breastfeeding, maternal medications, and substance use new mexico breastfeeding task force 21 st...
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Breastfeeding, Maternal Medications, and Substance Use
New Mexico Breastfeeding Task Force 21st Annual Conference: Innovative Approaches to Lactation Management
March 4-7, 2015
Emilie Sebesta, MD
Objectives
(1) Understand the basics of drug transfer into human milk
(2) Know where to look or whom to contact with questions about a particular drug and breastfeeding
(3) Be familiar with one hospital’s breastfeeding and substance abuse guidelines
AAP Clinical Report: The Transfer of Drugs and Therapeutics Into Human Breast Milk: An Update on Selected Topics
Few medications contraindicated or with adverse effects on infants
Information for providers is needed but may not be available.
Proposed new FDA rules will create a section called Lactation with subsections:
1. Risk Summary2. Clinical Considerations3. Data
AAP Committee on Drugs, “The Transfer of Drugs and Therapeutics Into Human Breast Milk: An Update on Selected Topics,” http://pediatrics.aappublications.org/content/early/2013/08/20/peds.2013-1985
Transfer of Drugs into Human Milk
When determining if a maternal drug is safe for breastfeeding, the 3 most important factors are
the volume of distribution (Vd)
the percentage of maternal protein binding (PB)
the molecular weight (MW)
Nice, FJ, Luo, AC, “Medications and Breast-feeding: Current Concepts,” JAPhA, 52:1, 86-94 (2012).
Volume of Distribution (Vd)
distribution milk levels
Vd of 1-20 L/kg generally compatible
Nice, FJ, Luo, AC, “Medications and Breast-feeding: Current Concepts,” JAPhA, 52:1, 86-94 (2012).
Protein Binding
Protein Milk Binding levels
PB >90% usually compatible
Nice, FJ, Luo, AC, “Medications and Breast-feeding: Current Concepts,” JAPhA, 52:1, 86-94 (2012).
Molecular Weight
Molecular Milk Weight levels
Drugs with MWs <200 pass easily into the milk. Drugs with MWs >800 are more compatible with breast-feeding (e.g., insulin)
Nice, FJ, Luo, AC, “Medications and Breast-feeding: Current Concepts,” JAPhA, 52:1, 86-94 (2012).
Transfer of Drugs into Human Milk
Other pharmacokinetic factors that influence if a maternal drug is safe for breastfeeding include: pH: Because breast milk is more acidic than plasma, drugs with a
high pH may concentrate more in breast milk than plasma.
logP: Drug molecules that are water soluble are less likely to concentrate in the breast milk.
t ½ : drugs with shorter half-life reach a low plasma concentration more frequently and allow the mother to time her feedings to correspond to trough levels. (Cocaine & PCP and their metabolites have very long half-lives and are particularly dangerous to infants.)
Nice, FJ, Luo, AC, “Medications and Breast-feeding: Current Concepts,” JAPhA, 52:1, 86-94 (2012).
Transfer of Drugs into Human Milk
Tmax: time from administration when drug level is highest in mother’s plasma.
Milk-to-plasma ratio (M/P) of less than 1 is usually safe to breastfeed.
Relative infant dose (RID) infant weight–adjusted dose supplied via breast milk divided by maternal weight–adjusted dose. RID < 10% of maternal dose generally safe for breast-feeding
Nice, FJ, Luo, AC, “Medications and Breast-feeding: Current Concepts,” JAPhA, 52:1, 86-94 (2012).
The special case of codeine and hydrocodone
Codeine and hydrocodone should be avoided by nursing mothers
A fatality has been noted in an infant of a mother with ultrarapid metabolism
Unexplained apnea, bradycardia, cyanosis, and sedation have been reported in nursing infants of mothers receiving codeine.
Given the reduced clearance of hydrocodone in neonates and the adverse events observed in ultrarapid metabolizers of codeine, caution is advised for use of codeine and hydrocodone in both the mother and nursing infant.
AAP Committee on Drugs, “The Transfer of Drugs and Therapeutics Into Human Breast Milk: An Update on Selected Topics,” http://pediatrics.aappublications.org/content/early/2013/08/20/peds.2013-1985
Tips for reducing a baby’s exposure
Avoid nursing at times of peak drug concentrations in milk. Nursing before a dose may avoid peak drug concentrations. This works best for drugs with short half-lives.
