521, 553Extensive properties, 9, 28

F

f orbitals, 284Face-centered cubic (fcc) unit

cell, 458, 473, 474Factor-label method, 21–25, 28Fahrenheit scale, 16–17, 28Families, 78

brady_index_i01-i14hr 10/26/07 2:19 PM Page 5

G

Galvani, Luigi, 770Galvanic cell concentrations,

and cell potentials,790–795

Galvanic cells, 770–775, 813batteries as example of,

805–810and cell notation, 773–775defined, 770and formation of an electrical

circuit, 770–771predicting cell

reaction/standard cellpotential of, 784–785

Gamma radiation, 826–827,847

Gamma rays (� rays), 254–255Gangue, 868, 893Gas densities:

calculating, 409calculating molar mass from,

410–411and molar mass, 408–409

Gas discharge tubes, 41Gas laws, 396–401Gas solubility, 487

and high pressures, 489–491Gas volumes, 401–404

using in solving stoichiometryproblems, 402–403

Gases, 8, 28combined gas law, 398–400critical temperatures, 472and distances between

molecules, 433general properties of, 434ideal gas, 397over water, collecting,

413–415partial pressure, 412–417with polar molecules,

solubility of, 491pressure, 391–395properties of, 389–431

explained at molecular level,390–391

stoichiometry of reactions of,402–404

universal gas constant, 405Gasohol, 62Gasoline, 906Gay-Lussac, Joseph Louis, 398,

401Gay-Lussac law, 398–399

of combining volumes, 425and kinetic theory, 421

Geiger counter, 836, 847Geiger, Hans, 42Geiger-Müller tube, 836Genes, 942–943Genetic code, 932, 943–944,

946Genetic defects, 944Geological dating, 841

Heteroatoms, 905Heterocyclic compounds, 945Heterocyclic rings, 905Heterogeneous catalysts, 557,

558–559, 560Heterogeneous equilibrium,

597Heterogeneous mixtures, 7, 28Heterogeneous nuclear RNA

(hnRNA), 943Heterogeneous reaction, 521,

559, 578–579Heteronuclear diatomic

molecules, bonding of,377–378

Hexa- (prefix), 71Hexagonal closest packing

(hcp), 461–462, 473High density polyethylene

(HDPE), 929, 945High-spin octahedral complexes,

889, 893Homogeneous catalysts,

557–558, 560Homogeneous equilibrium, 578Homogeneous mixtures, 6, 28Homogeneous reactions, 521,

559, 578Homonuclear diatomic

molecule, 377–378Hour, 13Human Genome Project, 944Human papilloma virus (HPV),

944Hund’s rule, 274, 292, 372, 376Hybrid atomic orbitals, 356,

380bonding with, 359–360

Hybrid orbitals, 355–365bonding with, 363–364using to describe molecules

with nonbonding domains,362–363

using to describe multiplebonds, 365–371

using to explain the formationof coordinate covalentbonds, 364–365

Hydrated metal ions, behavioras weak acids, 623–624

Hydrates, 55–56, 79naming using Greek prefixes,

76–77Hydration, 483, 511Hydration energy, 484, 511Hydraulics, 441Hydrides, 60Hydriodic acid, 140Hydro- (prefix), 143–144Hydrocarbons, 61, 62, 79,

193–194, 901, 906–913boiling points of, 438combustion of, 199, 200

Hydrochloric acid, reaction withzinc, 187

Hydrogen, 273, 864

I-6 INDEX

Geometric isomerism, 880–881,945

Gibbs free energy, 738, 762Gibbs free energy change (�G ),

738, 761, 762as maximum work done by a

process, 745–747predicting the outcome of a

chemical reaction using,750–751

and system at equilibrium,748–753

and temperature changes,752–753

Gibbs, Josiah Willard, 738Giga- (prefix), 12Gigaelectron volt (Gev), 826Glucose, 932–934

structures of, 933Glycerophospholipids, 936, 945Glycine, 938Glycogen, 934Gold, 317Gold(III) hydroxide, 111–113Goodyear, Charles, 928Graham, Thomas, 418Graham’s law of effusion, 418,

421, 425, 426Gram atomic mass, 88Gram (g), 14, 28Gram molar mass, 88Graphite, 860, 893Gray (Gy), 839, 847Gray, Harold, 839Greek prefixes, 79, 80Ground state, 261–262, 269,

292Ground state electron

configuration, 273–275Groups, 78

H

Half-cells, 770, 813identical, and concentration

cells, 795Half-life:

of a radionuclide, 837, 848of a reactant, 537–539, 560

Half-life periods, 829Half-reactions, 183–184, 199,

771Hall, Charles M., 810Hall–Héroult procedure, 810Halogen derivative, 925Halogens, 51, 79, 144

boiling points of, 438reduction potentials in, 856

Hardness, metals, 52Heat, 210–211, 216, 239, 240

calculating, 217–218defined, 216determining by measuring

temperature changes,213–218

and endothermic reactions,218–219

and exothermic reactions,218–219

as an extensive property, 215gain/loss, and temperature

change, 214–215specific, 215, 240transferring energy using,

221–222Heat capacity, 214–215, 240,

241determining, 216–217molar, 215specific, 241

Heat of combustion, 223–224Heat of formation, standard, 236

Hess’s law and, 238–241predicting using bond energies

and atomization energies,759–761

used in calculating �G °, 743Heat of reaction (�H ), 546, 560

at constant pressure, 728Heat of solution, (�Hsoln),

483–486, 511for gases, 487ideal solutions, 486for a solid, 484

Heat transfer, 216, 241Heating curves, 452–453Heats of formation of gaseous

atoms, 759, A.24used in calculating �H°.

759–761Heats of reaction (�H ),

233–234, 240, 761algebraic sign, meaning of,

225, 241determining by constant-

pressure caloriometry,225–227

measuring, 219–221predicting using Hess’s law,

232–233Hecto- (prefix), 12Heisenberg uncertainty

principle, 281, 292Heisenberg, Werner, 281Helium, 856Heme, 891Hemoglobin, 938–939Henderson-Hasselbalch

equation, 671, 685Henry’s law, 490Henry’s law, 511, 512Henry’s law constant, 490Hepta- (prefix), 71Heptane, 909Héroult, Paul, 810Hertz (Hz), 252, 292Hess, Germain Henri, 232Hess’s law, 232, 241Hess’s law equation, using,

