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BreakingtheFourthWall:TheeffectsofMetareferenceandDirectAddressinFictional

Narrative

ByJordanSchroederAbstract

Thisstudylooksattheeffectsofbreakingthefourthwallontheengagement

andenjoymentofanarrative.Fourversionsofashortstorywerecreated,with

varyinglevelsandinstancesofbreakingthefourthwall,andpresentedto

participants.Theseparticipantsthenfilledoutanattentioncheck,andthenashort

surveyaskingthemseveralquestionsabouttheirexperiencewiththenarrative.In

total,107participantswererun,and29wereexcludeddueeithertofailingtofinish

thesurveyorfailingtoreceiveatleast80%ontheattentioncheck.Noneofthe

regressionsrunreachedstatisticalsignificance,althoughtherewasanoticeable

trendthatparticipantsintheHighcondition(theconditionwiththemostbreaking

ofthefourthwall)showedmorelikingforthecharacterthatdidso(Death)thanthe

characterthatdidn’t(theman).Thisresearchexploresanewwayofapproaching

thestudyofnarrativebyattemptingtobringthefieldsofthehumanitiestogether

withthescientificapplicationofCognitiveScience,usingknowledgefrombothfields

tobetterunderstandnarrativeinthemind.

Preface

Hellothere,readers.BecausethisisnotatypicalCognitiveSciencetopic,this

willnotbeatypicalCognitiveSciencepaper.Ohsure,there’sanexperiment,and

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downbelowItalkallaboutthemethodsandtheresults,whattheirimplicationsare,

etc.ButhopefullyyouandIcanalsohavealittlefunwiththis.

WhatI’vejustdoneisbreakthefourthwallbydirectlyaddressingyou,the

audience,aswellasbyreferencingthemediumthatI,thevoiceinyourhead,am

speakingtoyouthrough(i.e.,aseniorthesisarticle).Forthoseofyouwhodon’t

know,thefourthwallistheimaginarybarrierbetweenanarrativewithitsown

charactersandmovingalongitsownnarrativetimeline,andtheaudience.I’ll

provideabetterexplanationdownbelow,butfornow,that’sallyouneedtoknow.

I’llbeginthispaperbyintroducingmyoverarchingthesis,talkingaboutthe

universalityofnarrative–howwe’reconstantlyseekingitout,creatingit,and

immersingourselvesinit,evenwhenwedon’trealizeit.ThenI’llgiveabrief

overviewoftheevolutionarybasisoffiction,orsometheoriesonwhywecreateand

revelinstoriesthatweknowaren’treal.I’llexplainthefourthwallinmoredetail,

andI’llgiveyouplentyofexamplesofhowitcanbebrokenusingliterature,theater,

film,andtelevision,aswellaswhybreakingitissuchaninterestingphenomenon.

ThenI’llmoveintodetailingmyexperiment,explainingmymethods,theprocessof

creatingmystimuli,runningtheexperiment,andsoon.You’llgettofindoutthe

resultsoftheexperimentindetail,andthenlastly,I’llcreatesomenarrativesofmy

own,andtheorizewhywegottheresultswedid.Butenoughofthis–letsgettoit.

Introduction Narrativeisahumanuniversal–afundamentalwayinwhichweorganize

andperceivetheworldaroundus,aswellasourowninnermentalworlds.Weall

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tellandexperiencestories,andhavedonesosincetheverybeginningsofour

species.Infact,wetellandseekoutstoriessofrequentlythatitmightbecalledan

addiction.Therearetheobviousexamples:studiesconductedinthe1990’sshow

thatwespendthelargestportionofourleisuretimeinthefictionalworldsofbooks,

movies,theater,videogames,andtelevisionshows(Gleick,1999).Withthe

increasingaccessibilityofthesemediumsofstoryovertheinternet,thesenumbers

mayhaveevenincreasedsincethestudieswereconducted.Beyondtheobvious,

therearestillhundredsofotherexamples:histories,religiousstories,communal

stories,nationalstories,ourpersonalnarratives,music,personalcommunications-

wecanseeitinunexpectedplaceslikebusiness(especiallysales),politics,courtsof

law,andeveninscience.Asanexample,sportscastingisalmostentirelynarrative

creation–willthestartightendcontinuehissuccess?Willateam’sheartbreaklast

yearspurthemontowinthisyear?Sportscasterscreatenarrativesaroundthestats

thatmanylovetoengagewith,andarguefororagainst.We’reimmersedinstoryall

thetime,inallsortsofways,becauseourmindsarebuilttoorganizeinformation

narratively.Whentheseexternaltypesofnarrativesaren’tavailable,weevencreate

ourownintheformofdaydreamsorfantasies.Studiesfoundthatparticipantshad

abouttwothousanddaydreamsaday,atanaverageof14secondseach–thetotalof

thisimaginativeplayaddeduptoabouthalftheparticipants’wakinghours,ora

thirdofourlivesintotal(Klinger,2009;Killingsworthetal.,2010).Weeven

continueournarrativecreationintoourunconscious,dreamingupplotswhilewe

sleep.Granted,theydon’talwaysmakesensenarrativelythesamewayabook

might,butitisundeniablethatourbrainsareplayingwithandfittingtogether

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narrativeelementswhilewelayunconscious.Researcherssuspectthatweeven

dreamthroughoutthenight,constitutinganotherthirdofourlives(Flanagan,

2000).AsMurialRukseyerputit,“Theworldismadeupofstories,notatoms.”

(Rukeyser,1968).Wedevoteanenormousamountoftimeandmentalactivityto

experiencingandcreatingstories,manyofthemfictional.

Inaddition,wealltellthesamekindsofstories.ChristopherBooker,inhis

booktitledTheSevenBasicPlots:WhyWeTellStories,details7basicplotsinto

whichallstoriesfall(thoughreallyit’s9,asheaddsontwomoreattheend).

JonathanGotschall,authorofTheStorytellingAnimal:HowStoriesMakeUsHuman

goesevenfurther,andnarrowsdownthetypesofstoriestojustoneina

conversationwithEdge;

Wethinkofstoriesasawildlycreativeartform,butwithinthatcreativityandthatdiversitythereisalotofconformity.Storiesareverypredictable.Nomatterwhereyougointheworld,nomatterhowdifferentpeopleseem,nomatterhowhardtheirlivesare,peopletellstories,universally,anduniversallythestoriesaremoreorlesslikeours:thesamebasichumanobsessions,andthesamebasicstructure.Thestructurecomesdownto:storieshaveacharacter,thecharacterhasapredicamentoraproblem—they'realwaysproblem-focused—andthecharactertriestosolvetheproblem.Initsmostbasicterms,that'swhatastoryis—aproblemsolutionnarrative.(Gotschall,2014)

Notonlydowegenerallyfindthesameformsofnarrative,butwefindsimilar

themes.PaulBloom,authorofHowPleasureWorks:TheNewScienceofWhyWeLike

WhatWeLikecommentsonthisphenomenon,claiming:

Goodstorieshaveuniversalappeal.WhiletheparticularsofTheSopranoswouldbeimpossibletofollowbyanyonefromasufficientlydifferentculture…thethemes–worriesaboutchildren,conflictswithone’sfriends,theconsequencesofbetrayal–areuniversal.(Bloom,2010,pg.164)

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Hegoesontosaythatthisisn’taneffectofthestories,butratheraneffectofour

evolutionaryhumannature:

Thepopularityofthemeshavingtodowithsexandfamilyandbetrayal,forinstance,isnotduetosomespecialfeatureoftheimagination,butratherbecausepeopleareobsessed,intherealworld,withsexandfamilyandbetrayal.(Bloom,2010,pg.165)Thewidespreadpresenceofstoriesbothintheworldandinourminds,along

withthesimilaritiesseeninthecontentofthestories,seemstoargueforan

evolutionarybasisforourloveofstories.Additionally,itsuggeststhattheloveof

storiesseemstobebasedoninnateandhabitualprocessesinthemind.Another

pieceofevidencecomesfromthephenomenonofspontaneousplayintoddlers.

