british journal of economics, finance and management sciences …2)/efvol.13 (2) article 2.pdf ·...

British Journal of Economics, Finance and Management Sciences 8

March 2017, Vol. 13 (2)

© 2017 British Journals ISSN 2048-125X

Investigating the Relationship between Organizational Citizenship Behavior,

Organizational Commitment and Satisfaction among Church Community Members in

D.R. Congo: Assessing the Relevance of Believing and Belonging

1 Dr.Kemo Badiane,

2Tshiama Madiayi Chantal

1 Nanfang College of Sun Yat-Sen University, Department of International Studies, National

Research Center for Executive Search, Bld A2, Room 113, 882, Wenquan Avenue, Conghua

District, Guangzhou, Guangdong Province, Postal Code: 510970, China.

Email: [email protected]

2Providence University, No. 200, Section 7, Taiwan Blvd, Shalu District, Taichung City, 433,

E-mail: [email protected]

Abstract

This paper examines the relationship between Organizational Citizenship Behavior (OCB),

Organizational Commitment (OC), and Satisfaction (S) for church ministers and parishioners in

the Democratic Republic of the Congo (D.R.C). In this study, OCB was measured using William

and Anderson‟s 9-items. OC was measured using Allen and Meyer‟s 21-items. Finally, for S the

researchers used the tools developed by Schriesheim and Tshui. All the constructs included in

this study were adapted to match the five-point Likert-type scale. For data collection,

questionnaire survey was used as survey method. Using statistical techniques, such as reliability

test, principal component analysis, structural equation modeling, path diagram, and hierarchical

multiple regression, a total of 283 questionnaires were collected for analysis. The findings were

summarized as follows:

1. OCB and OC were positively and significantly correlated in the context of church

ministers and church faithful in the D.R.C.

2. OC and S were also positively and significantly correlated for church ministers and

parishioners in the D.R.C.

3. Negative and not significant correlation was found between OCB and S

for church ministers and church faithful in the D.R.C.

Theoretical and practical implications of the findings are discussed in the context of

church leadership and administration. Recommendations of the study are highlighted and

limitations of the study presented.

mailto:[email protected]


March 2017, Vol. 13 (2)


1. Introduction

Located in Central Africa, the D.R.C is the second largest country in Africa by area and the

eleventh largest country in the world. With a population of over 80 million, it‟s known for its high

percentage of Christian population. There are six archdioceses and 41 dioceses. The D.R.C is home to a

wide range of religious confessions such as Christian population (about 80%), predominantly Roman

Catholics. Approximately 50% of the D.R.C‟s population are Roman Catholic, 20% are protestants, 10%

are Kimbanguists (Kimbanguism – “The Church of Jesus Christ on Earth by His special envoy Simon

Kimbangu” is a branch of Christianity founded by Simon Kimbangu in what was then the Belgian Congo

or now the D.R.C), and 10% are Muslims, while the remaining 10% comprise other religious groups,

including syncretic sets and traditional religions. Being the largest religious organization in the country

with about 30 million members, the Roman Catholic Church in the D.R.C becomes one of the largest

church attendants in Africa (See Missionary Atlas project 2007; US Department of State, Bureau of

Public Affairs report 2010).

The Catholic Church in the D.R.C introduces African symbols in mass celebration, including

drum beating, singing, and dancing. Thus, making it a joyous and festive gathering (Boya 2010).

Congolese church membership, religious beliefs and doctrines, ethical way of life, attendance at worship

service, and many other acts, outlooks and conditions can all denote piety and organizational commitment

to religion. Upon reflection, it becomes clear that the variety of meanings associated with the term

religious, while they may well be aspects of a single phenomenon, are not simply synonymous. For

instance, most Congolese knowing that someone is an active church member would also regard him/her

to be a firm believer in church doctrines and to be concerned about acting out of his faith in his/her daily

life. Going to church, believing and acting ethically are generally recognized as components of being

faithful (Glock & Stark 1965).

Recently, a number of key seminal past studies have been focusing on the church contexts since it

is normal that Christians have their primary religious experience and maintain a sense of identification

with the larger institutional church (Pargament, Tyler, & Steele 1979). But little is known about how

church members experience their involvement in church life, what the relevant dimensions are, and how

these figures appear in the overall evaluation of the quality of parish life? The Catholic Church in the

D.R.C is part of the worldwide Roman Catholic Church under the spiritual leadership of the Pope in

Rome.

OCB, OC and S are the three most observed popular constructs having significant attention on the

field of organizational behaviors (Mathieu & Zajac 1990; Allen & Meyer 1990). Because of the fact that

devoted and joyful church will contribute towards engagement and productivity. The accomplishment of a

church and quest for quality depend not only on how the church develops human capabilities, but also

how it stimulates OCB, OC and S.

Our study aims at giving insight into church members‟ attitudes and what can be done to improve

them. First, our study will help extend our understanding of the relationship between OCB, OC, and S.

Our findings expose the importance and impact of relationship in church community. Second, the present

study supports the church community to have a better understanding of the existing church ministers and

parishioners‟ level of satisfaction. Therefore, from the church‟s perspective they would come up with new

ways to satisfy the church members, such as modifying the existing personal spiritual scale and increasing

Christian community welfare. Third, besides S the present study will help church community better

understand the church ministers and parishioners‟ level of OCB, OC, and S.

The purpose of this study is to examine the relationship between OCB, OC, and S among church

community members in D.R.C and the actions needed to be taken to improve the main conditions of the

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christianity

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simon_Kimbangu


March 2017, Vol. 13 (2)


Congolese church community members in order to make them more satisfied in the implementation of

national projects and services about church-related activities. OCB describe actions in which church

members are willing to assume, embark on and beyond their prescribed role. S helps improve the attitudes

of church members about their commitment and facilitates integration of church attendants with the

church. It gives them a sense of belongingness and a sense of participation leading to the overall increase

in the productivity of the church.

Based on the above-mentioned objectives, the following hypotheses were proposed:

Hypothesis 1: OCB is positively related to OC for church ministers and parishioners in D.R.C.

Hypothesis 2: OC is positively related to S for church ministers and parishioners in D.R.C.

Hypothesis 3: OCB is negatively related to S for church ministers and parishioners in D.R.C.

This study contributes to the understanding of the literature on the relationship between OCB, OC,

and S in church community contexts in D.R.C. The first contribution is lay people church leaders,

particularly Catholics who need to be attentive and responsive to what is taking place in the religious

communities of D.R.C. The second contribution is to develop creative ideas about how the profoundly

religious Congolese culture, philosophy, and way of life can be connected and integrated into church

practice. And finally, the third contribution is related to S and engagement among church community

members about the significance to apply their skills and abilities in the context of effective church

administration and management.

The sections below are structured as follows. The next section describes a review of the existing

literature relating to OCB, OC and S in the contexts of church perspective. Section two presents the

conceptual framework of the study. Section three proposed the methodology of the study. Section four

presents the findings of the study. Finally, section five closes with the limitations, conclusions,

implications and recommendations for future research.

2. Literature Review 2.1. Organizational Citizenship Behavior

OCB has been an important focus to understand church ministers and parishioners or employees

attitudes and engagement; hence it plays a significant role in churches. OCB is becoming a place to

develop a certain way consisting in helping priests interact with the parishioners, thereby benefiting the

whole church. OCB can contribute to maintaining a good agreement and strengthening organizational

relationship between church leaders and church members in order to increasingly involve the members in

the church activities.

2.1.1. Definition

OCB deals with the behavior of individuals in organizations and their engagement in their

community. Church members or employees working together can have different attitudes, behaviors and

beliefs towards their church fellows and organization. But in getting into the church, lay people or

employees need to learn a lot from their organization and church fellows to change or adapt their attitudes

even strengthen their cooperation for the benefit and interest of their organization. Generally considered

as the father of OCB, Organ (1988) defines OCB as “individual behavior that is discretionary, not directly

or explicitly recognized by the formal reward system, and that in the aggregate promotes the effective

functioning of the organization”.

So, in light of what has been said, Izhar (2009) defines OCB as “those organizationally beneficial

behaviors and gestures that can neither be enforced on the basis of formal role obligations nor elicited by

contractual guarantee of recompense.” In fact, Turnipseed and Rassuli (2005) mentioned the examples of

the OCB behaviors as understanding and cooperation with colleagues, mentoring, performing extra duties

without delay and complaint, punctuality, volunteering, efficient use of organizational resources and


March 2017, Vol. 13 (2)


sharing ideas positively.

2.1.2. Operationalization

OCB can appear in different forms according to the organization or cultural space we are evolving

because from one organization or environment to another we can observe differences (Ronen & Shenkar

1985; Badiane 2008). In this end, helping fellows to complete their work will not only contribute to make

the organization more functional (Organ & Ryan 1995), but will also strengthen the relationship between

priests and employees to go ahead to achieve the vision, missions and goals of their church. The act itself

is “entirely voluntary, constructive, not formally assigned, no compensated but desired by the

organization” (Turnipseed & Murkison 2000) because no rules constrain any church faithful or

employees to give such support (Organ 1988), but it appears to be just a moral ethic that pushes him/her

to adopt and prescribe such behavior.

2.1.3. Related Studies

When church ministers and parishioners or employees are involved in OCB, their main objective is

the wellbeing of individuals, group, and organization to which the behavior is directed (Witt 1991). Thus,

it is important to know the impact of OCB in the functioning of any organization as stated Organ (1988)

through his conceptualization of behavior: “altruism, courtesy, sportsmanship, conscientiousness, and

civil virtue”, OCB is mainly related to ethical behavior at workplace consisting in abiding to the rules,

supporting others, not feeling guilty with others, not interfering with others, going out of one‟s way to

protect other fellows and organizational properties, not wasting or harming material or property

(Turnipseed 2002), actions which are necessary for the efficiency and effectiveness of the organization.

It is to be noted that satisfaction is an aspect generally mentioned when dealing with OCB

(Bateman & Organ 1983; Puffer 1987). Therefore, it can be noticed that satisfaction remains an effective

response to various engagement-related factors as well as to the organization (Locke 1976). For that

purpose, one can view OCB as a factor associated with ethics and morality, and our conduct with the

organization and giving us a clear picture in terms of how church fellows interact and communicate

between them, learning from each other to improve the quality of the service and enhancing the

productivity of the organization.

However, OCB can be analyzed in two angles due to its “multidimensional” perception; extra-role

behavior, e.g., those directed towards the organization and those oriented to the individuals within an

organization (Turnipseed 2002). And it is important to differentiate good actions from wrong ones as far

as OCB implementation in the organization is concerned to avoid conflict and their divergence represents

the core of most dilemmas (Marcus, 1993). If well implemented and conducted within an organization,

OCB can be “positive for employees” (Organ, 1988) or church members in the operation of the

organization as suggested by Podsakoff (2000:513) that “organizational citizenship behavior may enhance

the organization‟s ability to attract and retain the best people by making it a more attractive place to

work.”

