building block or happenstance? dewald roode. uct department of is research seminar 24 october 2007...

Building block or happenstance? Dewald Roode

UCT Department of IS Research Seminar 24 October 2007 1

What is Information Infrastructure? How does it manifest in large organizations? What about small organizations? Research approach and methodology Case Studies conducted Underpinning theory Data collection, analysis, findings and interpretation Conclusions 2 UCT Department of IS Research Seminar 24 October 2007

Various definitions from the literature 3 UCT Department of IS Research Seminar 24 October 2007

CHUNG, BYRD, LEWIS & FORD (2005) CORDELLA (2005) The shared IT resources of a technical component of hardware, software, communication technologies, data, and core applications and a human component of skills and competencies that provide a unique technological foundation (1) for widespread communications interchanges across an organisation and (2) for the design, development, implementation and maintenance of present and future business applications The output of the recursive dynamic interaction between technology, people and content Information Infrastructure is more than the sum of its different parts; instead, it represents an interwoven interaction between technology, people and content The output of the recursive dynamic interaction between technology, people and content Information Infrastructure is more than the sum of its different parts; instead, it represents an interwoven interaction between technology, people and content 4 UCT Department of IS Research Seminar 24 October 2007

HANSETH (2004)CONSTANTINIDES & BARRETT (2004) More than pure technology; rather, a socio-technical network Heterogeneous concerning the qualities of its constituencies Include technological components, humans, organizations, institutions, and so on Connected and interrelated, constituting ecologies of infrastructures Develops through extending and improving the installed base More than pure technology; rather, a socio-technical network Heterogeneous concerning the qualities of its constituencies Include technological components, humans, organizations, institutions, and so on Connected and interrelated, constituting ecologies of infrastructures Develops through extending and improving the installed base An ever-evolving socio- technical ecology of people, institutions, artefacts, and practices To understand the different layers of the information infrastructure ecology, we need to acknowledge both the intentions and meanings of different groups and individuals, and the dynamic role of technological artefacts in mediating those meanings and intentions An ever-evolving socio- technical ecology of people, institutions, artefacts, and practices To understand the different layers of the information infrastructure ecology, we need to acknowledge both the intentions and meanings of different groups and individuals, and the dynamic role of technological artefacts in mediating those meanings and intentions 5 UCT Department of IS Research Seminar 24 October 2007

6 Networks of Power Professional Kit of Tools and Techniques Science and New Technologies Large Technical Infrastructures IndividualsCommunitiesBody Politic Constantinides & Barrett (2004)

UCT Department of IS Research Seminar 24 October 2007 7 Crossover refers to the exchange of properties among humans and nonhumans in the process of their interaction to achieve different goals Constantinides & Barrett (2004)

In 1987, John Zachman, author of the Zachman Framework for Enterprise Architecture, wrote To keep the business from disintegrating, the concept of information systems architecture is becoming less of an option and more of a necessity. The Zachman Framework for Enterprise Architecture has evolved and become the model around which major organizations view and communicate their enterprise information infrastructure. Enterprise Architecture provides the blueprint, or architecture, for the organization's information infrastructure. from www.zifa.com In 1987, John Zachman, author of the Zachman Framework for Enterprise Architecture, wrote To keep the business from disintegrating, the concept of information systems architecture is becoming less of an option and more of a necessity. The Zachman Framework for Enterprise Architecture has evolved and become the model around which major organizations view and communicate their enterprise information infrastructure. Enterprise Architecture provides the blueprint, or architecture, for the organization's information infrastructure. from www.zifa.com 8 UCT Department of IS Research Seminar 24 October 2007

The Zachman Framework Data What Function How Network Where People Who Time When Motivation Why Business Managers ScopeList of Things Important to the Business List of Processes the Business Performs List of Locations in which the Business Operates List of Organizations important to the Business List of Events significant to the Business List of Business Goals/ Strategies Enterprise ModelSemantic ModelBusiness Process Model Business Logistics System Work Flow Model Master Schedule Business Plan IT Managers and Developers System ModelLogical Data Model Application Architecture Distributed System Architecture Human Interface Architecture Processing Structure Business Rule Model Technological Model Physical Data Model System DesignTechnology Architecture Presentation Architecture Control Structure Rule Design Detailed Representations Data DefinitionProgramNetwork Architecture Security Architecture Timing Definition Rule Specification Functioning Enterprise Actual Business Data Actual Application Code Actual Physical Networks Actual Business Organization Actual Business Schedule Actual Business Strategy UCT Department of IS Research Seminar 24 October 2007 9

The top level of the Zachman Framework is focused on the concerns of senior executives (Scope) The second level focuses on the slightly more detailed concerns of business managers (Enterprise Model) The third level focuses on concerns that business managers and IS managers often work on together (System Model) Levels four to six focus on details that IS managers and software developers are concerned with The top level of the Zachman Framework is focused on the concerns of senior executives (Scope) The second level focuses on the slightly more detailed concerns of business managers (Enterprise Model) The third level focuses on concerns that business managers and IS managers often work on together (System Model) Levels four to six focus on details that IS managers and software developers are concerned with 10 UCT Department of IS Research Seminar 24 October 2007