238–241Hess’s law of heat summation

(Hess’s law), 232–233chief use of, 233using, 233–234

brady_index_i01-i14hr 10/26/07 2:19 PM Page 6

acidic binary compounds of,614

bond length and bond energyof, 309

molecular orbital bonding in,373

valence bond description ofbonding in, 353

Hydrogen-3 (tritium), 825Hydrogen bonding, 435–436,

440, 472, 913in biological systems, 435–436

Hydrogen compounds ofnonmetals, 143–144

Hydrogen electrode, 777–779,813

Hydrogen fluoride, MOdescription of bonding in,377

VB description of bonding,353–354

Hydrogen ion, 136Hydrogen peroxide (H2O2),

231–232Hydrogen spectrum, calculating

the wavelength of a line in,260–261

Hydrogen sulfate ion, 145Hydrogen sulfide, bonding in,

354–355precipitation of metal ions by,

704–709Hydrogen-oxygen fuel cells,

810Hydrolysis, 657Hydrometer, 805–806, 814Hydronium ions, 136, 611–612Hydrophilic, use of term, 936Hydrophobic, use of term,

936Hydroxide ion (OH�), 72,

611–612Hypertonic solution, 506Hypo- (prefix), 144Hypochlorite ion (OCl�), 182Hypotheses, 3, 28Hypotonic solution, 506

I

-ic (suffix), 74, 144-ide (suffix), 70–73Ideal gas, 397, 402–403,

423–424, 425compared to ideal solution,

486Ideal gas law, 405, 405–412,

425, 426calculating the volume of a

gaseous product using,411–412

using in stoichiometrycalculations, 411–412

Ideal solution, 511Ideal solutions, 486–487Identical half-cells, and

concentration cells, 795

Iron corrosion, and cathodicprotection, 781

Iron ions, 73Iron ore, reduction of, to make

steel, 869–870Isolated system, 214Isomerism, 880, 893, 901Isomers, 893, 901

of coordination complexes,880–884

Isotonic solution, 505Isotopes, 43, 78, 847

stable, 830–834

J

Jet fuel, 906Joule ( J), 210–211, 240, 548fn

K

Ka or Kb :calculating equilibrium

concentrations from,652–653

using initial concentrationsand equilibrium tocalculate, 649–652

Kw, ion product for water, 626Kelvin (K), 16Kelvin temperature scale,

16–17, 28Kerosene, 906Ketone group, 918Ketones, 901, 915, 945

ending of names of, 918–919hydrogenation/reduction, 919

Kevlar, 900, 930Kidney stones, 146Kilo- (prefix), 12Kilocalorie (kcal), 211, 240Kiloelectonvolt (kev), 826Kilogram (kg), 14, 28Kilojoule (kJ), 210–211, 240Kilojoules per mole (kJ mol �1),

240, 287Kilometer (km), 12Kinetic energy (KE), 208, 210,

239, 241molecular, 211, 218

Kinetic molecular theory, 212,239

absolute zero, prediction of,422

Kinetic molecular theory ofgases, 419–422

postulates, 420prediction of gas laws by,

420–422and pressure-temperature law,

421and pressure-volume law, 420temperature, average kinetic

energy and, 420and temperature-volume law,

421Krypton-87, 827

INDEX I-7

Immiscible, use of term, 482In phase, use of term, 264Incompressibility, 441, 472Induced dipole, 437Inert electrodes, 796Inert gases, 50

adding at constant volume,584

Infrared radiation, 254, 292Inhibitors, 557Initiation step, free radical chain

reaction, 553Initiator, 924Inner transition elements, 78

periodic table, 50Inorganic compounds, 70, 79Insoluble compounds, 147Instability constant (Kinst),

713–714Instantaneous dipole, 436Instantaneous dipole-induced

dipole attractions, 437,472

Instantaneous rate, 524–525Integer subscripts, methods for

finding, 98, 116Integrated rate laws, 534–543Intensive properties, 9, 28

density, 25–26Intercalation, 808, 814Interference fringes, 264Intermolecular attractions, 434,

440and boiling point, 451–452and energy changes, 455evaporation and sublimation,

444–447retention of volume and shape,

442strength of, 442–444surface tension, 442–443

Intermolecular forces, 433and distance, 433effect of, estimating, 440–441relationship between

molecular structure and,433, 473

Internal energy (E ), 211–213,240, 727

as state function, 222Internal energy change (�E ),

211as state function, 213

International System of Units(SI), 10

International Union of Pure andApplied Chemistry(IUPAC), 49–50

alkane nomenclature, 907IUPAC rules, 70rules for naming alkanes, 907,

909–910, 913, 914,917–921, 946

Intramolecular attractions, 434

Intramolecular forces, 433–434Introns, 943, 946

Inverse square law, 840, 848Iodine-131, 845Ion pairs, 509–510, 511Ion product, 693–694, 717Ion product constant of water

(Kw), 626, 637Ion size, 286–287

periodic trends in, 293Ion-dipole attractions, 439, 440,

472Ion-electron method, 182–184,

199, 200acidic solution, 185basic solutions, 186–187half-reactions, 183–184, 199skeleton equation, 183, 199using, 185–186

Ionic bases, 139Ionic bonds, 298, 299, 331Ionic character, polar bonds,

315Ionic compounds, 35, 63, 79

conduction of electricity whendissolved in water,129–135

dissociation, 129–130naming, 72–74, 76, 80predicting formulas of, 65–70rules for writing formulas for,

66–67, 80in water, solubility rules for,

147Ionic crystals, 465, 466, 473Ionic equations, 131–135, 167Ionic oxides, 193Ionic reactions, 167

equations for, 131–135, 167prediction of, 146–153

examples, 152–153Ionic solutes, 508–509Ion-induced dipole attractions,

439, 440, 472Ionization, 167Ionization constants of weak

acids and bases, A.27–A.28Ionization energy (IE),

287–288, 292, 308irregularities in the periodic

variations in, 291periodic trends in, 288, 293

Ionization of a molecular base inwater, equation for, 139,168

Ionization of an acid in water,equation for, 137, 168

Ionization reaction, 136Ionizing radiation, 836, 847Ions, 35, 42, 62–63

as acids/bases, 685composition of, 68–69in compounds, 64–65electron configuration, 332

obtaining, 303–306polyatomic, 68–70

Iron, 891refining of, to make steel, 871

brady_index_i01-i14hr 10/26/07 2:19 PM Page 7

L

Laboratory balances, 14–15Laboratory thermometers, 15Lactose, 933Lampblack, 194, 199Lanthanides, 78

periodic table, 50Lattice, 457Lattice energy, 299–302, 331,

511calculating, 301and ionic size/charge, 300–302

Lattices, 473Lavoisier, Antoine Laurent, 176,

401Law of combining volumes,

401Law of conservation of energy,

209, 240Law of conservation of mass, 36,

38, 78, 80Law of conservation of

mass-energy, 821–822, 847Law of definite proportions, 6,

36, 38, 78, 79Law of multiple proportions,

38–39, 78Law of radioactive decay,

837–839Le Châtelier, Henry, 456Le Châtelier’s principle,

455–456, 473, 474, 487,584–585, 597, 864, 920

and chemical equilibrium,581–585

and common ion effect, 669defined, 456

Lead chloride, 74fnLead iodide, precipitation of,

131–133Lead storage battery, 802,

805–806principal advantage of, 806

Lecithin, 936Leclanché cell, 806–807, 814Length, 13–14Length conversions, 13Leveling effect, 615fnLewis acid-base reactions,

