burma’s - environment...

BURMA’S ENVIRONMENT:PEOPLE, PROBLEMS, POLICIES

The Burma Environmental Working Group (BEWG)

BURMA’S ENVIRONMENT: PEOPLE, PROBLEMS, POLICIES

ISBN: 978-974-350-515-7

© Copyright June 2011

Published by:The Burma Environmental Working Group (BEWG)

Website: www.bewg.org

Printed by: Wanida Press, Chiang Mai, Thailand.

Tel. 66 53 110503-4

Made in Thailand© Copyright is reserved by The Burma Environmental Working Group (BEWG)

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY .................................................................................. 08

RECOMMENDATIONS ................................................................................... 10

1. INTRODUCTION ....................................................................................... 13

2. COUNTRY FACTS ...................................................................................... 14 2.1 DEMOGRAPHY ...................................................................................... 14 2.2 NATURAL RESOURCES .......................................................................... 15

3. ENVIRONMENTAL LAWS AND POLICIES IN BURMA................................... 17 3.1 NationalCommissionforEnvironmentalAffairs .................................. 18 3.2 EnvironmentalPoliciesandLaws ......................................................... 19 3.3 ImpactAssessmentsinBurma ............................................................. 19 3.4 EnvironmentalProvisionsinthe2008Constitution ............................. 20 3.5 NationalSustainableDevelopmentStrategy ........................................ 21 3.6 InternationalCommitments ................................................................. 22 3.7 EnvironmentalisminBurma ................................................................. 26

4. LAW AND POLICY ON FORESTRY AND AGRICULTURAL LAND .................... 33 4.1 ForestryLawsandPolicies .................................................................... 33 4.2 LandLawsandPolicies ......................................................................... 36 4.3 EconomicdevelopmentandnaturalresourcesinBurma .................... 42

5. THREATS TO ENVIRONMENT AND LIVELIHOODS ........................................ 51 5.1 LargeDams ........................................................................................... 53 5.2 OilandGasExtraction .......................................................................... 58 5.3 Mining .................................................................................................. 61 5.4 Deforestation ....................................................................................... 65 5.5 LargeScaleAgriculturalConcessions ................................................... 70 5.6 IllegalWildlifeTrade ............................................................................. 80 5.7 ClimateChange .................................................................................... 81

6. CONCLUSION ........................................................................................... 83

Contents

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The Burma EnvironmentalWorkingGroup (BEWG)would like to acknowledge thecontributionsof the followingorganizations and individuals for their support for theproductionofthereport.

AnotherDevelopmentforBurma

InformationContribution:ArakanRiverNetworkBurmaRiversNetworkEthnicCommunityDevelopmentForumKarenEnvironmentCommitteeKarenniEvergreenYukiAkimotoMartyBergoffenClydeFawkesJeremyMakZaoNoamShweMyoThantSteveThompsonNickVeidelisKatrinaWinters

Donors:DagHammarskjöldFoundationKarenEnvironmentalandSocialActionNetwork

Manyotherindividualswhocannotbenamedgavewelcomeinputtothedrafts.

BEWGalsoappreciatestheeffortsoftheForestResourceEnvironmentDevelopmentandConservationAssociation,EcosystemConservationandCommunityDevelopmentInitiative,andother local,nationaland internationalorganizations thatareworking to conserveBurma’secosystems.

About the Burma Environmental Working Group

TheBurmaEnvironmentalWorkingGroup(BEWG)bringstogetherBurmafocusedethnicenvironmentalandsocialorganizations.MemberorganizationsmonitorBurmadevelopmentpolicyandadvocatesforalternativedevelopmentpoliciesmeetingtheirspecifictraditionalandcomprehensiveunderstandingoflocalsustainability.BEWGprovidesaforumformemberorganizationstocombinethesuccesses,knowledge,expertiseandvoicesofethnicpeoplesinpursuitofnotjustlocallivelihoods,butsustainableandpeacefulnational,regionalandinternationaldevelopmentpolicy.Memberscollaborateonresearch,reporting,advocacycampaigns,capacity-buildinginitiativesandpolicyformulation.BEWGalsonetworkswithnon-memberorganizationstoencourageharmonyanddiversityinitsownactivitiesaswell


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asstrengthendemocracyandcivilsocietyinBurma.

MembersoftheBEWGfirstcametogetherin2005throughaseminarorganizedbytheAnotherDevelopmentforBurmainitiative(ADfB).TheADfBprojectprovidesaplatformforpolitical,communityandissuebasedgroupswithintheBurmademocracymovementtoconsiderlong-termchallengesanddevelopmentalternativesforthefutureofBurma.Untilnow,mostBEWGactivitieshavebeenorganizedwithsupportfromtheADfBplatform.

ThefollowingorganizationsaremembersoftheBurmaEnvironmentalWorkingGroup.

Arakan Oil Watch (AOW),foundedin2006,isanindependentnon-governmentalorganizationthataimstoprotecthumanrightsandtheenvironmentfromextractiveindustriesinArakanStateandinBurma.AOWeducatesaffectedpeoplesontheseissues,developsandpromotesoilandgasrevenuetransparencystandards,andconductsinternationaladvocacy.AOWisanactivecorememberoftheShweGasMovementandamemberofSouthEastAsiaOilWatch. EachmonthAOWpublishesTheShweGasBulletin in English andBurmese, anewslettercoveringthelatestdevelopmentsinBurma’soilandnaturalgasindustry.Website:www.arakanoilwatch.org

Bridging Rural Integrated Development and Grassroots Empowerment (BRIDGE) workstogetherwithruralcommunitiesimpactedbypoliticalandsocio-economicchangeinKachinstatetostrengthentheircapacitiestomanagetheirownnaturalresources.BRIDGEsupportstheircommunity-baseddevelopmentactivitiesandbuildscollaborationsandpartnershipsthatadvocateforsustainabledevelopmentandfosteracultureofpeace.

EarthRights International (ERI)isagroupofactivists,organizers,andlawyerswithexpertiseinhumanrights,theenvironment,andcorporateandgovernmentaccountability.Since1995,ERIhasworkedinBurmatomonitortheimpactsofthemilitaryregime’spoliciesandactivitiesonlocalpopulationsandecosystems.Throughtheirtrainingprogram,ERItrainsyoungenvironmentalactivistsfromdiverseethnicbackgroundsinBurmatoempoweryoungleaderswithskillsandknowledgetoworkonearthrightsissuesintheircommunities.Inaddition,ERIworksalongsideaffectedcommunitygroupstopreventhumanrightsandenvironmental abusesassociatedwith large-scalenatural resourceprojects inBurma.Website:www.earthrights.org

Kachin Development Networking Group (KDNG), foundedin2004, isanetworkofcivilsociety groups anddevelopmentorganizations inKachin State. KDNG’spurpose is toeffectivelyworkforsustainabledevelopmentbasedonindigenousknowledgeandculturally-appropriate environmentalmanagement and conservationmethods. KDNGworks tomaintaintheintegrityoflandandforest,andempowerindigenouspeoplebyprovidingawarenessonenvironmentissues,especiallyrelatingtohumanrights,environmentalrightsand indigenous rights. It achieves thesegoals through trainings,workshops, research,documentation,andadvocacy.Website:www.aksyu.com

The Karen Environmental and Social Action Network (KESAN)wasestablishedin2001asthefirst local community-basedorganization to raiseenvironmental awarenessamongKarenpeople.KESANworkstoempowerandeducatecommunitiesandlocalinstitutionstorevitalizeexistingindigenousknowledgeandpracticesforincreasedlivelihoodsecurity


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http://www.arakanoilwatch.org

http://www.earthrights.org/

http://www.aksyu.com

inKarenandKachinStatesandinareasalongtheThai-Burmeseborder.KESANstrivestobuild up local capacities in forest and natural resourcemanagement, raise publicenvironmental awareness, and support community-baseddevelopment initiatives. Inaddition toplayinga leading role inenvironmental lawandpolicy formulation,KESANadvocatesforenvironmentalpoliciesanddevelopmentprioritiesthatensuresustainableecological,social,cultural,andeconomicbenefitsandpromotegenderequity.Website:www.kesan.asia

The Lahu National Development Organization (LNDO)wassetupbyleadingLahudemocracyactivists inMarch1997toadvocateforthewelfareandwell-beingoftheLahupeople,includingthepromotionofalternativestodestructivedevelopmentprojectsandopiumcultivation.LNDOseekstoprotectthelivelihoodsandlandsofLahuandAkhapeoplesandto increaseunderstanding among the local ethnic nationalities about human rights,democracy, federalism,communitydevelopment,andhealth issues.LNDOalsoaimstodevelopunityandcooperationamongtheLahuandotherhighlandersfromShanStateandtoprovideopportunitiesfordevelopmentofcivicleadershipskillsamonglocalgroups.

Network for Environmental and Economic Development (NEED)wasfoundedinMarch2006.NEEDisanonprofitNGOworkingtostrengthenBurmesecivilsocietysothatallthepeopleofBurmamaybenefitfromthepracticeofindigenousandholisticdevelopmentstrategies,basedoneconomically,environmentally,andsociallysustainableideas.NEEDconcentrateson thepromotionofenvironmental conservation, sustainableagriculture,andeconomicdevelopmentinBurma.Website:www.need-burma.org

The Pa-Oh Youth Organization (PYO)was setup in1998striving forpeaceand justicethroughempoweringyouth.PYOpublishedthereportRobbing the Future inJune2009aftertwoyearsofresearchatthesiteofBurma’slargestironmineandthePangpetNo.5SteelMillinShanState.PYOcontinuestomonitorthesituationandeducatecommunitiesoftheenvironmentalandsocialimpactsofthisandotherminingprojects.Website:www.pyo-org.blogspot.com

Shan Sapawa Environmental Organization (Sapawa)worksalongtheThai-BurmeseborderandinsideBurmatopromoteenvironmentalprotectionandhumanrightsinShanState,Burma.Sapawawasestablishedin2003byShanalumniofEarthRightsSchoolandtheShanState School forNationalities Youthwhohadbecome increasingly concerned at theenvironmentalsituationinShanState.Sapawa’svisionisajustandpeacefulShanStatefreeofenvironmentaldestructionandexploitation.ThemissionofSapawaistoempowerShan communities toprotect their rights and livelihoods, andpreserve their naturalresources,andtoexposethedestructionoftheenvironmentandhumanrightsviolationsoccurringinShanStatetolocalpeoplesaswellastheinternationalcommunity,inordertofindwaystopreventsuchviolations.Website:shansapawa.org

The Shwe Gas Movement (SGM) isanon-governmentalorganizationcampaigningagainsttheShweGasProjectandChina’sTrans-BurmaPipelines,forHumanRights,EnvironmentJusticeand revenue transparency inoil andgas sector. SGMspecializes in fact-finding,traininggrassrootsandcommunityleadersandadvocacycampaign.ItsmembersincludetheAllArakanStudentsandYouths’Congress,ArakanOilWatchandShweGasMovement(India)anddedicatedactivistsinBurma.


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http://www.kesan.asia/

http://www.need-burma.org

http://www.pyo-org.blogspot.com

http://www.pyo-org.blogspot.com

http://shansapawa.org/

Notes to the reader

In1989,thegovernmentinBurmachangedtheofficialnameofthecountryfromtheUnionofBurmatotheUnionofMyanmari,alongwithnamesofcities,districts,andstates,includingthenamesofplacesmentionedinthisreport.Inrespectandrecognitionofethnicandindigenouspeople’snames forancestral lands,however, this reportuses thehistoricalnameswiththeexceptionofdirectquotes.

Footnotesareclarificationpointstogivethereadermorebackgroundinformationnecessarytounderstandasection’scontext.Endnoteslistreferencesused.

InBurma,severaldifferentmeasurementsystemsareused,includingthemetricsystem,the international system,andothernationaland localizedmeasurements. This reportutilizes variousmeasurement systems, although there is a preference formetricmeasurements.Conversionsforthemostcommonmeasurementsinthereportarelistedbelow.Numbershavebeenroundedtothethreesignificantdigits.

1acre=0.405hectares1hectare=2.47acres1kilometer=0.621miles1mile=1.61kilometers1squarekilometer=100hectares=0.386squaremiles=247acres1kilogram=2.21pounds1pound=0.454kilograms1ton=2,000pounds=907kilograms1 tical=0.0163kilograms=0.0360pounds1 viss=100ticals=1.63kilogram

Burma’snationalcurrencyisthekyat(MMK).Forreference,equivalentsinAmericandollars($USD)areoftenshown.Althoughtheofficialexchangerateissetat6.31MMKper$1USD,thereportusestheunofficialmarketratewhereeconomictransactionsarecarriedoutandisthereforemoremeaningful.$1USD=30THB=approximately880MMK

i In2010intheleaduptotheelections,thenamewasofficiallychangedtotheRepublicoftheUnionofMyanmar.


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Acronyms

AAC AnnualAllowableCut

ADB AsianDevelopmentBank

ADfB AnotherDevelopmentforBurma

AOW ArakanOilWatch

ASEAN AssociationofSoutheastAsianNations

BANCA BiodiversityandNatureConservationAssociation

BEWG BurmaEnvironmentalWorkingGroup

BRIDGE BridgingRuralIntegratedDevelopmentandGrassrootsEmpowerment

BSS BurmaSelectionSystem

CBO CommunityBasedOrganization

CDB ConventiononBiologicalDiversity

CPB CommunistPartyofBurma

DAP DepartmentofAgricultureandPlanning

DG DirectorGeneral

DHF DagHammarskjöldFoundation

DKBA DemocraticKarenBuddhistArmy

DZGD DryZoneGreeningDepartment

ECODEV EconomicallyProgressiveEcosystemDevelopment

EIA EnvironmentalImpactAssessment

ERI EarthRightsInternational

FD ForestDepartment

FREDA ForestResourceEnvironmentDevelopmentandConservationAssociation

GA GeneralAssembly

GEF UnitedNationsGlobalEnvironmentFacility

GMS GreaterMekongSubregion(definedbytheADBasBurma,Thailand,Lao,Cambodia,Vietnam,andYunnanProvince,China)

ILO InternationalLaborOrganization

INGO InternationalNongovernmentalOrganization

IUCN WorldConservationUnion(InternationalUnionfortheConservationofNature)

KDNG KachinDevelopmentNetworkingGroup

KEG KarenniEvergreen

KESAN KarenEnvironmentalandSocialActionNetwork


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KHRG KarenHumanRightsGroup

KIA KachinIndependenceArmy

KIO KachinIndependenceOrganization

KNLA KarenNationalLiberationArmy

KNU KarenNationalUnion

KORD KarenOrganizationofReliefandDevelopment

KTWG KarenTeacherWorkingGroup

LMC LandManagementCommittee

LNDO LahuNationalDevelopmentOrganization

PYO Pa-OhYouthOrganization

MoAI MinistryofAgricultureandIrrigation

MOGE MyanmarOilandGasEnterprise

MPCE MyanmarPerennialCropsEnterprise

MTE MyanmarTimberEnterprise

NBSAP NationalBiodiversityStrategyandActionPlan

NCEA NationalCommissiononEnvironmentalAffairs

NDAA NationalDemocraticAllianceArmy

NDAK NewDemocraticArmy–Kachin

NEED NetworkforEnvironmentalandEconomicDevelopment

NGO NongovermentalOrganization

REDD ReducingEmissionsfromDeforestationandForestDegradation

ROAP UNEP’sRegionalOfficeforAsiaandthePacific

SLRD SettlementandLandRecordsDepartment

SPDC StatePeaceandDevelopmentCouncil

SLORC StateLawandOrderRestorationCouncil

SSA-S ShanStateArmy–South

TPDC TownshipPeaceandDevelopmentCouncil

UNDP UnitedNationsDevelopmentProgram

UNEP UnitedNationsEnvironmentProgram

UN-REDD UnitedNationsCollaborativeProgramonReducingEmissionsfromDeforestationandForestDegradationinDevelopingCountries

UWSA UnitedWaStateArmy

WCS WorldConservationSociety


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EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

Burmahasextensivebiodiversityandabundantnaturalresources,whichhaveinrecentyearsbeenthreatenedbymilitarization,large-scaleresourceextraction,andinfrastructuredevelopment.Burmahas some lawsandpolicies related toprotectingpeopleand theenvironment,but the country lacks thenecessaryadministrativeand legal structures,standards,safeguardsandpoliticalwilltoenforcesuchprovisions.Thecountryisalsoaparty to several international treaties relating to theenvironment, including thoseonprotectionofbiodiversityandindigenouspeoples,wildlife,andcounteringclimatechange.Itisunclear,however,howthecontentsofthosetreatiesthathavebeenratifiedhavebeenincorporatedintodomesticlaw.