Aroundtheageof2andonwards,childrenbeginplayinggamesofpretendand

make-believe.(Singer&Singer,1990)Childrendon’thavetobetaughttoplay,and

they’regoodatrecognizingitandparticipating(SkolnickandBloom,2006a;Onishi,

Baillargeon,andLeslie,2007).Interestinglyenough,dogsalsoexhibitthisbehavior,

withspecializedsignalssuchas“playbows”thatindicateasortof“make-believe”

fight(Bekoff,1974).Thepresenceofthiskindofimaginarybehaviorinananimalso

geneticallydistantfromhumansseemstosuggestthatthebeginningsofthis

storytellingaddictionareevolutionarilyancient,thoughmuchmoreresearchneeds

tobedoneintothisphenomenon,aswellasintoourmoregeneticallysimilar

relatives’understandingofnarrativebeforeadefinitiveclaimcanbemade.Itis,

however,interestingtonotethatthemodernCanisfamiliarisoftengrowsupina

homewithhumans,andhavebeenshowntounderstandcertainsocialcuesvery

well,bettereventhanprimates(Hare&Tomasello,2005).It’sclear,however,that

humanshaveamuchmoredevelopedperceptionandunderstandingofstories.It

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hasbeenshownthatevensmallchildrenhaveahealthyfolkknowledgeofmany

differentaspectsofnarrativesandfiction.Childrenarenotonlyabletoconsciously

andreliablydistinguishbetweenrealityandfiction(Skolnick&Bloom,2006),they

distinguishbetweentheimprobableandimpossibleinfiction(Weisberg&Sobel,

2012),theytellstoriesinrecognizablepatternsandforms(Stone,1992),andthey

havehighlysophisticatedandsubtlerulesfornotonlydistinguishingbetween

realityandfiction,butbetweenseparatefictionalworldsaswell(Weisberg&

Bloom,2009;Skolnick&Bloom2006a;Skolnick&Bloom,2006b).Thequestionis,

howdoweexplainthisseemingevolutionarybasis?

ABriefReviewoftheEvolutionaryBasisforFiction

Theevolutionaryoriginsoffictionhavelongbeenatopicdebatedby

researchers;whywouldananimal,otherwisestreamlinedforsurvivaland

reproduction,spendsomuchtimeandenergycontemplatingandexploringworlds

thatdonotexist?Sometheorizethatfictionworksasanescapistpleasure–lifeis

difficultanddull,filledwithallsortsofconfusingandunhappyevents,butfiction

allowsustoleaveourownlivesforawhileandexperiencethingswemightnever

gettoinreallife.Thissameaccounthasbeenoffereduptoattempttoexplain

religion,andthecriticismisthesameforboth–iffictionisescapist,whydoyoufind

somanysituationsthatyouwouldneverwanttoexperienceinreallife,suchas

kidnapping,ormurder?Weriderollercoastersandwatchhorrormoviesbecause

it’sthrillingandterrifying,butwe’dneverwanttotrulybefreefallingfrom

dangerousheights,ortrappedinahousewithakiller.Thereisnodoubtthatpeople

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usefictiontoescapefromtheirlives,andgainimmensepleasurefromit,butthis

cannotbetheevolutionarybasisforit.

Therearecertainlymanyotherexaptiveusesforfictiontodaythatmayhave

beenadaptive–Gotschallcomparesstorytothehand;amulti-purposetool,ableto

helpusinmanydifferentways(Gotschall,2012).Heillustratesafewpossibilities;

fictionmayhaveactedasasexuallyselectedtrait,displayingmentalacuityand

creativitytopotentialmates,oritmayhavebeenawaytobringcommunities

together,tocreatebondsbetweenpeople.However,theseclaimsareoften

regardedas“just-sostories”,fortheyareunfalsifiableandyoucouldargueagreat

manynumberofreasonsthatstorytellingmayhaveevolved.Thesearecertainly

thingsthatstorytellingcando,butthere’snoevidencethattheyarethe

evolutionaryreasonthatnarrativeinthemindevolved.

Manyresearchersnowsuggestfictionwasadaptiveforvariationsof

simulatormodelfunctions,wherefictionallowsustoengageincounterfactual

reasoninginorderto“testdrive”hypotheticalactionsandsituations.Our

hypotheses“dieforus”asweplanahead,creatingmentalsimulationsandsending

themintoimaginarysituationstoattempttopredicttheoutcome.Thereissome

neuralevidenceforthistheory–inthe1990s,atypeofneuronswasdiscovered

whichwasdubbedthe“mirror”neuron.Theseneurons,whenstimulatedby

watchingsomeoneperformanaction,activatethesamepathwaysthatwouldbe

usedifwewerealsodoingtheaction.Itistheorizedthatthesemirrorneuronsdo

thesamewhenweexperiencefiction,givingusthesameexperiencesthereallife

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stimuliwouldevoke(Iacoboni,2008).Therearedisagreementswhatexactlywe

evolvedtosimulate,however.

StephenPinker,authorofHowtheMindWorks,andDenisDutton,authorof

TheArtInstinct:Beauty,Pleasure,&HumanEvolution,bothsupporttheoriesthat

claimthatfictionisawayforustosimulateandprepareourselvesfortheproblems

oftherealworld(Pinker,1997;Dutton,2009)–andthereissomeevidenceforthis.

Stories,asDuttonnotes,areaboutthehumanexperience,andmorespecifically,

they’reabouthumanconflict.Children’splayisfilledwithdarkerthemes,suchas

theft,gettinglost,gettingbitten,andevenmurder(Gotschall,2012).Childrenare

alsomorelikelytopickmorerealisticnarratives,whichmightindicatethatthey’re

moreconcernedwithreal-worldproblemsinnarratives(Weisbergetal.,2013;

Barnesetal.,2015).Thesechildrenmaybeattemptingtopreparethemselvesfora

timewhentheymighthavetodealwiththesesituationsinreallife.

Similarly,JanetBurrowayarguesthatfictionmayactasasimulatormodel

notspecificallyforreal-worldproblems,butforreal-worldemotions(Burroway,

2011).Fictionallowsustoexperienceallkindsofemotionalreactionsinasafer

space–thinkagainofwhypeoplemightgotothehorrormovies,orridethe

rollercoastersImentionedabove.Wewanttoexperiencethoseemotions,thefear

andtheadrenaline,butwedon’twanttoputourselvesinasituationwherewe

couldactuallygethurt,ortrulyfearforourlives.Thesameexplanationcanbeused

forsadmovies.Peopleoftenlovemoviesthatmakethemcry;theygetthe

emotionalexperiencewithouthavingtodealwiththeconsequencesofanysortof

real-worldeventthatwould’veevokedthesameemotions.Fictionallowsusto

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experiencetheseemotionsandpracticedealingwithandreactingtotheminthereal

world.

Or,asLisaZunshineposits,theworldoffictioncouldhaveactedasatraining

groundforourcognitiveprocesses,aplacetostrengthenandpracticeallkindsof

mentalskillspertainingtoimportantbehaviors,likesocialinteraction(Zunshine,

2006).Thereareafewstudiesthatsupportthisidea–peoplewhoengagemore

withfictionhavebettersocialskills,asmeasuredbyempathyandsocialitytests

(Oatley&Mar,2008).Inaddition,pretenseplayhasbeenlinkedtohigherlevelsof

cognitioninchildren,andheightenedperspective-takingabilities(Bergen,2002).

Childrenalsopreferstorieswithmorepeopleinthem,andmorecharacterswith

mentalstates,whichmayindicatethatthesechildrenenjoypracticingtheirsocial

skillsandtheoryofmindthroughfiction(Barnes&Bloom,2014).

However,otherssuchasPaulBloomandTamarGendlerarguethatourlove

offictionisanaccident,aby-productofothermentalprocesses.Thistheorystems

fromtheideathatmanyoftheprocessesourbrainsevolvedtokeepusaliveand

interactsuccessfullywiththeworldaroundusarealsoactivatedbyfiction,andwe

wouldn’thavebeenabletoeliminateourreactionstothefictionalwithoutentirely

eliminatingthoseessentialprocessesneededforsurvival.Gendlertheorizesthat

thiscausesaninabilitytofullyseparatefictionandreality,regardlessofwhatwe

mightbelieveorevenknowaboutthe“reality”ofthestimuliwe’reexperiencing.

Distinctandunaffectedbyourconsciousbeliefs,shecallsthisphenomenon“alief”–

anunconscious,associativereaction(Gendler,2008;Gendler,2009).Accordingto

Gendler,imaginationgivesrisetobehaviorthroughalief–imaginingsomething

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affectsourbehaviorbecausewerespondtocertaincuesinourimaginings

unconsciously,treatingthemasiftheywerereal,andthenactingaccordingly–

despitewhetherweconsciouslybelieveourimaginingsaren’treality.ItwasHume

whofirstnoticedthisdiscordancebetweenbeliefandassociativereactionsto

stimuli–henotes:

Toillustratethisbyafamiliarinstance,letusconsiderthecaseofaman,who,beinghungoutfromahightowerinacageofironcannotforbeartrembling,whenhesurveystheprecipicebelowhim,thoughheknowshimselftobeperfectlysecurefromfalling,byhisexperienceofthesolidityoftheiron,whichsupportshim;andthoughtheideasoffallanddescent,andharmanddeath,bederivedsolelyfromcustomandexperience.(Hume,1874)

Togiveamoremodernexample,aswellastheonethatGendlerusestoillustrate

herconceptsowonderfully:theGrandCanyonskywalk,whichisahorseshoe-

shapedbridgewithglassfloors,allowstouriststoseestraightdowntothecanyon

floor2,000feetbelowthem.Thousandsoftouriststravelhereeveryyearto

experiencethethrillofthewindingwhippingaroundthemastheyseemtofloat

abovethisnaturalwonder–onlytofindthattheycan’tdoit.Theybelieveit’ssafe,

astheywatchothersventureout,andreadalltheengineeringandsafetyfactsabout

itinthebrochures,buttheyremaintooscaredtosetasinglefootontheglassfloor.