619–623and Brønsted acid-base

reaction, 622–623examples of, 619–620neutralization, 619

Lewis acids, 619–623, 636, 637Lewis bases, 619–623, 636–637

ligands as, 872–874Lewis formation, 310Lewis, G. N., 306Lewis structures, 310–311, 331

and course of chemicalreactions, 326–327

drawing, 317–327, 332example, 319–321

failure of, and resonance,327–331

Metabolix, Inc., 931Metal complexes, nomenclature

of, 876–878, 894Metal compounds, thermal

instability of, 865–867Metal hydride, use of term, 807Metal hydroxides, 139, 140Metal ions:

acidities of, and periodictrends, 624

as critical functions inbiological systems,890–892

separated by selectiveprecipitation, 707–711

Metal oxides, 139, 637acid-base properties of, and

oxidation number of themetal, 625

solubility equilibria of,704–707

Metal sulfides, solubilityequilibria of, 704–707

Metallic conduction, 772Metallic crystals, 466, 473Metallic luster, 52, 79Metallic zinc, 189Metalloids, 51, 79, 892

in compounds, 857–858oxoacids of, 616physical properties, 53–54

Metallurgy, 867–871, 893concentration, 867ores:

chemical reducing agents,869–870

treatment of, 868–869reduction, 867refining, 868, 870–871

Metals, 51–52, 79activity series of, 191, 200arrangement of, according

to ease of oxidation,189–190

and cation formation, 302chemical properties of, 52and chemical reducing agents,

864–865from compounds by

reduction, 863–867oxidation of, with acids,

187–188physical properties, 52reaction with oxygen,

195–196reactive, and electrolysis, 864

Metathesis reactions, 146, 167gases formed in, 152, 168

prediction of, 151table, 152

Meter (m), 11, 13Meters squared (m2), 11Methanol, 62Method of successive

approximations, 665–666Methyl alcohol (wood alcohol),

62, 256

I-8 INDEX

formal charges in selection of,321–326, 332

preferred, 323Lewis symbols, 306–307, 331,

332Libby, Willard F., 842Ligands, 712, 717, 872, 893

as Lewis bases, 872–874Light, 252

speed of, 253, 292Light water reactors, 844Like dissolves like rule, 482,

511, 512Limiting reactant, 111, 115,

117Line spectra, 292Line spectrum, 259Linear molecules, 339Linear momentum, 11Linear polyethylene, 929Lipases, 935Lipid bilayer, 936Lipids, 932, 934–937, 945Liquid water, as solvent, 128fnLiquids, 8, 28, 472

and distances betweenmolecules, 433

general properties of, 434, 472with strong intermolecular

attractive forces, 442–443supercooled, 462, 473superheated, 453surface tension, 442surfactants, 444vapor, 450viscosity, 444wetting of surfaces by,

443–444Liter (L), 13, 14, 28, 405Lithium, 289–290

electronic structure of, 274ionization energy, 287–288

Lithium batteries, 808Lithium ion cells, 808–809Lithium-manganese dioxide

battery, 808, 814Litmus, 165Litmus paper, 135fn, 632London dispersion forces, 437,

440, 472London forces, 436–439, 483

strength of, 437–439London, Fritz, 436Lone pairs, 341, 350Low density polyethylene

(LDPE), 929Low-spin octahedral complexes,

889, 893Lowry, Thomas, 606Lucite, 926

M

Macromolecules, 922Macroscopic, use of term, 4–5,

5Magic numbers, 833–834, 847

Magnesium, 863Magnesium oxide, 177Magnetic quantum number

(m/), 270, 292

Magnitude of K, 580, 598Main group elements, periodic

table, 50Main reaction, 113Malleability, 79

metals, 52Manometers, 394–395, 425

closed-end, 394, 395–396open-end, 394

Marsden, Ernest, 42Mass, 5fn, 14, 28

conservation of, 821–822measuring, 14 momentum and, 5fn

Mass action expression, 572Mass conversions, 13Mass defect, 822Mass fractions, 492, 511, 512Mass number (A), 80

isotopes, 43Mass percent, 492, 511, 512Mass ratio, 44, 79Mass spectrometer, 42, 47Mass spectroscopy, 94Mass spectrum, 47Mass-energy, law of

conservation of, 821–822,847

Material balance, 135Matter, 5–8, 28, 40

classification of, 8–9Matter waves, 292Maximum work, and Gibbs free

energy change (�G ),745–747

Mean, 18Mean square velocity, 421Measurements, 9–18

addition and subtraction, 21errors in, 18–19multiplication and division, 20SI units (International System

of Units), 10uncertainties in, 18–19units, 10, 28writing using the significant

figures convention, 19zeros as significant digits,

19–20Mechanism of a reaction, 552,

560Mega- (prefix), 12Megaelectronvolt (Mev), 826Melting point, 448

solutions, 500–503Mendeleev, Dmitri Ivanovich,

48–49, 78, 279Mendeleev’s periodic table, 35Meniscus, 471Mercury, 392–393

millimeter of, 393Messenger RNA (mRNA),

943–944

brady_index_i01-i14hr 10/26/07 2:19 PM Page 8

Methyl group, 139Methylamine, 139Metric ton, 13Meyer, Julius Lothar, 48Micro- (�, prefix) 12Microwaves, 254, 292Milli- (prefix), 12Millibar, 393Millikan, Robert, 41–42