Administer the drug before the infant’s longest sleep period. This will minimize the infant’s dose and is useful for long-acting drugs that can be given once daily.
Medications with Absolute Contraindication for Breastfeeding
Radioactive Iodine (131I) May increase baby’s risk of thyroid cancer later in life Mom should wean several weeks before receiving
because iodine will preferentially deposit in active breast tissue increasing mother’s risk of breast cancer
Most chemotherapyBUT radiation therapy is okay though if being
directed at a breast for breast cancer, milk production may decrease in that breast.
Resources to Look up Drugs/Medications
Best! Drugs and Lactation Database (LactMed) - A peer-reviewed and fully
referenced database of drugs to which breastfeeding mothers may be exposed. Among the data included are maternal and infant levels of drugs, possible effects on breastfed infants and on lactation, and alternate drugs to consider. http://toxnet.nlm.nih.gov/cgi-bin/sis/htmlgen?LACT
Hale’s Medication and Mothers’ Milk, 2014 – An excellent book and app may be purchased. Has great tables/appendices looking at contrast materials, vaccines, chemotherapeutic agents, and OTC medications.
Also AAP Committee on Drugs, “The Transfer of Drugs and Other Chemicals
Into Human Milk” Pediatrics 2001; 108; 776.
AAP Committee on Drugs, “The Transfer of Drugs and Therapeutics Into Human Breast Milk: An Update on Selected Topics,” http://pediatrics.aappublications.org/content/early/2013/08/20/peds.2013-1985
Example: Bipolar Mother on Effexor (Venlafaxine)
Pros:-Volume of
Distribution 3.8-11.2 L/kg(1-20 L/kg
generally compatible)-Relative Infant Dose
3-11% (<10% generally safe)
Cons:-Protein Binding 27%-30%
(>90% safe)-Relative Infant Dose 3-11%
(<10% generally safe-Half life 3-7 hrs & 9-13 hrs
for active metabolite-Milk to Plasma Ratio 2.75
(<1 generally considered safe)
Example: Effexor (venlafaxine)
LactMed “[N]o proven drug-related side effects have been reported. Breastfed infants, especially
newborn or preterm infants, should be monitored for excessive sedation and adequate weight gain if this drug is used during lactation”
“[N]ewborn infants of mothers who took the drug during pregnancy may experience poor neonatal adaptation syndrome as seen with other antidepressants such as SSRIs or SNRIs. Use of venlafaxine during breastfeeding has been proposed as a method of mitigating infant venlafaxine withdrawal symptoms,[1] but only one apparently successful case of this use has been reported.”
Hale Rated “L3” = moderately safe
Reference Information from Insert Newborns whose mothers took during pregnancy may experience
Respiratory difficulty Poor feeding Temperature instability Vomiting Hypo or hypertonia Apnea Seizures Crying
Example: . . . And on Abilify (aripiprazole)
Pros:-Volume of Distribution
4.9 L/kg(1-20 L/kg generally compatible)-Protein Binding >99%
(>90% safe)-Relative Infant Dose 0.9%
(<10% generally safe)
Cons:--Half life 75 hours
Example: Abilify (aripiprazole)
LactMed “Limited information indicates that maternal doses of aripiprazole up to 15 mg daily produce
low levels in milk” Hale
Rated “L3” = moderately safe “Several reports (personal communications) of somnolence have been reported to this author.
The infant should be monitored for somnolence.” Reference Information from Insert
Newborns whose mothers took during pregnancy may experience Agitation Hper or hypotonia Somnolence Respiratory distress Feeding disorders
Example: Bipolar Mother on Effexor & Abilify
Decision made to allow baby to breastfeedBaby seen in Newborn Clinic on DOL 5
Mom feeding baby every 4-5 hours Weight down 15% Jaundiced, but not yet at light level Readmitted to hospital
Lesson: More counseling Follow up sooner
Example: Mother with long history of depression on Sertraline throughout pregnancy
Cons:-Long Half life 13-45
hours-Milk to Plasma Ratio
0.42-4.81 (<1 generally considered
safe)-Molecular Weight
342.7 (<200 likely to pass easily into milk,
>800 very safe)
Example: Sertraline
Depression is common with a lifetime prevalence rate of 16.2%.
Women are 1.7–2.7 times more likely to suffer from depression than men.
Estimates for rates of depression in pregnancy range from 1% to 20%, depending on the classification used.