Research on OCB has been extensive since its introduction nearly twenty years back (Bateman &

Organ 1983). Mackenzie, Podsakoff and Praine (1999) proposed several dimensions of OCB such as

„helping‟ behavior by employees (e. g., supportive action to assist others and going beyond the

requirement of the activity); „sportsmanship‟ (tolerating the engagement environment without excessive

complaining); and „civic duty‟ (constructive involvement in the processes of the organization beyond the

requirement of the activity). Dispositional factors or psychological characteristics of individuals, such as

personality, psychological needs, and attitudes appear to be promising predictors of OCB. For instance,

conscientiousness, agreeableness, and positive affectivity were found to be significantly related to OCB

(George & Brief 1992; Konovsky & Organ 1996). Different personality types may display different

degrees of OCB because individuals tend to differ in their levels of pro-social behavior, and research has


March 2017, Vol. 13 (2)


shown that some employees or lay people would naturally be willing to go the extra mile and help fellows

or organization members, whereas others would not (Konovsky & Organ 1996). Mischel (1977) argues

that the effects of dispositional factors, namely personality should be related to OCB in “weak situations”

that specific behavioral demands.

A large number of OCB research has focused on the effects of OCB on individuals and

organizational performance. Many scholars have focused on the effects of OCB on individuals and

organizational performance. They found that OCB can lead to positive consequences in organization

(Cardona, Lawrence, & Bentler 2004). Satisfaction has been found to have a positive relationship with

performance and OCB. There is a consensus in this particular field that OCB addresses silent behaviors

for organization (Barbuto, Wilhite, & Wheeler 2001). Successful organizations have subordinates who go

beyond their formal activity. Such altruism is neither prescribed nor required; yet it contributes to the

smooth functioning of the organization and could pave a way to a unified and strong organization.

Organ (1988) noted that OCB was vital to the survival of an organization. Organ further elaborated

that OCB can maximize the efficiency and productivity of both the subordinates and the organization that

ultimately contributes to the effective functioning of an organization. A prominent current organizational

researcher has supported Organ‟s position regarding the importance and effectiveness of those behaviors,

which he labeled as OCB (George & Brief 1992). OCB is desirable from the organizational perspective

because such behavior is thought to increase the available resources and decrease the need for costly

mechanism of control (Organ 1998; Podsakoff, & Mackenzie 1997). Kelly and Hoffman (1997) claimed

that OCB can improve the performance of an organization. Engagement plays an important aspect in

churches and there happens sometimes conflicting relationship within the organization which can have

negative implications for the organization.

2.2. Organizational Commitment

“Commitment is a strong sense of intention, dedication to a particular cause, or belief, or

organization, combined with a willingness to get involved” (Zhao 2015). It is reflected in the person‟s

“intention” to persevere in a course of action (Meyer & Allen 1997). Commitment has always been

believed as the driving force behind a person‟s success. A person who has committed himself/herself to a

task will pursue it until its completion even if s/he experiences obstacles during the process. It is a

commitment that drives him to rise above the challenges.

2.2.1. Definition

OC is a very important concept in organizational functioning. Porter et al. (1974) have found OC

to be consisting of three facets: “a strong belief in and acceptance of the organization‟s goal and values, a

willingness to exert considerable effort on behalf of the organization; and a definite desire to maintain

organizational membership”. These characteristics imply that the members of the organization wish to be

active players in the organization, have an impact on what is happening, feel that they have high status,

and are ready to contribute beyond what is expected of them (Bogler & Somech 2004). OC is a bond to

the whole organization, not to the activity, belief in the importance of work or engagement itself (Lamber

2003). This differs from the concept of occupational commitment which is defined as an individual‟s

loyalty to a specific occupational field (Goulderner 1957).


One of the most widely used theories in OC is Meyer and Allen‟s (1991) three-component model:

2.2.2.1. Affective Commitment

Affective commitment refers to an employee‟s emotional attachment to and identification with the

organization (Meyer & Allen 1991). Organizational members, who are committed to an organization on

an affective basis, continue working or engaging for the organization because they want to (Meyer &

Allen 1991). Members who are committed on an affective level stay with the organization because they


March 2017, Vol. 13 (2)


view their personal employment relationship as congruent to the goals and values of the organization

(Beck & Wilson 2000). In general, affective OC is concerned with the extent to which an individual

identifies with the organization (Allen & Meyer 1990).

2.2.2.2. Continuance Commitment

Meyer and Allen (1997, p.11) define continuance commitment as “awareness of the costs

associated with leaving the organization.” This means that the individual commits to the organization

because he/she perceives high costs of losing organizational membership including economic costs (such

as pension accruals) and social costs (friendship ties with church fellows) that would be incurred.

Employee or church faithful remains a member of the organization because s/he “has to”. Organization

members develop commitment to an organization because of the organization‟s goals and values.

Therefore, in order to retain employees or church faithful who are continuance committed, the

organization needs to give more attention and recognition to those elements that boost the employee‟s or

lay people‟s morale to be affectively committed.

2.2.2.3. Normative Commitment

Normative commitment reflects a feeling of obligation to continue employment. Employees or

church faithful with high level of normative commitment feel that they ought to remain with the

organization. The sources and reasons of these feelings may be the organization because s/he “ought to”

(Dereli 2006).


Organizational commitment is generally related to the level of engagement of individuals within

the organization. When joining an organization, many criteria are taken into account including

commitment, citizenship behavior, and skills etc… to do perfectly one‟s duty or activity. People feel that a

person ought not to change his/her activity too often and an employee who behaves so is considered as

erratic and untrustworthy. Beck (1960) perceived commitment as a tendency to engage in an activity

resulting from the recognition of the cost or lost side bets associated with the discontinuance of that

activity. The study also described commitment as the unanticipated involvement of other sources of

rewards or other aspects of a person.

Thus, it can be stated that in the religious context commitment is viewed as more relevant to church

than to other social systems. Researches have largely focused on the supremacy of organization and

individuals‟ attitudinal inclination towards it due to shared beliefs, values or rewards. One very recent

notable exception is scale development study by Shore et al. (1990). The two components of

organizational commitment have differential activity-related outcomes. Accordingly, satisfaction is

considered as an important factor of affective commitment. Affective commitment in turn is hypothesized

to predict desirable outcomes, such as higher levels of well-being and OCB.

It is important to mention that among the three components of organizational commitment,

affective commitment is more positively related to OCB. Therefore, engagement experiences were

perceived to have much stronger relations in particular with affective commitment (Irving & Meyer,

1994). Also, many studies have examined these three organizational commitment factors but they are

relatively not the same from one construct to another (Meyer &Allen 1991; Allen & Meyer 1990; Meyer

et al. 1993; Shore & Wayne 1993). Then, it has been said that the distinct components have been found to

correlate in different ways with antecedents, consequences, and correlations.

2.3. Satisfaction

S usually refers to “happiness” coming from the fulfillment of a need, wishes and as such it is the

cause or means of enjoyment. Satisfaction is important to organizations as it has the potential to affect a

wide range of behaviors in organizations and contributes to people level of wellbeing (George & Jones

2008).


March 2017, Vol. 13 (2)


2.3.1. Definition

Satisfaction is a very important factor that mirrors the engagement environment and characteristics

of an activity or job (Karsh, Booske, & Sainfort 2005). It is regarded according to George and Jones

(2005) as “The collection of feelings and beliefs that people have about their current jobs or activities.

People‟s levels of S can range from extreme satisfaction to extreme dissatisfaction”. Following Locke, S

can be defined as a pleasurable feeling the “results from the fulfillment of one‟s important job value”

(Noe et al. 1994, p. 281). In this definition, three aspects of S are revealed. First, S is a function of values,

defined as “what a person consciously or unconsciously desire to obtain.” Second, different employees or

lay people have different views of which values are important, and this is critical in determining the

nature and level of S. One person may value high pay or things you obtain from your church more than

anything else; another may value growth opportunity. Third, aspect of S is a situation related to one‟s

values that matter. An individual‟s perception may not be completely accurate reflection of reality, and

different people may view the same situation differently. French (1990) claimed that S is a complex

notion that manifests itself in different ways to different individuals. Whether S is high or low depends on

the number of factors, including how well personal needs and wants are met through work or

engagement, the extent to which an individual defines himself or herself through work or engagement,

and individual personality trait. According to this approach although S is under the influence of many

external factors, it remains something internal that has to do with the way employees or church members

feel.


Our study focuses on the following categories of S: the things you obtain from your church or

pay, activity or job, personal development opportunities or promotion, church staff or supervisor and

church fellows or co-workers.

2.3.2.1. Things you Obtain from your Church or Pay

Things you obtain from your church or pay is often cited as a motivator of performance and

determinant of S (Dibble 1999; Vigoda-Gadot 2003), although the exact role of pay has been questioned

(Griffiths, 2003). Armstrong (1993) also concluded that if employees perceive some equity between their

engagement or work and pay, their S level depends on pay or the thing you obtain from your church.

2.3.2.2. Activity or Job

Activity is related to the nature of the activities as an aspect of S focusing on how the activity is

structured. This element also refers to the extent to which activity tasks are considered interesting and

provide opportunities for learning and accepting responsibility (Cockburn & Haydin, 2004). Lay people

or employees can be entrusted with some decision making powers for them to plan the execution of their

activity (Goode, 2000). This may enhance their confidence in their activities and they are more likely to

experience some S with their activity because they can define the destiny of their action (Armstrong

1993; George 2000; O‟Malley 2000).

2.3.2.3. Personal Development Opportunities or Promotion

Personal development opportunity refers to an individual‟s position and should enhance a need

for achievement, and should feel the sense that s/he is being recognized in the organization. Consequently,

ample opportunities for personal development are a vital contribution to S because personal developments

include a number of valued signals about a person‟s self-worth (Toposk 2000).

2.3.2.4. Church Staff or Supervisor

Church staff or supervisor is responsible for the efficient and effective operation of the church

community and for developing policies and procedures to support day-to-day operations of the church.

Church staffs are expected to ensure that new employees or lay people receive all the information

necessary to accomplish their duties.


March 2017, Vol. 13 (2)


2.3.2.5. Church Fellows or Co-Workers

Church fellows‟S relates to the extent to which they are friendly, competent, and supportive (Hakim

1994; Johns 1992). This aspect is critical because employees or lay people need a friendly and considerate

engaging environment to experience S (Carrell, Hatfield, Grobler, Van der 1998; Lemmer 1996). In fact,

individuals enjoy people who are easy to be around.


According to the literature, the relationship between gender and S is inconsistent. Some studies report

that women are more satisfied. Souza-Poza (2003) found that women‟s S has declined substantially in the

past decade, whereas men‟s S has remained fairly constant. As cited in Jinnett and Alexande (1999),

Coward et al. (1995) stated that female individuals demonstrate higher level of S than male individuals.

Many studies involving several different populations support this argument (Lambert et al. 2001;

Loscicco, 1990). On the other hand, other studies found no significant differences between genders

(Bruning & Snyder 1983; Mortmer et al. 1988).

Studies have shown that task rewards and organizational rewards lead to S. Task rewards refer to

rewards that are in direct association with the engagement, such as the use of one‟s skills into challenging

engagement or work, engagement variety and opportunities. Organizational rewards are the visible

rewards such as things you obtain in your church or pay, and personal development opportunities or

promotion (O‟Reilly & Caldwell 1980). According to the literature, the findings are not consistent with

the influence of age on S. Some researchers have found that age has an influence on S (Chambers 1999;

Cramer 1993; Robbins 2001).

Older employees tend to experience higher levels of S (Billingsley & Cross 1992; Cramer 1993;

Jones, Johnson, & Johnson 2000). Older employees were more likely to report higher levels of S than

younger employees. Older employees are more comfortable and tolerant of authority and may learn to

lower their expectations for their activity (Spector 1997).