cathode ray tube, 41oil drop experiment, 42

Milliliters (mL), 14Millimeters (mm), 13, 28Minimum molecular kinetic

energy, 543–544Minute, 13Miscible, use of term, 482Mixtures, 6, 28

heterogeneous, 7homogeneous, 6

Models of nature, 3–5, 28Molal boiling point elevation

constant, 501, 511Molal concentration (m), 511Molal concentrations, 493–494,

512Molal freezing point depression

constant, 501, 511Molality, 491, 493–494, 501,

511finding from mass percent,

495–496Molar concentrations, 154, 491,

511using, 155–156

Molar enthalpy of solution, 483,511

Molar heat capacity, 215Molar heat of fusion (�Hfusion),

453, 473Molar heat of sublimation

(�Hsublimation), 453, 473Molar heat of vaporization

(�Hvaporization), 453, 473Molar mass, 88, 115, 116,

407–408, 418determination of, 407, 415,

418, 426and gas densities, 408–409

Molar solubility, 695–698calculating from Ksp , 698–700

Molar volumes, 401–402, 402,426

Molarity (M ), 154, 154–155,167, 168, 491, 522

calculating, 155defined, 154known, preparing a solution

with, 157–158preparing a solution by

dilution, 158–159and problems in solution

stoichiometry, 159–160Mole concept, 87–88, 115Mole fractions (X ), 415–416,

425, 426, 491, 494, 511,512

Nitrate ion, 78Nitric acid (HNO3), 318

as oxidizing agent, 187–189Nitric oxide (NO), 188Nitrogen, 863, 892

bonding in, 371Lewis symbol for, 311molecular orbital diagram for,

376Nitrogen compounds, as

molecular bases, 139Nitrogen dioxide (NO2), 188Nitrogen family, 51Noble, use of term, 50Noble gas configurations,

stability of, 289–290,302–303

Noble gases, 50, 54, 79boiling points of, 438

Nodal plane, 281, 282–283Nodes, 266Nomenclature, 79

of simple molecular and ionicinorganic compounds, 70

Non-SI metric units, 13Nona- (prefix), 71Nonbonding domains, 341,

343–349Nonbonding molecular orbitals,

377Nonelectrolytes, 130, 167Nonlinear molecule, 344Nonmetal oxides, as acids, 138Nonmetallic elements:

in free states, complexity of,858–863

simple hydrogen compoundsof, 60

Nonmetals, 893acidic binary compounds of,

614and anion formation, 302below Period 2, 861–863in compounds/free state,

855–857and oxidation/reduction,

856–857oxidizing power of, and

electronegativities, 317oxoacids of, 616in Period 2, 859–860reaction with oxygen,

195–196Nonmetals (nonmetallic

elements), 51–53, 79chemical reactivity, 53ductility of, 52–53malleability of, 52–53

Nonoxidizing acids, 187–189,199

table, 188Nonpolar, 315Nonpolar bonds, 331Nonpolar covalent bonds, 315Nonspontaneous changes, 731Normal boiling point, 451, 473

INDEX I-9

Mole percents (mol%),415–416, 491, 494, 512

and partial pressure, 416–417Mole-to-mole ratios, 107–108Mole-to-mole relationships,

105–106Molecular compounds, 35, 59,

79common names for, 72

Molecular crystals, 465, 466,473

Molecular equations, 167Molecular formulas, 61, 79, 96,

115determining from empirical

formulas and molecularmasses, 102–103

Molecular kinetic energy, 211,218, 239

Molecular mass, 88, 115, 116Molecular model, 391Molecular orbital theory (MO

theory), 352, 372–378antibonding electrons, 373and bonding of heteronuclear

diatomic molecules,377–378

calculating bond order in, 373,382

delocalized orbitals, 378–379and prediction of the

properties of second perioddiatomics, 374–375

Molecular orbitals, 352, 380antibonding, 372bonding, 372defined, 372electron configurations,

375–376how electrons fill, 375, 382nonbonding, 377

Molecular orientation, 543Molecular oxides, 193Molecular oxygen, as oxidizing

agent, 193, 199Molecular polarity, 380

prediction of, 351–352Molecular shapes, 380

basic, 339–341derived from octahedron,

346–347derived from tetrahedron, 344derived from trigonal

bipyramid, 345prediction of, 340–349, 343,

346–349Molecular size, and physical

properties, 905Molecular symmetry, 349–352Molecular weight, See Molecular

mass and Molar MassMolecules, 4, 28, 59, 59–60, 79,

339–341diatomic, 54–55with five domains, 345–346with four domains, 344mass of, calculating, 91

Moles:converting from grams to, 89converting mass to, 89converting to grams, 89defined, 87–88number of particles in, 90

Moles of solute, 156, 168obtaining from

volume/molarity ofsolution, 156–157

Momentary dipole, 436Monatomic anions, 79, 80Monatomic negative ions,

72–73Mond process, 871fnMono- (prefix), 71Monoclinic sulfur, 862Monodentate ligands, 872,

893Monomers, 436, 923, 945Monoprotic acids, 137Monosaccharides, 945Multiple proportions, law of,

38–39, 78Multiplication, significant

figures and, 20, 29Mycobacterium tuberculosis,

253

N

Nano- (prefix), 12Native form, defined, 939NatureWorks (Cargin Dow),

931Nebula RCW49, 820Negative catalysts, 557Negative charge, 40, 78Negative ions, 292Negative polarity, 773Nernst equation, 790–791,

793–794, 795, 802, 815Nernst, Walther, 791Net ionic equations, 167

criteria for, 135, 168predicting the existence of,

146, 168in stoichiometric calculations,

161–163Network solids, 466Neurotransmitters, 936Neutralization, 135Neutrino, 826, 827Neutron activation analysis,

841, 848Neutron emission, 827Neutrons, 35, 40, 78, 80, 824

discovery of, 43Newton, Isaac, 262Newtons (N), 393Nicad battery, 814Nickel carbonyl, 871Nickel chloride, 74fnNickel-cadmium storage cell

(nicad battery), 807Nickel-metal hydride batteries,

807–808, 814

brady_index_i01-i14hr 10/26/07 2:19 PM Page 9

Nuclear binding energy,822–824, 847

binding energy per nucleon,variations in, 823–824

calculating, 822–823Nuclear chain reaction, 843,

848Nuclear energy, and effusion,

419Nuclear equations, 825, 847

balanced, writing, 829–830Nuclear fission, 823, 842–843

energy yield from, 843–844heat from reactions, 844

Nuclear fusion, 823, 845–847Nuclear radiation, 824Nuclear reactions, 820–853,

848band of stability, 830–834radiation, 836–840radioactivity, 824–830transmutation, 834–836

Nuclear strong force, 824Nucleic acids, 939–944, 945

DNA, 940–941as double helix, 941replication through base

pairing, 941–942and synthesis of

polypeptides, 942–943genes, 942–943RNA, 940–941

Nucleons, 40, 78, 80Nucleotides, 942Nucleus, 40Nylon, 927, 928–929, 945Nylon 6,6, 927

O

Observations, 9, 28and the scientific method,

9–10Octa- (prefix), 71Octahedral molecules, 340–341Octahedron, 340, 342Octane, combustion of, 739Octane ratings, 553Octet, 310–311Octet of electrons, 303Octet rule, 303, 331, 332

and covalent bonds, 310–311Odd-even rule, 832–833, 847,

848Olivine, 867Open-end manometer, 394,

425Open systems, 214Optical isomers, 883, 893Optically active isomers, 883Orbital angular momentum

number, 269Orbital diagrams, 273, 281Orbitals, 269, 292Order of reaction, 528, 560

determining experimentally,529–534

Perfectly elastic collisions, 420fnPeriodic, use of term, 48Periodic table, 47–51, 78–79,