Selective Serotonin Reuptake Inhibitors (SSRIs) are the most common medications used for depression (and anxiety) with an estimated use in 1.8-2.8% of pregnancies.
Maternal use of SSRIs, SNRIs, and NaSSAs: practical recommendations during pregnancy and lactation, Table 2, Arch Dis Child Fetal Neonatal Ed 2012;97:F472-F476 doi:10.1136/archdischild-2011-214239
Example: Sertraline
According to a 2014 Cochrane Review looking at treatment of postpartum depression:
There were very limited data on adverse effects experienced by breastfed infants, with no long-term follow-up.
Antidepressant treatment for postnatal depression, Molyneaux, E, et al., Editorial Group: Cochrane Depression, Anxiety and Neurosis Group,http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com.libproxy.unm.edu/doi/10.1002/14651858.CD002018.pub2/full, 11 SEP 2014
Example: Sertraline
According to the AAP:
Most publications regarding psychoactive drugs describe the pharmacokinetics in small numbers of lactating women with short-term observational studies of their infants. In addition, interpretation of the effects on the infant from the small number of longer-term studies is confounded by prenatal treatment or exposure to multiple therapies. For these reasons, the long-term effect on the developing infant is still largely unknown. (2013)
Among the agents considered to be least problematic were the tricyclic antidepressants amitriptyline and clomipramine and the selective serotonin-reuptake inhibitors paroxetine and sertraline. (2012)
The Transfer of Drugs and Therapeutics Into Human Breast Milk: An Update on Selected TopicsHari Cheryl Sachs & COMMITTEE ON DRUGS, http://pediatrics.aappublications.org/content/early/2013/08/20/peds.2013-1985
AAP, Section on Breastfeeding. Breastfeeding and the use of human milk. Pediatrics. 2012;129(3). Available at: www.pediatrics.org/cgi/content/full/129/3/e827
Example: Sertraline
According to LactMed, “most authoritative reviewers consider sertraline one of the preferred antidepressants during breastfeeding.”
http://toxnet.nlm.nih.gov/cgi-bin/sis/search2/f?./temp/~lNb80V:1
Relative infant dose and available clinical data during lactation for SSRIs, SNRIs, and NaSSAs
RID (%) Available data (n) LactationSelective serotonin reuptake inhibitor Fluoxetin 6.5–11 116 200 Discourage Paroxetine 1.13–1.25 123 131 Preference Sertraline 0.2 146 143 Preference Fluvoxamine 1.34–1.38 13 14 Consider Citalopram 4.4–5.1 72 76 Consider Escitalopram 12 9 ConsiderSerotonin-noradrenalin reuptake inhibitor Venlafaxine 6.5 10 15 ConsiderNoradrenergic and specific serotonergic antidepressants Mirtazapine ±2 10 9 Consider
Maternal use of SSRIs, SNRIs, and NaSSAs: practical recommendations during pregnancy and lactation, Table 2, Arch Dis Child Fetal Neonatal Ed 2012;97:F472-F476 doi:10.1136/archdischild-2011-214239
Serotonin Reuptake Inhibitor (SRI)-Related Symptoms
A variety of symptoms have been reported after prenatal exposure to SSRIs and to a lesser extent to SNRIs and NaSSAs: Tremors jitteriness irritability muscle tone regulation disorders excessive crying sleep disturbances tachypnoea and feeding problems
Maternal use of SSRIs, SNRIs, and NaSSAs: practical recommendations during pregnancy and lactation, Table 2, Arch Dis Child Fetal Neonatal Ed 2012;97:F472-F476 doi:10.1136/archdischild-2011-214239
Date of download: 11/5/2014Copyright © 2014 American Medical Association.
All rights reserved.
From: Neonatal Abstinence Syndrome After In Utero Exposure to Selective Serotonin Reuptake Inhibitors in Term Infants
Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med. 2006;160(2):173-176. doi:10.1001/archpedi.160.2.173
Serotonin Reuptake Inhibitor (SRI)-Related Symptoms
Symptoms occur in approximately 30% of in utero exposed infants.
Factors that may contribute to the likelihood of symptoms developing include: maternal dose and metabolism specific SSRI use individual drug clearance genetic predisposition prematurity
Symptoms generally occur within 2 days after birth and are usually self-limiting.