Thisunconscious,belief-discordantreactionisaliefatwork,andwhyweoftenreact

tofictionasthoughitwerereal.Justasthetourist’saliefisreactingtotheheightof

theskywalkandsaying“Danger!Don’tgooutthere!”inspiteoftheirbeliefsabout

itssafety,ouraliefreactstofictioninthesameway,despitewhateverbeliefswe

mayhaveaboutitsfictionalnature.Andso,referringbacktotheconceptpresented

inPaulBloom’squoteintheintroduction,storiesaren’tproblem-solutionbasedor

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fullofsocialcharactersoraboutsimilarthemesbecausethey’reforpracticingthese

things;theyhavethesefeaturesbecausewehaveothermentalmechanismsthat

makeusfocusedoncertainthemes,seekoutsocialpeople,andworktosolve

problemsintherealworld,andouraliefsmakeusreacttobothequally.

Whetherourfictionprocessesareby-productsfromprocessesdesignedto

workintherealworld,oradaptiveprocessesthatareimportantinfictionforthe

samereasonsthatthey’reimportantinreallife,it’sclearthatperceptionofthe

fictionalistightlyintertwinedwiththeprocessesweusetoperceivereality.The

possiblebasesfortheseprocessesarealsonotnecessarilyexclusive–itmaybethat

manyofthesedifferenttheoriesarepartiallyright.Theseprocesses,whether

adaptiveoraccidental,haveshownthatfictionalexperiencescanaffectourreal-

worldexperience,anddosoonadailybasis.Whathappens,however,when

fictionalnarrativescrosstheboundariesintorealityonpurpose?

BreakingtheFourthWall:ExamplesfromDiverseMedia

“Breakingthefourthwall”isactuallyamorecolloquialtermfora

metareference,whichisdefinedonWikipediaas“asituationinaworkoffiction

wherebycharactersdisplayanawarenessthattheyareinsuchawork,suchasa

film,televisionshoworbook,andpossiblythattheyarebeingobservedbyan

audience.”Thecolloquialtermcomesfromtheideathatespeciallyinthenaturalist

theaterofthe19thcentury,thefourthwallwas“theinvisiblewallwhichisimagined

toexistacrossthefrontofthestageinproscenium-archstaging,whichseparatesthe

audiencefromtheactorsandthroughwhichtheaudiencecanseebuttheactors

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cannot.”Itwasatrendinthistimetoadherestrictlytothisseparationbetween

audienceandactors,butastheatermovedintothe20thcentury,thetrendreversed

anditbecamecommontobreakthisbarrier,playingwithandsubvertingthespace

betweenaudienceandperformers(Mangan,2013).Thiswasnotanewtechnique,

however–examplesofbreakingthefourthwallgoallthewaybacktotheancient

Greeks,whosechorusesandcharactersmightoftenaddresstheaudience.

TheBardhimself,WilliamShakespeare,dabbledinbreakingthefourthwall

aswell.Thoughhe’sfamousforhismanydifferentbeautifulsoliloquiesandasides,

whicharetheatricaldevicesusedtoconveythethoughtsofcharacters,oneofhis

mostfamousspeechesservestobreakthefourthwallbetweenperformersand

audience:

Ifweshadowshaveoffended,Thinkbutthis,andallismended,Thatyouhavebutslumber'dhereWhilethesevisionsdidappear.Andthisweakandidletheme,Nomoreyieldingbutadream,Gentles,donotreprehend:Ifyoupardon,wewillmend:And,asIamanhonestPuck,IfwehaveunearnedluckNowto'scapetheserpent'stongue,Wewillmakeamendserelong;ElsethePuckaliarcall;So,goodnightuntoyouall.Givemeyourhands,ifwebefriends,AndRobinshallrestoreamends.(Shakespeare,1894,ActV,Sc.I,Lines440-455)AttheveryendofAMidsummerNight’sDream,Puckaddressestheaudience

directly,suggestingthatifthey’vebeenoffendedbywhatthey’veseen,theymerely

pretendthattheyweredreaming.Whilethismayseemlikeconciliationbya

playwrightnervousabouthiswork’sreception,he’salsousingthetechniqueof

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breakingthefourthwalltocastdoubtupontheeventsoftheplay.Weretheya

dream?Doestheirsignificancechangeiftheywere?What’stheconnectionbetween

enteringatheaterandsuspendingone’sdisbeliefforafewhoursandlayingdownin

bedanddreamingforafewhours?Howdoesadreamwork?Breakingthefourth

walladdsacomplexityandnuancetothework,andmayservetoincrease

engagementwiththenarrativenotonlywhileit’soccurring,butafterpatronshave

leftthetheater.Itmayevenallowustocreatemoreofapersonalconnectionto

Puck,whowe’veseencaperingaboutthroughouttheplay,butwhowearenow

havingadirectinteractionwithforthefirsttime.

AnotherexampleofthistypeofmetareferencecanbeseeninBertholt

Brecht’swork.Brechtencouragedhisactorstousewhathedubbed“alienation”

techniques–separatingoneselffromthecharacter,andaddressingtheaudience.In

theepilogueofhisworkTheGoodPersonofSzechwan,heevenleavesthemain

tensionandclimaxoftheplayunresolved,andinstead,aplayeremergesontostage

andaddressestheaudience:

Ladiesandgentlemen,don’tfeelletdown:Weknowthisendingmakessomepeoplefrown.WehadinmindasortofgoldenmythThenfoundthefinishhadbeentamperedwith.Indeeditisacuriouswayofcoping:Toclosetheplay,leavingtheissueopen.Especiallysincewelivebyyourenjoyment.Frustratedaudiencesmeanunemployment.WhateveroptimistsmayhavepretendedOurplaywillfailifyoucan’trecommendit.Wasitstagefrightmadeusforgettherest?Suchthingsoccur.Butwhatwouldyousuggest?Whatisyouranswer?Nothing’sbeenarranged.Shouldmenbebetter?Shouldtheworldbechanged?Orjustthegods?Oroughttheretobenone?Weforourpartfeelwellandtrulydone.

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There’sonlyonesolutionthatweknow:ThatyoushouldnowconsiderasyougoWhatsortofmeasuresyouwouldrecommendTohelpgoodpeopletoahappyend.Ladiesandgentlemen,inyouwetrust:Theremustbehappyendings,must,must,must!(Brecht,1965,pg.109)

Thisepilogueencouragedtheaudiencetotackletheissuespresentedintheplay

beyondthetheater,withoutprovidingananswer.Brecht,writingduringthetimeof

Hitler’sascenttopowerinGermany,seemstobeattempting(similarlyto

Shakespeare,butevenmoreobviously)tousethetechniqueofbreakingthefourth

walltomorefullyengageaudiencesinthenarrativeandquestionsraisedbythe

work.However,wemustalsoquestionwhetherthistypeoftechnique,insteadof

morefullyengagingtheaudienceintheissuesofthework,actuallyhastheopposite

effectofstartlingtheaudienceandbreakingofftheirimmersioninthenarrativeand

itsthemes.Whenacharacterthat,upuntilthatpoint,hasbeenconfinedtothe

fictionalworldsuddenlybreaksintoreality,oralludestothefactthatit’sthere,it

maybeincrediblyjarringforaudiences.EspeciallywhenyouconsiderthatBrechtis

refusingtogiveusanyclosure,whichmayhaveupsetaudiencesfurther.