Other studies found that age has a non-linear association (no impact) on S (Sarker et al. 2003;

Sharm & Jyoti 2005, 2009) or rather statistically age has an insignificant impact (Bos et al. 2009; Bernal,

Snyder, & McDaniel1998). Some studies concluded that as a chronological variable, age is not a predictor

of S (Bernal et al.). Today‟s managers consider employees or lay people S more than before for the reason

that more satisfied employees or lay people can contribute to the overall S and wellbeing of the

organization. Many studies have documented that S is an important antecedent of organizational

commitment (Porter et al. 1974; Williams & Anderson 1991). These findings concur with other studies of

the behavioral outcomes of commitment (Markovits, Davis, & Dick 2007). McCaslin and Mwangi

(1994), Manthe (1976), and Bertz and Judge (1994) found that overall S increased as the years of

experience increased.

2.4. Relationship between Organizational Citizenship Behavior, Organizational Commitment and

Satisfaction

Generally, OCB researchers conducted several studies in order to identify the causes of OCB

performance. Many of the studies focused on attitudes as predictors of OCB. Among them, attitudinal

variables found to be related to OCB are S and OC (Blakely et al. 2005). In fact, from a social exchange

perspective, S may have significant effects on employees‟ or church fellows‟ voluntary behavior (Hee

Yoon & Suh 2003).

On the other hand, committed employees or church fellows within the organization would have a

higher tendency to conduct beneficial behavior that would sometimes go beyond the formal job tasks.

Highly-committed employees or church fellows are more likely to contribute to their organization with

positive behaviors and help organization develop (Greenfield et al. 2008).

2.5. Relationship between Organization Citizenship Behavior and Organization Citizenship


March 2017, Vol. 13 (2)


Organ (1998) and Munene‟s (1995) findings suggest that a relationship between the two variables

exists. Relating OCB to OC, Munene (1995) noted that, whereas affective commitment of the

organization denotes a general psychological identification with the existing goal and values, OCB is a

practice directed towards attaining a given goal and that it goes beyond what specific job description

demands for.

Munene (1995) indicates that OCB, by its nature, closely relates to affective commitment, adding

that it (affective commitment) predicts pro-social behavior that will benefit the organization. Unlike

affective commitment, continuance commitment is calculative and based on material gains. This

contradicts with the fundamental principles of OCB, which ideally, is discretionary and not based on

material gains realized in an exchange relationship. Employees who exhibit high affective commitment

are likely to behave in a way that depicts application of extra effort for which one does not expect any

form of payment or gain.

2.6. Relationship between Organizational Commitment and Satisfaction

The concept of OC has become a popular topic in the literature of organizational behaviors in the

past decade. OC represents the attachment that individuals form to their employing organizations

(Ketchand & Strawses, 2001). An organization benefits from its employees‟ commitment in terms of

lower rates of job movement, higher productivity or work quality (Mathieu & Zajac, 1990). The most

commonly investigated type of OC is attitudinal and describes a state in which an individual identifies

with a particular organization and its goals and wishes to maintain membership in an organization: a

desire (affective commitment), a need (continuance commitment), and an obligation (normative

commitment). It can be noted that all three forms of OC are dependent upon the opportunity that the

organization provides employees to feel motivated toward growth and to achieve some self-actualization.

Many studies have explored the possible antecedents of OC. For instance, according to the meta-

analysis conducted by Mathieu and Zajac (1990), the antecedents of OC include personal characteristics,

job characteristics, group-leader relations, organizational characteristics and role states. In a more recent

study, Ketchand and Strawser (2001) suggest personal and situational factors as two main categories of

antecedents of OC. With this in view, DeCotiis and Summers (1987) contended that S is a determinant of

commitment. Furthermore, Porter, Steers, Mowday, and Boulian (1974), Price (1977), and Rose (1991)

suggested that satisfaction constitutes a strong determinant of OC based on an exchange of resources

between the individual and the organization.

2.7. Relationship between Organizational Citizenship Behavior and Satisfaction

Organ (1998) and Munene (1995) indicated a strong link between OCB and S when the latter is

used to mean “a state of fairness.” Fairness or unfairness is determined by the employee‟s or church

members‟ S with the activity and a given S level influences behavior, conduct and action. S has been

identified as a major requirement for organizations which aim at achieving excellence in their operations

(Chiboiwa, Chipunza, & Samuel 2011). There are many factors that can exert influence on S. For

example, Glissor and Durick (1988) summarized three predictors of S including activity characteristics,

organizational features and personal characteristics.

Brown and Peterson (1993) also claimed individual difference (personal characteristics)

organizational variable (organizational characteristics) and role perceptions (activity characteristics) as

correlates of S. Also, S has been associated with OC (Boles, Madupulli, Rutherford, & Wood 2007; Pool

& Pool 2007). Furthermore, some authors suggested S may have the causal relationship with OC

(Elangovan 2001). One of the most behavioral correlates of S is OCB. In distribution and sharing of

organizational resources for example, those who perceive that equity obtained in distribution of resources

are more likely to be satisfied with their activities and behave with a sense of citizenship (Organ 1998).

OCB is voluntary, informal behaviors that contribute to organizational effectiveness (O‟Malley


March 2017, Vol. 13 (2)


2000). In many cases, it is not detected and rewarded by the formal performance evaluation system.

Recent theories and research suggest that although S is not closely related to formal performance

measures, it is more closely related to the informal citizenship aspects of organizational membership

(Weallens 2003).

Satisfied employees or lay people would seem more likely to talk positively about their

organization, help others and go beyond the normal expectations in their job or engagement (Griffiths,

2003). Moreover, satisfied employees or lay people may be more prone to go beyond the call duty

because they want to reciprocate their positive experiences. Research has shown that S can influence

OCB but through perceptions of fairness (Robbins et al, 2003).

Based on the above discussion, one may conclude that S is not only vital for individual well-being

but also for the organizational functioning. S and OCB are commonly determined by the relationship

among employees or church members of a given group and individual characteristics. The findings by

O‟Dricoll and Randel (1999) cited in Tumwesigye (2003) showed a positive correlation between S and

OCB over a period of time.

2.8. Theoretical Framework and Hypotheses Development

OCB has been an important and growing area of research for the past two decades. Numerous

empirical studies have identified consequences and antecedents of this extra-role behavior. This study

intends to analyze the influences of S and OC on OCB. Therefore, a comprehensive model that includes

S, OC and OCB at the same time is constructed. As seen in Figure 1, our study examines S on OCB as

well as the direct and indirect effects of OC.

Studies investigating the effects of S and OC found both variables to be significant predictors of

OCB (e.g., Organ & Ryan 1995; Judge, Thoresen, Bono, & Patton 2001; Moorman, Niehoff, & Organ

1993; Meyer & Allen 1993). Although both S and OC have been widely accepted antecedents of OCB,

the common practice in studies is using one variable and excluding the other (Schapper 1998). The

integrative model is designed to test both the direct effects of the independent variables (S and OC) and

the indirect effects of S on OCB. This model will enable us to ensure the relative strength of the variables‟

effects on OCB as well as the prediction ability of S and OC.


March 2017, Vol. 13 (2)


Figure 1: Theoretical Framework

3. Methodology

3.1. Target Population

According to McClendon (2004: 131) target population refers to the group of individuals, animals or

objects which are targeted by the research for the sake of collecting some information (data) about them.

For instance, in our study, the target population includes priests, nuns, churches employees, parishioners

and other people involved in church activities in the Democratic Republic of the Congo.

3.2. Sampling Frame and Sampling Location

According to Singh (2007:88) sampling frame is a set of information or lists or records existing and

from which the sample units or elements are drawn. In this study, we did not use these kinds of sampling

just because we did not use lists or records of the respondents.

A sampling location is where study has to be conducted. Simply, it refers to the geographical area

Organizational

citizenship behavior

H1 H3

Organization

commitment

Satisfaction

H2


March 2017, Vol. 13 (2)


that has been selected to collect data. In our case, sampling location refers to different churches in

Kinshasa, the capital city of Congo. About 20 locations randomly selected were included in the survey as

follows: Saint Alphonso, Saint Trinity, Bon Pasteur, Resurrection, Saint Thomas, Saint Amboise, Saint

Cyril, Saint Jean Apotre, Saint Elimo Santu, Saint Etienne, Saint Felicite, Saint Famille, Saint Raphael,

Saint Anne, Saint George, Saint Martin, Saint Marie Madeleine, Saint Bernard, Saint Dominique and

Notre Dame d‟Afrique.

3.3. Sampling Elements

In every survey questionnaire, units or elements which are under investigation should be well-defined

with much precision so that the results have to be relevant to the sampling elements. In practice, they are

known as respondents. In this study, respondents are priests or pastors, nuns, church employees,

parishioners and other members of the Catholic Church of the Democratic Republic of the Congo.

Different techniques of investigation can be conducted to obtain data or information from the sampling

elements (gender, age, position, tenure, commission, education and church attendance). Regarding this

section, it is important to clearly define what kind of information we want to find from the sampling

elements.

3.4. Sampling Techniques

Sampling techniques play a very important role in the whole research study. Different techniques

can be taken into account. The most used are questionnaire survey which may be one to one, or by using

telephone, email or post office, and so on. The choice of one method against the others depends on time,

cost, missing responses, accuracy and other reasons.

Two important properties should be mentioned. First, we want the whole sample to be

representative and second to individuals to be independents. To achieve these qualities, some additional

techniques are required for example defining probability of selecting an individual from the population.

Quota may also be predefined for good representation.

In practice, the research group used convenience sampling as sampling technique. That sampling is

referred to a collection of information from members of the population who are conveniently available to

respond. Convenience sampling is most often used for research because it is the best way of getting some

basic information quickly and efficiently. In our work, we proceeded as follows:

Questionnaires were distributed to different respondents with respect to the demographical variables

such as gender, age, position, tenure, education level, commission, and church attendance. This allows

generating various perceptions among respondents. As a consequence, results obtained are closer to the

reality.

3.5. Sampling Size

In every survey study it is very important to define the number of observations or units intended to

investigate. Since the whole population cannot be investigated due to cost, time and so on, a sample size

should be defined. The choice of sample size in marketing research and others fields is very capital. We

know how the greater the sample, the better the precision and the smaller the error. In practice, many

authors prefer a sample as bigger as 300 and above. Obtaining a big sample needs time and cost. The

sample size is based on the target population and it only determines the sample size of sampling elements

(Sekaran & Bougie 2010).

We obtained respondents from church community members in the DRC. A total of 283 respondents

completed the research sample. The demographic characteristics of the sample were: 42% female (118)

while 58% male (165). Besides, on the total 15-25 were below 24 (8.5%), 66 of the population (23.3%)

are between 26-36, 57 of the population (20.1%) are between 37-47, 75 of the population (26.5%) are

between 48-58, and 58 above 61 (21.6%). At the position level, in fact 10 participants (3.5%) of the

respondents were priests, 13 participants (4.6%) of the respondents were nuns, church employees were 39


March 2017, Vol. 13 (2)


participants (13.8%), 188 participants (66.4%) were parishioners and 33 participants (11.7%) for other

positions. For the number of years at current position 6 were less than 12 months (2.1%), 1-3 years were

12 (4.2%), 15 (5.3%) were 4-6 years, 28 (9.9%) were 7-9 years in the church, and 222 (78.4%) were 10

and more years.