Levinson-Castiel R, Merlob P, Linder N, et al. Neonatal abstinence syndrome after in utero exposure to selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors in term infants. Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med 2006;160:173–6.
Maternal use of SSRIs, SNRIs, and NaSSAs: practical recommendations during pregnancy and lactation, Table 2, Arch Dis Child Fetal Neonatal Ed 2012;97:F472-F476 doi:10.1136/archdischild-2011-214239
Serotonin Reuptake Inhibitor (SRI)-Related Symptoms
Some now recommend monitoring all infants exposed to SSRIs
For a minimum of 48 hours Using Finnegan scoring (i.e., NAS scoring)
“Breastfeeding is not contraindicated for SSRI monotherapy, but follow-up for signs of NAS after discharge is recommended.” (Levinson-Castiel)
Levinson-Castiel R, Merlob P, Linder N, et al. Neonatal abstinence syndrome after in utero exposure to selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors in term infants. Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med 2006;160:173–6.
Maternal use of SSRIs, SNRIs, and NaSSAs: practical recommendations during pregnancy and lactation, Table 2, Arch Dis Child Fetal Neonatal Ed 2012;97:F472-F476 doi:10.1136/archdischild-2011-214239
Example: Sertraline
Mom continued to take 100 mg of sertraline daily throughout pregnancy as discontinuing during prior pregnancy had resulted in relapse into severe depression and need to restart medicine.
Mother’s previous child experienced transient jitteriness immediately after birth but otherwise had a normal newborn course and normal development.
This baby latched well immediately after birth and breastfed exclusively without any SRI-related symptoms during 48 hour hospital stay.
Example: Marijuana
Pros:-Extensively bound to plasma proteins with a
PB of 99.9% (>90% safe)
Vd 4-19 L/kg (1-20 L/kg generally compatible)
-Predicted Relative Infant Dose of 0.8%
(<10% safe)
Cons:-Highly lipophilic
-Milk to plasma ratio may be up to 8:1 in
heavy users (<1 safe)-Long half-life 25-57
hours
Example: Marijuana
AAP Committee on Drugs, “The Transfer of Drugs and Other Chemicals Into Human Milk” “nursing mothers should not ingest drugs of abuse, because
they are hazardous to the nursing infant and to the health of the mother.”
only 1 report in literature of an adverse effect of marijuana on nursing infant but effect not mentioned.
2012 AAP Section on Breastfeeding Breastfeeding and the Use of Human Milk “Maternal substance abuse is not a categorical contraindication
to breastfeeding,“ but “Street drugs such as PCP (phencyclidine), cocaine, and
cannabis can be detected in human milk, and their use by breastfeeding mothers is of concern, particularly with regard to the infant’s long-term neurobehavioral development and thus are contraindicated.”
Example: Marijuana
LactMed Limited studies One study found daily use might result in motor delay Two studies found “occasional” use had no discernible effect Studies” inadequate to rule out all long-term harm.” “Marijuana use should be minimized or avoided by nursing mothers
because it may impair their judgment and child care abilities. “Because breastfeeding can mitigate some of the effects of smoking and
little evidence of serious infant harm has been seen, it appears preferable to encourage mothers who use marijuana to continue breastfeeding while minimizing infant exposure to marijuana smoke and reducing marijuana use.”
http://toxnet.nlm.nih.gov/cgi-bin/sis/search2/f?./temp/~GaIbPm:1
Example: Marijuana
Medications & Mothers’ Milk 2014 L5 – Limited Data-Hazardous “Cannabis should not be used during pregnancy or breastfeeding.” “[T]here is increasing concern about the use of marijuana or other
cannabis products, in pregnant or breastfeeding mothers. Studies continue to suggest that cannabis may produce long-term sequelae, such as reduced cognition, and changes in mood and reward.”
“While the data on neurobehavioral effects of cannabis on infants from breastfeeding mothers is limited, cannabis use in breastfeeding mothers should be strongly discouraged.”
“For single or infrequent exposures, breastfeeding can continue after 24-48 hours. For daily continued use, mothers should be advised not to breastfeed.”
Hale, T.W. and Rowe, H.E., Medications & Mothers’ Milk, 16th Ed. (2014).
Example: Marijuana
University of California San Diego Policy “Mothers with known or suspected street drug or
alcohol use will be given the benefit of the doubt, educated about providing safe milk for their infant, and followed closely.”