80, 253, 293actinide elements, 50, 78and electronegativity, 315elements in, 48extended form of, 51families of elements, 50first, 48groups, 48–49inner transition elements, 50lanthanide elements, 50, 78main group elements, 50Mendeleev’s, 35metallic/nonmetallic character

and, 54modern, 49–50periods, 48, 78special terminology associated

with, 49–50structure of, and electron

configurations, 275–281transition elements, 50

Periods, 48, 78Permeability, 503PET scan, 833Peta- (prefix), 12pH, 625–634, 637

acid-base titrations, 678–684acidic solution, 627, 629autoionization of water,

625–626basic solution, 627, 629buffers enabling the control of,

666–673calculations, 632–634defined, 628logarithmic scale of acidity,

628–629measuring/estimating,

630–632neutral solution, 627, 629pH meter, 630relationship between pOH

and, 638test papers, 632

Phase boundaries, 773–774Phase changes, enthalpy changes

during, 453, 455, 474Phase diagrams, 467, 467–472,

473, 474Phases, heterogeneous mixtures,

7, 28Phenolphthalein, 165–166Phosphoric acid, 104–105, 137Phosphorus, 857fnPhotoelectricity, 257Photons, 257, 292

energy of, 257, 293Photosynthesis, 219Physical change, 7, 28Physical properties, 8

and molecular size, 905Physical states, 7Pi bonds (� bonds), 366, 380Pico- (prefix), 12

I-10 INDEX

Ores, 893treatment of, 868–869

Organic acids, 312strength of, 619

Organic chemistry, 4, 61,901–905, 945

alcohols, 913–916aldehydes, 916–919amines, 917–918biochemicals, 930–939carbon, 901–902, 904–905carboxylic acid, 919–922ethers, 913–916functional groups, 902–903,

905hydrocarbons, 906–913molecular size, and physical

properties, 905nucleic acids, 939–944organic familes, 902–904polymers, 922–930

Organic compounds, 61, 70,79, 193–195, 901–902,903, 945

containing oxygen,combustion of, 194

containing sulfur, burning,194–195, 200

Organic familes, 902–904Orthorhombic sulfur, 862Osmometer, 506Osmosis, 503–510, 511

and movement of solventacross a membrane,504–505

reverse, 505Osmotic membrane, 504, 511Osmotic pressure, 505–507,

511equation for, 505, 512

-ous (suffix), 74, 144Out of phase, use of term, 264Outer electrons, 278Outer shell, atoms, 278, 292Overall order of reaction, 528Overlap of orbitals, 352Oxidation:

defined, 176, 199and reactivity, 316–317

Oxidation numbers, 178–182,188, 199

assignment of, 178–180, 200fractional values, 180–181and identification of oxidation

and reduction, 181–182Oxidation state, 178, 199Oxidation-reduction reactions,

175–206defined, 176and electron transfer, 176–182identifying, 177–178

Oxides, 623–625, 637Oxidizing acids, 187–189, 199

table, 188Oxidizing agent, 199

identifying, 176, 200Oxoacids, 144, 637

acidity of, and number ofoxygens, 617–618

delocalization of negativecharge to the lone oxygens,and basicity of the anionof, 618–619

of nonmetals and metalloids,616

periodic trends in the strengthof, 615–616

Oxygen, 193, 863, 892combustion reactions of

hydrocarbons with,193–194

molecular orbital diagram for,376

Oxygen family, 51Oxygen lance, 871Ozone, 859–860, 893

reaction of double bonds with,912

P

p orbitals, 274, 292, 356shape of, 282–283, 292

Paired spins, 292Pairing energy, 888, 893Paraffin wax, 906Paramagnetic substances, 273,

292Parent chain, 907Parent ring, 907Partial charges, 312–314, 331Partial pressure, 412–417, 511

defined, 413and mole percents (mol%),

416–417using mole fractions to

calculate, 416–417Particulates, 194Parts per billion (ppb), 492Parts per hundred (pph, %), 492Parts per million (ppm), 492Pascal (Pa), 548Pascals, 425Pauli exclusion principle, 272,

274, 292Pauli, Wolfgang, 272Pauling, Linus, 314Penta- (prefix), 71Peptide bond, 938, 945Per-, 144Percent by weight, 491–492Percent concentration, 491–493Percent ionization, 509–510Percentage by mass (w/w), 94,

491, 491–492Percentage composition, 94, 116Percentage concentration, 128,

154, 167Percentage ionic character, 314Percentage ionization, 649, 685,

686Percentage yield, 94, 99, 113,

115, 117calculating, 114

brady_index_i01-i14hr 10/26/07 2:19 PM Page 10

Pig iron, 870pKa , 685pKb , 685Planar triangular molecule, 339Planck, Max, 257–258Planck’s constant, 257, 264, 292Plane-polarized light, 883, 893Plasma, 846, 848Plutonium-239, 848Polar bonds, 315, 331Polar covalent bonds (polar

bonds), 312Polar molecule, 313, 315

calculating the charge on theend of (example), 313–314

Polar reactants, and functionalgroups, 903–904

Polarizability, 438Polarized light, 883Polonium, 458fnPolyatomic ions, 68–70, 79, 80,

105, 130–131ionic compounds that contain,

76naming, 80

Polycarbonates, 928Polydentate ligands, 873, 893Polyester, 927, 945Polyethylene, 924–925, 926Polymerization, 923, 945Polymers, 436, 922–930, 945

crystallinity, and physicalproperties, 928–930

formation by addition ofmonomer units, 924–925

formation by condensationreactions, 927–928

polymer strands, cross-linkingbetween, 928

structural order of, 922–923Poly(methyl methacrylate), 926Polypeptides, 937–939, 945

as polymers, 938synthesis, 942–943

Polypropylene, 945Polyprotic acids, 137, 673, 686

acid ionization constants for,674

acid salt formation by, 145ionization of, 673–678, 687salts of, and basic solutions,

675–678simplifications in calculations

involving, 674–675Polysaccharides, 933–934, 945Polystyrene, 925, 926Polystyrene plastic, 330Polyunsaturated fats, 935Poly(vinyl acetate), 926Poly(vinyl chloride) (PVC), 926Porphyrin structure, 891Portland cement, 108Position of equilibrium, 142,

456, 579–581using �G° to judge

qualitatively, 750, 762Positive catalysts, 557

experimental, 551–552integrated, 534–543predicting from overall

balanced equation for areaction, 528–529

Rate-limiting step, 554Rates of reaction, 519–567,

See also Reactantscatalysts, 557–559, 560catalysts, presence of, 521–522collision theory, 543–548, 560defined, 520first-order reaction, 528half-life of a reactant,