The framework isnt meant to function simply as a way of classifying the types of documentation an enterprise might create There should be relationships between cells in the matrix Applications should be associated with specific business processes Business processes should have goals and measures that should, in turn, be related upward to corporate goals and downward to application and system goals The architecture stresses both information and the relationships between information that should be established and maintained The framework isnt meant to function simply as a way of classifying the types of documentation an enterprise might create There should be relationships between cells in the matrix Applications should be associated with specific business processes Business processes should have goals and measures that should, in turn, be related upward to corporate goals and downward to application and system goals The architecture stresses both information and the relationships between information that should be established and maintained 11 UCT Department of IS Research Seminar 24 October 2007

An effective EA programme has two critical components The EA Content Framework The EA Governance Framework The EA Content Framework is the methodology for defining the various models that will constitute the EA typically, this could be the Zachman Framework An effective EA programme has two critical components The EA Content Framework The EA Governance Framework The EA Content Framework is the methodology for defining the various models that will constitute the EA typically, this could be the Zachman Framework 12 UCT Department of IS Research Seminar 24 October 2007

All approaches to EA content recognize a set of four models that represent the enterprise: Business architecture Application architecture Information architecture Technical architecture All approaches to EA content recognize a set of four models that represent the enterprise: Business architecture Application architecture Information architecture Technical architecture 13 UCT Department of IS Research Seminar 24 October 2007

14 AA defines the specification of technology enabled solutions in support of the Business Architecture. Provides a view on how services should be bundled to support business processes TA defines the strategies and standards for technologies and methods used to develop, execute and operate the Application Architecture. It provides frameworks, technical patterns and services that support application requirements IA identifies, documents and manages the information needs of the enterprise, assigns ownership and accountability for this information, and describes how data is stored by and exchanged between stakeholders BA describes the business strategy, models, processes, services and organization. Provides the foundation upon which the other enterprise architecture dimensions base their decisions Business Architecture Information Architecture Application Architecture Technical Architecture UCT Department of IS Research Seminar 24 October 2007

Once the EA Content Framework is identified and customized for the enterprise, it is critical to define an Enterprise Architecture Governance Framework that ensures the successful development, integration and management of this content in the context of the enterprise 15 UCT Department of IS Research Seminar 24 October 2007

16 Business Architecture Information Architecture Application Architecture Technical Architecture Enabling Tools LeadershipInvestment Organizatio n Processes Policies & Principles Measurement Disciplines of Enterprise Architecture Dimensions of Enterprise Architecture Governance UCT Department of IS Research Seminar 24 October 2007 INFOSYS

Establishing an EA is an objective which not only promises vast benefits, but is sure to induce some short-term pain ending quick- and-dirty ad hoc solutions, enforcing some discipline on even strategic projects, and taking effort to understand and adjust guidelines This requires the alignment of the diverse interests of a large number of stakeholders Establishing an EA is an objective which not only promises vast benefits, but is sure to induce some short-term pain ending quick- and-dirty ad hoc solutions, enforcing some discipline on even strategic projects, and taking effort to understand and adjust guidelines This requires the alignment of the diverse interests of a large number of stakeholders 17 UCT Department of IS Research Seminar 24 October 2007

To achieve such alignment of interests requires a strong and attractive idea of the goal an almost tangible picture of the future and its benefits Establishing such a shared vision is the major challenge of leading an EA initiative Usually such vision emanates from the CIO or a person in his/her immediate environment To achieve such alignment of interests requires a strong and attractive idea of the goal an almost tangible picture of the future and its benefits Establishing such a shared vision is the major challenge of leading an EA initiative Usually such vision emanates from the CIO or a person in his/her immediate environment 18 UCT Department of IS Research Seminar 24 October 2007

This person has to problematize the situation and offer the establishment of an EA as the solution If there is enough buy-in and interest in the proffered solution, then the following practices for establishing leadership for an EA function have been found to be effective: This person has to problematize the situation and offer the establishment of an EA as the solution If there is enough buy-in and interest in the proffered solution, then the following practices for establishing leadership for an EA function have been found to be effective: 19 UCT Department of IS Research Seminar 24 October 2007

Establish an EA Steering Committee involving all senior business and technology leaders to ensure senior leadership sponsorship, involvement of all business units and a process for arbitration Appoint a Chief Architect who understands and identifies with business, but also has a sound understanding of technology Obtain buy-in from three constituent groups Senior line-of-business (LOB) leaders Middle management Distributed technical staff and IT power users Establish an EA Steering Committee involving all senior business and technology leaders to ensure senior leadership sponsorship, involvement of all business units and a process for arbitration Appoint a Chief Architect who understands and identifies with business, but also has a sound understanding of technology Obtain buy-in from three constituent groups Senior line-of-business (LOB) leaders Middle management Distributed technical staff and IT power users 20 UCT Department of IS Research Seminar 24 October 2007