There is “no need to discard milk, test the milk, or have the mother refrain from breastfeeding.”
Stanford No official policy. Their “practice tends to run along the
lines of [UNM’s], but each practitioner is left to decide for him/herself how to manage these patients.” (personal correspondence with medical director)
Example: Marijuana
Seton Hospital in Austin, TX Discourages breastfeeding when the mother has used
marijuana in the 12 weeks prior to birth. Quotes 2014 NEJM article on Adverse Effects of Marijuana:
“Marijuana use has been associated with substantial adverse effects, some of which have been determined with a high level of confidence; these include addiction to marijuana and other substances, abnormal brain development, progression to use of other drugs, schizophrenia, depression or anxiety, diminished lifetime achievement, and others.”
Denver Health Handout on “Marijuana and Your Baby” discusses potential
effects on mothers and their babies and “strongly advise[s] that marijuana not be mixed with pregnancy, breastfeeding, or parenting.”
Why do Hospitals Need a Breastfeeding & Substance Abuse Guideline?
Inconsistency between practitionersNurses ask for guidanceBabies of mothers with substance use may be at
increased risk for child abuse NAS babies more irritable Mothers often lack resources, support Breastfeeding shown to reduce risk of abuse
Babies of mothers with substance use may have increased risk of poorer neurodevelopmental outcomes Breastfeeding may improve neurodevelopmental outcomes
Breastfeeding Generally Supported
Mothers with a history of occasional use of alcohol or marijuana and who:
quit when they discovered they were pregnant in the first or second trimester or continued to use occasionally, i.e.., small amounts and not every day, and plan not to drink alcohol or smoke marijuana while they are breastfeeding or plan
only to use small amounts and not every day (i.e., occasional use vs. abuse).
Mothers with a known history of substance abuse during the current pregnancy and:
urine toxicology screen is negative at delivery & in 90 days prior to delivery, she indicates she does not intend to use while breastfeeding her baby, and she has received consistent prenatal care starting in the first half of her pregnancy.
Mothers using methadone or buprenorphine and Not using other drugs of abuse Enrolled in a substance abuse program
Marijuana
A maternal or infant urine toxicology screen positive for THC at delivery should not alone preclude breastfeeding if The provider has reason to believe the mother’s use is occasional, Documents reasons for believing the mother’s use is occasional and
therefore the benefits of breastfeeding outweigh the potential risks of the infant’s exposure to marijuana in the breast milk, and
Counsels mother regarding the potential effects of marijuana on her infant and her ability to care for her infant and encourages her to quit.
There is little evidence regarding the effect of maternal marijuana use and breastfeeding. What evidence there is suggests that the risk would only be significant when the mother is a “heavy user” of marijuana. See Djulus, et al., Nice & Luo, LactMed, ABM, and AAP Committee
on Drugs.
Marijuana
Approximately 2.5% of women admit to using marijuana during pregnancy.
Prenatal exposure to THC may effect endocannabinoid-mediated neuronal maturation, disrupt developing neurotransmitter systems, and interfere with maturation of the dopaminergic system and serotonin receptors, which could lead to an increased risk of neuropsychiatric disorders, such as drug addiction, schizophrenia and depression.
“Whether these changes are implicated in the future risk of addictive behaviours and depression in the human is as yet uncertain.”
Jaques, SC, “Cannabis, the pregnant woman and her child: Weeding out the myths,” J. Perinat. (2014), 1-8.
Marijuana
“[S]pecific recommendations with respect to breast feeding while using cannabis are hampered by the lack of substantial and definitive studies.”
“Depending on family circumstances, the benefits of breast feeding, even with continued cannabis use, may outweigh the negative side-effects, especially in infrequent cannabis users. Each institution should work towards a policy of ensuring best practices for their particular population of cannabis users.”
Jaques, SC, “Cannabis, the pregnant woman and her child: Weeding out the myths,” J. Perinat. (2014), 1-8.
Volkow ND et al. N Engl J Med 2014;370:2219-2227.
Marijuana
“There is inadequate evidence to make a statement about the isolated use of marijuana in breast-feeding mothers. The studies that address this issue are confounded by the fact that few women have isolated use during breast-feeding in the absence of additional prenatal use of marijuana.”
Based on 2 large cohorts, “there may be some effects on visuoperceptual ability, reasoning and attention in older children, [but] the association was statistically significant only with prolonged, heavy maternal use (>5 joints per week throughout pregnancy and breast-feeding).”