ManyorganizationsareactiveinBurmaonprojectsandprogramsrelatedtoenvironmentalprotectionandsustainabledevelopment.Thisincludesabroadrangeofcommunity-basedorganizations,grassrootsorganizations,nationalandinternationalNGOs,UNagencies,andchurchgroupsbothbasedingovernment-controlledareasofBurma(‘inside’)andthosebasedintheThaiandChineseborderregions(‘bordergroups’).Manyorganizationstakethe‘traditional’conservationapproachortherights-basedapproachorboth.Organizationsthatareusingarights-basedapproachworkfromaperspectiveofsustainabledevelopmentandlivelihoodsandsubsequentlyfocusonissuessuchasfoodsecurity,landtenureandrights,andcommunitydevelopmentandorganizing.Conservationorganizationstendtofocusspecificallyonenvironmentalprotection,althoughwithvaryingstrategiestoachievetheir common goal. Organizationsworking on environmental issues also focus onenvironmental awareness, educationand training, policydevelopment, advocacyandnetworking.

Communitiescontinuetobeexcludedfromprotectedforestareas,threateningtheirforest-basedlivelihoods.The1990sand2000switnessedseverelogging,firstalongtheThai-BurmaborderandthenalongtheChinaborderinnorthernBurma.Althoughtheloggingrushhassomewhatsubsidedalongtheseborders,thegovernmentandmilitarycontinuetoallocateloggingconcessionstoChineseandBurmesebusinesspeople,irrespectiveofnationalandlocallawsregulatingsustainableforestrypractices.Timber,however,contributesmuchlesstoGDPasotherresourcesectorsboom.Communityforestryispositionedtochallengethemanner inwhichtimberresourcesaremanaged,providingsomepromisingdevolutionii trends.

LandtenureremainsveryweakinBurma.Thestateownsallthe landandresources inBurma,withmostvillagershavingnoformallandtitlefortheircustomaryagriculturalland.Newpolicieshavebeenputinplaceallocatinglandconcessionstoprivateentitieswhichdonotrespectcustomarylandrightsorinformallandholdings.Therearenosafeguardstoprotectfarmersfromtheonslaughtofcapitalismormechanismstohelpthembenefit.

Controlovernaturalresourcesisamajorcauseofconflictinethnicareas,wherethemajorityofBurma’snaturalresourcesremain.ForeigndirectinvestmentinBurmaisconcentratedinenergyandextractivesectorsandoftenresultsinmilitarizationanddisplacement.Recently

ii adelegationofauthoritybyacentralgovernmenttolocalgoverningunits


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therehasbeenheightened interest fromcountries in the region formore investmentopportunities.Giventhelackofsoundeconomicpolicyandunwillingnessofthestatetoreconcilewithethnicarmedgroups,anincreaseinforeigninvestmentcouldhaveamajorimpactontheenvironmentandcommunitieslivingintheseareas.

Whiletheydonotprovideloans,internationalfinancialinstitutionssuchastheWorldBankandInternationalMonetaryFundremainengagedinBurma.TheAsianDevelopmentBankinparticularprovidesassistancethroughvariouschannelsandfacilitatesprivateinvestment.

Burma is currently facingmany threats to the natural environment and sustainablelivelihoods,suchasconstructionoflargedams,oilandgasextraction,mining,deforestation,large-scaleagriculturalconcessions,illegalwildlifetradeandclimatechange.ThemajorityofBurma’sincomecomesfromsellingoffnaturalresources,includingbillionsofdollarsfromgasandhydropowerdevelopment. Investment comes fromcountrieswithin theregion–mostsignificantlyChina,IndiaandThailand.Malaysia,Singapore,Japan,VietnamandKoreaarealsokeyinvestorslookingtoincreaseinvestmentsaftertheelections.Theseresourceextractiveinvestmentsdamagetheenvironmentandthreatenlocalresource-basedlivelihoods,particularlyinethnicareas.

InordertotakestepstowardsecologicallyandsociallyresponsibledevelopmentinBurma,Burmamusthaveasoundpolicyframeworkforenvironmentalprotectionandsustainabledevelopment that enables citizens to take part in decisionmaking about their owndevelopment,andensuresresponsibleprivatesectorinvestment.Untilthen,newforeigninvestorsinvestinginenergy,extractiveandplantationsectorsshouldrefrainfrominvesting.Existinginvestorsshouldimmediatelyceaseallproject-relatedwork-particularlyinsensitiveareasthroughoutBurma-untiladequatesafeguardsareinplacetoensureinvestmentdoesnotleadtounnecessarydestructionofthenaturalenvironmentandlocallivelihoods.Atthesametime,InternationalNGOsandUNagenciesshouldensurepeoplearerecognizedaskeyactorsintheirowndevelopment,ratherthanpassiverecipientsofcommoditiesandservices;andcivilsocietyorganizationsshouldempowercommunitiesthroughoutBurmatounderstandtheirrights.


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RECOMMENDATIONS

To Burma’s Government

Environmentalpolicyandlawmustbebasedoninternationallawsandstandards,includingstandardsforEnvironmentalImpactAssessments(EIA)andSocialImpactAssessments(SIA).ThedevelopmentprocessmustalsoincorporatetheprincipleofandFree,PriorandInformedConsent(FPIC).

Holdopenconsultationswithabroadspectrumofstakeholdersindevelopingenvironmentlawsandpoliciesbeforetheyareapproved,includingestablishingadraftingcommitteewithrepresentativesfromdifferentsectorsandethnicgroups.

EIA’sandSIA’sshouldbedraftedinconsultationwithcivilsociety(includingethnicgroups)that are in accordancewith international best practice. These assessmentsmust beconductedbyindependentthirdparties,throughaprocessthatensuresaccesstorelevantinformation,adequateparticipationofaffectedcommunitiesandpublichearingstomitigatetheimpactofdevelopmentprojectsonlocalcommunitiesandtheenvironment.

Developanequitablebenefit-sharingsysteminallinfrastructure,extractive,energyanddevelopmentprojects.

Developlaws,policiesandinstitutionsthatprotectcommunitiesandindividualfarmers’livelihoodsandlandsfromtheimpactsofopeningnewmarkets,especiallyfromdomesticandinternationalagribusinesses.

Enactlandlawsandpoliciesthatrecognizeandrespectcustomarylandrights,entitlementandtenurerights.Forexample,‘rotationalfarming’shouldberecognizedasonetypeoftraditionalagriculturesysteminuplandareas.

Abolishthe1953LandNationalizationActandupholdthestillexisting1963LawSafeguardingPeasantsRightstoensurefarmers’landsandlivelihoodsareprotectedfromconfiscationbylaw.

Ratify core human and environmental rights treaties. Developmandatory laws andregulations inaccordancewith these international lawsand standards to regulateandmonitorplantation,energyandextractiveindustries,includingnationalprivatecompanies,stateownedenterprises, and foreignprivateand stateownedcompaniesoperating inBurma.

Respectindividualandcommunityrightsintheprocessofcompulsoryacquisitionoflandinaccordancewith internationalbestpractice.This includes theprovisionofadequateinformation,consultation,andfairandjustcompensationoradequatealternativehousingandlivelihoodpriortoevictionfromtheland.Duringtheeviction,theremustbenouseofviolenceordisproportionateforce.


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Establish independentbodies suchasaNational EnvironmentalCommission,NationalHumanRightsCommissionandAnti-corruptionunitwithadequatebudgetanddecision-makingpowertoensuresocialandenvironmentaljustice.

Enactpoliciesthatarerights-based,people-centered,andpro-poor.Thisensurestherightsoflocalpeopletothesustainableuseandmanagementoftheirresources,suchascommunityforestryandpaymentsforecologicalservices.

Applytheprinciplesofsustainableandequitabledevelopmenttoeconomicdevelopmenttomakesurepoliciesandpracticesareecologicallysound,sociallyequitable,economicallyviableandculturallyappropriate.

To the Private sector and state owned enterprises

Existingforeigninvestors,aswellasprivatecompanies,stateownedenterprisesandjointventureswithinthecountrymust:

Applyinternationalsustainabledevelopmentprinciplesandpractices(suchasFPIC,financialdisclosure,benefitsharing,conductingEIAandSIAs).

ConductinclusiveandmeaningfulEIAandSIAsinaccordancewithinternationalbestpracticethroughaprocessthatensuresaccesstorelevantinformation,adequateparticipationofaffectedcommunitiesandpublichearingstomitigatetheimpactofdevelopmentprojectsonlocalcommunitiesandtheenvironment.

Abideby international sustainabledevelopment initiatives andmechanisms, such asguidelinesonsustainableoilpalmdevelopmentandForestLawEnforcement,GovernanceandTrade(FLEGT).

Makeevery effort to avoid involuntary resettlement. In caseswhere resettlement isinevitable,thereshouldbeaclearplanforresettlementandcompensationprocessesforrelocation, landconfiscationorpropertydamagetoaffectedpeopleasaresultof largescaledevelopmentprojects implementedbyprivate companies, stateenterprisesandgovernment.ForeigninvestorsshouldfollowtheresettlementpoliciesoftheInternationalFinanceCorporation.

Immediatelyceaseallproject-relatedworkuntiladequatesafeguardsareinplace,particularlyinsensitiveareasthroughoutBurma.

Foreigninvestorsshouldrefrainfromanyformofnewengagementintheplantation,energyandextractivesectorsinBurmauntilthepeopleofBurmacanmeaningfullyparticipateindevelopmentdecisions,preconditionsforresponsibleinvestmentareinplace,andadverseimpactscanbemitigated.


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To Civil Society Organizations

CSOsworkingbothinsideBurmaandonthebordersshouldrepresentpeoples’viewsinadvocating forenvironmental lawandpolicydevelopment, andmonitor the stateandprivate companies’ businesses tobe in accordwith socially just andenvironmentallysustainabledevelopmentgoals.

To International NGOs

InternationalNGOsworkingontheenvironmentmustunderstandthelocalpoliticalandsocialcontext(includingthehumanrightssituation),conductneedsassessmentsinclusively;‘donoharm’tolocalpeople’srightsandlivelihoods;andfocusonbothpolicyandpracticechangetowardsenvironmentalprotectionandsustainablelivelihoods.

To UN agencies

UNagenciesshouldfacilitaterealpolicyandpracticechangewithmeaningfulparticipationofallstakeholders,andoperateaccordingtotheUNrightsbasedapproachstatementofCommonUnderstanding,underwhich‘peoplearerecognizedaskeyactorsintheirowndevelopment,ratherthanpassiverecipientsofcommoditiesandservices’.

TheUN should ensure that theUNDeclarationof theRights of Indigenous Peoples(particularly the conceptof FreePrior InformedConsent) is reaffirmed in anyREDD+agreement,andensuredintheimplementationandmonitoringonREDD+.

To International Financial Institutions

Until the people of Burma canmeaningfully participate in development decisions,preconditionsforresponsibleinvestmentareinplace,andadverseimpactscanbemitigated,thenIFIsshouldrefrainfromanyformofnewengagementwithBurma.

Iftheydoengage,Internationalfinancialinstitutions(IFIs)mustapplytheirownenvironmentalandsocialsafeguardpolicies,followInternationalFinanceCorporationstandardsandUNFrameworks(ie.oncommunityengagementandFPIC).

IFIsmustmakesurethatanyfuturenationaldevelopmentplanforBurmaisbasedonproperneedsassessmentsandaparticipatoryconsultationprocesswhichensurethatitmeetstheinterestsofthepeople.


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1. INTRODUCTION

ThisreportbytheBurmaEnvironmentalWorkingGroupaimstoachievethefollowingmainobjectives:i)toreviewthecurrentstateofenvironmentalprotectioninBurma(includingdomesticandinternationalpoliciesandmechanisms,andtheroleoflocalandinternationalNGOsandUNagencies),ii)tohighlightkeyenvironmentalproblemsandtheimpactsonlocalpeopleand theenvironmentand to iii) provideanalysison conflictovernaturalresourcesinethnicareasbeforeandaftertheelectionsin2010.

The report begins by reviewing international commitments, domesticmechanisms,governmentpoliciesonland,forestandeconomy(relatedtotheresourcesector),andtheroleof local and internationalNGOsbased insideandoutside the countryworking inenvironmentalconservationandlivelihoodimprovement.Itthenhighlightsthethreatstolocalpeopleandtheenvironment. Italsoprovidesrecommendationsforpolicies, laws,institutionsandmechanismsthatmeetinternationalstandardsinprotectingtheenvironmentandcommunitylivelihoods.RecommendationsareaimedatpolicyandlawmakersinpostelectionBurma,domesticand foreign investors, stateownedcompanies, internationalfinancialinstitutions,UNagencies,internationalNGOsandcivilsocietyorganizations.

TheideaforthisreportoriginatedatanAnotherDevelopmentforBurmathematicseminarinearly2006inChiangMai,Environment Seminar on Burma.Itwasinitiallyaresponsetoareportentitled“InvestmentOpportunitiesforBiodiversityConservationinMyanmar,”publishedin2005byBirdlifeInternational,UNDP-BurmaandCriticalEcosystemsPartnershipFund(CEPF).Thereportoutlineskeybiodiversityareas,alistofthreatenedspecies,andconservationcorridors,aswellas identifiespriorities forconservation investment. It is,however,entirelybasedonthebiophysicalsciencesandtechnicalexpertisewithoutanymentionofethnicareasandtheconflictrootedinBurma,mega-developmentprojectsthatresultinmilitarization,displacement,widespreadhumanrightsabusesandenvironmentaldegradation,andtheroleofethniccommunitiesinmaintainingtraditionalnaturalresourcemanagementsystemswhichprotecttheenvironment.

Itwasdiscussedattheseminarhowconservationplanningcontinuestoexcludethepeopleswhoforcenturieshavelivedintheareastobe‘protected’,andthatinBurmalargescaleconservation initiatives involve engagementwith the government. The approachofinternationalconservationorganizationsisoftenlargelyanecologically-centredconservationapproachpracticedbythemainattheexpenseofanysocialorpeople-focusedconcerns,andincertaincaseslinkedtohumanrightsabusesandincreasedaccesstocontestedethnicterritory.Thisbringsintoquestiontherealmotivationsofthegovernmentinsettinguplarge-scaleconservationprojects.Large-scaleenvironmentalprojects,particularlyinethnicareas,mightalsomaskeconomicormilitaryobjectivesfortheregime.