Asnewmediumsofnarrativeemerged,methodsofbreakingthefourthwall

evolvedaswell,especiallyforcomedy.Asfilmbecamepopular,writersand

directorsbeganexperimentingwiththistechnique.Thoughnotthefirst,theMarx

brothersuseddirectaddressaswellasothersubtlermethodsofmetareferenceto

greatcomiceffect.Forexample,GrouchoMarxwasfamousforturningtothecamera

andwinking,lettingtheaudienceinonthejoke.JimAbrahams,DavidZucker,and

JerryZucker,thewritersofclassicspoofssuchasAirplane!andTopSecret!also

breakthefourthwallindifferentways–forexample,atonepointinTopSecret!,a

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charactersaystheline,“Iknow.Itallsoundslikesomebadmovie.”atwhichpoint

bothcharactersonscreenstopandslowlyturntowardsthecamera.(TopSecret,

1984).MelBrooksdidn’tsomuchasbreakthefourthwallassmashitdownand

trampleontheremainsinhisfilmsSpaceballs,BlazingSaddles,andRobinHood:Men

inTights.InBlazingSaddles,thecharacterHedleyLamarrsaysduringaspeech,"You

willonlyberiskingyourlives,whileIwillberiskinganalmostcertainAcademy

AwardnominationforBestSupportingActor,"referencing,ofcourse,theveryfact

thatHedleyLamarrisacharacterbeingplayedbyanactor.Attheendofthemovie,

thebigfightsceneevenbreaksoutoftheset–housesarerevealedtobeflatset

pieces,fallingoverinthechaos,andthenthemaincharactersgotoseethepremiere

ofBlazingSaddles–withinthemovieBlazingSaddles.(BlazingSaddles,1974)In

RobinHood:MeninTights,duringthefamousarcheryscene,everyoneonscreen

pullsouttheirscriptstomakesurethatthey’refollowingitcorrectly.Brookseven

managestoreferencehisownworksattheendofRobinHood:MeninTights,when

RobinnamesAchooSheriffofRottingham.Everyoneyells,“Ablacksheriff?!”to

whichAchoorespondsbylookingatthecameraandsaying,“Whynot?Itworkedin

BlazingSaddles.”(RobinHood:MeninTights,1993).Therearedozens,ifnot

hundredsofotherfamousexamplesfrommovieslikeFerrisBueller’sDayOff,the

Muppetsmovies,WoodyAllen’smovies,andtheAustinPowersseries,justtonamea

few.

Breakingthefourthwallisatraditionthatcontinuedoninothermediumsas

well,however–thoughlesscommon,manydifferenttypesofliteraturemakeuseof

directaddressandotherformsoffourthwallbreakage.Forexample,theshortstory

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TheEggbyAndyWeiriswrittenalmostentirelyindirectaddress.Youngadult

bookslikeRickRiordan’sPercyJacksonandtheOlympiansseries,orJonathan

Stroud’sBartimaeusTrilogycontaininstancesofdirectaddress:Percywarns

readersatthebeginningofeachbookofthedangersofreadingfurther,while

Bartimaeusquipsandjokeswiththereaderthroughout,bywayoffootnotes

insertedintothetext.BelowisPercy’sopeningaddresstotheaudienceinThe

LightningThief:

Look,Ididn'twanttobeahalf-blood.Ifyou'rereadingthisbecauseyouthinkyoumightbeone,myadviceis:closethisbookrightnow.Believewhateverlieyourmomordadtoldyouaboutyourbirth,andtrytoleadanormallife.Beingahalf-bloodisdangerous.It'sscary.Mostofthetime,itgetsyoukilledinpainful,nastyways.Ifyou'reanormalkid,readingthisbecauseyouthinkit'sfiction,great.Readon.Ienvyyouforbeingabletobelievethatnoneofthiseverhappened.Butifyourecognizeyourselfinthesepages-ifyoufeelsomethingstirringinside-stopreadingimmediately.Youmightbeoneofus.Andonceyouknowthat,it'sonlyamatteroftimebeforetheysenseittoo,andthey'llcomeforyou.Don'tsayIdidn'twarnyou.(Riordan,2005,pg.2)

Andthenthestoryunfolds,withPercyactingasafirstpersonnarrator.Eachof

theseserieswaswildlysuccessful,sellingmillionsofbooks.MarkusZusak’s

criticallyacclaimednovelTheBookThiefalsocontainsanarratorwhoaddressesthe

audienceandspentover230weeksontheNewYorkTimesBestSellerlist.The

narratorinTheBookThiefisDeath,who’sexhaustedbyhisjobyetunabletoleave.

Hedrawstheaudienceintothestorywiththreesimplesentences:“Ifyoufeellikeit,

comewithme.Iwilltellyouastory.I’llshowyousomething.”(Zusak,2006,pg.9)

Televisionhasalsomadegreatuseofthesetechniquesinrecentyears.Shows

suchasScrubs,TheOffice,andmostrecentlyHouseofCardsallbreakthefourthwall

invariousways,tovaryingeffect.InScrubs,themaincharacter,John“JD”Dorian

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functionsasanintra-digeticnarrator,definedinNarrativeTheoryandtheEarly

Novelas:

Onewhoexistswithinthestoryworldofaparticulartextandtransmitsastorythatisframedbytheextradiegeticnarrativelevel.Here,oneoftheprimarynarrative’scharactersisthenarratorofastorywithinthatnarrative,andhisorheraudienceisanothercharacter.

ThisfunctionsasamorenuancedformofwallbreakagethanthetypeusedbyMel

Brooksorothercomedicfilmsandtelevisionshows.JDnarrateshisownstory,but

thenarrationoftentimesmergeswiththedialogueoftheshow,orisaffected

throughdirectaddresstothecamera.Sometimestheyevenplaywiththe

expectationsthatcreates,however–intheepisode“MyNewSuit”,JDrepeatedly

addressesthecamera,asifattemptingtobreakthefourthwallandaddressthe

audience,butateachturnthemontagerevealsthepresenceofanothercharacter

whoislistening,effectivelyfromthesameplacethattheaudienceis.This,whilenot

trulydirectaddress,isametareferencetothetechniqueofdirectaddressfourth

wallbreaking,andplaysonandsubvertstheexpectationsoftheaudienceto

comediceffect.(Savorelli,2010)

The“mockumentary”televisionshowTheOfficemakesuseofsimilar

techniques–thecharacterofJimisfamousforturningtothecameraandgivingita

bewilderedorexasperatedlookwhenhiscoworkersdosomethingparticularly

absurd.TheOfficealsoincludesdocumentarystyleinterviewswithcharacters,who

arespeakingtoanaudience.Thesebreakagesofthefourthwallbecamenotonly

commonthroughouttheshow’srun,butamarkoftheshow’sstyleandhumor.

Lateronintheseries,thecameracrewevenbecomeactivecharacterswithinthe

narrative.Thesetechniquesaremorenuancedthantheyfirstseem,however,asthe

18

audiencetheyarespeakingtoandlookingatisnottrulyus,buttheaudienceofthe

documentarythatisbeingmadewithintheirfictionalworld.Thus,whiletheseare

fourthwallbreakingtechniques,andsituationsoftenarisebecauseoforforthe

benefitofthecamera,itcanbearguedastowhetherthecharactersaretruly

breakingthefourthwall,asthepresenceofthedocumentarycrewaddsanextra

layerbetweentheactorsandusastheaudience.Thisisanotherexampleofplaying

withtheboundariesbetweenaudienceandactors.

Thisambiguitydoesn’texistintheshowHouseofCards,wheretheruthless

politicianFrankUnderwoodoftenturnstothecameraanddirectlyaddressesthe

audience,usuallytogivepower-hungryadvice.Whethersittingorwalking,helooks

directlyintothecameratoexplainor(morefrustratinglyforaudiences)notexplain

hisactions.Thisis,interestingly,alsoararerexampleinfilmandtelevisionwhere

breakingthefourthwallisusednotforcomedy,butfordrama.Anotherexampleof

breakingthefourthwallbeingadramatictechniqueratherthanacomedicone

occursinthefilmFightClub,whereTylerDurdenseveraltimesaddressesthe

audience.Atonemoment,the“film”ofthemovieevencatchesfireandbeginsto

burn,referencingitsownmedium.

Mostrecently,theblockbusterhitDeadpoolstarringRyanReynoldsdebuted

toenthusiasticaudiences,andbrokethefourthwallinmany,manyways–asthe

characterofDeadpool(orhissecretidentityWadeWilson)isinfamousfordoing.

Hiscomicsandgraphicnovelsarefullofreferencestothefactthatheknowshe’sa

comicbookcharacter,thatheknowshe’sbeingwatchedbyanaudience,references

tohiswriters,hisillustrators,andsoon.Thefilmcontinuedthistraditionby

19

comicallybreakingthefourthwallinmanydifferentways,perhapsmostnotably

whenDeadpoolsarcasticallyremarks,“DoyoureallythinkRyanReynoldsgotthis

faronhissuperioractingability?!”Themoviealsofeaturesseveralmomentswhere

Deadpooladdressestheaudiencedirectly,explainingpartsofthenarrativeor

crackingjokes.Atonepoint,Deadpooladdressestheaudiencetoexplaina

flashback,andthenwithintheflashbackaddressestheaudienceagain.Hegasps,

thensays,“Fourthwallbreakinsideafourthwallbreak!That’slike…sixteenwalls!”

notonlybreakingthefourthwalltwice,butmetareferencingthetechniqueaswell.