Small organizations do not have the required resources to build and maintain formal Information Infrastructures and many are unaware of its importance Nevertheless, there is always some form of informal Information Infrastructure already integrated into their business practices (Constantinides & Barrett refer to the already existing ecology of...) What do we know about this? Small organizations do not have the required resources to build and maintain formal Information Infrastructures and many are unaware of its importance Nevertheless, there is always some form of informal Information Infrastructure already integrated into their business practices (Constantinides & Barrett refer to the already existing ecology of...) What do we know about this? UCT Department of IS Research Seminar 24 October 2007 21

Chester and Skok (2000) developed the concept of a roadmap for small organizations that identifies four different stages in the development and use of ICT by small organizations Inactive Basic ICT user Substantial user Advanced/sophisticated user Chester and Skok (2000) developed the concept of a roadmap for small organizations that identifies four different stages in the development and use of ICT by small organizations Inactive Basic ICT user Substantial user Advanced/sophisticated user UCT Department of IS Research Seminar 24 October 2007 22

UCT Department of IS Research Seminar 24 October 2007 23 We dont know what we dont know Several applications, business dependent Limited use of desktop packaged software Integrated applications + differentiated services InactiveBasicSubstantialSophisticate d ICT Support Roadmap (Chester & Skok, 2000)

Using the roadmap, they indicate the typical support services that could be supplied to small organizations during the different stages, or, to help them advance through the stages UCT Department of IS Research Seminar 24 October 2007 24

UCT Department of IS Research Seminar 24 October 2007 25 Mentoring & Awareness InactiveBasicSubstantialSophisticate d Support Services for SMEs (Chester & Skok, 2000) Learning and Developmen t Advice & consultancy Best practices DIY & outsourcing Centre of Excellence

There is little that can be faulted about the roadmap of Chester & Skok Also, their proposed framework for providing support services to small organizations is well intended and useful However, most small organizations would not be able to afford such support services The question therefore arises: how do they cope? There is little that can be faulted about the roadmap of Chester & Skok Also, their proposed framework for providing support services to small organizations is well intended and useful However, most small organizations would not be able to afford such support services The question therefore arises: how do they cope? UCT Department of IS Research Seminar 24 October 2007 26

The research investigated Information Infrastructures within small organizations More precisely, it attempted to uncover the views small organizations have on Information Infrastructure, the way in which they utilize their Information Infrastructures and the way they appropriate these into their business practices The research investigated Information Infrastructures within small organizations More precisely, it attempted to uncover the views small organizations have on Information Infrastructure, the way in which they utilize their Information Infrastructures and the way they appropriate these into their business practices UCT Department of IS Research Seminar 24 October 2007 27

The results of the research might provide pointers to how we could prepare students who would end up in small organizations for the role that they could play vis--vis the establishment of an information infrastructure The assumption is that our current educational programmes do not (adequately) prepare them for this The results of the research might provide pointers to how we could prepare students who would end up in small organizations for the role that they could play vis--vis the establishment of an information infrastructure The assumption is that our current educational programmes do not (adequately) prepare them for this UCT Department of IS Research Seminar 24 October 2007 28

Three-pronged approach: Interpretive Two Case Studies Using Actor-Network Theory as underpinning theory 29 UCT Department of IS Research Seminar 24 October 2007

At two small organizations XPress ConWork 30 UCT Department of IS Research Seminar 24 October 2007

Finance and Business Services Sector SizeEmployeesAnnual Turnover Medium200R26 million Small50R13 million Very small20R3 million Micro5R0.2 million 31 UCT Department of IS Research Seminar 24 October 2007

XPress ( a pseudonym) is a relatively small organisation in Stellenbosch with a headcount of less than 15 people Started in 2000, offering digital publication services to the open market By 2003 refocused on non-profit organizations and other small organizations Early in 2006 started specializing in publishing financial reports for organizations XPress ( a pseudonym) is a relatively small organisation in Stellenbosch with a headcount of less than 15 people Started in 2000, offering digital publication services to the open market By 2003 refocused on non-profit organizations and other small organizations Early in 2006 started specializing in publishing financial reports for organizations UCT Department of IS Research Seminar 24 October 2007 32

UCT Department of IS Research Seminar 24 October 2007 33 Managing Director Client Services/Sales 4 Project Managers Finance Manager Reception -ist House- keeper Productio n Manager 2 Type- setters 2 Designers 1 Proof Reader

ApplicationDescription MS Outlook, Word, Excel Adobe InDesign, Quark ExpressDesigning and creating publications CHASEManaging business processes; record and track jobs undertaken in the production department; accurate recording of time and costs associated with jobs; will ultimately be interfaced to the accounting system. PastelAccounting; payroll UCT Department of IS Research Seminar 24 October 2007 35