Anideaemergedforareportonthestateofenvironmentfromethnicperspectivesthatwouldput together the situation inethnic areasanddemonstratewhatethnicbasedenvironmentalorganizationsbasedinThailandaredoingfromarightsbasedapproach.Itwasalsodecidedthatthereportwouldincludetheinternationalcommitmentsthatthegovernmenthasrelatedtotheenvironment,aswellaslegislationanddomesticmechanismsrelatedtoprotectingtheenvironmentinlivelihoods.Thereportwasthensplitintotwo


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parts,with the first part published in 2009 called “Accessible Alternatives: EthnicCommunities’Contribution to SocialDevelopmentandEnvironmentalConservation inBurma”,which specifically focuses on the activities of ethnic based environmentalorganizationsbasedinThailand.

Withthe2010electionloomingandtheeconomyopeningitbecameimportanttohighlightbilateral resource extraction agreements between theBurmese leaders and foreigngovernmentsandcorporationswhicharehaving,andwill continue tohave,anegativeimpactoncommunitiesandtheenvironmentparticularlyinethnicareas.Atthesametimeabroaderdiscussionwasaddedofdomesticprocessesthatsupportprivateinvestmentandthelackofadequatesafeguardsforfarmersthroughoutthecountry.

TheBEWGhopesthatthereportwillprovidepolicyandpracticerecommendationsforpolicymakers,investors,internationalcommunityandcivilsocietygroupsworkinginsideandoutsidethecountrysothattheyarewellinformed,andthatwhentheyimplementaproject inBurma,theyhavefullawarenessofthecomplications, impacts,andrightsofaffectedcommunities.

Thereportisrelevanttotheentirecountry.Manysectionsfocusmorenarrowlyonethnicareasofthecountry,whileseveralsectionsgivemoregeneraloverviewsofemergingtrendsrelevanttothewholecountry.Finally,noattentionisgiventourban-basedenvironmentalissues.

2. COUNTRY FACTS

Burmaisaresource-richnationandyetitremainsoneoftheleastdevelopednationsonearth.ThelatestUNDP’sHumanDevelopmentReportrankedBurma132outof169ontheHumanDevelopmentIndex.iii1Atapproximately$435USD,percapitaGDPinBurmaranksamongstthelowestintheworldandrecentresearchshowsthat“removenetexportsfromtheequationand thedomesticeconomyhasbeengrowingata rate that falls shortofpopulationgrowth–implyingthatpercapitaGDPhasbeendeclininginrecentyears”.2

2.1 DEMOGRAPHY

TheabsenceofdependabledataandthecomplexitiesinethnicidentityandclassificationandrendersitdifficulttoestimatethetotalpopulationofBurmaandvirtuallyimpossibletogaugetheexactmakeupofthenation.3Thelastreliablecensuswasconductedin1931(the1983censuswasonlypartial,asnumbersfromconflictareaswerenotrecorded).4Usingreproductiveandfertilityhealthsurveys,theWorldHealthOrganizationestimatesthatin2003, thereweremore than52millionpeople inBurma,whichhadat thetimea2%populationgrowthrate.5Burmaisamulti-ethniccountry.Thelargestethnicgroup,Burmans,accountforapproximatedtwo-thirdsofthepopulace.Otherethnicandindigenouspeoplesreportedlycompriseatleast40%ofthepopulationandliveson60%oftheavailableland.6

iii TheHumanDevelopmentIndexmeasuresdevelopmentcombiningindicatorsofeducation,lifeexpectancyandincomehttp://hdr.undp.org/en/statistics/hdi/.


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http://hdr.undp.org/en/statistics/hdi/

TheShanandKareneachconstituteapproximately10percentofthepopulation,andtheWa,Chin,Akha,Kachin,Karenni,Lahu,Kokang,Tavoyan,Pa-Oh,Naga,Mon,Kayan,Arakan,Rohingya,Palaung,Indian,Danu,andChineseeachmakeupnomorethanfivepercentofthepopulation.7Themajorityofthecountry’snon-Burmanethnicgroupsliveintheborderregions.

2.2 NATURAL RESOURCES

ManyethnicandindigenouspeoplesinBurmaaredependentonnaturalresourcesfortheirlivelihoodsandtraditionallyhavemaintainednaturalresourcemanagementsystemsthatensurethesustainabilityofthesenaturalresources.Inrecentyears,militarization,large-scaleresourceextraction,andinfrastructuredevelopmentaredestroyingthenaturalenvironmentandthreateningtheselocalresourcemanagementsystemswhicharestillpracticedinlowdensityareaswithampleswiddenfieldsavailable (seesection5ofthisreport).

2.2.1 Biodiversity

Previously knownas the “last frontierofbiodiversity inAsia,”Burmahasa seeminglyunparalleledabundanceofanimalandplantlife.AlmostallofthecountryislocatedinsidetheIndo-BurmaBiodiversityHotspot,oneoftheworld’s34“richestandmostthreatenedreservoirsofplantandanimallife”asidentifiedbyConservationInternational.8Sinceitstillhousesawidearrayofplantandanimalspeciesalreadygeographicallyextinctinneighboringstates,BurmaisacountryofparticularconcerninregardstobiodiversityconservationintheSoutheastAsiaregion.9

AccordingtoarecentEarthscanpublication,Burmaundoubtedlyhas“anexceptionallevelofbiologicaldiversity.”10Intermsoffauna,populationsofmanycriticallyendangeredspeciessuchastheone-hornedrhinocerosandGurney’sPittacanstillbefoundinBurma.11Threehundredidentifiedmammalsand7,000plantspeciescanbefoundinthecountry.12Burmaalsohas1,027knownbird species—thehighestbiodiversity inbirdsofany country inSoutheastAsia.13Fourbirdspeciesareendemic,and19othersarerestrictedrangebirds.iv Burmaisalsohometo425reptileandamphibianspecies,and350freshwaterfish.14 Inaddition,manyfish,invertebrates,andplantsstillneedtobesurveyedandclassified.

2.2.2 Forests

BurmaishometoAsia’smostextensiveintacttropicalforestecosystems.ManydifferentforestecosystemsexistinBurma,includingDeltamangroves,lowlandtropicalrainforestsinTennaserimDivision(Tanintharyi),teakforests,semi-deciduousforestsfurthernorth,andsub-alpineinnorthernKachinState,amongothers.Inaddition,Burmapossessestheworld’sonlyremaininggoldenteakforests.However,alltheseforestsystemsareunderthreat.Themajorityofclosedforest is foundinethnicborderregions,especiallyKarenState,KarenniStateandTennasserimDivisionalongtheThailandborder,KachinStatealongtheYunnan,Chinaborder,ArakanStatealongtheBangladeshborder,andSagaingDivisionnexttonortheastIndia.

iv Restrictedrangebirdshaveaglobalbreedingrangeoflessthan50,000squarekilometers.


15

Accordingtothe2006EnvironmentalPerformanceAssessment(EPA)report,39%ofBurma’sforestsaremixeddeciduous,26%hillforests,16%evergreen,and10%drythornyforests.15 Dipterocarpforestsaccountfor5%,withtheremaining4%belongtomangroves,beachanddune,andswampforests.

2.2.3 Coastal Areas

Burmahasa2,832kilometer-longcoastlineextendingfromthecountry’swesttosoutheastfromtheBayofBengaltotheAndamanSea.Alongthisstretch,alluvialflatsandshelteredmuddyareasarehometomangrovetreesandshrubs,keystonespeciesthatnotonlyserveashabitattocrawfish,shrimp,crabs,andnumerousotheraquaticanimals,butalsoprotectcoastalregionsfromtheimpactsofstormsandcyclones.Besidesfishandotheraquaticfoods,communitiescollectnon-timberforestproductslikewildfruitsandvegetablesfrommangrovesaswell.Offshoreliebiodiversecoralreefandseagrassbedmarineecosystems,providingcoastalvillageswithanabundantsupplyoffood.16

2.2.4 Watersheds and Freshwater Sources

Burmahasfivemainrivers:theIrrawaddy,theChindwin,theSalween,theSittaung,andtheTenasserim.EndangeredspeciessuchastheIrrawaddydolphinandBlyth’sriverfrogcanbefoundinsomeofthesewaterways. 17OthernotableriversaretheKaladan,whichrunsfromMizoram,India,throughChinlandandArakan;18andtheMekong,whichformstheborderbetweenShanStateandLaoPDR.19RegionalandinternationalinvestorshavetakennoticeofBurma’splentifulwatersources,bothforhydropowerpotentialaswellasirrigatedagriculture. 2.2.5 Oil and Gas

Thefirstforeigninvestmentprojectafter1988whenthegovernmentbegantopartiallyliberalizetheeconomywasthedevelopmentoftheYadanagasfieldintheAndamanSeaandtheconstructionofagaspipelinethroughceasefireandconflictareasinMonStateandTenasserimDivision ineasternBurma.Sincetheendof2004,theBurmeseregimeintensified theopeningofoil andgasblocks to foreigncompanies.Today thereare49onshoreblocksand26offshorebeingexploredand/ordevelopedinBurma.Burma’soilandgassectorisassociatedwithmassivescalehumanrightsabusesandenvironmentaldegradation.

In2007,SoeMyint,theDirector-GeneralofPlanningforBurma’sEnergyMinistry,statedthatthecountryhadmorethan500millionbarrelsofonshoreoilreserves,withanother100millionoffshore.20Thatsameyearnineforeignoilcompanieswereexploringfornewoildeposits,increasingoutputfromolderfields,andattemptingtorestartextractiononpreviouslyshutdownfieldson16onshoreblocks.21AccordingtotheCIAFactbook,Burmahas50millionbarrelsofprovencrudeoilreservesasofthestartof2010,makingitthecountrywiththe50thlargestreservesintheworld.22

Inregardstonaturalgas,accordingtoBritishPetroleum’s2010StatisticalReviewofWorldEnergy,attheendof2009,Burma’sprovengasreservesstoodat20.1trillioncubicfeet,or


16

0.57trillioncubicmeters,roughly0.3percentoftheworld’stotalgasreserves.23TheCIAWorldFactbookcitesBurma’sgas reservesatonly283.2billioncubicmetersasof thebeginningof2010,but theactualproven reservesare likelyhigher thancitedbybothsourcesduetorecentonshoregasdiscoveries.24SINOPEC’sBurma-basedjointventurewiththeBurmamilitaryjunta–BurmaPetroleumCo.,Ltd.–reportedthediscoveryof909billioncubicfeetofonshorenaturalgasinPahtolonfieldinCentralBurma.25 26Extensiveexplorationactivitiesarecurrentlytakingplacebothonshoreandoffshore,andtheseundiscoveredreserves,suchastheestimated13trillioncubicfeetofgasintheoffshoreA-2block,aresettopushBurma’sgasreservelevelsevenhigher.27In2009-10naturalgasaccountedfor38%ofBurma’sexportearnings,withallofthegasgoingtoThailand.28

2.2.6 Minerals

Burmahasrichmineralresourcedepositsincludingtungsten,tin,zinc,silver,copper,lead,coal,goal,andindustrialminerals.29Antimony,limestone,andmarbledepositsalsodotthelandscape.30Gemstonesincludingdiamonds,rubies,jade,andsapphirescanalsobefoundinBurma.Burmaismostfamousforitshighqualityrubiesandjadeite(themostexpensiveformofjade).ItishardtotracksmallscalegembusinessesandestimatethevalueofgemtradeinBurma,however,accordingtoindustryestimates,Burmaaccountsformorethan90percentofglobaltradeofrubiesbyvalue.31

3. ENVIRONMENTAL LAWS AND POLICIES IN BURMA

OVERVIEW

ThoughBurmadoeshavesomelegislationrelatedtoprotectingpeopleandtheenvironment,thecountrylacksthenecessaryadequateadministrativeandlegalstructures,standards,safeguardsandpoliticalwilltoenforcesuchprovisions.Inaddition,whileBurmaispartytoseveralinternationaltreatiessuchastheConventiononBiologicalDiversity(CBD),vBurmahasnotincorporatedtheprovisionscontainedintheseagreementsintodomesticlaw.Forexample,nationallawsdonotcurrentlyrequireenvironmentalimpactassessments(EIA)orpublicparticipationbylocalcommunitiesinthedecision-makingprocessesoflarge-scaledevelopmentprojects. Thereareno laws that comprehensively regulatepollution,nostandards to adequately protect biodiversity, develop resettlementplans, or providecompensation.Thelackofenvironmentalprotectionlegislationhasleftroomforunabatedecologicaldegradation.32Thereare,however,the1995CommunityForestInstructions(CFI),adraftedEnvironmentalLaw,andtheLandAcquisitionActthat,ifsystematicallyenforced,wouldimproveenvironmentalprotectionandtheland-basedrightsoflocalpopulations.

Thissectionreviewstheadministrativeandlegalstructuressetuptoprotecttheenvironment,aswellasongoingactivitiesbythegovernmentandcivilsocietyorganizationsbasedinsideandoutsideBurmathatareintendedtopromotesustainabledevelopmentandenvironmentalprotection.

v BurmabecameapartytotheCBDin1994.Article14(1)(a)oftheConventionrequiresanEIAandArticle8(j)mandatesindigenousparticipationwherethereisasignificantimpactonbiodiversity.


17

3.1 National Commission for Environmental Affairs

EnvironmentalprotectioninBurmagenerallycomesundertheauthorityoftheNationalCommissionforEnvironmentalAffairs(NCEA),formedin1990.viUntil2005,theMinisterofForeignAffairswas thechairofNCEAwhichwasa strong indication that theBurmesegovernmentcreatedtheNCEAmerelyasatooltowininternationalapproval.33In2005,however,theNCEAwastransferredundertheMinistryofForestry(MoF),andtheMinisterofForestryassumedtheroleoftheNCEAchairperson.

ThestatedobjectivesoftheNCEAaretosetenvironmentalstandards,createenvironmentalpoliciesforusingnaturalresources,issuerulesandregulationstocontrolpollution,andtocreateshort-andlong-termenvironmentalpolicieswhichbalanceenvironmentalneedsanddevelopmentrequirements.34However,seriousbudget,staffconstraintsandlackoflegislativemandatehavecompromisedtheeffectivenessof theNCEA inmeetingthoseobjectives.35Thebudgetisminuscule:inthefiscalyear2004-2005,theNCEAhadabudgetofonlyabout$12,000USD(12millionKyat36),andmostofitwasusedtopaysalaries.