Thefilmbreaksthefourthwallinotherwaysthough–atonepoint,Deadpoolis

seekinghelpfromtheX-men,andringsthedoorbelloftheirhouse(previouslyseen

inX-menmoviesfilledwithfamiliarcharacterssuchasWolverine,ProfessorX,

Storm,JeanGrey,andsoon).WhenthedoorisansweredbyNegasonicTeenage

WarheadandColossus,DeadpooljokesabouttheconspicuouslymissingX-men,

remarking,“It’sabighouse.It’sfunnythatIonlyeverseetwoofyou.It’salmost

like…thestudiocouldn’taffordanotherX-man.”HereDeadpoolisn’tdirectly

addressingtheaudience,buthe’srevealingknowledgeaboutthefilmhe’sin,and

casuallypokingfunatthelimitationstheexecutiveshadwhenmakingthefilm.The

filmevenreferencesRyanReynolds’earlierGreenLanternboxofficeflopwhenhis

characterremarks,“Pleasejustdon’tmakethesuitgreen!”Deadpoolisn’ttheonly

charactertobreakthefourthwall,however–hisbestfriendWeasel,inreferenceto

amanwhohaswalkedintothebarandisaskingtospeaktoWade,says,“Thatguy

overtherecameinlookingforyou.RealGrimReapertype.Idon’tknow,maybeit’ll

20

advancetheplot,”directlyreferencingthenarrativestructureofthefilm.(Deadpool,

2016).

TheCurrentResearch

It’sclearthatthisisatechniquethathasbeenusedtogreateffect,andto

differenteffect,overalonghistoryspanningmanydifferentmediumsofnarrative.

Fromraisingcomplexissuesandquestions,andforcingaudiencestoconsiderthem,

tothelaughoutloudcomedyofMelBrooksorgleefulrule-breakingofDeadpool,to

therisingtensionanddramaofFightCluborHouseofCards,breakingthefourth

wall(andinparticularbreakingthefourthwallthroughdirectaddress)hasbeen

usedtoinfluenceandaffecttheaudienceinmanydifferentways.Thequestion

remains,however,whetherthistechniqueisonethataudiencesenjoy,orwhetherit

increasestheirengagementwiththenarrative.Thebreakingofthefourthwall(and

forthepurposeofthisstudy,wewillbefocusingondirectaddressasthemainform

ofbreakingthefourthwall)canbestartling–manyfinditjarring,tosuddenlyfeel

liketheymusttransitionfrompassiveobserver,unseenandunnoticedbythe

characters,toactiveparticipant,obligedtocontributeinsomeway.Afterall,itis

called“breaking”thefourthwall–whichdoesn’texactlyevokeagentleimage.It

maymakepeopleuncomfortabletosuddenlyfeellikethey’repartofthestory,that

they’reacharacterinthestoryorevenviceversa,thatthecharactershaveintruded

intoreality.Thereisalsoanargumentthatbreakingthefourthwallbreaksthe

illusion,andruinsthesuspensionofdisbelief.Bybreakingthefourthwall,the

21

charactersareacknowledgingthatthenarrativethey’reenactingisn’treality,which

somemayfindsourstheexperience,orruiningthemagic,onemightsay.

Ontheotherhand,somefinditincrediblywhimsicalandentertaining–

there’sareasonthattheexamplesgivenaboveareallfromincrediblypopular

stories.Deadpoolhasearnedover$759millionworldwide,andisstillintheaters

earningmoreasofthedateofwriting.Breakingthewall,insteadofbeingastartling,

uncomfortableexperience,mightallowaudiencestoconnectmorefullyboth

emotionallyandintellectuallywiththecharacters.Directaddressmightallow

audiencestomorefullydevelopanemotionalconnectionwiththecharacter,for

theyfeellikethey’remoredirectlyengagingwiththecharacterssomehow.By

breakingthatwall,itmightactuallybothinviteaudiencesfurtherintotheworldof

thenarrative,aswellasinvitingthecharactersandissuespresentedinthenarrative

outintotherealworldtobeinteractedwithandexamined.Breakingthefourthwall

maycreateanopportunityforadialoguetoexistbetweenrealityandfiction,

allowingthepassageofideasandemotiontoflowmorefreelybetweentheworldof

thenarrativeandtheworldoftheaudience.

AsIbegantoexplainabovewiththetelevisionshowsandthroughthemany

differentwaysitispossibletobreakthefourthwall,itisanincrediblynuanced

technique.There’snoblackandwhiteforwhatisbreakingthefourthwallandwhat

isn’t,becausethespacebetweenaudienceandcharacterscanbeplayedwithand

subvertedandbuiltupagaininsomanyways.Inthisstudy,wefocussolelyon

directaddressasamethodofbreakingthefourthwall,andadmitthatthathasmany

limits.Wehavenopredictionforwhateffectstryingtocontrolthevariableoffourth

22

wallbreakageswillhaveonparticipantsreadingourstory–thoughwe’reanxiousto

see.Wealsoactivelyacknowledgethattryingtocontrolaliterarydevicelikethis

whilestillpresentingacoherent,rich,andentertainingstoryisdifficult–thereare

manydifferentsemanticsandsubjectiveassessmentsthatgointojudgingastory,

andyetwe’restillhopefulthatwemaybeabletofindinteresting,validresults.

Thoughbreakingthefourthwallisaphenomenonthatiswelldocumented

throughoutitsuseintheater,film,television,andwriting,itisaphenomenonthat

hasbeenneglectedbyscientificstudy.Almostnoscholarlyresearchexistson

breakingthefourthwall.Ouraimwiththisstudyistobeginthescientific

explorationintotheeffectsofbreakingthefourthwall.Wehopethatbybringing

ourknowledgefromtheartsandhumanities,andusingourcognitivescience

methodologytoscientificallytestit,wecanbetterunderstandhownarrativeworks

inthemind,andevenbebetterequippedtocreatebetter,moreentertainingstories.

MethodsCreationofStimuli

Inordertotestthishypothesis,wesetaboutdesigninganexperimentbased

aroundseveralversionsofashortstory.Theshortstory,aboutfourpagesinlength,

wasacreativeprojectwrittenwithDeathasthemaincharacter,whooftendirectly

addressestheaudienceduringthesceneasadiegeticnarrator.Takingthispiece,we

thensetaboutcreatingfourdifferentconditions–onewhereDeathaddressesthe

audienceeighttimes(High),onewhereDeathaddressestheaudiencefourtimes

(Medium),onewhereDeathaddressestheaudiencetwice(Low),andonewhere

23

Deathneverdirectlyaddressestheaudience(None).Thisgradientwascreatednot

onlytomakesurethattherewasaconditionwithnofourthwallbreakagesanda

conditionwiththem,buttotestwhetherbreakingthefourthwallmorewouldlead

tostrongerorweakereffects.

Thiswasdonekeepingthesemanticandliterarymaterialineachversionas

constantaspossible.Mostdirectaddresseswerechangedbysimplytakingoutthe

word“you”inthesentence,orchangingittothecorrespondingindirectaddress,

suchas“they”or“he”.Seethetableintheappendicesforthecompletelistof

changes.Thiswasnotalwaysentirelypossible,however,asthewordingorcontent

ofcertainsentencesmadeitimpossibletochangeitbymerelydroppingthe“you.”

Inthesecases,weattemptedtokeepthesemanticinformationasconstantas

possible.

Additionally,itisofnotethatmanyofthesefourthwallbreakagesareof

different,varyinglengths.Inordertooperationalizeanddefinewhatconstitutesa

singlebreakingofthefourthwall,weoptedforamorenuanceddefinition,rather

thansimplycountingthenumberof2ndpersonpronouns.Wedefinedabreakingof

thefourthwallas“beginningwithadirectaddresstotheaudiencewhichbreaksout

ofthenarrativetimelineoftheplot,whichmaypossiblybefollowedbymoredirect

addresses,butendedbyareturntotheoriginalnarrativetimeline,asevidencedby

anactionoccurringoranothercharacterspeaking.”Thisallowedustomakeuseof

andpresentacomplexandinterestingtexttoparticipants,ratherthanmerelythe

equivalentofachildren’spicturebook.

24

Inordertocontrolforthesevaryinglengthsoffourthwallbreakages,wealso

definedandgroupedthemintoLongandShortcategories,Shortbeingonlya

sentence(Examples1,2,7,and8inthetableabove),andLongbeinganythingover

twosentencesinarowwithdirectaddresses(Examples3,4,5,and6inthetable

above).Whilewesuspectthatdurationofthesebreakagesisanimportantfactor

whenlookingattheeffectsofbreakingthefourthwall,thepurposeofthisstudyis

moreexploratoryinnature,lookingmorebroadlyattheeffectsofthewholerather

thanattemptingtonarrowlyparseouteachaspectofacomplexliterarytechnique.