Started in 2000 as a partnership between the current Managing Director and a previous business partner who left the business in February 2004 Initial primary strategy: to leverage the advances in digital publication which larger publishing houses were not taking advantage of establish an online library of digitally stored material that could be printed on demand Started in 2000 as a partnership between the current Managing Director and a previous business partner who left the business in February 2004 Initial primary strategy: to leverage the advances in digital publication which larger publishing houses were not taking advantage of establish an online library of digitally stored material that could be printed on demand UCT Department of IS Research Seminar 24 October 2007 37

This attracted the interest of various publishing houses, some of which had ulterior motives Sold 50% of equity; this provided capital that could be used to fund the strategy The next four years showed that the initial promise of smaller publishing runs was not attractive to the mass market This attracted the interest of various publishing houses, some of which had ulterior motives Sold 50% of equity; this provided capital that could be used to fund the strategy The next four years showed that the initial promise of smaller publishing runs was not attractive to the mass market UCT Department of IS Research Seminar 24 October 2007 38

However, they uncovered a niche market with Non-Profit Organisations Concentrated on this market at the expense of the other less profitable work One of the founding partners wanted to leave the business However, they uncovered a niche market with Non-Profit Organisations Concentrated on this market at the expense of the other less profitable work One of the founding partners wanted to leave the business UCT Department of IS Research Seminar 24 October 2007 39

A deal was brokered by the remaining partner: a new investment company bought out this founding partner and acquired the 50% from the previous holding company The Managing Director was now a minority (25%) shareholder with the new investment company holding the remaining 75% A deal was brokered by the remaining partner: a new investment company bought out this founding partner and acquired the 50% from the previous holding company The Managing Director was now a minority (25%) shareholder with the new investment company holding the remaining 75% UCT Department of IS Research Seminar 24 October 2007 40

A year after this change in ownership it was decided that in order to grow the business into a larger more profitable venture it was necessary to move away from primarily servicing NPOs into the publishing of financial reports UCT Department of IS Research Seminar 24 October 2007 41

The Managing Director had reservations around pursuing this strategy as the nature of publishing financial reports is significantly different from the service they had been providing XPress did not have the necessary expertise and had to source this from outside Eventually identified a Johannesburg based company that offered these services; persuaded the majority of the employees to leave their existing employment and join XPress The Managing Director had reservations around pursuing this strategy as the nature of publishing financial reports is significantly different from the service they had been providing XPress did not have the necessary expertise and had to source this from outside Eventually identified a Johannesburg based company that offered these services; persuaded the majority of the employees to leave their existing employment and join XPress UCT Department of IS Research Seminar 24 October 2007 42

The new (permanent) employees now make up the majority of the company previously XPress had used contractors This put added pressure on the Managing Director to deliver the sales to support these fixed costs Clients of the previous company had to be pitched again in order to bring in the work to support the team New hardware and software had to be acquired to support the studio related processes The new (permanent) employees now make up the majority of the company previously XPress had used contractors This put added pressure on the Managing Director to deliver the sales to support these fixed costs Clients of the previous company had to be pitched again in order to bring in the work to support the team New hardware and software had to be acquired to support the studio related processes UCT Department of IS Research Seminar 24 October 2007 43

The research was undertaken six months after this last change at XPress It has been a good time from a research perspective as many of the Information Infrastructure has been renewed as part of the fundamental change to the company Investigating the motivation behind these decisions provided a detailed contextual understanding of how these were approached and taken The research was undertaken six months after this last change at XPress It has been a good time from a research perspective as many of the Information Infrastructure has been renewed as part of the fundamental change to the company Investigating the motivation behind these decisions provided a detailed contextual understanding of how these were approached and taken UCT Department of IS Research Seminar 24 October 2007 44

ConWork (a pseudonym) has its head office in Bellville with one branch in Isando Currently employs 23 permanent staff with an annual turnover in excess of R10 million Started in 1996, the company supplies blue- collar contract workers to organisations and industry in the Western Cape and in Gauteng ConWork (a pseudonym) has its head office in Bellville with one branch in Isando Currently employs 23 permanent staff with an annual turnover in excess of R10 million Started in 1996, the company supplies blue- collar contract workers to organisations and industry in the Western Cape and in Gauteng UCT Department of IS Research Seminar 24 October 2007 45

UCT Department of IS Research Seminar 24 October 2007 46 Isando Branch Director HR Manager HR Clerk Operations Manager Site Manager Operations Assistant Operations Clerk Marketing Manager Administration Accountant Office Manager

Hardware Server plus 15 terminals (networked infrastructure) 7 Printers and 2 copier machines Siemens switchboard 3 Routers for mobile phones Satellite tracking vehicle, route planning and 24 h surveillance UCT Department of IS Research Seminar 24 October 2007 47

ApplicationDescription Time Billing SystemUsed for invoicing and timesheet generation purposes; bespoke software Payroll VIPAccounting package used for payroll purposes HR ProUsed by marketing people to draw CVs and run clients database; customized for Manhunt Pastel MS Office 2000 + Windows XP + Windows SP3 on server MS Exchange + mail routing system Fax to email system SMS system (smart mail) ADSL in place UCT Department of IS Research Seminar 24 October 2007 48