At the commission level, 42 were liturgy (14.8%), 43 were evangelization (15.2%), Christian

education were 36 (12.7%), 77 were Christian base community (27.2%) and the other commissions were

85 (30%). The majority of the respondents education were 111 (39.2%) for high school diploma, 62 for

bachelors (21.9% ), 14 participants (4.9%) for postgraduates, 88 participants (31.1%) for general

certificate of secondary and 8 primary education or less (2.8%). For church attendance, 1 participant

(0.4%) “Never” attended the church activities in DRC, 18 participants (6.4%) “Occasionally”, 51

respondents (18%) with “Average” catholic church attendance in DRC, 116 participants (41%)

“Frequently” attended, and 97 participants (34.3%) “Always” attended.

3.6. Measures

3.6.1. Organizational Citizenship Behavior

OCB refers to individual behavior that is discretionary not directly or explicitly recognized by the

formal reward system, and that in the aggregate promotes the effective functioning of the organization

(Organ 1988, p.4.). William and Anderson‟s (1991) 9-items were used to measure this construct. Huang

and You (2011) have also resorted to this scale to measure OCB. A sample item from this scale is (1) “I

help others who have been absent” (5) “I take personal interests in others”.

3.6.2. Organizational Commitment

OC measurements have been developed by many organizational scholars. OC is viewed as a force

that binds an individual to a target (social or non-social) and to a course of action of relevance to that

target (Meyer, Becker, & Van Dick, 2006). We resorted to Allen and Meyer‟s (1990) 21-items to measure

OC. Allen and Meyer‟s (1990) OC scale have won widespread acceptance and have been used in many

studies (Atak & Erturgut 2010; Cheng & Stockdale 2001). Among the sample items were questions such

as (3) “I really feel as if this organization‟s problems are my own” (11) “It would be very hard for me to

leave my organization right now, even if l wanted to”.

3.6.3. Satisfaction

The satisfaction level of each participant was measured using the seven items scale borrowed from

Schriesheim and Tshui (1980). This scale was found to be reliable in Vigoda and Cohen (2002). The scale

contains such items as: „how satisfied are you with your church‟? And „how satisfied are you with the

thing obtain from your church‟? Church ministers, parishioners and church employees were asked in a

five-point Likert format to indicate how satisfied they were with seven aspects of their engagement. The

scale ranged from 1 (very unsatisfied) to 5 (very satisfied) .The overall satisfaction level each participant

was measured by calculating mean score of all 7 items in the questionnaire. As a result, the maximum

score of a participant on satisfaction can be 5 while the minimum can be 1.

3.7. Data Analysis

We present different statistical tools used to yield the results. Here, we used quantitative methods

to produce different outcomes with the use of SPSS and AMOS 17.0 Software.

3.7.1. Internal Reliability and Reliability Test

In research in general and statistics in particular, internal consistency is typically a measure based

on the correlations between different items on the same test (or the same subscale on a larger test). It

measures whether several items that propose to measure the same general construct produce similar

scores. The most popular method of testing for internal consistency in the behavioral sciences is

coefficient alpha. Coefficient alpha was popularized by Cronbach (1984), who recognized its general


March 2017, Vol. 13 (2)


usefulness. Another definition of reliability is given by Nunnally (1967:206) as “the extent to which

[measurements] are repeatable and that any random influence which tends to make measurements

different from occasion to occasion is a source of measurement error”. A predefined structural framework

in mind for this study and the reliability of the statements that are defined to influence church community

members will be tested.

3.7.2. Factor Analysis

One of the main purposes of using factor analysis is that it is a powerful statistical tool able to

reduce the dimension of variables. To carry ahead with factor analysis, some tests may be required. Some

of them are the Kaiser-Meyer- Olkin Measure (KMO) of Sampling and Bartlett‟s Test of Sphericity. The

KMO compares the observer correlation coefficients to the partial correlation coefficients. Small values

for the KMO indicate problems with sampling (Kaiser, 1974a). On the other hand, Bartlett‟s Test of

Sphericity can be used to determine if the correlation matrix in the factor analysis is identity matrix. An

identity matrix is a correlation matrix where the diagonals are all 1 and the off-diagonal are all 0 (Bartlett

1954).

Other important aspects include exploratory principal component analysis with varimax rotation is

performed on all multiple scale items to determine item retention (developed by Kaiser in his Ph.D

dissertation and published in 1958). This rotation procedure attempts to minimize the number of variables

that have high loadings on a factor (thus achieving the goal of parsimony discussed above). The criterion

of eigenvalue or characteristic root (Eigenvalue) ≥ 1 was used for defining the number of the factors that

were kept (Kaiser, 1960, Sharma, 1996, Hair et al., 1995). Eigenvalue used to establish a cutoff of factors

is a value like R2 in regression. As with regression, the eigenvalue represents the “strength” of a factor.

The eigenvalue of the first factor is such that the sum of the squared factor loadings is the most for modes.

The eigenvalue is used as a cutoff that is because it is the sum of the squared factor loadings of all

variables. An eigenvalue of 1 simply means that the variables explain at least an average amount of the

variance. Model acceptance was based on two criteria: a) each variable, in order to be included in the

variable cluster of a factor, must load to it more than 0.5 and b) less than 0.4 to the rest of the factors

(Schene, et al., 1998)


March 2017, Vol. 13 (2)


Table 1: Principal Component Analysis with Varimax Rotation for Three-Factor

Factors

Items I II III

Factor I

OCB8 0.771

OCB6 0.685

OCB4 0.679 0.449

OCB5 0.418 0.482

Factor II

OCB2 0.845

OCB1 0.817

OCB3 0.460 0.400

Factor III

OCB16 0.862

OCB15 0.738

Eigenvalue 3.342 1.242 1.017

% of variance 37.133 13.805 11.301

Cumulative % 37.133 50.938 62.240

Note: OCB= Organizational Citizenship Behavior

Table 2 : Principal Component Analysis with Varimax Rotation for One-factor

3.8.3. Structural Equation Modeling

The Structural Equation Modeling (SEM) measures the important variables, and using covariance

or correlations among the measures models presumed causal relationship statistical manipulation (Bollen

1989; Tanaka, Panter, Winborne, & Huba 1990; Shadish et al. 2002).

3.8.4. Structural Model

Several indicators of goodness of fit are referring to evaluating the adequacy of the model (Byrne

2006; Munro 2005). This study used Chi-square degrees of freedom (df) CFI, which is affected less by

sample size than other indices such as NFI and GFI, which indicates the proportion of the observed

covariance that explained the model-implied covariance; AGFI, which is an adjusted from GFI that takes

into account model complexity, TLI and RMSEA, which indicates the amount by the sample variance and

covariance differs from estimates obtained. Traditionally, a good-fitting model is one that has a CFI, GFI,

AGFI, NFI and TLI greater than 0.90 (Bentler & Bonnet 1980; Bentler & Chou 1987; Hair et al. 1998;

Klin 1998). Also, previous fit is indicated by RMSEA values no higher than 0.08 (Bentler 1990;

Component

Extraction Sums of Squared Loadings

Eigenvalue % of Variance Cumulative %

Factor 1 3.183 45.478 45.478


March 2017, Vol. 13 (2)


Vandenberg & Lance 2000).

3.7.5. Path Diagram

One of the primary goals of social scientific research is to understand social systems through the

explanation of causal relationships. Path analysis is a methodological tool that helps researchers using

quantitative (correlational) data to disentangle the various (causal) processes underlying a particular

outcome.

Social scientific theories of causal relationships often specify a system of relationships in which

some variables affect other variables and these in turn still influence other variables in the model.

However, path analysis estimates as many regression equations are needed to relate all the proposed

theoretical relationships among the variables in the explanation of the hypothesized causal model in path

analysis (Wright 1934).

Table 3 : Regression Weights: (Group No. 1 - Default Model)

Estimate S.E. C.R. P

H1 OC <--- OCB 0.659 0.142 4.639 ***

H2 SAT <--- OC 1.104 0.306 3.606 ***

H3 SAT <--- OCB -0.139 0.204 -0.681 0.496

3.7.6. Hierarchical Multiple Linear Regression

Hierarchical multiple linear models are statistical specifications that explicitly recognize multiple

levels in data. As regression models are used to develop a better understanding of the relationship

between a dependent variable and a set of independent or explanatory variables. It is usually impossible to

assign “cause” to any observed relationships between a dependent variable and an explanatory variable,

except in the case of well-designed controlled and randomized experiments. Explanatory variables can be

measured at different points of aggregation, it is often important to structure inferences that specifically

identify multilevel relationships. At each stage, an additional term or terms are added to the model and the

change in R2 is calculated. A hypothesis test is done to test whether the change in R

2 is significantly

different from zero.

Hierarchical linear models take the standard linear model specification and remove the restriction

that the estimated coefficients are constant across individual cases by specifying levels of additional

effects to be estimated. This approach is also called random effects modeling because the regression

coefficients are now presumed to be random quantities according to additionally specified distributions

(Goldstein, Maier, & Luger 1995).

4. Empirical Results

4.1. Descriptive Statistics


March 2017, Vol. 13 (2)


Table 4 : Summary of Personal Variables

Mean Mode Min Max St. dev

Gender 1.42 1 1 2 0.494

Age 3.29 4 1 5 1.273

Position 3.78 4 1 5 0.843

Tenure 4.58 5 1 5 0.928

Commission 3.42 5 1 5 1.431

Education 2.95 3 1 5 0.917

Church attendance 4.02 4 1 5 0.902

4.2. Internal Consistency (Reliability Test)

Internal consistency (or reliability) refers to the general agreement between multiple items (often

Likert scale items) that make-up a composite score of a survey measurement of a given construct. This

agreement is generally measured by the correlation between items. Internal consistency is typically

measured using Cronbach's Alpha (α). Cronbach's Alpha ranges from 0 to 1, with higher values indicating

greater internal consistency (and ultimately reliability). We measure the internal consistency of items for

our variables of interest, such as OCB, OC and S. Based on Cronbach's Alpha, we could improve the

reliability by deleting items able to increase Cronbach's Alpha. For OCB initially, Cronbach's Alpha was

(0.590) for (16) items. After deleting items, Cronbach's Alpha went up to 0.783 with 9 items. Similarly

for OC initially, Cronbach's Alpha was 0.783 for 33 items. After deleting items not reliable, Cronbach‟s

Alpha went up to 0.831 with 28 items. For S, no item was deleted. The Cronbach‟s Alpha was 0.798 for 7

items. In all these situations, those final Conbrach's Alphas were above most cut-off values required. We

also analyzed the matrix of correlation (item intercorrelations) most of our correlations are around 0.4

which was not bad. Few correlations were under 0.25.

4.3 Factor Analysis

In this part, we first studied if factor analysis could be carried on with our dataset. We use three

test statistics, such as Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin (KMO), Bartlett‟s test and Sphericity test to assess the

sampling adequacy. We respectively investigated for OCB_ items, OC_items and Sat_ items. KMO are

0.780, 0.795, 0.844 respectively, which is nearly very good. Bartlett‟s test was respectively 610.36 for

OCB, 2281.4 for OC and 474.6 for S.