It’sunclearwhateffectlongerdurationsoffourthwallbreakagesmighthaveon

enjoymentandengagementwiththestory,butweerredasmuchonthesideof

cautionaswecould.Futurestudiescould(andshould)bestructuredtolookmore

closelyattheeffectofthedurationofeachfourthwallbreakage,butforthe

purposesofthisstudy,eachversionwascreatedbychanginganequalnumberof

LongandShortbreakageseachtime.

Toexplainitmorethoroughly,theHighconditionwascreatedfirst,withall

eightfourthwallbreakagesinplace.Next,theMediumconditionwascreatedby

changingtwoshortbreakagesandtwolongbreakagesfromdirectaddressesinto

indirectsentences,leavingitwithfourfourthwallbreakages.TheLowcondition

wascreatedbychangingtwomorebreakages,alongandashort,whilekeepingthe

alreadychangedbreakagesconstant,leavingtwofourthwallbreakagesunchanged.

Andfinally,thelasttwofourthwallbreakageswerechanged,tocreatetheNone

condition,wheretherearenodirectaddressestotheaudience.SeeFigure1for

moredetail.

25

Process

Thestimuliwerepresentedto107participantsthroughMechanicalTurk,

Amazon’scrowdsourcinginternetmarketplace.Participantswerepresentedwith

instructionsaskingthemtoreadthefollowingstory,payattention,andcomplete

somesurveysaboutwhattheyreadafterwards.Theywerethenpresentedwitha

randomversionofthestory,oneofthefourconditions.Afterreading,theywere

thenpresentedwithasurveyaskingvariousquestionsabouttheirengagementwith

thenarrative,andtheirlikingofthecharacters(SeeFigure3formoredetail).They

werethenpresentedwithanattentionchecksurvey,whichaskedthemfivefairly

easymultiple-choicequestionsaboutvariousdetailsfromthestory,tomakesure

thattheyhadtrulyreadthestoryandattemptedtoengagewithit(seeFigure4for

moredetail).Participantswhodidnotachieveabovean80%onthisattention

checkwerediscountedfromthestudy.8participantswereexcludedduetofailure

tocompletethesurvey,andafurther21wereexcludedbecausetheyreceivedless

than80%ontheirattentioncheck,leaving78validparticipants,roughlyequally

spreadbetweenconditions(17intheHighcondition,21intheMediumcondition,

19intheLowcondition,and19intheNonecondition).Thedatawereanalyzed

usingSPSS.

26

Results

Figure1:Bargraphofalltheaveragesofresponses,questionbycondition.

AlinearregressionwasconductedusingSPSSforeachquestionbasedonthe

versionsofthestory,andnosignificantresultswerefound.

Asimplelinearregressionwascalculatedtopredicthowmuchparticipants

enjoyedthestorybasedonthecondition.Anon-significantregressionequationwas

foundF(1,76)=.474,p=.493,withan!"of.006.

0

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

Howmuchdidyouenjoythe

story?

Howengagedwiththe

narrativedidyoufeel?

HowmuchdidyoulikethemaincharacterofDeath?

Howimmersedinthestorydid

youfeel?

Howinterestedareyoutofindoutwhat

happensnext?

Howmuchdidyoulikethe

characteroftheman?

LikertScale

Questions

Averages

High Medium Low None

27

Asimplelinearregressionwascalculatedtopredicthowengagedwiththe

narrativeparticipantswerebasedonthecondition.Anon-significantregression

equationwasfoundF(1,76)=.014,p=.905,withan!"of.000.

Asimplelinearregressionwascalculatedtopredicthowmuchparticipants

likedthemaincharacterofDeathbasedonthecondition.Anon-significant

regressionequationwasfoundF(1,76)=1.394,p=.241,withan!"of.018.

Asimplelinearregressionwascalculatedtopredicthowimmersedinthe

storyparticipantswerebasedonthecondition.Anon-significantregression

equationwasfoundF(1,76)=.921,p=.34,withan!"of.012.

Asimplelinearregressionwascalculatedtopredicthowmuchparticipants

wereinterestedtoknowwhathappensnextbasedonthecondition.Anon-

significantregressionequationwasfoundF(1,76)=.015,p=.903,withan!"of

.014.

Asimplelinearregressionwascalculatedtopredicthowmuchparticipants

likedthecharacterofthemanbasedonthecondition.Anon-significantregression

equationwasfoundF(1,76)=.352,p=.555,withan!"of.005.

Wealsoconductedaregressiontoattempttoinvestigatetheparticipants’

perceptionsandlikingofthecharacterofDeathasopposedtothecharacterofthe

man.Todoso,wefirsthadtocreateanewvariablebysubtractingtheparticipants’

scoresforQuestion3(HowmuchdidyoulikethemaincharacterofDeath)from

theirscoresforQuestion6(Howmuchdidyoulikethecharacteroftheman),to

createavariablewelabeled“Difference”.Wethencalculatedasimplelinear

28

regressiontopredictDifferencebasedonthecondition.Anon-significantregression

equationwasfoundF(1,76)=2.851,p=.095,withan!"of.036.

Thisfinding,thoughnon-significant,seemedworthyoffurtherinvestigation,

andsoweconductedpost-hoct-teststoexploretherelationshipbetweenthesetwo

variables,andfoundthattherewasasignificantdifferencebetweenthescoresfor

howmuchparticipantslikedthecharacterofDeath(M=5.24,SD=1.88)versusthe

characteroftheman(M=3.71,SD=1.64)intheHighcondition;t(32)=2.621,p=

.013.Inallotherconditionsforthesevariables,thefindingswerenon-significant.

Discussion

Thoughthefindingsofthisstudyarenon-significant,therearestillplentyof

conclusionstobedrawnfromit.Theonesignificantfinding,thatintheHigh

conditionpeoplelikedDeathsignificantlymorethantheman,seemstosuggestthat

breakingthefourthwallmakesacharactermorelikeable.Weacknowledgethatthis

isaseeminglylargeclaimtomakefromsuchasmallconnection,butlookingatthe

averagesinFigure1,theaveragelikingofDeathincreasedwitheachadditionof

fourthwallbreakages,seemingtoimplythesame.Additionally,thoughthe

regressionlookingatthedifferencebetweenpeople’slikingsofDeathandofthe

manwasnon-significant,itwasnearlysignificant.Perhapsifrunwithmore

participants,thiseffectwouldhavebecomeclearerandbecomesignificant.Ifthis

weretrue,itwouldseemtosuggestthatwhilefourthwallbreakagesdon’t

necessarilyguaranteemoreenjoymentorengagement,wetendtolikecharacters

whobreakthefourthwallbetterthanthosewhodon’twhentheyexistinthesame

29

narrative.Itmaybethatthisimbalanceiscausedbythefactthatwearemore

readilyabletoconnectemotionallyandintellectuallywithacharacterthat

acknowledgesusandthatseemstoknowmoreaboutwhat’sgoingonthana

characterwhodoesn’t.Thiswouldsuggestthatbreakingthefourthwallismoreofa

charactertraitthananelementofanentirenarrative.Andwhenwelookbackatthe

examplespresentedabove,weseemtofindsomeinformal,anecdotalevidencefor

this.AsInoted,Deadpoolisinfamousforbreakingthefourthwall–it’sverymucha

partofthecharacter,andbecauseofthathisstoriesarefilledwithmetareferences.

ThesamecouldbesaidforJiminTheOffice–whileeveryoneisinterviewed,Jimis

particularlynotoriousforhislookstothecameraandinteractingwiththe

“audience”incomedicways,andit’sverymuchanexpressionofhischaracter.

Anexplanationforwhythischaractertraitmayleadtoincreasedlikingin

comparisontoothercharacterswithinthenarrativeisthatbreakingthefourthwall

manytimesseemstoconveyacompetency,oraknowledgeorwisdomofsomekind.

WecanseethisbothinShakespeare’sexampleaswellasinthePercyJackson

excerpt,whobothseemtodisplayasuperiorknowledge.EvenDeadpoolandMel

Brooks’characters,thoughtheyplayverydifferentroles,displaysurprising

knowledge,subvertingourexpectationsandrevealingafargreaterunderstanding

oftheirownworldanditsconnectiontotheaudience’sthanwefirstmightsuppose.

Supportingthis,competencyisatraitthatpeoplelookforwhenmakingsocial

judgments,andthoughtheinteractionsarecomplex,competencyisoftenan

attractivetrait(Judd,2005;Fiske,2007).Whencreatingcharacters,authorsand

playwrightsandotherartistsmaybeabletousethisknowledgetogreatereffect,

30

betterunderstandinghowtocreatelikeablecharacters.Theymayevenbeableto

usethetechniqueofbreakingthefourthwallbetter,astheymaybeableto

understanditseffectsonaudience’sperceptionsofthecharactersbecauseofit.