In the early days, ConWorks core business was that of providing drivers to transport companies on a contract basis The demand for this type of service soared as the company became better known in the marketplace ConWork expanded its core services to include other blue-collar workers, such as labourers, assistants and administrative clerks Also provided a number of additional services such as the supply and management of staff on temporary and permanent contracts In the early days, ConWorks core business was that of providing drivers to transport companies on a contract basis The demand for this type of service soared as the company became better known in the marketplace ConWork expanded its core services to include other blue-collar workers, such as labourers, assistants and administrative clerks Also provided a number of additional services such as the supply and management of staff on temporary and permanent contracts UCT Department of IS Research Seminar 24 October 2007 49

When formed in 1996, the company had three owners, one of whom acted as general manager, while the other two owners were never involved in the operational side of things Around 2001, the manager/owner resigned and was bought out by the other two owners The organisation then went into a bad period financially and operationally and there was even talk of shutting it down When formed in 1996, the company had three owners, one of whom acted as general manager, while the other two owners were never involved in the operational side of things Around 2001, the manager/owner resigned and was bought out by the other two owners The organisation then went into a bad period financially and operationally and there was even talk of shutting it down UCT Department of IS Research Seminar 24 October 2007 50

However, they decided to appoint a general manager who had been working for them as a financial manager with the mission to try and rescue the organisation The owners still did not take an active roll in the organisation. Instead they relied completely on the new manager to turn the organisation around However, they decided to appoint a general manager who had been working for them as a financial manager with the mission to try and rescue the organisation The owners still did not take an active roll in the organisation. Instead they relied completely on the new manager to turn the organisation around UCT Department of IS Research Seminar 24 October 2007 51

In the period that followed the latters appointment, there was a gradual improvement in the business, operations and finances of the organisation. The organisation grew rapidly and became profitable. A branch was opened in Isando and more permanent staff was employed. A marketing department was later introduced, as well as more and better technology. By February 2006, the manager bought out the company from the other two shareholders to become the sole owner of ConWork In the period that followed the latters appointment, there was a gradual improvement in the business, operations and finances of the organisation. The organisation grew rapidly and became profitable. A branch was opened in Isando and more permanent staff was employed. A marketing department was later introduced, as well as more and better technology. By February 2006, the manager bought out the company from the other two shareholders to become the sole owner of ConWork UCT Department of IS Research Seminar 24 October 2007 52

Brief overview and motivation 53 UCT Department of IS Research Seminar 24 October 2007

Actor-network theory (ANT) examines the motivation and actions of actors (human and non-human) who form elements, linked by associations, of heterogeneous networks of aligned interests A major focus of the theory is to try to trace and explain the processes whereby relatively stable networks of aligned interests are created and maintained, or alternatively to examine why such networks fail to establish themselves Successful networks of aligned interests are created through the enrolment of a sufficient body of allies, and the translation of their interests so that they are willing to participate in particular ways of thinking and acting that maintain the network Actor-network theory (ANT) examines the motivation and actions of actors (human and non-human) who form elements, linked by associations, of heterogeneous networks of aligned interests A major focus of the theory is to try to trace and explain the processes whereby relatively stable networks of aligned interests are created and maintained, or alternatively to examine why such networks fail to establish themselves Successful networks of aligned interests are created through the enrolment of a sufficient body of allies, and the translation of their interests so that they are willing to participate in particular ways of thinking and acting that maintain the network 54 UCT Department of IS Research Seminar 24 October 2007

We saw earlier that the establishment of an information infrastructure requires the leadership and drive of a person or group who would problematize the situation and present a solution the development of an information infrastructure ANT provides a way to follow the actions of individuals in an organization involved in such activities, and a terminology to describe what has taken place The idea is not to show the existence of an actor- network in the organization, but rather to use ANT as an instrument to gain a deep understanding of the context of the organization We saw earlier that the establishment of an information infrastructure requires the leadership and drive of a person or group who would problematize the situation and present a solution the development of an information infrastructure ANT provides a way to follow the actions of individuals in an organization involved in such activities, and a terminology to describe what has taken place The idea is not to show the existence of an actor- network in the organization, but rather to use ANT as an instrument to gain a deep understanding of the context of the organization UCT Department of IS Research Seminar 24 October 2007 55

Moments of translation Network growth and stability 56 UCT Department of IS Research Seminar 24 October 2007

The Four Moments of Translation Problematization Building interest Enrolment Mobilization 57 UCT Department of IS Research Seminar 24 October 2007