TheNCEAhasdraftedtwoenvironmentallaws:theEnvironmentalProtectionLawandtheEnvironmental ImpactAssessmentRules, bothofwhich arepending approval by thegovernment.37

TheNCEAwasalsothefocalpointfortheMyanmarNationalEnvironmentalPerformanceAssessment(EPA),areportdoneincollaborationwithseveralinternationalorganizationssuchastheAsianDevelopmentBank(ADB),UnitedNationsEnvironmentalProgramme(UNEP), Institute ofGlobal Environmental Strategies, and theNational Institute forEnvironmental Studiesof Japan. In2006 theMyanmarEPAwaspublishedaspartofabroaderprogramcalledtheNationalPerformanceAssessmentandStrategicEnvironmentFrameworkofGreaterMekongSubregion (GMS),whichaims topromote sustainabledevelopmentintheGMSthroughthecreationofnationalandsub-regionalenvironmentalperformanceassessmentsystemsanddevelopmentofnationalandsub-regionalcapacitiesforimplementingsuchassessments.TheMyanmarEPAprovidessomeusefulbaselinedatacoveringsevenkeyenvironmentalconcerns,includingforestresources,biodiversity,landdegradation,managementofwater resources,wastemanagement, airpollution frommobilesourceandclimatechange. 38However,intheEPAthereisnomentionofthemanyenvironmentalconcernsinBurmasuchasproblemsassociatedwithminetailingsdisposal,constructionoflargedams,large-scalecommercialagriculture,gas-fielddevelopment,orpipelineandroadconstruction.Thereportalsodoesnotmentionthetraditionalnaturalresourcemanagementsystemspracticedbyethnicpeoplethroughoutthecountry.

vi However,respectivedepartmentsthatarestatutorilyseparatefromtheNCEAareresponsibleforacuteenvironmental issues including forest degradation,water resourcemanagement and sustainability ofagriculture.TunMyint,‘EnvironmentalGovernanceintheSPDC’sMyanmar’inMyanmar:Thestate,communityandtheenvironment,TrevorWilsonandMoniqueSkidmore(eds),AustralianNationalUniversity,ANUEPressandAsiaPacificPress,2007.


18

3.2 Environmental Policies and Laws

AnationalenvironmentalpolicywasdraftedbytheNCEAin1994.TheNationalEnvironmentPolicyisasfollows:

Toestablishsoundenvironmentpolicies,utilisationofwater,land,forests,mineral,marineresourcesandothernaturalresourcesinordertoconservetheenvironmentandpreventitsdegradation,theGovernmentoftheUnionofMyanmarherebyadoptsthefollowingpolicy:Thewealthofthenationisitspeople,itsculturalheritage,itsenvironmentanditsnaturalresources.TheobjectiveofMyanmar’s environmentalpolicy is aimedat achievingharmonyandbalancebetweenthesethroughtheintegrationofenvironmentalconsiderationsintothedevelopmentprocesstoenhancethequalityofthelifeofallitscitizens.Everynationhasthesovereignrighttoutiliseitsnaturalresourcesinaccordancewithitsenvironmentalpolices;butgreatcaremustbetakennottoexceeditsjurisdictionorinfringeupontheinterestsofothernations.ItistheresponsibilityoftheStateandeverycitizentopreserveitsnatural resources in the interests of present and future generations.Environmentalprotectionshouldalwaysbetheprimaryobjectiveinseekingdevelopment39.

There is, however,no formalenvironmental laworan institutional framework for theimplementationof thispolicy.A setofprovisionsaboutenvironmentalprotectionwasdraftedandre-draftedbetween1997and2000bythegovernmentwithtechnicalinputfromanenvironmentallawexpertfundedbyUNEP,40butithasnotbeenmadeintolawyet.Ifthelawisapproved,therewillbemoreinstitutionalspacetoregulateenvironmentalqualityandconductEIA’sandSIA’sforinfrastructureandinvestmentprojectsfundedbythegovernmentandprivatesector.However,lackofpoliticalwill,limitedhumanresources,and low levelsofbudgetallocation forenvironmentalprotectionandconservationaremajorchallengeseveniftheenvironmentallawisinplacetoimplement.

Thedevelopmentoftheenvironmentalpolicywasfollowedbythedraftingof‘MyanmarAgenda21’ in 1997,which followsaUN framework for amulti-prongedapproach tosustainabledevelopment.TheMyanmarAgenda21recognizestheneedforEnvironmentalImpactAssessments.41MyanmarAgenda21callsfor integratedmanagementofnaturalresourcesandprovidesablueprintforachievingsustainabledevelopment.

3.3 Impact Assessments in Burma

Oneofthemostimportantinternationally-acceptedenvironmentalprotectionmethodsistoconductanenvironmentalimpactassessment(EIA)priortoimplementingdevelopmentprojects. Whendoneproperly,anEIA identifies,predicts,evaluates,andmitigates thebiophysical, social,andother relevanteffectsofdevelopmentproposalsprior tomajordecisionsbeingtakenandcommitmentsmade.42TheEIAissupposedtoprovideappropriateopportunitiestoinformandinvolvestakeholdersinaproject.vii

vii TheInternationalAssociationforImpactAssessmenthasguidelinesontheobjectivesandprinciplesofanEIAseehttp://www.iaia.org/publicdocuments/special-publications/Principles%20of%20IA_web.pdf


19

http://www.iaia.org/publicdocuments/special-publications/Principles%20of%20IA_web.pdf

InBurma,nolawrequiresanEIAorSocialImpactAssessment(SIA)viii beforeadevelopmentprojectisimplemented.Publicaccesstogovernmentinformationisrestricted,andpriorapprovalfromagenciesisrequiredtoreleaseinformationaboutdevelopmentprojects.43 OngoingdevelopmentprojectsinBurmasuchasconstructionofroadsanddams,mining,logging,aswellascoal,oil,andgasextractiondonothaveanystandardizedmeasureofnegativeimpactstotheenvironmentandthelocalpeople,andtheimplementingagenciesarenotrequiredbythelawsofBurmatomakeeffortstomitigatetheseimpacts.

AnecdotalevidenceshowsthatevenonrareoccasionswhenanEIAisconductedinBurma,itisnotdonetomeetthesubstantiveobjectivesofaproperEIA.ArecentEIA,supportedbyaforeigncompany,wasconductedbyaBurmeseconservationNGOabouttheconstructionofahydropowerdam inBurma,but theNGO refused to includeany social factorsasaccordingtoBurmesegovernmentorders.44TheEIAdidnotimpactthedesignofthedamorstemthetideofhydropowerprojectsinthecountry.

Inarecentarticle,anofficialwiththeMinistryofMinesproposedanEIAprocessforBurma.45 Theproposedprocesshasseveralshortcomings.First,theprocessallowstheMinisterfortheEnvironment (currently a theoreticalpositionas yet there isno suchministry) todetermineatthestart,withoutanysupportingevidence,thataprojectwillhave“no impact.”Whensuchadecision is taken,anEIA isnot required. Thiswouldprovideanobviousloopholeinanyrigorousassessmentofthepotentialenvironmentalandsocialimpactfromaproject. Furthermore,whereas the internationalgoodpractice is fora thirdparty toconduct the assessment study, under this proposal, the project proponent has theresponsibilityforpreparingtheEIA,whichprovidesaneasymechanismtohideorignoresignificantimpacts.Finally,publicparticipationisnotmandatory,andoccurstoolateintheprocess.Itisuptothegovernmenttodetermineifpublicparticipationis“required,”allowingthegovernmenttoavoidpublicparticipationforcontroversialprojects.

Anothertooladvocatedbyhumanrightsandothercivilsocietyorganizations ishumanrightsimpactassessments (HRIAs)toassesstheimpactofgovernmentandotherpoliciesonhumanrights,i.e.health.46

3.4 Environmental Provisions in the 2008 Constitution

Underthenew2008Constitution,thegovernment“shallprotectandconservethenaturalenvironment”(Chapter1,Section45).47Thenationallegislaturecan,butdoesnotneedto,enactlawstoprotecttheenvironmentandhelprestoreareasdegradedordamagedbyminingandforestryactivitiesorthosethathaveexperienceddestructionofplants,wildlife,andhabitat(Chapter4,Section96).48StateandDivisionLegislaturesalsohavethepowertoregulateenvironmentalprotection,butwithintheboundariesoflegislationpassedbytheNationalLegislature(Chapter4,Section196).49Inaddition,everycitizenhastheduty

viii SIAsshouldcover‘allsocialandculturalconsequencestohumanpopulationsofanypublicorprivateactionsthatalterthewaysinwhichpeoplelive,work,play,relatetooneanother,organizetomeettheirneeds,andgenerallycopeasmembersofsociety’and‘culturalimpactsinvolvechangestothenorms,values,andbeliefsof individuals thatguideandrationalize theircognitionof themselvesandtheirsocieties’R.J.BurdgeandF.Vanclay,F.,‘Socialimpactassessment:acontributiontothestateoftheartseries’,ImpactAssessment,1996.


20

to“assist”thegovernmentincarryingoutenvironmentalconservation(Chapter8,Section390).50

Withregardtoenvironmentalprotection,the2008Constitutiondoesnotguaranteetothepeople the right to a clean andhealthy environment althoughmanyother nationalconstitutionsprovidesucharight.ixTheconstitutiondoesnothaveanyclearlanguageonsustainabledevelopmentandrecognitionoftherightsofcivilsocietysuchasfreedomofinformation,participation innaturalresourcemanagement,customary landownership,informationinlocallanguages,andequitablebenefitsharing.

3.5 National Sustainable Development Strategy

TheNationalSustainableDevelopmentStrategy(NSDS)ispartofabroaderprogramoftheUNSustainableDevelopmentCommissionsetupaftertheWorldSummitonSustainableDevelopmentin2002.EverycountryincludingBurmathatsignedAgenda21xattheEarthSummit inRioDe Janerio in1992,agreed todevelopanNSDSby2010 in linewith theMillenniumDevelopmentGoals(MDGs).UNEPprovidedfundingforBurmatodevelopanNSDS.Themainaimof theprocesswas todevelopanNSDS in linewith internationalstandardsbymeetingtheMDGsandensurethatenvironmentalandsocial impactsaremitigatedwhenimplementingdevelopmentprojects. 51TheNCEAinBurmatookaleadindevelopingthestrategyinconsultationwiththegovernmentandasmallnumberofNGOs.Burma’sNSDSwaspublishedinAugust2009.Thethreegoalsaresustainablemanagementofnaturalresources,integratedeconomicdevelopmentandsustainablesocialdevelopment.Specific strategiesareoutlinedundereachgoal. Forexample, thegoal for SustainableManagementofNaturalResourcessuggestsstrategiesforforestresourcemanagement,sustainableenergyproductionandconsumption,biodiversity conservation, sustainablefreshwaterresourcesmanagement,sustainablemanagementoflandresources,sustainablemanagementformineralresourcesutilization,andsoon.52

TheNSDSwasofficiallyacceptedbytheMinistryofPlanning. In theory, it isaguidingdocumentforgovernmentministries,departmentsandlocalauthorities,UNorganizations,and international and localNGOs. Themain limitation, however, is thatBurma lackscomprehensivenationalpolicieson landuse,energyandenvironment,whichmakes itdifficulttoimplementthestrategiescontainedintheNSDS.ThereisalsoaneedtoconsultmoreNGOsintheprocess.TheUnitedNationsEnvironmentProgramhasstatedthatthereareopportunitiestoreviewandfurtherdevelopthestrategyinthefuture.53

ix ForexamplethePhilippines’Constitutionprovides:“TheStateshallprotectandadvancetherightofthepeopletoabalancedandhealthfulecologyinaccordwiththerhythmandharmonyofnature”http://www.tanggol.org/environmental_laws/conex.html.x Agenda21“isacomprehensiveplanofactiontobetakenglobally,nationallyandlocallybyorganizationsoftheUnitedNationsSystem,Governments,andMajorGroupsineveryareainwhichhumanimpactsontheenvironment.Agenda21..wasadoptedbymorethan178GovernmentsattheUnitedNationsConferenceonEnvironmentandDevelopment(UNCED)heldinRiodeJanerio,Brazil,3to14June1992”.http://www.un.org/esa/dsd/agenda21/


21

http://www.tanggol.org/environmental_laws/conex.html

http://www.tanggol.org/environmental_laws/conex.html

http://www.un.org/esa/dsd/agenda21/

http://www.un.org/esa/dsd/agenda21/

3.6 International Commitments

Burmahassigned31internationaltreatiesrelatedtotheenvironment(seeTable1).Itisunclear,however,howthecontentsofthosetreatieshavebeenincorporatedintodomesticlaw.Belowisamorein-depthdiscussionofthemostsignificantconventionsinthecontextofenvironmentalprotectioninBurmatoday.

Table 1–InternationalandregionaltreatiesconcerningtheenvironmenttowhichBurmaisaparty(inchronologicalorder)

Name

1 PlantProtectionAgreementfortheSoutheastAsiaandPacificRegion

2 TreatyBanningNuclearWeaponsTestsintheAtmosphereinOuterSpaceandUnderWater

3 OuterSpaceTreaty:TreatyonPrinciplesGoverningtheActivitiesofStatesintheExploitationandUseofOuterSpaceincludingtheMoonandotherCelestialBodies

4 TreatyontheProhibitionoftheEmplacementofNuclearWeaponsandotherWeaponsofMassDestructionontheSea-BedandOceanFloorandintheSubsoilthereof(SeabedTreaty)

5 ConventionontheProhibitionoftheDevelopment,ProductionandStockpilingofBacteriologicalandToxinWeapons,andtheirDestruction

6 ViennaConventionfortheProtectionoftheOzoneLayer

7 MontrealProtocolonSubstancesthatDepletetheOzoneLayer

8 MARPOL:InternationalConventionforthePreventionofPollutionfromShips

9 MARPOL:InternationalConventionforthePreventionofPollutionfromShipsasamended1978

10 AgreementontheNetworksofAquacultureCentersinAsiaandthePacificRegion

11 LondonAmendmenttotheMontrealProtocolonSubstancesthatDepletetheOzoneLayer

12 UnitedNationsFrameworkConventiononClimateChange(UNFCCC)

13 TreatyontheNon-ProliferationofNuclearWeapons

14 ICAO:ANNEX16AnnextotheConventiononInternationalCivilAviationEnvironmentalProtectionVol.I,II,AircraftNoise

15 UnitedNationsConventiontoCombatDesertification

16 ViennaConventionfortheProtectionofOzoneLayer

17 MontrealProtocolonSubstancesthatDepletetheOzoneLayer

18 LondonAmendmenttotheMontrealProtocol

19 ConventionConcerningtheProtectionoftheWorldCulturalandNaturalHeritage

20 ConventiononBiologicalDiversity(CBD)


22

Name

21 UnitedNationsConventionontheLawoftheSea

22 InternationalTropicalTimberAgreement(ITTA)

23 ConventiononInternationalTradeinEndangeredSpeciesofWildFaunaandFlora(CITES)

24 ASEANAgreementontheConservationofNatureandNaturalResources

25 CatagenaProtocolonBiosafety

26 ASEANAgreementonTransboundaryHazePollution

27 Kyoto ProtocoltotheUnitedNationsFrameworkConventiononClimateChange

28 ConventionontheProhibitionoftheDevelopment,Production,andStockpilingandUseofChemicalWeaponsandontheirDestruction

29 StockholmConventiononPersistentOrganicPollutants

30 RamsarConventiononWetlands

31 CopenhagenAmendmenttoMontrealProtocolonSubstancesthatdepletetheOzoneLayer

3.6.1 Biodiversity Conservation and Indigenous Peoples

Convention on Biological Diversity

BurmaratifiedtheConventiononBiologicalDiversity(CBD)in1994.Itisthefirstglobalagreementonconservationandsustainableuseofbiologicaldiversity.54AsignificantarticleforindigenouspeopleisArticle8jwhichstates,“Signatoriesmustrespect,preserve,andpromoteindigenousknowledge,innovations,andpracticesrelevantfortheconservationandsustainableuseofbiologicaldiversity.”55 xi