Futurestudiesinthisfieldshouldseektosolvetheproblemsassociatedwith

thisstudy,whilealsocontinuingtopushattheimplicationswe’vepresented.For

example,duetotheattentioncheck,wewereonlyabletorun~20participantsin

eachcondition.Runningmoreparticipantsmayhavegivenusmorerobustresults,

andstrengthenedtherelationshipsbetweenvariables,aswellasallowedustomake

strongerclaimsaboutthoserelationships.

Futurestudiesshouldalsoseektoexploredifferentwaysofpresenting

narratives.Whilewemadeaconsciousdecisiontopresentafullyformednarrative,

acceptingallofthesemanticandliterarydifficultiesthatmightarisefrom

attemptingtocontroljustonevariableinsuchacomplexwork,thismaynotbethe

onlyoreventhebestwaytostudynarrative.Forexample,it’sdifficulttopinthe

resultsdowntoonespecificelement,nomatterhowcloselyyouattempttokeep

everythingelseconstant,becauseexperiencingstoryis,bynature,incredibly

subjectiveandpersonal.Youcanneverguesswhatsortsofconnotationsand

associationsaparticipantmaybringtothetable,andpresentingafullyformed

complexstoryintermsoflanguage,content,andthememakestheprobabilitythat

thosepersonalfactorswillplayintotheparticipant’sassessmentmuchhigher.

However,presentingasimplernarrative,whetherintermsoflanguage,structure,or

content,seemstoshortchangethecomplexityofexperiencinganarrative,andyou

runtheriskthatwhatyou’retestingisn’tactuallyapplicabletomorecomplex

31

narratives.However,webelievethatit’simportanttoexploreallsortsofmethodsin

ordertobetterunderstandnarrativeinthemind.

Futurestudiesmightalsoseektotestdifferentmediumsofnarrative–for

example,film.MuchoftheworkI’vecitedasexamplesofbreakingthefourthwall

comefromfilmandtelevision,andit’sunclearhowthismightdifferfrombreaking

thefourthwallinwritingoronstage.Additionally,whilethisstudyfocusedondirect

addressfourthwallbreaking,thereare,asmentionedabove,manydifferentwaysto

breakthefourthwall.Differentwaysofbreakingthefourthwallmayhavevery

differenteffectsonaudiences–forexample,simplyreferencingthemediumthe

characterisinmaybeagentlerwaytobreakthefourthwallthandirectaddress,

andsoaudiencesmayfinditlessjarring.

It’sclearthere’sstillalotofworktobedoneinexploringnotonlybreaking

thefourthwall,butintonarrativeinthemindingeneral,butwehopethatthisstudy

willpavethewayforotherstobringtogetherthehumanitiesandcognitivescience,

sothatwemayusebothtofurtherunderstandourstorytellingnature.

32

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Appendices

DirectAddress ChangedVersion1.“Iliketothinkthatafterallthistime,I’maprettygoodjudgeofyouhumans.”

“Iliketothinkthatafterallthistime,I’maprettygoodjudgeofhumans.”

2.“What,youthinkjustcauseI’mDeathdoesn’tmeanIcan’ttrytohavealittlefun?”

“JustbecauseI’mDeathdoesn’tmeanIcan’ttrytohavealittlefun.”

3.“Ishouldexplain;Icanchoosehowtopresentmyselftoyouhumans,butwhenIreverttomynaturalform,you’llinevitablyprojectyourownfearsandimagesontome.Youallassociatefearwiththecessationoflife,andvery,veryfewcanbeartoacknowledgemedirectly.Completelyunwarranted,ofcourse,andalittlebithurtful,truthbetold,buthey!that’shumanityforyou.”

“Icanchoosehowtopresentmyselftohumans,butwhenIreverttomynaturalform,they’llinevitablyprojecttheirownfearsandimagesontome.Theyallassociatefearwiththecessationoflife,andvery,veryfewcanbeartoacknowledgemedirectly.Completelyunwarranted,ofcourse,andalittlebithurtful,truthbetold,buthey!that’shumanityinanutshell.”

4.“Iknowwhatyou’rethinking–‘Ifhumanswilljustprojectwhattheyfearontoyournaturalform,whybotherpresentinganythingelse?’Well,firstofall,don’tfeelbadaboutyourignorance–you’reonlyhuman,afterall.Secondofall,overtheeonsI’velearnedthatappearinginwhatevermythologicalformyouhumansaremostlikelytounderstandleadstofewerquestions,andalotlesswastedtime.Thirdofall,andmostimportantly,it’swaymorefun–hencethewhole“scythe-wieldingskeletoncoveredbyapitch-blackcloak”shtickforthisguy.Forawhilethough,I’dregularlyappearedasCharon,theGreekferrymanacrosstheriverStyx,andbeforethat,thejackalheadedAnubishadmadeeventhepharaohspeetheirtunics,justtonameafewoftheclassics.Hey,letsstickyouinadead-endjobforafewbillionyearsandseehowyougoaboutentertainingyourself.”

“I’veoftenaskedmyself,ifhumanswilljustprojectwhattheyfearontomynaturalform,whybotherpresentinganythingelse?Firstofall,overtheeonsI’velearnedthatappearinginwhatevermythologicalformhumansaremostlikelytounderstandleadstofewerquestions,andalotlesswastedtime.Secondofall,andmostimportantly,it’swaymorefun–hencethewhole“scythe-wieldingskeletoncoveredbyapitch-blackcloak”shtickforthisguy.Forawhilethough,I’dregularlyappearedasCharon,theGreekferrymanacrosstheriverStyx,andbeforethat,thejackalheadedAnubishadmadeeventhepharaohspeetheirtunics,justtonameafewoftheclassics.Whenyou’vebeeninadead-endjobforafewbillionyears,you’vegottafindwaystoentertainyourself.”

5.“Lately,I’vebeenfindingthatwhenIdropmyguises,oneofthemorecommonimagesyouhumansprojectontomeissomekindofblandlawyerortaxcollector,whichisundoubtedlywhatthisguywasseeingnow.Makesmewonderaboutwhatexactlyisgoingoninyourworldthesedays.”

“Lately,I’vebeenfindingthatwhenIdropmyguises,oneofthemorecommonimageshumansprojectontomeissomekindofblandlawyerortaxcollector,whichisundoubtedlywhatthisguywasseeingnow.Makesmewonderaboutwhatexactlyisgoingoninthemortalworldthesedays.”

6.“Yousee,youhumanshadgottenitwrong “Humanshavegottenitwrongformillennia.

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formillennia.Itisn’tpreciousmetalsorgemsburiedwiththedeceasedthatbuyyourwaythroughtotheafterlife,orwhateveryoucaretobelievecomesnext.It’stheirstories,yourstories.WhatusecouldIpossiblyhaveforearthlytrinkets?Yourexperiences,yourmemories,arewhatIcollect.”

Itisn’tpreciousmetalsorgemsburiedwiththedeceasedthatbuytheirwaythroughtotheafterlife,orwhatevertheycaretobelievecomesnext.It’stheirstories.WhatusecouldIpossiblyhaveforearthlytrinkets?Theirexperiences,theirmemories,arewhatIcollect.”

7.“Youhumansareallthesame–norespectforthejob.”

“Humansareallthesame–norespectforthejob.”

8.“Youhumansneverlearn.” “Humansneverlearn.”Figure2:Addressesinthestory,inchronologicalorder.Changesbetweenthevariousversionshavebeenbolded.

Figure3:Thesurveyquestionsparticipantswerepresentedwithandaskedtofillout.

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Figure4:Theattentioncheckadministeredafterthesurveyquestions.

39

Theshortstory,Highcondition:

Death

Ifeltthefamiliartuggingsensationthatsignaledanappointmenttakehold.Iresistedforamoment,relishingthesharppainthatflashedacrossmyconsciousness,beforegivinginandallowingmyselftobedrawnintothemortalworld.InthesplitsecondbeforeImaterializedfully,IgotalookattheguyIwascomingtoaccompany.Iliketothinkthatafterallthistime,I’maprettygoodjudgeofyouhumans.

Hecarriedthelookofamanpasthisprime,amanwhohadoncebeen

relativelyhandsomebutnowwasweigheddownbyadullofficejobandafamilythatconstantlyneededattending;amanwithdreamslongsinceputasideandforgotten.Hewasstartingtobald,andhisgutbulgedunderhisshirt.HestruggledfearfullytohisfeetasIapproached,takingshape. “What….what’re…who’reyou?”