Problematization relates to the process of becoming indispensable by presenting a solution to a problem in terms of the resources and means a person or a group owns. A focal actor defines identities and interests of other actors which are consistent with its own interests, and establishes a solution, thus rendering itself indispensable. Initiators not only define the problems and solution(s) but also establish roles and identities for other actors in the network. Hence, the solution is a situation which has to occur for all of the actors to be able to achieve their interests, as defined by the focal actor Problematization relates to the process of becoming indispensable by presenting a solution to a problem in terms of the resources and means a person or a group owns. A focal actor defines identities and interests of other actors which are consistent with its own interests, and establishes a solution, thus rendering itself indispensable. Initiators not only define the problems and solution(s) but also establish roles and identities for other actors in the network. Hence, the solution is a situation which has to occur for all of the actors to be able to achieve their interests, as defined by the focal actor 58 UCT Department of IS Research Seminar 24 October 2007

Convincing other actors that the interests defined by the focal actor are in fact their (the other actors') interests and creating incentives for actors such that they are willing to overcome obstacles in the way of achieving the proffered solution It involves a variety of strategies and mechanisms by which initiators attempt to enrol other entities Successful building of interest validates the problematization and the alliances it implies Convincing other actors that the interests defined by the focal actor are in fact their (the other actors') interests and creating incentives for actors such that they are willing to overcome obstacles in the way of achieving the proffered solution It involves a variety of strategies and mechanisms by which initiators attempt to enrol other entities Successful building of interest validates the problematization and the alliances it implies 59 UCT Department of IS Research Seminar 24 October 2007

Successful networks of aligned interests are created through the enrolment of a sufficient body of allies, and the translation of their interests so that they are willing to participate in particular ways of thinking and acting which maintain the network The concept of enrolment highlights the idea that otherwise divergent interests must be kept in line and that actors are persuaded to accept the roles defined for them. Successful networks of aligned interests are created through the enrolment of a sufficient body of allies, and the translation of their interests so that they are willing to participate in particular ways of thinking and acting which maintain the network The concept of enrolment highlights the idea that otherwise divergent interests must be kept in line and that actors are persuaded to accept the roles defined for them. 60 UCT Department of IS Research Seminar 24 October 2007

Actors choose to become legitimate spokespersons of the groups they claim to represent using a set of methods advocated by the focal actor or initiators to ensure their interests are not betrayed Successful mobilization of allies stabilises the actor- network The aligned interest of the actors becomes institutionalised and is no longer controversial Actors choose to become legitimate spokespersons of the groups they claim to represent using a set of methods advocated by the focal actor or initiators to ensure their interests are not betrayed Successful mobilization of allies stabilises the actor- network The aligned interest of the actors becomes institutionalised and is no longer controversial 61 UCT Department of IS Research Seminar 24 October 2007

62 P P I I E E M M Network Growth Network Stability UCT Department of IS Research Seminar 24 October 2007

Semi-structured interviews Analysis, findings and interpretation 63 UCT Department of IS Research Seminar 24 October 2007

Use of underpinning theory to guide the process Interview guidelines The lens of ANT provided the terminology to describe many of the phenomena uncovered; difficulty of providing a holistic picture using a single all encompassing Actor-Network Many actors within one network may themselves be their own actor-networks Focus on main Information Infrastructure networks Use of underpinning theory to guide the process Interview guidelines The lens of ANT provided the terminology to describe many of the phenomena uncovered; difficulty of providing a holistic picture using a single all encompassing Actor-Network Many actors within one network may themselves be their own actor-networks Focus on main Information Infrastructure networks UCT Department of IS Research Seminar 24 October 2007 64

Using ANT as a lens Identify actors Follow their actions Describe how moments of translation were negotiated Investigate the role of inscriptions Network mobilization and stabilization Using ANT as a lens Identify actors Follow their actions Describe how moments of translation were negotiated Investigate the role of inscriptions Network mobilization and stabilization UCT Department of IS Research Seminar 24 October 2007 65

Focus on main actor-networks XPress: CHASE Managing business processes; record and track jobs undertaken in the production department; accurate recording of time and costs associated with jobs; ultimately to be interfaced to the accounting system ConWork: Time Billing System Used for invoicing and timesheet generation purposes; bespoke software Focus on main actor-networks XPress: CHASE Managing business processes; record and track jobs undertaken in the production department; accurate recording of time and costs associated with jobs; ultimately to be interfaced to the accounting system ConWork: Time Billing System Used for invoicing and timesheet generation purposes; bespoke software UCT Department of IS Research Seminar 24 October 2007 66

Focal actor: Managing Director Responsible for all day-to-day operational decisions Ultimate power to define all standards and make all decisions relating to the Information Infrastructures. Not only did he have the power, he also exercised it No evidence in the interviews that he had delegated any of this authority to any other actors in the network Focal actor: Managing Director Responsible for all day-to-day operational decisions Ultimate power to define all standards and make all decisions relating to the Information Infrastructures. Not only did he have the power, he also exercised it No evidence in the interviews that he had delegated any of this authority to any other actors in the network UCT Department of IS Research Seminar 24 October 2007 67