DespitepoliticalconstraintstheBurmesegovernmenthasfollowed-upontheCBD.Thegovernmentwroteall three requirednationalbiodiversity reports. In January2006aMemorandumofUnderstanding(MoU)wassignedwiththeUnitedNationsEnvironmentProgramRegionalOfficeofAsia-Pacific(UNEPROAP)inBangkokforittosupportBurma’sNCEAwiththedevelopmentoftheNationalBiodiversityStrategyActionPlan(NBSAP).56 TheNBSAPispartofarequirementoftheCBDforsignatoriestointegrateconservationandsustainableuseofbiologicalresourcesintonationaldecisionmaking,andmainstreamissuesacrossallsectorsofthenationaleconomyandpolicy-makingframework(Articles6(b),26and10(a)).xii

xi IntheCBDpartiesarealsocalledontoestablishprotectedareaswherespecialmeasuresneedtobetakento conservebiological diversity. The conventionprovides that importantbiological resources shouldbemanaged “whetherwithinoroutsideprotectedareas,with a view toensuring their conservationandsustainableuse”(Article8c).xiTheCBDalso“protect(s)andencourage(s)customaryuseofbiologicalresourcesinaccordancewithtraditionalculturalpracticesthatarecompatiblewithconservationorsustainableuserequirements”(Article10c).xii Article6createsanobligationfornationalbiodiversityplanning.Itstatesthatsignatoriesshould“developnationalstrategies,plansorprogrammesfortheconservationandsustainableuseofbiologicaldiversityor


23

AconsultationworkshoptostarttheNBSAPprocesswasorganizedbytheForestDepartmentin June2006 inRangoon. Inperhaps the largestgathering inBurmaever regardinganenvironmental issue, out of 149 invitees, therewere 119participants fromover 44organizations,governmentministriesanddepartments,universitiesandinstitutesaswellasrepresentativesofinternationalandnationalNGOsandtheprivatesector.57

Atthemeetingitwasdeclaredthatthereport“InvestmentOpportunitiesforBiodiversityConservationinMyanmar,”publishedin2005byBirdlifeInternational,UNDP-BurmaandCriticalEcosystemsPartnershipFund(CEPF),wouldbeusedasabaselinedocumentfortheNBSAPprocess.Thereportoutlineskeybiodiversityareas,alistofthreatenedspecies,andconservationcorridors,aswellasidentifiesprioritiesforconservationinvestmentforthenextfiveyears.The report,however, isentirelybasedon thebiophysical sciencesandtechnicalexpertisewithoutanyregardforsocialandculturalvalue,indigenousterritories,orthepoliticalethnicconflictrootedinBurma. 58

Burmahasreceivedfundingforthe“stocktakingprocess”intheformulationoftheNBSAPfromtheGlobalEnvironmentFund(GEF),butduetopersonnelchangesintheForestryDepartmentandthelackofaqualifiedresourceperson,theprocessisnotgoingasfastasGEFandUNEPhoped. 59AconsultantfortheNBSAPhashoweverbeenappointedfromthenationalNGOECODEV(seesection3.7.1).

Moreover,Burma’sNBSAPprocess itself thus farhasmarginalized indigenouspeople’scontributiontobiodiversityconservation.NoindigenouspeoplesorenvironmentalgroupswithindigenousrepresentationinsideorbasedoutsideofBurmahavebeenconsultedintheprocessofdevelopingtheNBSAP.ThisisindirectcontradictiontotheprinciplesoftheCBD,theNBSAPguidelinesandGEFmandates.60

United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples

Burmawasoneof144statesthatendorsedtheUnitedNationsDeclarationontheRightsofIndigenousPeoplesinSeptember2007.EffectiveimplementationofthishumanrightsinstrumentwouldsignificantlyimprovethesituationforindigenouspeopleinBurmaandthroughout theworld.61Article32 is about IndigenousPeoples right toFreeandPriorInformedConsent (FPIC): “States shall consult and cooperate in good faithwith theIndigenousPeoplesconcernedthroughtheirownrepresentativeinstitutionsinordertoobtainFreeandPriorInformedConsentpriortoapprovalofanyprojectaffectingtheirlandorterritories”.Article10aboutforciblerelocationofindigenouspeople,andtheneedforFPICandArticle26aboutlandrightsarealsorelevantarticlesforindigenouspeoplesinBurma.xiiiWhileitisapplaudedthattheBurmesegovernmentsignedthistreaty,itistime

adaptforthispurposeexistingstrategies,plansorprogrammeswhichshallreflect,interalia,themeasuressetoutinthisConventionrelevanttotheContractingPartyconcerned”and“integrate,asfaraspossibleandasappropriate,theconservationandsustainableuseofbiologicaldiversityintorelevantsectoralorcross-sectoralplans,programmesandpolicies”.Articles26and10(a)arealsorelevantcallingforregularnationalreportsandtheintegrationofconservationandbiologicalresourcesintonationaldecisionmaking.xiii “Indigenouspeoplesshallnotbeforciblyremovedfromtheirlandsorterritories.Norelocationshalltakeplacewithoutthefree,priorandinformedconsentoftheindigenouspeoplesconcernedandafteragreementonjustandfaircompensationand,wherepossible,withtheoptionofreturn”(Article10),“1.Indigenouspeopleshavetherighttothelands,territoriesandresourceswhichtheyhavetraditionallyowned,occupied


24

thegovernmentstarttorespectandfollowtheindigenousprotectionregimesadvocatedinthistreaty,whichisdesperatelyneededinBurma.Thisagreementisonestepforwardinrecognizingtherightsandresponsibilitiesofindigenouspeoplesandthepositiveroletheycan–andshould–playinprotectingtheenvironment,andwithit,theirresource-basedlivelihoods.

International Labor Organization

TheILOConvention169alsorecognizestherightsofownershipandpossessionofpeoplestraditionallyoccupyingland(Article14),whiletherightstonaturalresources–includingparticipation in theiruse,managementandconservation–are ‘specially safeguarded’(Article15).62

3.6.2 CITES

BurmaisasignatorytotheConventiononInternationalTradeinEndangeredSpeciesofWild FaunaandFlora (CITES). CITES signatories, includingBurma,agree to regulateorprohibittradeinendangeredspeciesoranimalpartssuchasbones,horns,orfur,accordingtothespecies’levelofendangermentlistedintheappendicesofCITES.xiv InBurma,theForestdepartmentservesastheCITESmanagementauthority.In1994theProtectionofWildlifeandWildPlantsandConservationofNaturalAreas Law (State LawandOrderRestorationCouncilLawNo.583/94.1994)wasenacted.ThelawissupposedtobeenforcedbytheForestrydepartment,andpossession,saleorexportofanimalsortheirpartsofspeciescoveredbythislawispunishablebyafineofupto50000Kyat($7680USD)and/orimprisonmentofuptosevenyears.63Thereis,however,littleornoenforcementofCITESregulationsinBurma.EndangeredspeciescanbefoundinmarketsthroughoutBurma,withmuchofthedemandcomingfromChina,andmorerecentlyVietnam.64 65(Seesection5.7).

3.6.3 Climate Change

BurmahasbeenreceivingfundsfromGEFtoimplementtwoprojects:aProjectforInitialNationalCommunication(INC)underUNFCCCandaNationalActionPlanforAdaptation(NAPA).TheINCistoimplementArticle6oftheUNFCCCxv.ThecurrentINCproject isastocktakingexercise for analyzing levels of greenhouse gas emission, climate changescenarios,associatedrisksandvulnerabilities,potentialmeasuresandtechnologytransferformitigatingclimatechangeandthedegreeofpublicawarenessonclimatechangeissues.NAPAisaprocessundertheUnitedNationsFrameworkConventiononClimateChange(UNFCCC)forLeastDevelopedCountriessuchasBurmato“toidentifypriorityactivities

orotherwiseusedoracquired.2.Indigenouspeopleshavetherighttoown,use,developandcontrolthelands,territoriesandresourcesthattheypossessbyreasonoftraditionalownershiporothertraditionaloccupationoruse,aswellasthosewhichtheyhaveotherwiseacquired.3.Statesshallgivelegalrecognitionandprotectiontotheselands,territoriesandresources.Suchrecognitionshallbeconductedwithduerespecttothecustoms,traditionsandlandtenuresystemsoftheindigenouspeoplesconcerned.”(Article26).Forfulltextseehttp://www.un.org/esa/socdev/unpfii/en/drip.html.xiv TherearethreeappendicestoCITESthatarelistsofspeciestoberegulated.xv Article6 is foreducation, trainingandpublicawareness. Seehttp://unfccc.int/essential_background/convention/background/items/1366.php


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http://www.un.org/esa/socdev/unpfii/en/drip.html

http://unfccc.int/essential_background/convention/background/items/1366.php

http://unfccc.int/essential_background/convention/background/items/1366.php

thatrespondtotheirurgentandimmediateneedstoadapttoclimatechange–thoseforwhichfurtherdelaywouldincreasevulnerabilityand/orcostsatalaterstage”. 66TheNAPAprojectinBurmaisfocusingonpreparingnationalsectoralandmultisectoralactivitiestobuildadaptivecapacitiesatnationalandlocallevelforfacingclimatechangerisks.Burmaisearmarkedforfundingofapproximately$US16millionunderGEF’s2010to2014programcycle (namelyGEF5’s SystemofTransparentAllocationofResources (STAR)).However,Burma’saccesstofundsfromGEF5isconfinedbytheneedinco-fundingupto40to60%ofthetotalbudgetwhichislimitedbyWesternsanctionspolicies.Nevertheless,attemptshavebeenmadeinsideBurmaforformationofnewauthorityfocusingonclimatechangeandenvironmentalmatters,includingenvironmentalactivitieslinkedwithglobalmovementsandinitiatives.Atpresent,ECODEVisalsoservingasteamleaderoftheGEFfundedprojectfornationalcommunicationunderUnitedNationsFrameworkConventiononClimateChangeinordertoimplementtheArticle6oftheconventionwhichistopromoteeducation,trainingandpublicawarenessonclimatechange,andtheexecutivedirectoristhenationalconsultantfortheNationalStrategyandActionPlanonBiodiversityconservation(NBSAP).

In2010theBurmesegovernmentexpressed interest inaUNcollaborative initiativeonReducingEmissionsfromDeforestationandForestDegradation(REDD),nowreferredtoasREDD+.xvi 67However,itwasmutuallyagreedthatduetoconcernsoverthepossibilityofoppositionfromsomemembersoftheUN-REDDPolicyBoard,theywouldnotformallyproceedwith an application to join at this time.UN-REDD is currently supportingrepresentativesfromcivilsocietyorganizationsfromBurmatoattendtrainingsinREDD“Readiness”suchasatraininginfreeandpriorinformedconsentinVietnam.InNovember2010,twoMinistryofForestryofficialsandaUNDPofficialattendedaworkshopforregionalactorsinBangkok.TheworkshopservedtoexchangelessonslearnedandexperiencesinpreparingforREDD+.

3.7 Environmentalism in Burma

Note: Many groups and individuals inside are actively working on a range of environmental and livelihood-based issues inside Burma. Their work and safety could be jeopardized by being identified, so only groups with a high public profile or websites will be mentioned. For others, their work will be discussed without identifying their organization.

Indiscussingtheactivitiesoforganizationsworkingonenvironmentalandlivelihood-basedissuesbothbasedingovernment-controlledareasofBurma(‘inside’)andthosebasedintheThai andChineseborder regions (‘bordergroups’), thereare twoapproaches: the‘traditional’conservationapproachandtherights-basedapproach.Organizationsthatareusingarights-basedapproachworkfromaperspectiveofsustainabledevelopmentandlivelihoodsandsubsequentlyfocusonissuessuchasfoodsecurity,landtenureandrights,andcommunitydevelopmentandorganizing.Conservationorganizations tend to focusspecificallyonenvironmentalprotection,althoughwithvaryingapproachestoachievetheir

xvi “ReducingEmissionsfromDeforestationandForestDegradation(REDD)isanefforttocreateafinancialvalueforthecarbonstoredinforests,offeringincentivesfordevelopingcountriestoreduceemissionsfromforestedlandsandinvestinlow-carbonpathstosustainabledevelopment.“REDD+”goesbeyonddeforestationand forestdegradation, and includes the roleof conservation, sustainablemanagementof forests andenhancementofforestcarbonstocks”.Seehttp://www.un-redd.org/AboutREDD/tabid/582/Default.aspx


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http://www.un-redd.org/AboutREDD/tabid/582/Default.aspx

commongoal.Organizationsworkingonenvironmentalissuesalsofocusonenvironmentalawareness,educationandtraining,policydevelopment,advocacyandnetworking.

3.7.1 Organizations based inside Burma

Thespaceforengagingonenvironmentalissues–broadlydefined–inBurmahasopenedupconsiderablyoverthepastdecade,withagrowingnumberofinternational,nationalandgrassrootsorganizationsnowoperating indifferentpartsof thecountryonawiderangeof relatedprojects.Abroadarrayoforganizationsareworkingonwhat canbeconsidered”environment”issues,suchasconservation,livelihooddevelopment,agriculturalcommoditychains,farmer-to-farmerschools,smallholderplantationdevelopment, landtenureandfoodsecurity,communityforestry,andforestrestorationthroughoutgovernment-controlledareasinBurma,andinafewcases,areascontrolledbyethnicpoliticalgroups.Therearecurrentlyapproximately40internationalNGOsworkingon“environmentissues”throughoutthecountryincludingagriculture,horticulture,fisheries,incomegeneration,integratedfarmingsystems,agro-forestry,foodsecurity,wildlifeconservation,biodiversityconservation,environmentaleducationandwaterandsanitationinitiatives.68Thisnumberdoesnotincludetheextensivenumberofchurches,community-basedorganizations(CBO),andnationalandgrassrootsorganizationsworkingontheseissues.

Burmeseenvironmentalorganizationshavebeenimplementing“environmental”activitiesatlocalandnationallevelsforuptoadecadenow,usingbothtraditionalconservationapproachesaswellasrights-basedapproaches.Onesuchorganization,ForestResourceEnvironmentDevelopmentandConservationAssociation(FREDA),isofficiallyregisteredwiththegovernmenttoimplementanextensiveprogramonforestconservationandrestoration,gainingprominenceovertheyearstobecomethecountry’smostrecognizedconservationNGO.FREDAemploysa traditional conservationmodelbutwith increasinglycommunity-orientedapproaches.FREDA focusesmostlyoncommunity reforestation,especiallymangroves,andagro-andaqua-forestryintheIrrawaddydelta.FREDAhasworkswiththeFDoninternationalsustainableforestryinitiatives,aswellastimbercertificationmechanismsforthecountry.RecentlyFREDAhasbeeninvolvedinanEnvironmentSteeringCommitteewiththegovernment,UNDPandUNEPtosupportlocalinitiativesaroundInleLakewherethereisagrowingawarenessoftheeffectofchemicalfertilizers,pesticidesandherbicidesonlivelihoodsandlocalecosystems.69

BANCA,aBurmeseconservationNGO,wasestablishedinRangooninmid-2000sasalocalpartnerforBirdlifeInternationaltoaddressbirdandhabitatconservationinBurma.BANCAhasinitiatedmanyconservationprojectsindifferentpartsofthecountry,aswellasconductedextensivein-depthecologicalresearchwithateamofBurmesescientistsinareasrichinbiodiversitytoidentifycriticalhabitatforprotection.