In addition, sphericity test in each case has shown P_values < 0.000), rejecting the hypothesis that

the matrix of covariance is singular. It confirmed that FA was possible since all KMO > 0.5 and all

sphericity tests were very significant (P_value <.000). That was the evidence that matrix of correlation

was not singular. Thus, with 9 items for OCB, 28 items for OC, and 7 items for S, factor analysis could

be carried on. The next is another important aspect we used.

Principal Components (PC) is of great importance when variable reduction is concerned. Since

items required to be represented by few variables, we applied PC for that matter and varimax rotation

axis. The findings showed that: For OCB, three eigenvalues (>1) were created from 9 items which

explained variance 62.2%. Therefore, we created 3 variables by summated scale method instead of using

those created by PC. For OC, nine eigenvalues (>1) were created from 9 items with explained variance

60.4%. Finally, for S we got only one eigenvalue (>1) which explained variance of 45.4%. Finally, for S,

we use all the seven items instead of only one variable (refer to the path diagram for a better visualization

of the variables created from factor analysis).


March 2017, Vol. 13 (2)


4.4. Structural Equation Modeling

4.4.1. Structural Model

Structural Equation Modeling (SEM) is a powerful tool used in the concept of measurement errors

especially when simultaneous equations are concerned. To understand the simultaneous relationships

among different relationships for endogenous and exogenous variables, we applied the SEM. SEM is

always accompanied with the path diagram. Three main relations have been hypothesis 1 (H1) of great

importance for us including hypothesis 2 (H2), and hypothesis 3 (H3) (See path diagram for better

understanding). Amos software available in SPSS 17.0 has been used to run the SEM after a model has

been set up. We used reduced variables obtained in PC analysis. Amos outputs can be analyzed into 3

parts.

For a good model, chi-square is supposed to be smaller than 0.05 so that we do not reject the

hypothesis. In other words, the p-value is supposed to be greater than 0.05. In our cases, p-value is less

than 0.007. That does not mean the model is not good. Many research papers have supported that we

cannot rely on the chi-square when the sample size is big (< 200 observations). The second group is a

series of standard values for goodness-of-fit. They include: (GFI), (AGFI), (NFI), (CFI), and (TLI). We

want them to be greater than 0.90 to indicate good fit. In our case, they are respectively (0.952), (0.921)

and (0.907) not too far from 0.90, (0.971) and (0.958). Finally, we have the PCLOSE and the RMSEA.

Our PCLOSE >0.05 and the RMSEA was 0.37< 0.05 which is the conventional value to beat.

Other important information from AMOS fit is that all our variances are positive that is a good

sign. All correlations are between (-1, +1). Loading values are most of them greater than 0.45 which is

not too bad. Our main hypotheses are all positive and significant (H1 and H2) except for one which is not

significant (H3). Note that H1 describes the causal relationship between S and OC (Manheim et al., 1997);

H2 which postulated a causal relationship between OC and OCB (Greenfiel et al., 2008) and finally H3

which describes the causal relationship between S and OCB.

4.4.2. Path Diagram

It is directly connected to structure model since it is a conceptual model based on theoretical

knowledge or referring to previous researches. It is always important that experts establish the casual

relationship among endogenous and exogenous constructs and items. The fitted Amos structure provides

more details regarding different details about variances and errors covariates, and regression weights. The

standardized and default values are quasi close. Therefore, we mostly refer to default (please refer to

diagram in Appendix for more details)

4.5. Hierarchical Multiple Linear Regression

Contrarily to multiple linear regressions, the hierarchical multiple linear regressions have the

capacity to investigate the casual effect relationship between a dependent variable and a group of

independent variables while controlling for personal (demographical) variables. It is a type of two steps

regression; where in step 1, we run dependent variable Vs. all personal variables using stepwise model

selection. In the second step, we enter variable of interest in the equation. With regard to our hypotheses

(H1, H2 and H3), we run three regressions.

For hypotheses: Regression stage 1, OC Vs. (gender, age, position, tenure, commission education,

attendance). The chi-square and the adjusted chi-square were respectively 0.183 and 0.162.

F test was 8.767 (7 degrees of freedom). P_value was 0.000. That means the overall model fit was

good despite small R^2. At this level, besides intercept being negative and significant; position, tenure

and church attendance were positive and significant, Beta was 0.078 (0.173), p-value 0.003, 0.089 (0.218)


March 2017, Vol. 13 (2)


p-value 0.000 and 0.064(0.151) p-value 0.017. After controlling for demographics, we fit again with OCB

as independent variable. R^2 and adjusted R^2 0.275 and 0.254, with F-value 34.842 (6df), P-value very

significant 0.000. Interestingly, attendance become influenced positively and fairly insignificant (value

0.05), tenure (age, position) was still significant and positive with beta 0.088 (0.327). OCB was also

positive and statistically significant with Beta 0.214 (0.327). Here we could say that if we increase OCB

with one unit OC will increase with 0.214, while controlling for other variables. This referred to H3.

Second, we used S in place of OC in the regression at stage 2. Because stage 1 could change, we could

see that gender and age were significant, the p-value was 0.008 and 0.001 and with positive beta 0.177

(0.153) and 0.098 (0.217). Attendance was still positive and significant with beta 0.160 (0.251) and p-

value (0.000). The variable of interest S was positive and statistically significant with beta 0.535 (0.353)

and p-value 0.00. We can say that if we increase S with one unit, OC will increase with 0.535 while

controlling for other variables. This second corresponded to our H2. Finally, H3 regression was

investigated. S was used as dependent variable. At the stage 1 we entered demographical variables. The

outputs were: R^2 and adjusted R^2 were 0.210 (0. 187). F test was very significant with p-value 0.00.

That showed the overall regression fit was good. Besides, the intercept was positive and significant;

gender, age, and attendance were all positive and significant. At the second stage, we used OCB as

independent variable.

Results showed that R^2 and adjusted R^2 were 0.210 and 0.187. F test was very significant with

p-value 0.00. At the second level, while entering S, the fit showed that age was not significant any more,

but position, tenure and attendance were still significant and positive. OCB was significant and positive

too. Its Beta 0.237 (0. 239) with p-value was 0.00.

As for H3 and H2, here we could say that if we increase S with one unit OC will increase with

0.237 while controlling for other variables. We could establish the correspondence between results from

SEM and those from hierarchical multiple regression. One exception only is that regression found that H1

was positive and statistically significant while we found that SEM was positive but not significant.

4.6. Discussion

There are lots of studies about the relationships among OCB, OC and S in a wide variety of fields.

Our conceptual framework is positively compatible with the previous research findings. OCB and OC are

closely linked to S and are very important for general organizational success. OCB, OC, and S are

important attitudes for their positive implications in the church context in D.R.C. The engagement itself is

one of the crucial organizational factors that influence the individuals‟ OCB, OC, and S.

It is proposed in the extant literature that as a result of these attitudes, individuals engage in behavior.

Therefore, the model tested in this study proposed the relationship between OCB, OC and S. Therefore,

we could proceed to discuss the causal relationship by examining the path coefficients of the structural

model.

The results indicate the parameters of the structural path which provide the correlation and causation

relationship among variables. Our two hypotheses are positive and significant (H1 and H2) except

hypothesis 3 (H3) which is negative and not significant.

The findings concerning the relationship between OCB, OC, hypothesis 1 relationship between OC

and S, H2 a significant relationship between OCB and OC have been supported. These results may have

impact on individual level, and organizational activity management level. The main reason why

commitment has attracted so much interest from researchers is its association with job or activity

performance, absenteeism, and turnover. This is because committed employees are seen as productive and

devoted members of the organization who are less likely to leave their organizations. In the context of

D.R.C, OC of church ministers and parishioners is very high as revealed by by the results and it is due to

their high OCB. Munene (1995) indicated that OCB, by its nature, is closely related to affective


March 2017, Vol. 13 (2)


commitment, adding that it predicts pro-social behavior that will benefit the organization.

OC and S (H2) are positive and significantly correlated in this study. This finding is supported by

previous studies. Feinstein and Vondrasek (2001) analyzed the effects of S on OC among employees and

their findings proved that S level would predict commitment to the organization. Jernigan et al. (2002)

examined the role that specific aspects of S play as predictors of OC. S has been linked more strongly

with OC than with other forms of commitment (Meyer et al., 1993). A person with high S holds positive

attitudes towards the job or activity, and one who is dissatisfied with it has negative attitudes towards it.

In the context of D.R.C, church members are quite satisfied as revealed by the results and it is due to their

high OC. Good feelings about the job lead to loyalty and identification with the organization. This recent

study found a positive link between S with extrinsic benefits and affective OC. This implies that highly-

committed church ministers, parishioners and church employees are more likely to contribute to their

organization with positive behaviors and contribute to the development of their organization (Greenfiel et

al. 2008).

The current study demonstrated that correlation between OCB and S was negative and not

significant. Chen et al. (1998), Schappe (1998), and Randall et al.‟s (1999) findings lead to similar

conclusion. Some studies have concluded that S is a good prediction of employees or church faithful

performance. Although, individuals are not satisfied with their reward, they can be a volunteer and will

cooperate with their co-workers within the organization. Consequently, this will not have an effect on

employee‟s or church faithful attitudes and behaviors such as OCB. Therefore, it is plausible that OCB

may be negatively related to extrinsic or pay satisfaction.

Our results showed that the demographic variables (gender, age, position, tenure and church

attendance), OCB, OC measures were significantly related to S of church members. The relationships

with commission and education were spurious, resulting from confounding with other demographic

variables. The findings for other demographic variables (age and tenure) paralleled those found in

previous studies (Meyer, Herscovitch & Topolnytsk 2002). The analysis indicated that the demographic

variables traditionally used in accounting for church attendance is still positive and significant predictor

of S with the church. Ellison (1991), Ferraro and Kelley-Moore (2000) and Soydemir et al. (2004) show

that church attendance is positively related to subjective happiness. These findings suggest that religious

attendance has a positive impact on mental and physical health. Therefore, the overall happiness can be

increased with a high level of S with personal health (Witter et al. 1985; Ellison 1991; Ferraro &

Albrecht-Jensen 1991; Atchley 1997).

Individuals‟ levels of S can range from extreme S to extreme dissatisfaction. This study did not

support the hypothesis on the relationship between OCB and S. So the proposed hypothesis is confirmed

by the results that OCB has significant positive relationship with S; and OC has a significant positive

relationship with S.

5. Conclusions

5.1. Summary of the Study

The purpose of this study was to examine the relationship among OCB, OC and S in D.R.C. OCB

is desirable from the organizational point of view because such behavior is thought to increase the

available resources and decrease the need for costly mechanism of control. It is a factor correlated to

ethics and morality in our study and giving us a clear picture of how church fellows interact,

communicate between them, learn from each other to improve the productivity and quality of the service.