537–539, 560initial, estimating, 525–526measurement of, 522–526mechanism of a reaction, 552,

560rate constant, 526–527, 537rate laws, 526–534, 560relative, 522–524second-order reaction, 528slow down of, 524–525and temperature of the system,

521zero-order reactions, 529

Rays, cathode, 41Reactants, 57, 79, 597

ability to meet, 521chemical nature of, 520–521concentrations of, 521half-life of, 537–539

Reacting fraction, 544Reaction coordinate, 545Reaction quotient, 572, 597Reaction rate, and spontaneity

of reactions, 731–732Reaction stoichiometry, 115,

425Reactive intermediate, 554Reactive metals, and electrolysis,

864Reactivity, 317–318, 331

defined, 317of metals in periodic table,

trends in, 315, 332of nonmetals in periodic table,

trends in, 317, 332and oxidation, 316–317

Real gases, 425Red phosphorus, 862–863, 893Redox reactions, 176, 199

balancing equations for,182–187

defined, 178predicting by comparing

reduction potentials,782–783

Redox titrations, in chemicalanalysis, 197–198

Reducing agent, 176identifying, 200

Reduction, defined, 176, 199Reduction potentials, 776–777,

782–787

INDEX I-11

Positive charge, 40, 78Positive ions, 47, 292, 466Positive polarity, 773Positron emission tomography

(PET) (PET scan), 833Positron emitters, 832Positrons, 827, 847Post-transition metals, 67–68

defined, 68Potassium-40, 842Potassium permanganate

(KMnO4), 196Potassium sulfate, 799Potential, 813Potential energy (PE), 208,

208–210, 239, 241Potential energy (PE) diagrams,

545–546and heat of reaction, 546–547

Pre-exponential factor, 548Precipitate, 129, 167Precipitate of a salt, predicting

formation of, 702–704Precipitation reactions, 129, 146

prediction of, 146Precision, 19, 28

importance of, 27–28Pressure, 240, 391–395, 425

and absolute temperature, 398atmospheric, 220

measurement of, 391–393and calorimetry, 219manometers, 394–395millibars, 393units of, 393volume compared to, 396–397

Pressure-solubility law (Henry’slaw), 490

Pressure-temperature law (Gay-Lussac’s law), 398

and kinetic molecular theoryof gases, 421

Pressure-volume law (Boyle’slaw), 396, 425

and kinetic theory, 420Pressure-volume work:

in chemical system expansion,727–728

defined, 728–730Pressure-volume work (P-V

work), 221, 240Pressurized water reactors, 844,

848Priestley, Joseph, 865–866Primary cells, 805, 814Primary transcript RNA

(ptRNA), 943Primitive cubic lattice, 457Principal quantum number (n),

269, 292Product, of a reaction, 57, 79Products, 597Propagation step, free radical

chain reaction, 553Properties of materials, 8, 28

classification of, 9Propylene, 312, 910, 923

Proteins, 932, 937–939, 945components of, 937polypetide chain, 938–939

Proton acceptor, 607Proton donor, 607Protonated amines, 917–918Proton-proton cycle, 846–847Protons, 35, 40, 78, 80, 606,

824discovery of, 42

Pure substances, 6, 28Pyrimidine bases, 309Pyrite (iron pyrite), 7

Q

Qualitative analysis, 163Qualitative observations, 9, 28Quanta, 257, 292Quantitative analysis, 163–164

calculation involving,164–165

Quantitative observations, 9, 28Quantized energy, 261, 292Quantum mechanical atom,

250–297Quantum mechanics, 251, 292Quantum numbers, 262,

269–270, 272Quantum theory, 251, 257,

281–283

R

Rad, 839Radiation, 836–840

background, 840damage to living tissue,

839–840and free radicals, 839–840reducing by shielding/distance,

840Radiation sickness, 839Radio and TV waves, 254Radioactive decay, 824, 829

law of, 837–839, 848measuring rate of, 836–837

Radioactive disintegration series,828–829

in archaeological dating, 841Radioactivity, 42, 824–830Radioisotopes, emission of

positrons/neutrons,827–828

Radiological dating, 841–842,848

Radionuclides, 824, 847Raoult’s law, 496–500, 511, 512

calculating, 497–498equation, 496molecular explanation for, 498

Rare earth metals, SeeLanthanides

Rate constant (k), 526–527, 537Rate-determining step, 554,

560Rate laws, 526–534, 560

brady_index_i01-i14hr 10/26/07 2:19 PM Page 11

Reference electrode, andstandard reductionpotentials, 777–782

Refining, 870–871of iron, to make steel, 871

Relative atomic masses, 45, 80Relative attractive forces, using

to predict properties,440–441

Rem, 839, 847Representative elements, 78Resonance:

defined, 328fnand Lewis structure failure,

327–331and stability of molecules/ions,

330Resonance energy, 330, 379Resonance hybrid, 327, 328Resonance structures, 327, 328

drawing, 329method for determining, 332

Rest mass, 821Retention of volume and shape,

442, 472Reverse osmosis, 505Reverse reaction, 142Reversible process, 746, 761Ribosomal RNA (rRNA), 943Ribosomes, 943Rings, carbon, 904RNA, 940–941, 946Roasting, 868, 893Rock salt structure, 459, 473Roentgen, 839Rogue waves, 264Rohrer, Heinrich, 39Roman numeral:

indicating charge with, 73–74numerical value of charge

written as, in parentheses,74

Rust, 195Rutherford, Ernest, 42–43, 251,

834Rydberg constant, 260Rydberg equation, 259–260,

262, 292discovery of, 261

S

s orbitals, 273–274, 292, 356shape of, 282–283

Salt bridge, 771, 772, 774, 813Salt solutions, 717

acid-base properties,prediction of, 658–662

ions, of weak acids and bases,657–662

Sani-Flush, 145Saponification, 920, 936Saturated compounds, 906Saturated solution, 128, 167Scanning tunneling microscope,