Problematization: How do we document and manage the business processes associated with the provision of our services? OPP: The use of CHASE throughout the business to handle the defined core business processes All interviewees showed all the elements of Interessement and Enrolment (using CHASE is required!) but not all have progressed to Mobilization Production Manager alone shows signs of Mobilization (it strengthens her position in the company more power) Problematization: How do we document and manage the business processes associated with the provision of our services? OPP: The use of CHASE throughout the business to handle the defined core business processes All interviewees showed all the elements of Interessement and Enrolment (using CHASE is required!) but not all have progressed to Mobilization Production Manager alone shows signs of Mobilization (it strengthens her position in the company more power) UCT Department of IS Research Seminar 24 October 2007 68

Focal actor: senior administrative manager Problematized the situation around time billing and proposed an OPP: a computerized solution; drummed up support for proposed solution Enrolled consultant Software developed, initial stable network emerged Collapse of network through instability of the business Focal actor: senior administrative manager Problematized the situation around time billing and proposed an OPP: a computerized solution; drummed up support for proposed solution Enrolled consultant Software developed, initial stable network emerged Collapse of network through instability of the business UCT Department of IS Research Seminar 24 October 2007 69

New Managing Director assumed role of focal actor New problematization: get the organisation back on its feet OPP: grow the business through the effective use of technology New Managing Director assumed role of focal actor New problematization: get the organisation back on its feet OPP: grow the business through the effective use of technology UCT Department of IS Research Seminar 24 October 2007 70

As the (new) network was evolving the bonds between the focal actor, staff members, consultants, technology and the need for innovation were constantly reinforced by the introduction of: Younger more computer literate staff members Requests for software that did not only service the core business functions Legislative changes introduced by government, specifically for the labour market Competitor movements in the market As the (new) network was evolving the bonds between the focal actor, staff members, consultants, technology and the need for innovation were constantly reinforced by the introduction of: Younger more computer literate staff members Requests for software that did not only service the core business functions Legislative changes introduced by government, specifically for the labour market Competitor movements in the market UCT Department of IS Research Seminar 24 October 2007 71

Eventually, the enrolment and mobilisation of the staff became so widespread that they even found ways to domesticate the time billing system and work around the inscriptions in the system to use it in ways the consultant never intended The network reached a point of stability where everyone in the organization uses the idea of business growth being supported by technology as the main focus for expanding the information infrastructure Eventually, the enrolment and mobilisation of the staff became so widespread that they even found ways to domesticate the time billing system and work around the inscriptions in the system to use it in ways the consultant never intended The network reached a point of stability where everyone in the organization uses the idea of business growth being supported by technology as the main focus for expanding the information infrastructure UCT Department of IS Research Seminar 24 October 2007 72

MD as focal actor in all problematizations Technically agile organization constrained only by its human actors Management of inter-personal relationships and power struggles within an SME are as complex in many respects as the political difficulties of large organizations Clear focus on costs associated with all things IT related MD as focal actor in all problematizations Technically agile organization constrained only by its human actors Management of inter-personal relationships and power struggles within an SME are as complex in many respects as the political difficulties of large organizations Clear focus on costs associated with all things IT related UCT Department of IS Research Seminar 24 October 2007 73

The small structure of the organization makes the process of Translation essentially a moment of Translation between Enrolment and Mobilization. In many respects the organizational structure and management process assure Enrolment for mandatory aspects of the business process, but Mobilization was only seen where significant benefits were on offer to the employee UCT Department of IS Research Seminar 24 October 2007 74

Operates within a certain industry and due to its low level of influence within this industry is required to conform to its standards Flexibility in the use of software infrastructure The way a system (its functionalities and applications) is used and appropriated varies according to each individual: past experience and knowledge of individuals Rules are applied informally Operates within a certain industry and due to its low level of influence within this industry is required to conform to its standards Flexibility in the use of software infrastructure The way a system (its functionalities and applications) is used and appropriated varies according to each individual: past experience and knowledge of individuals Rules are applied informally UCT Department of IS Research Seminar 24 October 2007 75

Several years have passed since the start of the growth phase of the business and the second evolution of the actor network. The actor network itself seems to have reached a point of maturity within the organisation New problematization of business growth led to a culture of innovation replacing culture of complacency and apathy Yet, their approach to information infrastructure is reactive, rather than proactive Several years have passed since the start of the growth phase of the business and the second evolution of the actor network. The actor network itself seems to have reached a point of maturity within the organisation New problematization of business growth led to a culture of innovation replacing culture of complacency and apathy Yet, their approach to information infrastructure is reactive, rather than proactive UCT Department of IS Research Seminar 24 October 2007 76

The evolution of the information infrastructure is typically shaped by external factors and aimed at satisfying the external influence e.g., importance given to competitors: their infrastructural progress is tracked and the infrastructure upgraded accordingly There is no forward thinking or strategic planning on the part of the focal actor or management to grow business efficiency and productivity or look for other innovative ways to provide a better service to clients The evolution of the information infrastructure is typically shaped by external factors and aimed at satisfying the external influence e.g., importance given to competitors: their infrastructural progress is tracked and the infrastructure upgraded accordingly There is no forward thinking or strategic planning on the part of the focal actor or management to grow business efficiency and productivity or look for other innovative ways to provide a better service to clients UCT Department of IS Research Seminar 24 October 2007 77