SeveralotherBurmeseNGOsoperateinthecountrywithheadofficesinRangoon,mostlyworkingonforestconservationandrestoration.Mostofthemareheadedbyformerhigh-levelforestryofficials,anduseamoretraditionalconservationapproachbutincreasinglywithcommunity-basedapproaches.TheseorganizationsfocusonmangrovereforestationinthedeltaregionafterCycloneNargisstruckin2008,greeningtheCentralDryZone,andcommunityforestryinitiativesthroughoutthecountry.ManyBurmeseNGOsfocustheireffortsonlocallivelihoodsandcommunityempowerment.


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“ECODEVwhichstandsfor‘economicallyprogressiveecosystemdevelopment’isagroupofMyanmardevelopmentprofessionals, intellectuals and social entrepreneurs”.70 It isregisteredundertheMyanmarPartnershipActandtheMyanmarCompanyAct.ThemissionofECODEV is tonetwork forprivatepublicpartnerships inorder torealize itsvisionof“PrivateSectorLedSustainableDevelopment”inBurmaandbeyond.Allofitsdevelopmentprograms focus onnurturing “Healthier Environment” by a “Stronger Society”with“ResponsibleBusinessInvestment”through“StrategicPartnershipDevelopment”.AspartofitsattempttopromoteenvironmentalgovernanceinMyanmar,ECODEVhasundertakennumberofinitiativeswhichincludethedevelopmentoftheprocessoftheEnvironmentalPerformanceAssessmentareportcommissionedbyUNEPtheADB,publishedin2006(seesection3.1), theempowermentof grassroots communities to secure land tenureandresource-use rightsof communities through community forestry, andevidencebasedresearchforeffectiveadvocacy.ECODEVtakeskeypositionsincivilsocietynetworksincludingtheFoodSecurityWorkingGroup,MangroveEnvironmentandRehabilitationNetworkandKachinStateConservationGroup.Atpresent,ECODEVisalsoservingasteamleaderfortheINCproject(seesection3.6.3),andtheexecutivedirectoristhenationalconsultantfortheNBSAP(seesection3.6.1).

TheMetta Development Foundation (Metta) is an NGO established in 1998 toassist communities recovering from the devastating consequences of conflict andhumanitarianemergency.Mettaworksin10statesandregionsonawiderangeofprojectsaimedtoenhance landtenure and foodsecurity,facilitatefarmer-to-farmer fieldschools,encouragetheestablishmentofcommunityforests,andothersustainablecommunity-basedprojects.Metta basesitsworkonacommunityempowermentmodelbyworkingcloselywithcommunitiesoveralongterm,gainingthemrespectfromtheircolleagues.

ShalomFoundation(Nyein)wasestablishedin2000initiatedbyKachinreligiousleaderandinvolvedby religiousandcivil society leaders fromvariousethnic statesand thewiderBurmesecommunity.ItaimstoworkonpeaceanddevelopmentinitiativesinKachinStateafterthecease-fireprocess,whichhasnowevolvedintofacilitatinglivelihooddevelopmentprojectssuchascommunityforestry,community-basedresearch,peace-buildingtrainings,andconstructivedialogueamongstdifferentparties. Shalomworks closelywithKachincommunities, and thewider community on issuespertaining topeace, conflict, andsustainabledevelopment.

BesidesBurmeseconservationand livelihooddevelopmentNGOs, therearealsomanyinternationalNGOsworkingonsimilarissues,withheadofficesinRangoonandinsomecasesbranchofficesinprovincialcapitalsinstates/divisionswheretheyoperateprojects.Mostoftheseorganizationsworkfromarights-basedapproach.SomeofthemoreactiveorganizationsincludeWorldConcern,GRET,DeutscheWelthungerHilfe(DWHH,formerlyGermanAgroActionorGAA),AdventistDevelopmentandReliefAgency(ADRA),SwissAid,SavetheChildren,Oxfam(GB),CARE,MercyCorps,DanishChurchAid(DCA),ConsortiumofDutchNGOs (CDN),Action contra la faim (ACF) andActionAid.While theyoperatedifferentlyand invest their resources indifferentprojectsacross thecountry (althoughmostlyinethnicareasandtheIrrawaddydeltaafterCycloneNargis),theyallseemtoshareacommongoal:improvinglocallivelihoods.


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Althoughtoalesserextent,someinternationalNGOswithofficesinRangoonworkfromamoretraditionalconservationapproach,mostprominentlyWildlifeConservationSociety(WCS)whichisresponsibleforsettingupseveralprotectedareasinthecountry,thebest-knownbeingtheHugawngValleyTigerReserveinKachinState.Somesmallerinternationalconservationorganizationsalsooperateafewprojectsinthecountry,butwithoutofficesinRangoon.

As a reflectionof growing strength andpopularity, environmental organizations areincreasinglycomingtogetherasnetworkstofosterinter-organizationalcooperationandsolidarity.TheFoodSecurityWorkingGroup(FSWG)isonesuchnetworkthatsince2003hasbrought togetherBurmeseand internationalorganizations thatworkon livelihooddevelopmentprojectsthatdirectlyrelatetofoodsecurityissuesinBurma.Theyworkoncollaborativeresearchprojectssuchasgenderandagriculture,uplandlandtenure,farmer-ledagriculture trainings, and community forestry. In2010FSWGpublishedabriefingdocumentontheuplandlandtenuresecuritysituationintheuplandsofBurma,whichbroughttogetheradiversecollectionofpeoplefromprivate,non-profit,andgovernmentsectorstodiscussuplandfoodinsecurityandlandtenurereform.

AfterNargis anewnetwork calledMangroveEnvironmentResearchNetwork (MERN)composedof17 localNGOswas formed to co-ordinate theseeffortswitha focusonaquaforestry.Thenetworkfocusesonconservationandlivelihoodimprovementinitiatives.Activities includereforestation,awareness to farmersandfishermanaboutoveruseofchemicals,biodiversityconservation,localorganizationaldevelopment,andalliancebuildingwithotherkeystakeholdersforlocaleconomicdevelopmentinitiatives.

InadditiontotheseestablishedBurmeseorganizations,ahandfulofdedicatedBurmese(and toa lesserextent foreign)environmentalists and socialworkers collaboratewithBurmeseorganizations,usingtheirexpertiseandconnectionstohelpimplementprojects,eitheraspaidconsultantsorvolunteers.TherearealsoindividualsandteamsofBurmese(andsomeforeign)researchersworkingwithorganizationstoconductsurveysandinterviewstoquantifyandqualifyecologicalandlivelihooddegradationinthecountry,withoutwhoseworkNGOsinBurmaandtheinternationalcommunitywouldnotunderstandaswellthestateoftheenvironmentinthecountry.Finallyitisimportanttorecognizethecommitmentfromreligiousorganizationsandindividuals(BuddhistSanghaandmonksaswellasChristianchurchesandpastors)thataddressenvironmentalissuesintheirlocalcommunities.Eitherthroughexplaininghow the religionholds theearthandall its life sacredor throughmobilizingthecommunitytocarryoutenvironment-relatedprojectsintheirarea,religionplaysanimportantyetoftenneglectedaspectofenvironmentalisminBurmatoday.

WhilemostoftheseorganizationsdoadministrativeworkfromtheirmainofficeinRangoonandimplementprojectsfromtheirprovincialofficesingovernment-controlledterritories,afeworganizationsalsoprovidelocalreliefandcommunitydevelopmentinnon-governmentcontrolledborderterritories.TheseorganizationsareeitherbasedinBurmaontheChinaborder,orasisthecaseforone,basedinKunmingwithaccesstoBurmabordercommunities,orimplementprojectsontheborderfromtheirprovincialoffices.However,mostoftheworkforcommunitiescaughtinthecrossfirefromdecadesofon-goingwarandconflictisaddressedbygroupsbasedinThailand(seesection3.7.3).


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3.7.2 UN Interventions on Environmental Protection

UNDPhasbeenworkinginBurmasince1994.Theycurrentlyworkin60townshipsacrossthe country. UNDP’s initiatives “target themost vulnerable communitiesandwork toimproveopportunities for sustainable livelihoods”71 inareasof “food security,primaryhealthcare,environment,HIV/AIDS,andtrainingandeducation”.72

AlthoughUNEPdoesnothaveanofficeinRangoon,theydocollaborateonvariousUN-Burmaprojectsthatfallwithinitsmandate.Theyarealsobecomingmoreactiveinthecountryandare looking toemployapart-timestaffbasedat theUNHABITAToffice inRangoon in2011.73Asmentioned, its activities in thepast include involvement in theEnvironmentalPerformanceAssessment,NationalBiodiversityStrategyActionPlan(NBSAP),providing funding for an environmental lawexpert to draft the Environmental Law,participatinginformulatingtheNationalSustainableDevelopmentStrategyandtheInleLakeInitiative(withFREDA).Inaddition,UNEPisworkingwiththeWorldHealthOrganization(WHO)onanOzoneDepletionProjectinRangoonwhichassessesthelevelofcontaminantsintheairtoidentifysourcesandtakemeasurestopreventairpollutionsuchasencouragingthedecreaseintheamountofleadedpetrolusedincars.74 75

Burma’s governmenthas also expressed interest in theUnitedNationsCollaborativeProgrammeonReducingEmissionsfromDeforestationandForestDegradationinDevelopingCountries(UNREDD)program,mentionedabove.xvii 76

3.7.3 Ethnic Environmental Organizations based in Thailand

EnvironmentalgroupsbasedontheThailand-Burmaborderworkinalltheethnicstates.Amajorfocusistoincreasetherecognitionofrightsoflocalandindigenouspeoplestouseandmanagetheirnaturalresourcesforsustainabledevelopment,topromoteenvironmentalprotectionandhumanrightsthroughadvocacyaboutlarge-scaledevelopmentandnaturalresourceextractionprojects,andcorporateandgovernmentaccountability.Thesegroupsworkprimarilyinareasundercontrolofethnicarmiesandinceasefireareas.Notallgroupsworkoneveryaspect,asummaryofactivitiesisexplainedbelow.ShortbriefsaboutindividualBEWGmembersareincludedatthebeginningofthereport.

ThissectionincludestheworkofArakanOilWatch(AOW),ArakanRiversNetwork(ARN),BridgingRuralIntegratedDevelopmentandGrassrootsEmpowerment(BRIDGE),BurmaRiversNetwork (BRN), Ethnic CommunityDevelopment Forum (ECDF), Earth RightsInternational (ERI),KachinDevelopmentNetworkingGroup(KDNG),KarenniEvergreen,KarenEnvironmentCommittee (KEC),KarenEnvironmental andSocialActionNetwork(KESAN),LahuNationalDevelopmentOrganization(LNDO),NetworkforEnvironmentalandEconomicDevelopment(NEED),Pa’OhYouthOrganization(PYO),ShanSapawaEnvironmentalOrganizationand theShweGasMovement. ThosewhicharemembersofBEWGhaveorganizational descriptions at the beginning of the report under ‘About the BurmaEnvironmentalWorkingGroup’.

xvii Seefootnotexv.


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Community Development

EmpowermentofcommunitiesinsideBurmatoconservenaturalresourcesandimprovelivelihoodsecurityandsustainabilityforcurrentandfuturegenerationsisthecentralfocusinanumberofborder-basedgroups’activities.Arightsbasedapproachisusedtoempowercommunitiesand local leadersonenvironment conservationand socialdevelopment.Projectsincludetheestablishmentandprotectionofcommunityforests,supportforlocally-producedtraditionalmedicines,community-basedfoodandwatersecurityinitiativesthatsupport local foodproductionandclimatechangeadaptationmechanisms, formalandinformalenvironmentaleducation,andHIV-AIDSeducationandsurveys.Youthdevelopmentis seenasespecially importantbymanygroupsand ispursued through internshipandeducationopportunities inwithin theseorganizations,youth forumsexploring subjectssuchastheresourcecurse,andnetwork-buildingacrossethnicities, issuesandregions.Groupsareincreasinglydesigningcommunitydevelopmentinitiativesthataddressgenderinequalityandamplifywomen’svoicesandroles.

Figure 1 Community forest awareness training, Khoe Kay, Salween River, Karen state. Karen youth learning indigenous knowledge on community forest conservation. KESAN 2009.


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Environmental Education

Environmental groups based on the Thailand-Burmaborder provide education andcommunityawarenessandcapacityonarangeofenvironmentalissues.Educationthemesincludebiodiversity,landtenure,environmentalconservation,climatechange,traditionalagricultureandmedicines,alternativeenergies,organic farming,environmental impactassessment,goodenvironmentalgovernance,resourcedocumentation,informedconsent,revenuetransparencyandsustainabledevelopment.Educationmethodsincludetrainingthroughyouthforums,workshops,internshipsandestablishedenvironmentalschoolsbothwithinandoutsideBurma’sborders.More informal informationdisseminationoccursthrough traditional communitynetworking, traveling storytellers andvideo,audioandprintedmediaproducedinlocallanguages.SomegroupsactivelyfosterlocalethniclanguageswhichhavebeenbannedintheBurmeseeducationalsystem,asacentralmeanstoachievingenvironmentaleducation.

Policy Development

PolicydevelopmentisnotjustataskforthecurrentgovernmentorthegovernmentofafuturedemocraticBurma,but for regional and international frameworks, internationalfinancialinstitutionsandgovernments,andbusinessesandcorporationsoperatinginsideBurma.Groupsworkwith local and regional civil society organizations to articulateenvironmentalandsocialandeconomicdevelopmentconcernsandformulateenvironmentalpoliciesforpolicymakersinexile,thecurrentgovernment,companies,andnon-stateactors.Border-basedenvironmentalgroupswidelyrecognizetheneedtostrengthencommunityinitiativesthroughdevelopmentofpolicyandidentificationofdevelopmentprioritieswithlocalstakeholdersinethnicareas.

Advocacy

ThereisnofreedomofspeechinBurma,makingitdifficultfororganizationsbasedinsideBurma to publicly exposenegative environmental and social impacts of large scale-developmentactivities suchas the constructionof large-scaledams,mining, resourceconcessions, andoil andgasextraction.Border-basedenvironmental groups thereforeconductresearchanddoadvocacyontheseissuesbecausetheyareabletoworkinasaferenvironment.Inadditiontolarge-scaleinfrastructuredevelopmentprojects,theyadvocateaboutcommunitydevelopment,environmentaleducationandpolicydevelopmentinitiativesinlocal,regional,nationalandinternationalarenas,buildingalliancesandworkingwithothercivilsocietyorganizations.Theypublicizetheirresearchandadvocacythroughmanyreportsdocumentingsuchabuses.Groupsnetworkwithnational,regionalandinternationalorganizationsonissuesrangingfromrevenuetransparencytoindigenouspeople’srights,riversandbiodiversity,mega-developmentprojects,andInternationalFinancialInstitutions.