39, 78Schrödinger, Erwin, 269

Spontaneous reaction,predicting, 782–787

and calculated standard cellpotential, 786–787

and concentrationdependence, 792–793

Square lattice, 457Square planar complexes, and

splitting of d orbitalenergies, 889–890

Square planar structure, 346Stability constant, 713Standard atmosphere (atm),

220, 393, 425Standard cell notation,

773–774Standard cell potential (E°cell),

775, 782, 788, 813calculating, 780–781

Standard conditions, 240of temperature and pressure

(STP), 401–402, 425Standard electrode potentials

(E°), 776Standard enthalpies of

formation, (�H°f) 236–238using, 238–239

Standard entropies (S°), 741,762

Standard free energies offormation (�G°f), 761, 762

Standard free energy change(�G°), 761, 788

Standard heat of combustion,235–238, 240

Standard heat of formation(�H°f), 240

Standard heat of reaction,(�H°) 227–229

Standard hydrogen electrode,777

Standard molar volume, 402Standard reduction potentials,

776, 776–777, 813, 814,A.29–A.30

and prediction of spontaneousreactions, 782–787

and reference electrode,777–782

Standard scientific notation, 12Standard solution, 165Standard states, 227, 236–237Standing waves, 265–267Starch, 933–934, 945State function, 213, 240State of a system, 213, 240States of matter, 8, 28Steel, 781, 893Stereoisomerism, 880–881,

893Sterno, 256Stock, Alfred, 74Stock system, 74, 79, 80Stoichiometric calculations, 115

net ionic equations in,161–163

I-12 INDEX

Schrödinger’s equation, 269Scientific laws, 3, 28Scientific method, 3–5, 28

observations and, 9–10Scientific notation, 20Scintillation counter, 836, 847Scintillation probe, 836Seawater, 492Second law of thermodynamics,

737–740, 761Second-order reactions, 528,

540–543half-lives of, 542–543

Second shell, 269Secondary cells, 805Secondary neutrons, 843Secondary quantum number

(/), 269–270, 292Selective precipitation,

707–711, 717applying to metal carbonates,

709–711of metal sulfides, 707–709

Selenium, 862Self-ionization of water,

625–626Semiconductors, 53–54, 79Semipermeable membranes, 503Shells, 269, 292Shorthand electron

configurations, writing,278–279

SI base units, 10, 28SI units (International System of

Units):constructing using decimal

multipliers, 12derived unit, 11, 28prefixes, 29

Side reaction, 113, 115Sievert (Sv), 839, 847Sigma bonds (� bonds),

365–366, 380Significant figures (significant

digits), 19, 28counting in a number, rules

for, 29rules for arithmetic and, 29rules for logarithms, 535fn

Silicon, as semiconductor, 858Silver, polishing, 865Silver bromide (AgBr), 160Silver chloride, 74fnSimple amides, 921Simple cubic unit cell, 457, 473,

474Single bonds, 311, 331, 341Single replacement, 175, 199Single replacement reaction, 189Skeletal structures, 318–319Skeleton equation, 183, 199Skin cancer, and sunlight, 309Slag, 870, 893Smelting, 864–865, 893Soap scum/hard water spots,

and complex ions, 715Sodium, 863

and electrolysis, 811Sodium bromate, 144Sodium chloride (NaCl), 310Sodium hydroxide, 104–105Sodium sulfate, 76Solid ionic compounds, 64Solids, 8, 28, 472

amorphous, 462and distances between

molecules, 433general properties of, 434properties of, 465–467vapor pressure, 449

Solubility, 128, 167and temperature changes,

488–489Solubility of solids, 482–483Solubility product, 693Solubility product constant

(Ksp), 693–694, 717,A.25–A.26

Solubility rules, 147, 167, 168Soluble compounds, 147“Solute-to-solution” ratio, 128Solutes, 128Solution stoichiometry, 167Solutions, 6, 28, 128, 167, 511

melting points/boiling points,500–503

Solvation, 483, 511Solvation energy, 484, 511Solvents, 128, 167Soot, 194, 199Sorona (DuPont), 931Space-filling models, 4Specific heat, 215, 240Specific heat capacity, 215, 241Spectator ions, 167Spectra fibers, 930Spectrochemical series, 888,

893, 894Speed of light, 253, 292, 821Spin, 271Spin quantum number (ms),

272, 292Spitzer Space Telescope (NASA),

820Spontaneity, �G as predictor of,

739, 762Spontaneity of reactions, and

reaction rate, 731–732Spontaneous change, 730–732

direction of, 731–732Spontaneous mixing of gases,

481Spontaneous movements of

gases, 418Spontaneous processes:

entropy, 733–734and increase of the total

entropy of the universe,737–740

proceeding from states oflower probability to statesof higher probability,732–737

brady_index_i01-i14hr 10/26/07 2:19 PM Page 12

Stoichiometric equivalencies, 91Stoichiometric mass

calculations, 108–110Stoichiometry, 86

and packing of atoms in a unitcell, 460–461

and reactions in solution,159–160

Stoichiometry problems, 169Stopcock, 165, 167Stored energy, 208Straight chain, 904, 945Strong acids, 140, 143, 167,

634–636, 637with an insoluble base,

reaction of, 149table, 140, 168

Strong bases, 140, 167,634–636, 637

Strong Brønsted acids, 611Strong Brønsted bases, 611Strong electrolytes, 130, 140,

167Strontium-90, 845Strontium nitrate [Sr(NO3)2],

157–158Structural formula, 310Styrene, 102–103Styrofoam, 330, 925Subatomic particles, 78, 80

experiments leading to thediscovery of, 41

properties of, 40Sublimation, 444–447, 472Subscripts, 55, 79, 80, 92, 116Subshells, 269–270, 292Substance, use of term, 6fnSubstituents, 907Substitution reactions, 913,

916–917, 945Subtraction, significant figures

and, 21, 29Successive approximations

method, 665–666Sulfur, 196, 199Sulfur dioxide, 196Sulfuric acid, sulfate ion of,

189Sun light, and skin cancer,

309Supercooled liquids, 462, 473Supercooling, 453–454, 473Supercritical carbon dioxide,

and decaffeination ofcoffee, 471

Supercritical fluids, 471, 473Superheated liquid, 453Superheating, 453–454, 473Superimposability, 881, 893Supersaturated solution, 129,

167Surface tension, 442–443, 472

and intermolecular attractions,442–443

liquids, 442Surfactants, 444

Transition metal complexes,bonding in, 884–890

Transition metals, 67–68Transition state, 547, 560Transition state theory,

545–548, 560Translation, 943, 946Transmutation, 834–836, 847Transuranium elements, 836Traveling waves, 265–266Tri- (prefix), 71Triacylglycerols, 934–935,

935–937, 945digestion of, and hydrolysis,

935–936Trigonal bipyramid, 340, 345Trigonal bipyramidal molecules,

340Trigonal pyramids, 340, 342,

344Triple bonds, 311, 331, 341

and sigma and two pi bonds,369–370

Triple point, 468–469, 473Triprotic acids, 137Tut’ankhamun, funeral mask of,

317Tyvek (DuPont), 929

U

u, See Atomic mass unitsUltrahigh molecular weight

polyethylene (UHMWPE),930, 945

Ultralow frequency (ULF)radiation, 258

Ultraviolet catastrophe, 251Ultraviolet (UV) light, 251, 292Uncertainties, in measurements,