IwaffledbetweenthedifferentspeechesIcouldgive,butIdecidedtogowithaclassic.BythistimeI’dgiventhesamespielsomanytimesIbarelyevenhadtothinkaboutit,buthonestly,Ishouldbeawardedformyperformances.I’dgonewiththeGrimReapertoday.Myvoiceboomed,andImademyselfgrowalittletaller,thoughItoweredoverhimalready.AgrinningskullemergedfromthecloudofdarknessI’dcreated,andacloaksettledaroundit.Arazorsharpscytheappearedinmybonyhands,andthoughIspoke,theskulldidn’tmove.

“AcrossthemillenniaIhavebeenworshippedasagod;Ihavebeenknownbythousandsofnames,fromAnkouoftheancientBretons,toMictlantecuhtlioftheAztecs,totheunspokennamesgiventomebyeverycreaturesincethebeginningoftime;inyourlanguage,IamknownsimplyasDeath–“Ipausedfordramaticeffect-“thereaperofsouls.”Andnowclosewithathunderclap.Nice.Thatshoulddoit.

Hejumpedaboutamile,andhisruddyfacedrainedofwhatlittlecolortherehadbeen.Theaircrackledaroundusasthethunderfaded.What,youthinkjustcauseI’mDeathdoesn’tmeanIcan’ttrytohavealittlefun?

“I–I’m….dead?”

Thehorrorshowedonhisfaceashelookedupatme.Geez,thisguywasasap.Atleasthe’dgraspedtheconceptprettyquickly.Someofthemdidn’trealizetheyweredeadfordays,orevenweeks.Sometookyearstocometotermswithit.

Iclappedmyhandstogether,affectingamuchbriskertone.

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“That’sright!YourtimeonEarthhasended,andnowyoumustcomewithme.”

“Ican’tbedead.There’snoway!Ihaveadinnerdatewith–Jeanine!Ohcrap,she’sgonnakillmeifIbailagain!”Hebeganfranticallycheckinghispockets,undoubtedlylookingforhisphone.

Theironyofthisstatementmadeaslightwhistlingsoundasitflewrightoverhishead,butIdecidedtoletitslide.IslowlyletthefrighteningappearanceI’dtakenonfadeaway,thedarknesscontractingintoanewform.

“Youdon’tevenlooklikeDeathanymore!Whathappenedtothewholegrinningskull,blackcloakedguyholdingascythe?”

Ishouldexplain;Icanchoosehowtopresentmyselftoyouhumans,butwhenIreverttomynaturalform,you’llinevitablyprojectyourownfearsandimagesontome.Youallassociatefearwiththecessationoflife,andvery,veryfewcanbeartoacknowledgemedirectly.Completelyunwarranted,ofcourse,andalittlebithurtful,truthbetold,buthey!that’shumanityforyou.

Helookedalmostindignantnow,asifIwasn’tprovidingthedeath

experiencehe’dalwaysdreamedofasachild.Iwonderedifherealizedhowsillyhesounded.Idoubtedit.

Iknowwhatyou’rethinking–“Ifhumanswilljustprojectwhattheyfear

ontoyournaturalform,whybotherpresentinganythingelse?”Well,firstofall,don’tfeelbadaboutyourignorance–you’reonlyhuman,afterall.Secondofall,overtheeonsI’velearnedthatappearinginwhatevermythologicalformyouhumansaremostlikelytounderstandleadstofewerquestions,andalotlesswastedtime.Thirdofall,andmostimportantly,it’swaymorefun–hencethewhole“scythe-wieldingskeletoncoveredbyapitch-blackcloak”shtickforthisguy.Forawhilethough,I’dregularlyappearedasCharon,theGreekferrymanacrosstheriverStyx,andbeforethat,thejackalheadedAnubishadmadeeventhepharaohspeetheirtunics,justtonameafewoftheclassics.Hey,letsstickyouinadead-endjobforafewbillionyearsandseehowyougoaboutentertainingyourself.

Ilookeddownatmyself,butIcouldn’tseewhathewasseeing.Whateverhe

wasprojecting,itwasbasedonhispersonalfears,andhedidn’tevenrealizehewasdoingit.Itwaseasyenoughtoguessatthough.

Lately,I’vebeenfindingthatwhenIdropmyguises,oneofthemore

commonimagesyouhumansprojectontomeissomekindofblandlawyerortaxcollector,whichisundoubtedlywhatthisguywasseeingnow.Makesmewonderaboutwhatexactlyisgoingoninyourworldthesedays.

41

“Thatwastheoldmodel;wejustupgradedrecently,andupuntilnowweweregettinggreatreviewsfromourcustomers.”

Ismiledniceandwide,buthejuststaredatme,strugglingtocomprehend.

“Alright,look,”Isaid,droppingthesmile,“What’sthelastthingyourememberdoing?”

“Um…Igotup,wenttoworklikenormalthismorning–wentouttolunchwithsomecoworkers–Ihadtoworklate,butIwashoppinginthecartoheadhome,andthen…Idon’tremember.ButIfeelfine!”

“Haveyoulookedaround?”

ForthefirsttimesinceIhadappeared,hetookhiseyesoffofmeandglancedaround.

“Mycar!”

Nottwentyyardsawayfromtheroadwas,presumably,hisSubaru,sittingcrumpledandforlorn.Itappearedtohaverolledseveraltimesbeforeslammingintoalargeevergreen.Thedeployedwhiteairbagwasvisiblefromwherewestood.

“What…whathappened?”

“Could’vebeenanothercar,butthere’snooneelsehere.”

Itwastrue.Thereweren’tevenanycarsontheroad.

“Somekindofdeercould’vejumpedoutandspookedyou.”Ishrugged.“Maybeyoufellasleepatthewheel.Could’vebeenanynumberofthings,really.I’devensayyoumighthavedoneitonpurpose,ifnotforthedumbasslookonyourface.”Iinspectedmynails.

Heslowlytrampedthroughthegrassdowntothewreck.Ifollowedatadistance.Hestoppedatthedriver’ssidewindowandstareddownathisstillbody.Blooddrippedquietlyfromawoundinhishead.

“I…”Heclearedhisthroat.“Igotthiscarin,uh,’04.TradedintheDodge,anddroveoffinthis.Igotitforthekids,y’know?Thewifewantedsafety,anditwassupposedtobeoneofthesafestcarsontheroad.”

Thereitwas.Thatlittletidbitwasjustenoughtogivemeaglimpseintohislife,andtopayhiswaythrough.Yousee,youhumanshadgottenitwrongformillennia.Itisn’tpreciousmetalsorgemsburiedwiththedeceasedthatbuyyourwaythroughtotheafterlife,orwhateveryoucaretobelievecomesnext.It’stheir

42

stories,yourstories.WhatusecouldIpossiblyhaveforearthlytrinkets?Yourexperiences,yourmemories,arewhatIcollect.

Thatsmallsharedstorywasenoughformetogetmyfootinthedoor,soto

speak,andallowedhismemoriestosurgeoutofhim.Theyseemedtoseepoutofhispores,multicoloredwispsofsmokethatwereconstantlyshiftinginbothcolorandshape.Touchingthemwouldsendmeintoawhirlwindofallhismemories,emotions,dreams,thoughts,fears,andexperiences,allinthespaceoftimeitwouldtakethisguytoblink.Icarefullycollectedandstoredeachandeverywispwithoutindulgingmyself,thoughtheguyremainedignorantofit.It’sthedealwemademillenniaago;Hewouldbethetellerofstories,andIwouldbethekeeper.Isometimeswonderifthedealwastrulyasfairasithadseemed.ButthenmaybeHewonderedthesame.

Thesilencestretchedashetookinthesceneofhisdeath.

“How‘boutnow?Believemeyet?”

“Yeah.YeahIbelieveyou.”Hewassignificantlyquieternow.

“Well,comeonthen.Timetogo.”Youhumansareallthesame–norespectforthejob.Iwashopinghe’dbealittlemorecompliantnowthathe’dseenhisowncorpse,butnosuchluck.

“Go…where?”

“DisneyWorld.”

Completelynonplussed,hestaredatmeasIkeptastraightface.

Isighed,niceandloud,tolethimknowthatmakingfunofhimwasgettingold.

“Onwards.You’regoingon.”

He’dalreadyopenedhismouthtoaskthenextquestion,butIcuthimoff.

“Anddon’tbotherasking,‘causeIcan’ttellyou.”

Heshuthismouth,thenopeneditagain,andpleadedinachildlikevoice,“But…Idon’twannago.”Youhumansneverlearn.“Listenpal,everybodydies.”

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Ipausedtoletthatsinkin.“Anyotherpointlessthoughts?Questions?No?Excellent!Let’sgo.”

Iturnedandwalkedaway.Afteramoment,hefollowed,andour

surroundingsbegantomeltaway.It’sabouttime.Afterall,I’vegotascheduletokeep.