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4. LAW AND POLICY ON FORESTRY AND AGRICULTURAL LAND

4.1 Forestry Laws and Policies

4.1.1 Ministry of Forestry

TheMinistryofForestry(MoF)isresponsibleforforestlandmanagement,environmentalprotection,timberextractionandforestpolicyinBurma–followingtheForestPolicy1995.Thetoppositions,includingtheministerandnowoftentimedirectorgenerals(DGs),arestaffedbymilitaryofficialswithnotechnicaltrainingorknowledge,whilethedepartmentsundertheministryaremadeupoftrainedforestersandotherprofessionals.FivedepartmentscomeunderthecontroloftheMoF:theForestDepartment(FD)withitsNatureandWildlifeConservationDivision;theMyanmarTimberEnterprise(MTE),the loggingand income-earningarm;theDryZoneGreeningDepartment(DZGD)forreforestationincentralBurma;thePlanningandStatisticsDepartment;andtheNationalCommissionforEnvironmentalAffairs(NCEA).In2007-08fiscalyeartheforestrysectorearnedthegovernment83.5billonKyat,butwhichonlyrepresentsa½percentofthecountry’stotalGDP,accordingtonationalstatistics.77 Thegovernment-controlledexportofteaklogsreacheditsmaximumvolumeandvaluein2006-07atnearly300,000tonsworthjustover$200millionUSD.Thetotalvalueofgovernment-exportedteaklogsfrom2003-04to2007-08reachedover$1billionUSD.

WithintheMoFthereexiststensionbetweenthedivergingagendasoftechnicalexpertiseandcommunity-managedforests,aswellasbetweentheseparategoalsofconservationandtimberextraction.Forestconservationandcommercialtimberextractionaremanagedbydifferentdepartments(FDandMTE,respectively,)whichcarriesobviousproblemsandconflicts.

Theprivate sector is nowallowed towork in cooperationwith theMyanmarTimberEnterprise(MTE)undertheMoFforexportingvalue-added,semi-processedwoodproductsonly.But theprivate sectorhasbeencooperatingwithMTE for loggingandarrangingbusinessdealswithforeignbuyers,eventhoughitisthenexportedviaMTE.Andsince2005thegovernmentallowsBurmeseprivateinvestorstoestablishtreeplantations,includingteakbutonlywithspecialpermissionsinceit isstillastate-ownedtree.Itappearsthatprivate treeplantationsarebecomingamorepopular formof investmentbyBurmeseforesters,althoughasofyetisnotapopulartrendcomparedtoagribusiness.

MyanmarTimberEnterprise(MTE)generatestheincomenecessaryfortheMoFtofunction,butasaresultcarriesmorepoliticalinfluenceandresourcescomparedtoForestDepartmentaswellasappliesloggingpressureontheveryforestresourcestherestoftheministryprotects.MTEiswellknowntonotfollowthemeasuressetoutintheBurmaSelectionSystem (BSS)andAnnualAllowableCut (AAC).78MTE,due to severely limitinghuman,financecapital,andtechnicalresource,oftensubcontractoutconcessionstotheprivatesectortocarryout loggingoperations.Howeverthesubcontractors(e.g.,HtooTrading,amongmanyothers)thenmustselltheirsetvolumeoftimbertotheMTEatagivenprice,evenifitisforexporttoprivateforeigncompanies.However,thestatehasamonopolyon


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teaktrees.Ineffect,then,MTEcontrolstheloggingandtimbertrade,butitisinfactcarriedoutbytheBurmeseprivatesector,wherebothentitiesprofit.

AnnualAllowableCutswerebasedonpartialsurveysdoneintheearly1960s,whichwerethenextrapolatedtothewholecountry,despitemuchofthecountrythenmiredincivilwar.ThisisamajorflawoftheestablishedAACfiguresevenifpreciselyfollowed.79Basedontheforeignexchangeearningsexpectation,atargetvolumeiscalculatedwhichisthentranslateddownwardsintologgingquotasforeachloggingdistrict.Thesehavelittlebearingoncapacityoftheforest,thecalculatedAAC,andthereforethesustainabilityofforestryoperations.TheAACoccasionallychangesbytheregimetomaintainannualrevenuebutnotactuallyameasureofchangingtimberstock.AccordingtotheFD’sPlanningandStatisticsDivision,the2010AACforteakissetat147,300trees(176,760tons)andforotherhardwoods1,131,461trees(1.584milliontons).xviiiOverall,since1970teakproductionhasexceededtheAACbyatleastanaverageof15percent,accordingtoevenofficialfigures,80whichisassumedtoactuallybemuchhigher.

4.1.2 Forest Law and Policy

The1992Forest Law supports conservation, sustainable forestry and socio-economicbenefitswhilealsopartiallydecentralizingandencouragingtheprivatesectorandcommunityparticipation in forestmanagement.The1995MyanmarForestPolicyandtheupdated1996ForestWorkingPlansareresponsibleforimplementingthe1992ForestLaw.Specifically,thelawandpolicyadvocateforaparticipatoryapproachtoforestmanagement,includingcommunityforestryforsupplementinglivelihoods.The30-yearNationalForestryActionPlanfor2001onlyseekstostrengthenconservationgoalsandenforcementoflawsagainstillegalextractionofforestproducts,withoutanymentionoftheneedtoincludevillagersasstakeholdersinthenation’sforests.Nospecificlegallandrightsareavailabletolocalpeople’sclaimtouseoraccessforestresources,severelyimpingingoncommunitiesfoodandforestlandtenuresecurity.

ForestReserveandProtectedPublicForest together formthePermanentForestEstate(PFE),whichaccordingtotheForestPolicy1995itisbeingtargetedfor30percentofthecountry’stotallandwhichisthusofflimitsforlocallivelihoods.Inadditiontheprotectedareasystem(PAS)isslottedtocover10percentofthecountry’stotalterritory.However,asof2003,onlyabout22percentoftotallandareahasbeengivenfulllegalprotectionundertheForestReserveSystem,whichisonlyabouthalfoftheexistingforestareaaccordingtogovernmentdata.

InadditiontoPFE,averycrucialadditionthathasthepotentialtogreatlyenhancelocalforest resource security isanadditional10percentof thecountry’s total land is tobemanagedformultiplelandusemixing,includingagroforestryandcommunityforests.

4.1.3 Community Forestry

Followingthe1992ForestLawand1995ForestPolicy,thegovernmentlegallyrecognizespeople’sco-managementinforestrywiththecreationofthe1995CommunityForestry

xviii TheFDcalculatesthevolumeasonaverage1.2tonsperteaktree,and1.4tonsperhardwoodtree.


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Instructions (CFI). Theoverallprinciples inCFIare for local communities to fulfillbasiclivelihoodneeds forfirewood, farm implementsand smalltimbers aswell as reforestdegradedforestlands.Thecommunityforestryusergroups(FUGs)collaboratewithNGOsanddistrictFDofficialsinmanagingtheCF.Althoughinitiallycreatedin1995,onlysincethemid-2000sdidCFestablishmentreallybegintogainmomentuminBurma,andmostlyin thenorth. This is due to the increasing land tenure threats, namely agribusinessconcessionsbeingdemarcatedinfarmer’suplandforestsandtaungya(Burmesewordforupland swiddenpractices).Once the CF is officially grantedby the district ForestryDepartmentandotherrelevantagencies,theFUGhasmoreprotecteduserrightsoverthatland,makingitmuchmoredifficultforthelandtobegrantedtoanoutsideparty.EstablishingaCFisoneoftherareland-basedresistancestrategiesavailabletovillagers,whosetraditionallandmanagementpractices(taungya) arenotarecognized.Alegally-establishedCFbetterensures legallyprotected landuse (see sections4.2 and5.5 formoredetailson landconfiscationforagribusiness).VillagersestablishingCFs,isthusmoreaboutkeepingvillageland,notnecessarilyaboutexplicitlyconservingforests.

Theprocessofestablishingcommunityforestsoverthepastdecadehasbeenslowerthananticipated,withtheannualrateofestablishmentatonlyabout8,000acres,despiteanationaltargetof1.5millionacresby2030.81By2010,justover100,000acresofcommunityforestshavebeen legallyestablished (recognizedand recordedby thecentral ForestryDepartment)inthewholecountry,overhalfofwhichisjustinsouthernShanState(192communityforestsestablishedby2010).82

WhencommunityforestinstructionsareimplementedmostForestUserGroupsseemtobeplantingmostlyhigh-valuetimberspecies,suchasteak,Pyinkado,andPadauk,withlittlefocusonagroforestrystrategiesorlocalforestneedssuchasfirewood,norattentiontogenderdynamicsorensuringparticipationfromthemostmarginalizedhouseholds.Asaresultthisiscausingproblemswithfoodsecurityforthevillages.ThereforewhileCFisoneofthecountry’smostpromisinglegalavenuestoprotectvillagelandandprovideaplatformforvillageparticipationinlandgovernance,newproblemshavearosethatstillneedattention.

4.1.4 Case Study: Community Forest in a Kachin Village83

InaKachinvillage,whichwillnotbe identifieddue tosecurity reasons,1,400acresofcommunityforestwereestablishedwithinthevillageterritoryin2007.Originallythelandusedforthecommunityforestoperatedundercollectivecustomaryrulesandregulations,butduetosomedegreeofcommunitybreakdown,thelandoperatedmoreasanopen-access commons,without anydirect state control or tax. The villageput together acommunityforestryusergroup,whothenappliedtothedistrictForestryDepartmentforestablishingacommunityforest.

Swiddencultivation,ortaungya, wascarriedoutonthenearbyforesthillbeforeitbecameacommunityforest.Butnowthatthecommunityhasanofficialcommunityforestpermitfrom theForestDepartment, theyplantmostlyhardwood trees,with intercroppingofannualcropsforthefirstfewyearsoftreeestablishment.Oncetheycannolongerdoanyintercropping,thevillagerssaytheywillgotoadifferentplotoflandintheirvillageterritorytogrowfoodcrops(thereisnoshortageoflandinthevillage).


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The species of trees that they planted include teak,yeminay, pyinkado (ironwood), taungdama,etc.,mostlyfortimberbutalsoafewthatcanbeusedforfirewood.Someofthetreeseedlingstheygetfromtheforest(‘wildlings’),somefromtheForestDepartment(teakandpyinkado),andsomegrowintheirowntreeseedlingnurserylocatedalongthenearbyriver.

Theyareworriedaboutfoodsecuritybecausemuchoftheirlaborisnowoccupiedwithmaintainingthecommunityforest,suchasweeding.Accordingtothecommunityforestryusergroup,theyhaveexperiencedmanyworryingproblemsasaresultoftheircommunityforest:

1. Timeandenergyisspentgrowingtrees,notcrops(timecompetition).2. Theyhavetousetheirownmoneytobuysomeofthetreeseedlings(thosenotprovided

bytheForestDepartment).ForthosespeciestheyarenotgrowingthemselvesandtheForestDepartmentdoesnotprovide,theybuythemfromanearbyvillagewhogrowsthem.Thisisputtingafinancialburdenonhouseholds.

3. Thereisnownotenoughfoodtosupporthouseholds.TheyearthatthecommunityforestwasestablishedtheUN’sWorldFoodProgramhadtogivefoodhandoutstothevillage.

Thecommunityforestryusergroupsummarizesthesetrade-offs:“Westartedtohaveariceshortageproblemsincelastyearwhenwestartedthecommunityforest.Weexpecttocontinuetohavericeshortagesinthefuture.Thisisdirectlybecauseofthecommunityforest,becausenowwedonothaveenough labor todo taungya. Sinceadopting thecommunity forestpracticeswedonothaveenoughlaborfortaungya,becausewehavetomanagetreesandlesscropscannowbeplantedbecausenowwehavetosharespacewithtrees.”

Despitetheseproblemsarisingfromthecommunityforest,thevillagestill insistsonitsvaluebecause theywant toprotect their territory fromconfiscation fromencroachingprivatecompaniesinsearchoflandforagriculturaldevelopment.Theyareusingcommunityforestry as a legalmechanism toprotect their land. Soon after the allocationof thecommunityforest,thegovernmentallocateda10,000acrerubberandteakplantationtoaBurmesecompanythatislocatedwithinthevillageterritory.SincethecommunityhadalreadyappliedfortheirCF,thatlandwasnotincludedintheconcessionarea–itisnowsurroundedbytheconcession.Thevillagersseetheircommunityforestactivismassuccessfulinkeepingsomevillagelandunderthecontrolofvillagersinthefaceofagribusiness.

4.2 Land Laws and Policies

4.2.1 Ministry of Agriculture and Irrigation (MoAI)

In1992theagricultureandforestrysectorsinstitutionallysplit,creatingaseparateministryforeach.TheMinistryofAgricultureandIrrigation(MoAI)comprises13departments.OneofthemostimportantdepartmentsistheSettlementandLandRecordsDepartment(SLRD),whichisresponsibleforsurveyingandmappingtheland,providinglandusecertificates,andfacilitatinglandconcessions.TheotherimportantdepartmentistheDepartmentofAgriculturalPlanning(DAP),whoisresponsibleformakingsureproductivityordersfrom


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thecentralgovernmentarefulfilledontheground.AlsoofsignificanceistheBurmaPerennialCropsEnterprise(MPCE),whichisresponsibleforsugarcaneandperennialcrops,suchasrubberandpalmoil.

TheGeneralAssembly (GA),under theMinistryofHomeAffairs, is thehighest levelofauthority in thedistrict that collects land revenueasassessedby theSLRD.TheLand Management Committee(LMC)isacrucialagencyforgovernmentlandmanagementinBurma,fromthevillageuptothecentrallevel.TheCentralLMCisheadedbytheMinisteroftheMoAI,withothermembersincludingMoF,theSecretaryoftheSLRD,andDGsfromrelevantdepartmentswithintheseministries.However, itappearsthatmilitaryofficialshavesufficientlypenetratedtheLMCwhichhaslenttowardscorruptionandservingtheinterestsofinfluentialpeople.

DuringthepastdecadetheMoAIhasgainedinprominenceastheministrywithjurisdictionoverhugelandareasofthecountry,andindeedthewaterthat irrigates it.ThemarketliberalizationpoliciesBurmabeganin1988seemstobebenefitingMoAImuchmorethanMoFasnowprivateagriculturalconcessionscanbegrantedtowell-placedagribusinessmen.

4.2.2 Customary Land Rights

Bothstatutory(nationalstatelaws)andcustomarylaws(local,traditional,non-statesocialsystems)arefollowedinBurma,sometimessimultaneouslyinthesameplace.Overall,itcanbegeneralizedthatintheuplandsofethnicareascustomarylandpracticesprevail,andthelowlandsfollowstatutorylaws.However,thereareofcoursemanyexceptions;foronetheethnicuplandshavebeenterrorizedbywarandconflictforgenerations,whichhasledtofleeing,internallydisplacedpersons,militarizationandcompromisedtraditionalpractices– allofwhichhaveweakenedtraditionalsocialsystemsandtheirlandmanagementpractices.Thesituationnowisthatcustomarylandpracticesappeartobeonthewane.Inceasefireareasthestateisextendingtheircontroloverlandandpopulations,withtheirattendantlandcategories(e.g.,forestandagricultureratherthanagro-forestrysystems).Andinactivewar zones local ethnicpopulationsare kept frompracticing their traditional swiddencultivationduetotheconstantthreatofwarfareandfear.