18–19Uncertainty principle, 281, 292Unit cell, 457, 473Units, 10

converting using the factor-label method, 21–25

Universal gas constant, 405Universal gas law, 405Universe, 214Unpaired electrons, atoms with,

272–273Unpolarized light, 883Unsaturated compounds, 906Unsaturated solution, 128, 167Uranium-235, 848Uranium-238 radioactive

disintegration series, 828Urea, 921UV-B, 309

V

V-shaped molecule, 344V3 ion, electron configuration

of, 305Valence, use of term, 280

INDEX I-13

Surroundings, 214, 240Swimming pools, and buffers,

667Symmetric shapes, molecular

polarity and, 349–350Synthetic isotopes, 827System, 214, 227, 240System at equilibrium, and

Gibbs free energy change(�G ), 748–753

T

T-shaped molecules, 346Tarnishing, 195Telluric acid, 685Temperature, 15–16, 212–213

conversions, 29Temperature-volume law, 425

and kinetic molecular theoryof gases, 421

Temperature-pressure law, 425Temperature-volume law, 398Tera- (prefix), 12Termination steps, free radical

chain reaction, 553Tetra- (prefix), 71Tetrahedral complexes, d orbital

splitting pattern, 890Tetrahedral molecules, 340Tetrahedron, 340, 342Theoretical percentage

compositions, 95–96Theoretical yield, 113, 115, 117Theory, 28

defined, 4Thermal cracking, 553Thermal cushion, 216Thermal decomposition,

865–867Thermal energy, 210, 239Thermal equilibrium, 211, 239Thermal neutrons, 842Thermal pollution, 17Thermite reaction, 109–110Thermochemical equations,

228, 240, 241coefficients/direction of,

adjusting, 229combining, 229–234enthalpy change (�H ),

229–230, 240enthalpy diagrams, 230–231manipulating, 233, 241

Thermochemistry, 208, 239Thermodynamic data for

selected elements,compounds, and ions,A.21–A.23

Thermodynamic equilibriumconstants, 755–756, 761

constant K, computing from�G°, 755–757

Thermodynamically reversibleprocess, 746, 761

Thermodynamics, 208, 239,726–768

atomization energy (�Hatom),757–758, 761, 764

bond energies, 757–761entropy, 733–734

and physical state, 735sign of entropy change (�S )

for a chemical reaction,736–737

and temperature, 734–735units of, 742and volume, 734

equilibrium constants,estimating from free energychanges, 753–757

first law of, 222, 240, 241,727, 761

Gibbs free energy change(�G ), 738, 761

as maximum work done by aprocess, 745–747

predicting the outcome of achemical reaction using,750–751

and system at equilibrium,748–753

and temperature changes,752–753

internal energy, 727second law of, 737–740, 761spontaneity of reactions, and

reaction rate, 731–732spontaneous change, 761

direction of, 731–732spontaneous processes:

entropy, 733–734and increase of the total

entropy of the universe,737–740

proceeding from states oflower probability to statesof higher probability,732–737

third law of, 740–741, 761work, 727

Thermometers, 15–16, 18Thermonuclear fusion, 846, 848Third law of thermodynamics,

740–741, 761Thomson, J. J., 41Titrant, 165, 167Titration, 167

defined, 165Titration curve, 678, 686, 687Torr (unit), 393Torricelli barometer, 391–392Torricelli, Evangelista, 391fnTrace elements, 939Tracer analysis, 841, 848trans, use of term, 911trans isomer, 880–881, 893Transcription, 943, 946Transfer RNA (tRNA),

943–944Transition elements, periodic

table, 50

brady_index_i01-i14hr 10/26/07 2:19 PM Page 13

Valence bond theory (VBtheory), 352–353, 356,359, 380

and bond angles, 354–355criteria for bond formation

according to, 352, 380Valence electrons, 280, 318–319Valence shell:

configurations, 280–281, 292

defined, 280Valence shell electron

configurations, 279–280Valence shell electron pair

repulsion model (VSEPRmodel), 341, 359, 380

Lewis structures and, 341–342and orientations of hybrid

orbitals, 356, 381predicting hybridization using,

360–362Van der Waals constants, 424,

425Van der Waals equation of state

for a real gas, 423–424Van der Waals forces, 434Van der Waals, J. D., 423,

434Van’t Hoff equation for osmotic

pressure, 505Van’t Hoff factor (i), 510, 511Vapor pressure, 413–414,

448–449, 473

Weak bonds, breaking, 219Weak electrolytes, 141, 167Weight, 5, 391Wetting, 443–444, 472

surfactants, 444White phosphorus, 862, 893Whole-number ratio, 97Wilkins, Maurice, 941Wöhler, Frederick, 4Work, 208, 239–240, 727

transferring energy using,221–222

X

X-ray diffraction, 462–464, 473

X rays, 256, 292, 827, 847

Z

Zero:absolute, 17, 398

prediction of, and kinetictheory, 422

as significant digit, 19–20Zero-order reactions, 529Zinc, 187, 778–779, 781

metallic, 189reaction of, with copper ion,

190Zinc-manganese dioxide cell,

806–807, 814

I-14 INDEX

rate of, 473and solids, 449of a solution of volatile liquids,

calculation of, 499Vapor pressure of water,

A.24–A.25Vapor Pressure-Concentration

law, 496Vaporization, heats of, 454–455Vapor-liquid equilibrium,

448Vegetable oils, 935

hydrogenation of, 936Viruses, 944Viscosity, 444Visible spectrum, 256Volt (V), 775Volta, Alessandro, 770Voltaic cell, 770Volume, 13–14

and temperature, 397–398Volume conversions, 13Volumetric flask, 156–157Vulcanized rubber, 928, 945

W

Water, 889autoionization (self-ionization)

of, 625–626, 637hydrogen bonds in, 435–436ion product constant of, Kw,

626

as product of the combustionof hydrocarbons, 193

solubilities of common gasesin, 489

solubility, and functionalgroups, 905

vapor, 413Watson, J. D., 941Wave functions (), 268–269,

282Wave mechanics, 251, 292Wave/particle duality, 251Wavelength (�), 252–253, 292

calculating frequency from,253–254

Wavelength-frequencyrelationship, 253, 293

Waves, defined, 251Weak acids, 141–142, 167, 611,

643, 686acid-base indicators as, 684conjugate acids of molecular

bases, 657with an insoluble base,

reaction o, 150reaction with water, 643–645with a strong base, reaction of,

149Weak bases, 142, 167, 611, 646,

686reaction with water, 645–647

Weak base-strong acid titrations,683

brady_index_i01-i14hr 10/26/07 2:19 PM Page 14