In this study, OC was defined as the relative strength of an individual‟s S with involvement in a particular

organization. S was defined as the collection of feelings and beliefs that people have about their current

activities. In this paper, the authors borrowed those theories and measurement tools to analyze the

http://www.scialert.net/fulltext/?doi=rjbm.2014.262.283&org=10#13605_op

http://www.scialert.net/fulltext/?doi=rjbm.2014.262.283&org=10#1186807_ja

http://www.scialert.net/fulltext/?doi=rjbm.2014.262.283&org=10#544041_ja


March 2017, Vol. 13 (2)


relationship among OCB, OC, and S for church community members in D.R.C. To measure OCB, this

research used the instrument and scales developed by William and Anderson‟s (1991) 12-items. Huang

and You (2011) also resorted to this scale to measure OCB. The second variable is OC measured using the

21-items scale from Allen and Meyer (1990) and Atak and Erturgurtb‟s (2010) 12-items scale. The third

and final construct is S adapting the instruments and measurements developed by Schriesheim and Tsui

(1980). Each item was measured using a 5-point Likert-scale ranging from 1= strongly disagree to 5=

strongly agree. Demographic data were presented and composed of 283 participants (e.g., 58 males and

42 females). Respondents were church ministers, parishioners, and church employees in D.R.C.

5.2. Limitations of the Study

Throughout this study, we come across four limitations. The first limitation is related to the

collection of data. In many cases people show resistance to fill out the questionnaire for some reasons

such as religious-oriented survey and the use of such data.

The second limitation of the study is about the cost and infrastructure constraints because of a lack

of sufficient infrastructures to collect a large sample of data from the target population. Future studies

should fill this gap by providing adequate funding to reach remote areas of D.R.C.

The third limitation of this study is the difficulties to find literature dealing with the kind of topic

we are working on as there is a limited research about OCB, OC, and S in the contexts of church

community in general and D. R. C in particular.

Finally, the fourth limitation of this study is the sample size not large enough to represent a large

group of Christian community in D.R.C. We only could target churches in particular geographical areas

located in Kinshasa, the capital city.

5.3. Implications for Managers

Church community leaders of D.R.C should work to enhance the level of S of church faithful in their

environment in order to achieve superior dynamic performance. Analysis of S is the most important for

them because it refers to a person‟s feelings of S on the activity or job, which acts as a motivation to

engagement. It is not self-satisfaction, happiness or self-contentment, but S on the activity or job.

On the basis of this study, the researchers propose that the church faithful of D.R.C should exhibit

appropriate level of S for a better and effective functioning of the church. Churches should focus on OCB

and OC because they contribute positively to boosting S. Therefore, our findings should enable church

leaders, supervisors, and policymakers to integrate our suggestions in their decision-making in order to

protect their good reputation and improve the quality of their human resources management.

5.4. Recommendations for Future Research

This study provides some suggestions for future researchers who are interested in conducting a

research study that is relevant to this research topic.

Future researchers should increase the number of respondents to improve the accuracy of the data.

This is especially important to ensure that the minimum amount of respondents can be attained for each

category for the desirable test. So, it is better to reach a large number of respondents to get a bigger

sample size. Besides, future research could be conducted by including more locations for the survey to

have a better representation of the country.

In this study, we only target church ministers, parishioners, and church employees living in

Kinshasa, the capital city. If the research covers all provinces in D.R.C, the outcomes could be possibly

different. If researchers are able to reach members of other religions, this would lead to different

interpretations, perspectives and viewpoints. More accuracy could be generated through widening the

locations of survey. Therefore, future studies may add more relevant variables in the research study to see

how this could impact the findings. There are so many other variables which can affect the behaviors of

church ministers, parishioners, and church personnel in the country.


March 2017, Vol. 13 (2)


References Adeloka, B. (2012). The Impact of organizational commitment on job satisfaction: A study of employees

at Nigerian Universities, International Journal of Human Resource Studies, 2(2), 1-17.

Allen, N. and Meyer, J. (1990). The measurement and antecedents of affective, continuance and

normative commitment to the organization. Journal of Occupational Psychology, 63 (1), 1-18.

Allen, N.J. and Meyer, J.P. (1996). Affective, continuance and normative commitment to the

organization: An examination of construct validity. Journal of Vocational Behaviour, 49(3), 252-

276.

Andrew, G. (1990). An assessment of the interaction of selected personal characteristics and perceptions

of selected aspects of job satisfaction by Wisconsin cooperative extension agricultural agents

(Master‟s thesis, University of Wiscnsin-River Falls,1990). Summary of Research in Extension, 5,

151.

Armstrong, M. (1993). A handbook of personnel management practice. (4th

ed.). London: Kogan Page.

Asyhar, Rayadra. (2011). Kreatif Mengembangkan Media Pembelajaran, Gaung Persada Press. Jakarta.

Atak, M. and Erturgut, R. (2010). An empirical analysis on the relation between learning organization and

organizational commitment. Procedia-Social and Behavioral Sciences, 2 (2), 3472–3476.

Atchley, R.C. (1997). Activities and lifestyles. In R.C. Atchley (Ed.), Social forces and aging: An

introduction to social gerontology (8th

ed.), (pp. 120-287). New York: Wadsworth.

Badiane, Kemo (2008). The Relationships among Career Plateauing, Organizational Commitment, and

Organizational Citizenship Behavior: A Study of Expatriates in Taiwan. Master Thesis,

Providence University, Taichung, Taiwan.

Barbuto, J. Brown, L., Wilhite, M., and Wheeler, D. (2001). Justify the underlying motives of

organizational citizenship behavior: A brief study of agricultural co-op workers.

Bartlett, M. S. (1954). A note on the multiplying factors for various chi square approximations. Journal of

Royal Statistical Society, 16 (Series B), 296-298.

Baruch, Y. O‟Creevy, M. F., Hind, P., and Vigoda-Gadot, E. (2004). Pro-social behavior and job

performance: Does the Need for control and the need for achievement make a difference? Social

Behavior and Personality: international journal, 32 (4), 399-412.

Barroso Castro, C., Martin Armario, E., Martin Ruiz D. (2004). “The influence of employee

organizational citizenship behavior on customer loyalty”, International Journal of Service

Industry Management, 15(1), 27-53.

Bateman, T. S. and Organ D. W. (1983). Job satisfaction and good soldier: The relationship between

affect and citizenship”. Academy of Management Journal, 26 (4), 587-595.

Becker, H. S. (1960). Notes on the concept of commitment. American Journal of Sociology, 66 (1), 32-

40.

Beck, K. and Wilson, C. (2000). Development of affective organizational commitment: Across sequential

examination of change with tenure. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 56(1), 114–136.

Bentler, P. M. and Weeks, D. G. (1980). Linear structural equation with latent variables. Psychometrika,

45(3), 289–308.

Bentler, P. M. and Chou, C. (1987). Practical issues in structural modeling. Sociological Methods and

Research, 16(1), 78-117.

Bentler, P.M. (1990). Comparative fit indexes in structural models. Psychology Bulletin, 107, 256–259.

Bernal, D., Snyder, D, and McDaniel, M. (1998). The age and job satisfaction relationship: Does its shape

and strength still evade us? The Journal of Gerontology: Series B- Psychological Science and

Social Sciences, 53 B (5), 287- 293.


March 2017, Vol. 13 (2)


Blakely, G.L, Andrews M. C, and Moorman R. H. (2005). The moderating effects of equity sensitivity on

the relationship between organizational justice and organizational citizenship behavior. Journal

Business & Psychology, 20(2), 259-279.

Billingsley, B. and Cross, L. (1992). Predictors of commitment, job satisfaction, and intent to stay in

teaching: A comparison of general and special educators, Journal Special Education, 24(4),

453−471.

Bollen, K. A. (1989). Structural equations with latent variables. New York: Wiley.

Boles, J., Madupalli, R., Rutherford, B., and Andy Wood, J. (2007). The relationship of facet of

salesperson job satisfaction with affective organization commitment. Journal of Business &

Industrial Marketing, 22(5), 311-321.

Bogle, R. and Somech, A.(2004). Influence of teacher empowerment on teachers‟organizational

commitment, professional commitment, and organizational citizenship behavior in schools.

Teaching and Teacher Education, 20 (3), 277-289.

Bos, J., Donders, N., Bouwman-Brouwer, K., and Van der Gulden, J. (2009). Work characteristics and

determinants of job satisfaction in four age groups: University employees‟ point of view.

International Archives of Occupational and Environmental Health, 82(10), 1249-1259.

Boya, L. K. (2010). D.R. Congo: The darkness of the heart: Xlibris Corpration.

Bretz, J. and Judge, T. A. (1994). Person-organization fit and the theory of work adjustment: Implications

for satisfaction, tenure, and career success. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 44, 32-54.

Brief, A. and Motowidlo, S. (1986). Pro-social organizational behaviors. Academy of Management

Review, 11(4), 710-725.

Brown, S. and Peterson, R. (1993), “Antecedents and consequences of salesperson job satisfaction: Meta-

analysis and assessment of causal effects, Journal of Marketing Research, 30 (1), 63.

Bollen & J. S.long (Eds.), Testing structural models (pp.35–57). Newbury Park, CA: Sage.

Bruning, N., and Snyder, R. (1983). Sex and position as predictors of organization commitment.

Academy of Management Journal, 26 (3), 485-491.

Byrne, Jody (2006). Technical Translation: Usability strategies for translating technical documentation.

The Journal of Specialised Translation, Dordrecht, Netherlands:Springer.

Cardona, P., Lawrence, B., and Bentler, P. (2004). The influence of social and work exchange

relationships on organizational citizenship behavior. Group and OrganizationalManagement,

29(2), 219-247.

Carrell, M. R. Elbert, N. F. Hatfield, R. D., Grobler, P. A., Marx, and M. Vander Schyff. (1998). Human

Resource Management in South Africa. Cape Town: Prentice-Hall.

Castillo, J., Conklin, E., & Cano, J. (1999). Job satisfaction of Ohio agricultural education teachers

[Electronic Version]. Journal of Agricultural Education, 40(2), 19-27.

Chambers, J. M. (1999). The job satisfaction of managerial and executive women: revisiting the

assumptions . Journal of Education for Business, 75(2), 69-75.

Chatters, L. M. and Taylor, R. J. (2005). Religion and families. In V. Bengtson, D. Klein, A. Acock,

K.Allen, and P. Dilworth-Anderson (Eds.) Sourcebook on family Theories and methods.

Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.

Chen, X., Hui, C. and Sego, D. (1998). The role of organizational citizenship behavior in turnover:

Conceptualization and preliminary test hypotheses. Journal Applied Psychology, 86(6), 922-933.

Chen, Z., and Francesco, A. (2000). Employee demography, organizational commitment, and turnover

intention in China. Do cultural differences matter?, Human Relations, Vol3, no 6, 869-887.

Cheng, Y. and Stockdale, M. S. (2001). The validity of three-component model of organizational

commitment in Chinese context. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 62,465-489.


March 2017, Vol. 13 (2)


Chiboiwa, M. W., Chipunza, C., and Samuel, M. O. (2011). Evaluation of job satisfaction and

organizational citizenship behavior: Case study of selected organizations in Zimbabwe.African

Journal of Business Management, 5(7), 2910-2918.

Cockburm, D. and Haydn, T. (2004). Recruiting and retaining teachers: Understanding why Teachers

teach. London: Routledge Falmer.

Colen, A. and Vigoda. (2000). Do good citizens make good organizational citizens? An Empirical

examination of the relationship between general citizenship and organizational citizenship

behavior in Israel, Administration and Society, Vol. 32, No 5, 596-625.

Connell, Julia, Natalie Ferres, and Anthony Travaglione (2003). Trust in the workplace: The importance

of interpersonal and organizational support. Journal of Management Research 3: 113-118.