There is also no view to use or build an information infrastructure to provide a competitive advantage for the organisation Infrastructure is heterogeneous with little integration between the various components The inherent efficiencies that integration could potentially provide for the organisation remains an unrealised potential. This is attributed to the lack of strategic thinking and planning for the organisations information infrastructure There is also no view to use or build an information infrastructure to provide a competitive advantage for the organisation Infrastructure is heterogeneous with little integration between the various components The inherent efficiencies that integration could potentially provide for the organisation remains an unrealised potential. This is attributed to the lack of strategic thinking and planning for the organisations information infrastructure UCT Department of IS Research Seminar 24 October 2007 78

Guiding questions What is important in the findings? Why is it important? What can be learned from it? Contextualize findings in the literature So what? Guiding questions What is important in the findings? Why is it important? What can be learned from it? Contextualize findings in the literature So what? UCT Department of IS Research Seminar 24 October 2007 79

Human actors and interpersonal relations Financial and resource constraints Industry standards and external factors Interaction with technical infrastructure Organizational culture Reactive, not proactive Competitors Lack of strategic planning Human actors and interpersonal relations Financial and resource constraints Industry standards and external factors Interaction with technical infrastructure Organizational culture Reactive, not proactive Competitors Lack of strategic planning UCT Department of IS Research Seminar 24 October 2007 80

Confirmation of view of information infrastructure as an already existing ecology of ubiquitous socio- technical relations and their respective crossovers New elements in the multi-layered view: competitors; constraints Adaptation of certain layers to the SMME context Provides a way to present an SMME-oriented model Confirmation of view of information infrastructure as an already existing ecology of ubiquitous socio- technical relations and their respective crossovers New elements in the multi-layered view: competitors; constraints Adaptation of certain layers to the SMME context Provides a way to present an SMME-oriented model UCT Department of IS Research Seminar 24 October 2007 81

The context within which information infrastructure development takes place in SMMEs How SMMEs approach, by doing what is necessary, the development of information infrastructure Where and why they have difficulties; where and why they need help How they could be supported The context within which information infrastructure development takes place in SMMEs How SMMEs approach, by doing what is necessary, the development of information infrastructure Where and why they have difficulties; where and why they need help How they could be supported UCT Department of IS Research Seminar 24 October 2007 82

The work of Hanseth, Cordella, Constantinides & Barrett: confirmation Chester & Skoks framework: the findings provide a basis for support services Adaptation and extension of the model of Constantinides and Barrett See next slides The work of Hanseth, Cordella, Constantinides & Barrett: confirmation Chester & Skoks framework: the findings provide a basis for support services Adaptation and extension of the model of Constantinides and Barrett See next slides UCT Department of IS Research Seminar 24 October 2007 83

UCT Department of IS Research Seminar 24 October 2007 84 Mentoring & Awareness InactiveBasicSubstantialSophisticate d Support Services for SMEs (Chester & Skok, 2000) Learning and Developmen t Advice & consultancy Best practices DIY & outsourcing Centre of Excellence

UCT Department of IS Research Seminar 24 October 2007 85 Networks of Power Tools and Techniques New Technologies Technical Infrastructures Competitors and market conditions Individuals User Community Organizational culture of innovation Resource Constraints Financial Constraints

See conclusions (next slides) UCT Department of IS Research Seminar 24 October 2007 86

(Not just a summary!) 87 UCT Department of IS Research Seminar 24 October 2007

SMMEs can develop information infrastructures as building blocks, not only to support their business activities, but indeed to further them However, they typically need support Such support services should always be provided within the context of and with a deep understanding of the circumstances of the SMME The adapted and modified model provides a basis for such understanding and for structuring support services for SMMEs The model should not be used normatively, but as a basis for planning interventions and support SMMEs can develop information infrastructures as building blocks, not only to support their business activities, but indeed to further them However, they typically need support Such support services should always be provided within the context of and with a deep understanding of the circumstances of the SMME The adapted and modified model provides a basis for such understanding and for structuring support services for SMMEs The model should not be used normatively, but as a basis for planning interventions and support UCT Department of IS Research Seminar 24 October 2007 88

Students would not typically be able to adapt the formal frameworks of information infrastructure development (for large organizations) for SMMEs Information infrastructure development in SMMEs should be addressed as a topic in its own right in an IS curriculum The work presented here provides a basis for such a component Students would not typically be able to adapt the formal frameworks of information infrastructure development (for large organizations) for SMMEs Information infrastructure development in SMMEs should be addressed as a topic in its own right in an IS curriculum The work presented here provides a basis for such a component UCT Department of IS Research Seminar 24 October 2007 89

UCT Department of IS Research Seminar 24 October 2007 90 Phew... and thanks!

building block or happenstance? dewald roode. uct department of is research seminar 24 october 2007...

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