“Based on these findings, mandatory reporting of marijuana use during [] or breast-feeding do not seem medically warranted. A consistent message of “breast is best” seems appropriate for mothers who continue to use marijuana while breast-feeding.”
Hill, M & Reed, K, “Pregnancy, Breast-feeding, and Marijuana: A Review Article,” Obstetrical & Gynecological Survey. 68(10):710-718, October 2013.
Breastfeeding Generally Discouraged
In a mother with a known history of substance abuse during the current pregnancy and Mother’s urine toxicology screen is positive at time of delivery
or in 30 days prior to delivery, or Mother admits to use of illicit substance or non-prescribed
opiate at the time of delivery or in 30 days prior to delivery, or Mother did not receive prenatal care during this pregnancy.
Exceptions permitted with chart documentation of the rationale for the exception and written order may be appropriate to “pump and dump” until the drugs are
cleared and to check weekly maternal UDMs over the first month or longer
Breastfeeding Discretionary
In the 30-90 day period prior to delivery mother admits to use or has a positive urine toxicology screen and provider believes this is
Limited relapse Mom not likely to use upon discharge
Mother only obtained sobriety in an inpatient setting, including incarceration
When deciding whether to encourage/support a mother’s decision to breastfeed in the hospital, providers should consider:
Mother’s history of drug use/abuse Mother’s participation in substance abuse treatment program Mother’s behavior in hospital
Providers should try to talk with mother’s prenatal providers regarding risk of continued abuse.
Provider Counseling
Whether a provider is encouraging or discouraging breastfeeding in a woman with a history of substance use or abuse, he or she must counsel the mother on the possible harm to her baby if she breastfeeds and continues to use illicit substances or non-prescribed opiates or is a heavy user of alcohol or marijuana, including but not necessarily limited to:
mother being impaired in her ability to care for her infant.
baby becoming sleepy or agitated or having difficulty sleeping depending on the drug.
the possibility of long-term effects on her baby’s neurobehavioral development.
the possibility of legal repercussions if baby is found to be positive for an illicit
substance or non-prescription opiate.
What to do if you’re not sure what to do
Err on the side of letting the mother breastfeed, let her know the plan might change, and document this, as well as the final decision by mother’s and/or baby’s providers, in the baby’s chart.
References
Jaques, SC, “Cannabis, the pregnant woman and her child: Weeding out the myths,” J. Perinat. (2014), 1-8.
Volkow, ND, et al., “Adverse Health Effects of Marijuana Use,” N Engl J Med 2014; 370:2219-2227.
Hale, TW, Medications and Mothers’ Milk, 16th Edition, 2014.
Hill, M & Reed, K, “Pregnancy, Breast-feeding, and Marijuana: A Review Article,” Obstetrical & Gynecological Survey. 68(10):710-718, October 2013.
AAP Committee on Drugs, “The Transfer of Drugs and Therapeutics Into Human Breast Milk: An Update on Selected Topics,” http://pediatrics.aappublications.org/content/early/2013/08/20/peds.2013-1985
AAP Section on Breastfeeding, “Breastfeeding and the Use of Human Milk”, Pediatrics, 129:3 (2012).
The Academy of Breastfeeding Medicine Protocol Committee, “ABM Clinical Protocol #21: Guidelines for Breastfeeding and the Drug-Dependent Woman,” Breastfeeding Medicine, 4:4 (2009).
References
Nice, FJ, Luo, AC, “Medications and Breast-feeding: Current Concepts,” JAPhA, 52:1, 86-94 (2012).
Garry, A, et al., “Cannabis and Breastfeeding,” J. Toxicol. 2009; 2009:596149. Djulus, J, Moretti, M, Koren, G, “Marijuana Use and Breastfeeding,”
Canadian Family Physician, 51:349-350 (2005). AAP Committee on Drugs, “The Transfer of Drugs and Other Chemicals Into
Human Milk” Pediatrics 2001; 108; 776. Sharma, P, Murthy, P, Bharath, MMS, “Chemistry, Metabolism, and
Toxicology of Cannabis: Clinical Implications,” Iran J Psychiatry. 2012 Fall; 7(4): 149–156.
Drugs and Lactation Database (LactMed),
http://toxnet.nlm.nih.gov/cgi-bin/sis/htmlgen?LACT