Cooper-Hakim, A. and Viewesvaran, C. (2005). The construct of work commitment: Testing an

integrative framework. Psychological Bulletin, 131 (2), 241-259.

Cramer, D. (1993). Tenure, commitment, and satisfaction of college graduates in an engineering firm.

Journal of Social Psychology, 133(6), 791-797.

Croanbach, L. (1984). Essentials of psychological testing (4th

ed.). New York: Harper & Row.

Coward, M.P., Spencer, R.M., and Spencer, C.E., (1995). Development of the Witwatersrand Basin,

South Africa. In: Coward, M.P., Ries, A.C. (Eds.), Early Precambrian Processes: Geological

Society, London, Special Publications, 95: 243–269.

Dereli. B. (2006). The effect of human resource development on the organizational commitment. Second

International Conference on Business, Management and Economics, Turkey, .15-18.

Dibble, S. (1999). Keeping your valuable employees: Retention strategies for your organisations most

important resource. New York: Wiley.

Dollahite, D. C., Marks, L. D., and Goodman, M. (2004). Families and religious beliefs, practices, and

communities: Linkages in a diverse and dynamic cultural context. In M. J. Coleman & L.H.

Ganong (Eds.), The handbook of contemporary families: Considering the past, Contemplating the

future (pp. 411-431). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

Elangovan, A. (2001). Causal ordering of stress, satisfaction and commitment, and intention to quit: A

structural equation analysis. Leadership & Organization Development Journal, 22 (4): 159 – 165.

Ellison, C. (1991). Religious involvement and subjective well-being. Journal of Health and Social

Behavior, 32(1), 80-99.

Ferraro, K. and Albrecht-Jensen, C. (1991). Does religion influence adult health? Journal of the Scientific

Study of Religion, 30 (2), 193–202.

Ferraro, K. and Kelly-Moore, J. (2000). Religious consolation among men and women: Do health

problems spure seeking? Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion, 39, 220-234.

French W. (1990). “Human resource management.” Boston, Houghton, Mifflin.

George, J. and Brief, A. (1992). Feeling good doing good: A conceptual analysis of the mood at work-

organizational spontaneity relationship. Psychological Bulletin, 112 (2), 310-329.

George, F. (2000). Organizational behaviour. London: Addison Wesley.

George, J. M. and Jones, G.R. (2005). Understanding and managing organizational behavior, (4th

ed.).

Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Prentice Hall.

George, J. M. and Jones, G. R. (2008). Understanding and management behavior (5th

ed.). Upper Saddle

River, NJ: Pearson Prentice Hall.

Glisson, C. & Durick, M. (1988) Predictors of job satisfaction and organizational commitment in human

service organizations, Administrative Science Quarterly, 33(1), 61.

Glock, C. Y. and Stark, R. (1965). Religion and society in tension. San Francisco: Rand McNally.


March 2017, Vol. 13 (2)


Goldstein, H., Maier, G., and Luger, M. "The university as an instrument for economic and business

development: U.S. and European comparisons", in D.Dill and B. Sporn, eds., Emerging Patterns

of Social Demand and University Reform: Through a Glass Darkly, Pergamon Press, 1995.

Goode, E. (2000, May 19). Scientists find a particularly female response to stress. New York Times, sec.

A, p.20.

Goodwin, C. (2002). Research in Psychology:Methods and Design. New york: John wiley & Sons Inc.

Gouldner, A. (1957). Cosmopolitans and locals: Towards an analysis of latent social roles. Administrative

Science Quarterly, 2(3), 281.

Graham, J. W. (1986). Organizational citizenship informed by political theory, paper presented at the

Annual Meeting of the Academy of Management, Chicago, IL.

Greenberg, J. and Baron A. R. (2002). Behavior in Organizations (8th

ed.), USR, New Jersey: Prentice

Hall, P. 156.

Greefield, D., Martin, R., Doucette, G., Mikulski, C., Jones, K., and Jensen, S. et al. (2008). Field

applications of the second-generation environmental sample processor (ESP) for remote detection

of harmful algae: 2006–2007. Limnol. Oceanogra Methods, 667-679.

Griffiths, B. (2003). Do what you love for the rest of your life: A practical guide to career change and

personal renewal. New York: Ballantine.

Hair, J. F., Jr., Anderson, R. E., Tatham, R. L., and Black, W. C. (1998). Multivariate data analysis (5th

Ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.

Hair, J., Jr., Anderson, R., Tatham, R., and Black, W. (1995). Multivariate data analysis with readings, p

375. USA: Prentice Hall International , Inc.

Hakim, C. (1994). We are all self-employed: The new social contract for working in a changed world.

San Francisco: Barrett-Koehler.

Hawkins, Wilbert, D. (1998). Predictors of affective organizational commitment among high school

principals. Unpublished doctoral dissertation. Virginia Polythech Institute and State University.

Herzberg, F., Mausner, B., Peterson, R., & Capwell D. (1957). Job attitudes: Review of research and

opinion Pittsburgh, PA: Psychological Service of Pittsburgh

Huang, Chun-Chen and You, Ching-Sing (2011). The three components of organizational commitment on

in-role behaviors and organizational citizenship behaviors. African Journal of Management,

5(28).

Irving, P. and Meyer, J. (1994). Re-examination of the met-expectations hypothesis: A longitudinal

analysis, Journal of Applied Psychology, 79 (6), 937-949.

Izhar, O. (2009). Organizational citizenship behavior in teaching: The consequences for teachers, pupils,

and the school. International Journal of Educational, 23, 275-389.

Jinnett, K. and Alexander, J. (1999). The influence of organizational context on quitting intention: An

examination of treatment staff in long-term mental health care setting. Research on Aging, 21(2),

176-205.

Johns, G. (1992). Organizational behaviour: Understanding life at work. (3rd

ed.). New York: Harper

Collins.

Jones Johnson, G., and Johnson, W. R. (2000). Perceived over qualification and dimensions of job

satisfaction: A longitunal analysis.The Journal of Psychology, 134(5), 537-555.

Judge, T., Thoresen, C., Bono, J., and Patton, G. (2001). The job satisfaction-job performance

relationship: A qualitative and quantitative review. Psychological Bulletin, 127(3), 376-407.

Kaiser, H. (1958). The Varimax Criterion for analytic rotation in factor analysis. Psychometrika, 23, 187-

200.


March 2017, Vol. 13 (2)


Kaiser, H. (1960). The application of electronic computer to factors analysis. Educational and

Psychological Measurement,20, 141-151.

Kaiser Resources (1974a): A collection of maps and cross-sections on Sparwood Ridge Area, British

Columbia: Kaiser Resources Ltd., British Columbia Ministry of Energy and Mines COALFILE

report #441, 22 pages.

Karsh, B., Booske, B., and Sainfort, F. (2005). Job and organizational determinants of nursing home

employee commitment, job satisfaction and intent to turnover. Ergonomics, 48 (10), 1260-1281.

Kelly, S. and Hoffman, K. D. (1997). An investigation of position affect, pro-social behavior and service

quality. Journal of Retailing, 73, 407-427.

Kline,R. B. (1998). Principle and practice of structural equation modeling. New York: the Guilford

Press.

Konovsky, M. and Organ, D. (1996). Dispositional and contextual determinants of organizational

citizenship behavior. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 17 (3), 553-266.

Lambert, E., Lynne Hogan, N., and Barton, S. (2001). The impact of Job Satisfaction on turnover intent:

A test of structural measurement model using a national sample of workers. Social Science.

Journal, 38(2), 233-251.

Lambert, L. (2003). Leadership capacity for lasting school improvement. Alexandria: Association for

Supervision and Curriculum Development Lemmer, E.M. (1996). Winning at work. Pretoria: Van

Schaik.

Likert, R. (1932). A Technique for the measurement of attitudes. Archives of Psychology, 140, 1–55.

Locke, E. A. (1976). “The nature and causes of job satisfaction”. In Dunnette, M. D. (ed), Handbook of

Industrial and Management Psychology. Chicago, IL: Rand McNally, p.1297.

MacKenzie, S., Podsakoff, P., and Paine, J. (1999). Do citizenship behaviors matter more for managers

than for salespeople? Academy of Marketing Science Journal, 27(4), 396-410.

Manthe, RD (1976). A job satisfaction and dissatisfaction study of the West Virginia University

Extension Service. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Wisconsin, Madison.

Mannheim, B., Baruch, Y., and Tal, J. (1997). Alternative models for antecedents and outcomes of work

centrality and job satisfaction of high-tech personnel. Human Relations, 50(2), 1537-1562.

Marcus, A. (1993). Business and Society. Boston: Irvin.

Markovits Y., Davis A.J. van Dick R. (2007). Organizational commitment profiles and job satisfaction

among Greek private and public sector employees. International Journal of Cross-Cultural

Management, 7(1), 77-99.

McCaslin, N. L. and Mwangi, J. (1994). Job satisfaction of Kenya‟s rift valley extension agents.Journal

of Extension, 32 (3). Retrieved October 28, 2004,

McClendon, M. (2004). Statistical Analysis in the Social Sciences Victoria: Thomson Wadsworth.

Meyer, J. P. and Allen, N. J. (1991). A three-component conceptualization of organizational commitment.

Human Resource Management Review, 1(1), 61-89.

Meyer, J.P., Allen, N., and Smith, C. (1993). Commitment to organizations and occupation: Extension

and test of a three-component conceptualization. Journal of Applied Psychology, 78 (4), 538-551.

Meyer, J.P. and Allen, N. J. (1997). Commitment in the workplace: Theory, research, and application

(Advanced Topics in Organizational Behavior). Thousand Oaks: Sage Publications, Inc.

Meyer,J.P., Stanley, D., Herscovitch, L., and Topolnytsk, L. (2002). Affective, continuance, and

normative Commitment to the Organization: A meta-analysis of antecedents, correlates, and

consequences. Journal of Vocational Behaviour, 61(1), 20-52.

Meyer, J. P., Becker, T. E., and Van Dick, R. (2006). Social identities and commitment at work: Towards

an integrative model. Journal of Orgazational Behavior, 27, 665-683.


March 2017, Vol. 13 (2)


Mischel, W. (Ed.) (1977). The Interaction of Person and Situation, Erlbaum, Hillsdate, NJ. Morrison,W.

E. (1994). Role definition and organizational citizenship behavior: The importance of the

employee‟s perspective. Academy of Management Journal, 37 (6), 1543-1567.

Mortimer, J.T., Finch, M. D., and Maruyama, G. (1988). Work experience and psychological development

and gender. Inl J. T. Mortimer &K. M. Borman (Eds.), work experience and psychological

development through the life span. 109-156. Boulder. Co: west-view press.

Moorman, R., Niehoff, B., and Organ, D. (1993). Treating employees fairly and organizational

citizenship behaviour: Sorting the effects of job satisfaction, organizational commitment, and

procedural justice. Employee Responsibilities and Rights Journal, 6(3), 209– 225.

Motowildlo, S. and Van Scotter J. (1994). Evidence that Task Performance as should be distinguished

from contextual performance. Journal of Applied Psychology, 79(4), 480.

Mouton, J., & Marrais, H. (1996). Basic concepts in the methodology of social sciences. Revised Edition-

fifth Impression. Pretiria: HSRC.

Mouton, J. (1996).Understanding social research. Pretoria: Van Schaik.

Mowday R., Porter L., and Steers R. (1982). Employee organization Linkages: The Psychology of

commitment, absenteeism, and turnover: New York, NY: Academic Press

Munene, J.C. (1995). “Not in seat” An investigation of some correction of organizational citizenship

behavior in Nigeria. Applied Psychology, 44(2), 111-122.

Munro, E. (2002). The role of theory in social work research: a further contribution to the debate. Journal

of Social Work Education, 38(3), 461-471.

Noe R. A., Hollenbeck J.R., Gerhart B., and Wright P.M. (1994). Human Resource Management:

Gainings a competitive advantage. USA: Richard D. Irwin.Inc.

Nunnally, J. C. (1967). Psychometric theory. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill.

O‟Malley, M. (2000).Creating commitment: How to attract and retain talented employees by building

relationships that last. New York: Wiley

Organ, D. W. (1988). Organizational citizenship behavior the good soldier syndrome, Lexington Book,

Lexington, MA.

Organ, D. W. and Konovsky, M., (1989). Cognitive versus affective determinants of organizational

citizenship behavior. Journal of Applied Psychology, 74(1), 157-164.

Organ, D. W. (1990). The motivational basis of organizational citizenship behavior. In B. M. Staw & L.

L. Cumming (Eds), Research in Organizational Behavior, 12, 43-72). Greewitch, CT: JAI.

O‟Driscoll, M. and Randall, D. (1999). Perceived organizational support, satisfaction with rewards, and

employee job involvement and organisational commitment. Applied Psychology, 48, (2), 197-209.

Organ, D. W. and Ryan, K. (1995). A meta-analytic review of attitudinal and dispositional predictors of

organizational citizenship behavior. Personnel Psychology, 48(4), 775-802.

Organ, D. (1997). Organizational citizenship behavior: It‟s construct clean-up time. Human Performance,

10(2), 85-97.

Organ, D. W. (1998). Organizational citizenship behavior: The Good Soldier Syndrome, Lexington

Books, Lexington.

O‟Reilly, C. and Caldwell, D. (1980). Job Choice: The impact of intrinsic and extrinsic factors of

subsequent satisfaction and commitment. Journal of Applied Psychology, 65(5), 559-565.

Pagament, K. I., F. B. Tyler, and R. E. Steele. (1979). The church/synagogue and the psychological

competence of the member: An initial inquiry into a neglected dimension. American Journal of

Community Psychology, 7(6), 649-664.

Podsakoff, P. and Mackenzie, S. (1994). Organizational citizenship behavior and sales unit effectiveness.

Journal of Marketing Research, 31(3), 351-363.


March 2017, Vol. 13 (2)


Podsakoff, P., Ahearne, M., and MacKenzie, S. (1997). Organizational citizenship behavior and the

quantity and quality of work group performance. Journal of Applied Psychology, 82 (2), 262-270.

Podsakoff, P., M., Mackenzie, S., B., Paine, J. B., and Bachrach, D. G. (2000). Organizational citizenship

behaviors: A critical review of the theoretical and empirical literature and suggestions for future

research. Journal of Management, 26, 513-563.

Polit, D., and Hungler, B. (2004) “Nursing research, principle and methods” Philadephia. Lippincourt.

Porter, Lyman W., Richard M. Steers, Richard T, Mowday, and Paul V., Boulian. (1974). “Organizational

commitment, job satisfaction, and turnover among psychiatric technicians”. Journal of Applied

Psychology, 59: 603-609.

Pool, S. and Pool, B. (2007) A management development model. Journal of Management Development,

26(4), 353-369.

Puffer, S. M. (1987). Pro-social behavior, non-compliant behavior, and work performance among

commission salespeople. Journal of Applied Psychology, 72(4), 615-621.

Randall, M., Cropanzano,R., Bormann, C. and Birjulin, A. (1999). Organizational politics and

organizational support as predictors of work attitudes, job performance, and organizational

citizenship behavior. Journal Organizational Behavior, 20(2), 159-174.

Robbins, S. P. (2001). Organizational behavior (9th

ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall

International Inc.

Robbins, S. P. and Judge, T. A. (2009).Organizational behavior (13th

ed). Upper Saddle River: New

Jersey, Pearson Prentice Hall.

Robbins, S.P. (1993). Organizational behavior. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey, Prentice-Hall as cited in

Lu L. (1999). Work motivation, job stress and employees‟ well-being. Journal of Applied

Management Studies, 8 (1): 61– 72.

Ronen, S. and Shenkar, O. (1985). Clustering countries on attitudinal dimensions: A review and

Synthesis. Academy of Management Review, 10(3), 435-454.

Sekaran, U. and Bougie, R. (2010). Research methods for business: A skill building approach (5th

Ed.)

West Sussex, UK: John Wiley & Sons Ltd.

Sarker, S. J., Crossman, A., and Chinmeteepituck, P. (2003). The relationships of age and length of

service with job satisfaction: An examination of hotel employees in Thailand. Journal of

Managerial psychology, 18, (7/8), 745-758.

Schappe, S. (1998). The influence of Job Satisfaction, organizational commitment, and fairness

perceptions on organizational citizenship behavior. The Journal of Psychology: 132 (3), 277-290.

Schene, A., Wijingaarden, B., Koeter. M. (1998). Familly caregiving in Schizophrenia: Domains,

Distress. Schizophrenia Bulletin, 24(4), 609-618.

Schriesheim, C., and Tsui, A. S. (1980). Development and validation of a short satisfaction instrument for

use in survey feedback interventions. Paper presented at the Western Academy of Management

Conference.

Shadish, W. R., Cook, T. D., and Campbell, D. T. (2002). Experimental and quasi-experimental designs

for generalized causal inference. Boston: Houghton Mifflin.

Sharma, S(1996). Applied Multivariate Techniques. USA: John Willey & Sons, Inc.

Sharma,R. D. and Jyoti, J. (2005). What influences job satisfaction the most? Business Vision, 2 (1), 1-26.

Sharma, R. and Jyoti, J. (2009). Job satisfaction of university teachers: An empirical study. Journal of

Services Research, 9 (2), 51- 80.

Silverman, W. H., K. I. Pargament, S. M. Johnson, R. J. Echemendia, and S. Snyder. (1983). Measuring

member satisfaction with the church. Journal of Applied Psychology, 68(4), 664-677.


March 2017, Vol. 13 (2)


Shore, L. M., Newton,L. A., and Thornton, G. C. (1990). Job and organizational attitudes in relation to

employee behavioral intention. Journal of Occupational Behavior, 11(1), 57-67.

Shore, L. M. and Wayne, S. (1993). Commitment and employee behavior: Comparison of affective

commitment and continuance commitment with perceived organizational support. Journal of

Applied Psychology, 56, 774-780.

Singh, K. (2007). Quantitative Social Research Methods. Los Angeles: Sage publications.

Smith, C. A., Organ, D. W., and Near, J. P. (1983). Organizational citizenship behavior: Its nature and

antecedent. Journal of Applied Psychology, 68, 653-663.

Sousa-Poza, A. and Sousa-Poza, A. (2003). Gender differences in job satisfaction in Great Britain, 1991-

2000: Permanent or transitory? Applied Economics Letters, 10(11), 691-694.

Soydemir, G., Bastida, E. and Gonzalez, G. (2004). The impact of religiosity on self-assessment of health

and happiness: Evidence from the US Southwest, Applied Economics, 36(7), 665-672.

Spector, P. E. (1997). Job satisfaction: Application, assessment, causes, and consequences. Thousand

Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.

Stark, R. and Glock, C. (1965). The "New Denominationalism". Review of Religious Research, 7 (1),

p.8-17.

Storey, T. (1995). Managing human resources. Engelwood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall

Tanarka, J. S., Panter, A. T., Winborne, W. C., and Huba, G. J. (1990). Theory testing in personality and

social psychology with latent variable models. Review of Personality and Social Psychology,

11,217-242.

Testa, M. (2001). Organizational commitment, job satisfaction and effort in the service environment. The

Journal of Psychology, 135(2), 226-236.

Toloposky, A. (2000). What every supervisor should know. New York: McGraw-Hill.

Turnipseed, D., and Mrukison E. 2000. A bi-cultural comparison of organizational citizenship behavior:

Does the OCB phenomenon transcend national culture? The International Journal of

Organizational Analysis, 8 (2), 200-222.

Turnipeseed, D. L. (2002). Are good soldiers good? Journal of Business Research, 55(1), 1-15.

Turnipseed, D.L., Rassuli, A. (2005). Performance perceptions of organizational citizenship behavior at

work: A bi-level Study among Managers and Employees, British. Journal of Management, 16(3),

231-244.

Vandenberg, R., and Lance, C. (2000). A review and synthesis of the measurement invariance literature:

Suggestions, practices, and recommendations for organizational research. Organizational

Research Methods, 3(1), 4-70.

Vigoda, E., and Cohen, A. (2002). Influence tactics and perceptions of organizational politics: A

longitudinal study. Journal of Business Research, 55(4), 311–324.

Vigoda‐Gadot, E. and Yuval, F. (2003). Managerial quality, administrative performance and trust in

governance revisited. International Journal of Public Sector Management, 16 (7).502-522.

Weallens, F. (2003). Psychology at work. New York: Columbia University Press.

Williams, L. J., and Anderson, S. E. (1991). Job Satisfaction and organizational commitment as predictors

of organizational citizenship and in-role behavior. Journal of Management, 17(3), 601-617.

Witter, R., Stock, W., Okun, M. and Haring,M. (1985). Religion and subjective well-being in

adulthood: A quantitative synthesis. Review of Religious Research, 26 (4), 332.

Wong, Y., Wong, C., and Ngo, H. (2002). Loyalty to supervisor and trust in supervisor of workers in

Chinese joint ventures - a test of two competing models. International Journal of Human

Resource Management, 13(6), 883-900.

Wright, S. (1934). The method of path coefficients, Annals of Mathematical Statistics, 5(3), 161-215.


March 2017, Vol. 13 (2)


Yoon, M., and Such, J. (2003). Organizational citizenship behavior and service quality as external

effectiveness of contact employees. Journal of Business Research, 56 (8), 597-611.

Zhao, Caroline (2015). Have Fun & Get A's: How to Study Less and Achieve More, NOOK Book

(eBook).


March 2017, Vol. 13 (2)


Appendix 1:

Figure 2: Path Diagram

.17

OCB

OC SAT1.10

s1

.46

e41.00

1

s2

.45

e5.93

1

s3

.37

e6.891

s4

.60

e71.05 1

s5

.45

e8

.861

s6

.52

e9

1.03

1

s7

.39

e10

.63

1

OCS_8

.58

e11

1.00

1OCS_7

.54

e12

.69

1OCS_6

.51

e13

.961

OCS_5

.21

e141.101

OCS_4

.67

e151.091

OCS_3

.34

e16 1.331

OCS_2

.21

e171.21

1

-.14

.13

.10

.18

e201

.10

.05

.07

OCB_SM_1

.49

e21

1.00

1

OCB_SM_2

.30

e22

1.39

1

OCB_SM_3

.28

e23

1.11

1

.66

.05

e241

.07

.04

.05

-.17-.11

-.13

-.12

-.07

-.07

-.09

-.11-.07

.07

.05

.06

.09

.06

british journal of economics, finance and management sciences …2)/efvol.13 (2) article 2.pdf ·...

Documents