Uplandethnicpopulationsnowfindthemselvesstuckinthecrossfireoftheroughtransitiontoanopeningmarketcapitalismwhere landistransferredfromsmallholderfarmerstolargeprivatecompanies,bothBurmeseandforeign.Aspreviouslycustomarylawswerehonoredandthestatehadnotreachedtheuplandsinmostethnicstates,mosthouseholdsintheruraluplandsdonothaveanylandregistrationtitles.DuringtheBritishcolonialtimesafewformalizedcustomaryruleswereenactedand insomesmallwaysrecognizedforcertainareasoftheuplandsofnorthernandwesternBurma.Forexample,theKachin Hills Manual (specificallyChapters3and7)respectedcustomaryauthorityofKachinheadmen,andfortheChinspecificlawswerecreatedtoaddresstheircustoms,calledtheChin Hills Regulation 1896,andtheChin Special Division (Extension of Laws) Act,1948.

TheSPDCdoesnotlegallyhonorcustomaryrightsandlaws,withinadequateprovisionsinthenewconstitutiontoupholdcustomarytraditions.Inpractice,however,thereisamessyinformaloverlapbetweencustomaryandstatutorylawsandpractices,whereSLRDofficers


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recordcustomaryagriculturallandplotsfortheirsurveysandmaps,butatthesametimeisnothonoredwhendesiredbyaninfluentialdeveloperbackedbythestate.Itisthisgreyareawithrespecttothecustomary-statutoryspectrumthatcauseslandtenureinsecurityformillionsoffarmersinBurma,especiallyintheethnicuplands.

Land tenure remains veryweak inBurma,especially in theuplandswhere customarypracticesarestilloftenfollowedinsteadofstatutorylaw.84Afundamentalproblemisthatnolawformallyrecognizestraditionaluplandlanduse.Thismeansthatifafarmerwantstopracticecustomaryshiftingcultivation,thenthatpracticewillnotbeformallyrecognizedby the government, and thus there is noway to legally protect this traditional landmanagementpractice.TheCommunityForestry Instructions,whileagoodopportunity,areoftennotimplementedasatraditionallandmanagementstrategyandthuschangethewaylocalpeopleuse,accessandmanageland.TheyarejointlymanagedwiththeForestryDepartmentandoftenpromotegrowingtimberratherthanfood.

4.2.3 Statutory Land Laws

TheLand Acquisition Act, whichisstillineffecttoday,legallygivesthegovernmenttherightto takeover any land, butwith compensation to its original owners. The1953Land Nationalization Act andthe1963Tenancy Law gavelegalpowertothestatetoseizeallland(andthereforealllandownedbythestate,asisstillthecasetoday)andredistributeaccordingtosocialistprinciples.LegalpracticeinBurmatodaygenerallyrevertstothe1953Land Nationalization Act,whichrecognizessomeprivateownershipofagriculturalland(section38),althoughitrestrictssaleortransfer(sections9-12).However,insections9-12,thesameActprovidesfortheStatetoconfiscatefallowland(alsoatypeof‘absenteeownership’),amajorproblemforsmallholderfarmersandcompaniesalike.Thelawdoesnotpermitoutrightprivateownershipofland,andsoalllandmustbeleasedfromthestate,asisstillthesituation.Inpractice,however,thelandiseitherallocatedbythecustomaryownertoarelativeortoapayingfarmer.Thesepost-coloniallawsrelyuponcolonialtraditionswhererightstolandremaincontingentonthelandbeingcontinuouslyusedina‘productive’wayorelsethestatehastherighttoconfiscateit(unlessa‘fallowtax’ispaidbymorewealthyfarmers) andput it tomoreefficientuse– a situationwe see todaywith large-scaleconcessions granted to theprivate sector. This is in spiteof the still active1963 Law Safeguarding Peasant Rightswhichforbidsfarmer’slandbeingconfiscated,harkingbacktothesocialisterawhichadvocatedforpeasantrightstoland.

In1988aftertheinfamousprotestsandthebreakdownofthesocialisteconomy,theSLORC(thenameofthegovernmentatthattime)begantoopenuptheeconomyinsuchawaywecouldcallita“militarycommandeconomy”wheretheemergingprivatesectorcouldbegintooperatebutonlyfavoredcompaniesingoodrelationwiththemilitaryleaders,andundertheircarefulconscription.Followingthisnewtrend,SLORCenactedthePrescribing Duties and Rights of the Central Committee for the Management of Cultivable Land, Fallow Land and Waste Land,1991(orManagement of Cultivable Land, Fallow Land and Waste Land, ormoresimplytheWastelands Law).Thislawsoughttoencouragethedevelopmentofso-called‘wastelands’,orbasicallylandwithnolandtitle,throughenlistingtheprivatesector.xixTooverseetheimplementationofthislawthegovernmentformedtheCentral

xix Registeringtocultivate“virginland”isthesameprocessasfor‘wasteland’.But“virginland”iscontrolled


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Committee for the Management of Cultivable Land, Fallow Land and Waste Landthesameyear(hereincalledtheLandManagementCommittee,orLMC).Thedutiesofthiscentralcommitteeistosystematicallyscrutinizeallapplicationssubmittedtogranttherighttocultivatewastelandandfallowlandbystate-ownedeconomicenterprises,jointventures,andcorporationsandprivateindividualsforcommercialreasons.

TheLMCmayassignprivateagriculturalblocksofupto5,000acresforselectedperennialindustrialcropssuchassugarcane,oilpalmandrubber,and1,000toamaximumof3,000acresfororchardcrops.Ifthislandisdeveloped,morelandcanbegranted,uptoapossible50,000acreswithamaximumleaseperiodof30years.Thecompanymust,within4to5yearsfromthedateofbeinggrantedtheland,fullycultivatethewholeareaoftheirlandconcession,orelseitcanbetakenbackbythegovernment(althoughthishasneverbeenreported).Alsopartofthecontractisexemptionsfromtaxesforadeterminedperiodoftime.Theprivateentityisgrantedpermissiontoexportacertainpercentageoftheharvest(upto50percent),withtheresttobesoldonthedomesticmarket.Non-citizensmayapplyfor landforagricultural investment,asapprovedbytheBurmaInvestmentCommission(BIC),althoughthisisveryrareastaxesandotherfeesareexceedinglyhighwithadifficultandlongbureaucraticprocess.InsteadforeigncompaniesworkwithBurmesecompanies,eitherasaformaljoint-ventureagreement,ormorecommonly,informallytogetthemostpreferentialtaxbreaksandeasewithwhichtoinvest.TheTransfer of Immoveable Property Restriction Law 2005madetheallocationoflandtoaforeignentityillegal,butthisisnownolongerthecaseasthegovernmentonlyveryrecentlybeganencouragingforeignerstoinvestinlanddevelopmentbyleasinga100%foreign-ownedlandconcession.

Inthelowlandsfarmersoftenrelyoninformalsocialsystemstosecurecontinuedlanduseandaccess;howevermorewell-placedfarmers(withusuallyhigherincomesandconnectionstoauthorities)areabletoapplyforlandusecertificateswhichincreaselandtenuresecurity–although itcertainlydoesnotguaranteeagainst landconfiscation.Thefirstregistrationformisa‘105’,whichactsas‘non-permanentholdingregister’withtheSLRD.Afterseveralyears(officiallythree)ofcontinualcultivationonthatplotofland(nofallowingallowed),andpendingrelationshipswiththeSLRDofficials,thehouseholdcanobtaina‘106’landregistrationpermitwitha‘permanentholdingregister’.SomeNGOsinBurmaarefacilitatinghouseholdstoobtaintheselandusecertificates,althoughtheimpactisverylow,itisatime-consumingandexpensiveprocess,andstilldoesnotguaranteeagainstlandthreats,suchasconfiscationbybusinessesandthemilitary.

Processessuchastheseandthepoliciesthatsupportthemdiscouragetraditionaluplandfarmingpractices(taungya)whichkeepsoilfertile.Otherpracticeswhichdon’tallowlandtofallowaffectsoilfertilityandthereforerequirechemicalfertilizerswhicharedamagingtocommunitiesandtheenvironment.

Aspartofthelandallocationprocesstoprivatecompaniesagriculturalconcessionsareissuedwithoutanyfurtherlandsurveyoranenvironmentalimpactassessment(EIA),asno such laws are in place. Although the authorities coerce the companies to boost

byMoF,notMoAI,sotheprocessnotonlyinvolvesSLRD,butalsoMoFwhoareoftennothappywithcultivationofthislandastheythenlosejurisdictionoverthisland,nottomentionusuallyanegativeimpactonecologicalintegritywhichtheMoFremainsmoreconcernedaboutcomparedtoMoAI.


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productivityintheconcessions,oftentimestheallocatedlandisnotfullyutilizedduetoitssheerhugesize,orinmanyotherinstancesthecompanyleavesafterloggingtheforestlandandsellingthewoodontheblackmarket.Theexistinglandallocationrules,asregulatedbytheLMC,donot specifyagainstallocatingsmalllandplotstosmall-scalefarmers;howevernowastelandhasyetbeenallocatedtosmallholderfarmersasaleverofrurallivelihooddevelopmentormoreradicallandredistributionefforts,despitesomeclaimsassuch.Thejustificationbythegovernmentfornotdoingsoisthatneithersmallholdersnorthelandlesshaveaccesstocapitalfordevelopingtheland.85Thereasonsfarmers,especiallysmall-scalefarminghouseholds(under10acres)donothaveaccesstocapitalisbecausehouseholdscannotusetheirlandascollateralforloans.Withoutproperruralcreditavailabletofarmersthroughoutthecountry,thecollapseofthenationalbankingsystem,andagovernmentsuspiciousaboutmicro-creditfinancing,farminghouseholdsareoftenleftnooptionbuttotakeoutveryhighinterestrateloans(upto20percent)bylocalmoneylenders.Whileit isactually illegal for land tobe forfeited for failureof loan repayment, inactual factlandlessnesssoarsinBurmaduetofarmerslosinglandtotheviciouscycleofdebt.

4.2.4 Case Study: Yuzana Concession in Hugawng Valley

YuzanaCompany,ownedbyUHtayMyint,wasgranteda200,000acreagriculturalconcessioninHugawngValleyborderingandwithintheHugawngValleyTigerReserveinwesternKachinStatein2006.xxYuzanamadeanagreementwiththethenNorthernRegionalCommanderMaj.Gen.OhnMyintontheconcessionarea,andthenthetownshipSLRDwasbroughtintothenegotiations.TheForestDepartmentwasexcluded.ThelandthattheSLRDdemarcatedtoYuzanawasinclusiveofbothvillager’scustomaryfarmingandvillageland(eventhoughsomeofthelandwasregisteredandmarkedonSLRDmaps)aswellastheHugawngValleyTigerReserve.Theconcessionlandincludesforest,wetland,andfloodedland,aswellasvillager’spaddyfarms.TheForestDepartmentmadeYuzanakeepa10kmforestedcorridorfortigerstopotentiallypassthroughthevalleyfromonemountaintothenext.

Reportedlynearly14villagesareincludedwithintheconcessionarea,withanestimated5,000villagersaloneinjustonepartofYuzana’sconcession.86Thecountry’slargestprivatelandconcessionhasattractedgrowingdiscontentfromforciblyrelocatedvillagers.YuzanahasplantedtensofthousandsofacresofcassavafortheChinesebiofuelmarket,whilesugarcaneisoflessinterestatthistimeduetoalowermarketpricecomparedtocassava.HoweverYuzanahasasugarcaneseedbanktoprepareforcommercialplantingintheirconcessionbeginning in2011.Thecompanyhasconstructedprocessingplants,storagefacilities,dormitoriesforlaborers,warehouses,etc.

YuzanaisnotusinglocallaborbutratherBurmanlaborfromCentralBurmaandNargis-affectedvillagesintheIrrawaddyDelta.However,afterafewmonthslaborersoftenleaveforgoldminingwheretheycouldmakemoremoney,soYuzanaistryingtouseasmallernumberoflaborersthroughtheuseoflargetractorsandharvestingmachinesfromThailand.Subsequently,YuzanahashiredThaidriverstooperatethevehicles.

When tensionwasbuildingbetween the government and theKachin Independence

xx Differentmediasourcesquotevarioussizesoftheconcession,mostoften200,000acresbutsometimesalso300,000acres,andafewevencite400,000acres.


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Organization(KIO)leadinguptothenationalelections,Yuzanaallegedlyarmedabout800Yuzanaemployees,manyofwhomareformersoldiersintheBurmaArmy,withmilitarytrainingprovidedbyInfantryBattalion297inJahtuzupvillage.PrivatesecurityhiredbyYuzanaandBurmaArmysoldiersguardthefactoryzone,whileabout200soldiersfromInfantryBattalion297inJahtuzupvillagepatrolthemiddleconcessionarea.87

MuchofYuzana’sconcessionisforestland,wheretechnicallytheFDhasjurisdictionoverthetrees,althoughYuzanahasuserrightstothelandaccordingtotheirlease.LocalvillagersreportthatYuzanaissellinghigh-valuetimberwithintheconcession,presumablyontheblackmarket,andthatonlythenon-valuablespeciesareburnedorhauledawayforvillagerstouseasfirewood.Accordingtoonereport,inJune2009,almost50trucksofhardwoodlogsperdaywereseenleavingthevalleytoMogaungtrainstation.Theclear-cutloggingwithinYuzana’s concession isdestroying thetigerhabitatandoneof theworld’smostvaluablelowlandrainforestsandwetlands.Inparticular,theno.1TigerConservationCampnearNawngMivillagehasbeenlogged.88

ThelandconfiscationandtransformationinHugawngValleyhasnotbeenwithoutcoercionand villager’s backlash. TheHugawngValleyDevelopment andAgricultural PlanningCommittee(HVDAPC),composedof19representativesfromfivedifferentvillagesandover800farmers,signedapetitionletterin2007sentittoSeniorGeneralThanShweovertheimpactoftheYuzanaconcessionontheirlivesandlivelihoodsandtheirlackofadequatecompensation.89Despite theirgrassrootsorganizingefforts,byFebruary2010over150householdsoutofabout1,000householdsinatotalof6villages(Warazup,Nansai,Bankawk,LaJaPa,AwngraandJahtuzup)wereforcedofftheirlandsandrelocatedtoaYuzana‘modelvillage’withpoorfarminglandwithoutfishinggrounds.90OneNGOhassofardocumented3,600acresof landconfiscatedin11villages.91Manyofthemwerecoercedintotakingcompensationfunds,althoughsomeresistedastheyfounditinadequate.

ThesituationescalatedwheninJuly2010agroupoftheaggrievedfarmersfiledalawsuitonbehalfofallthefarmerswhoselandwastakenagainstYuzanaduetotheirgrievances.FarmersrejectedYuzana’sofferofpaymentsof80,000Kyat($80)peracre(300,000Kyatperacreisclaimedtobeamoreaccuratevalue)toamaximumof500evictedfarmersiftheydroppedthecase,andpushedaheadintheKachinStatecourt.92AfewhundredvillagershavebeenpursuinganInternationalLaborOrganization(ILO)investigationinparallel93–althoughithasbournelittlefruityet.InOctober,however,thecourtclearedHtayMyintfromanywrongdoingandinsteadplacedPuKyi,HtayMyint’sbrother,asresponsible.94

Atthistime,Ms.BawkJa,theappointedleaderofthefarmersbringingsuitinthecourtcase,decidedtotakeherfightintothenationalpoliticalspotlightbycontestingtheNovembernationalelectionsasacandidatefromtheNationalDemocraticForce(NDF) inHpakantTownship.Shethoughtcontestingtheelectionswouldgiveheraddedprotectionasshecontinuedherfightinthecourts..HeropposingcandidatewasMaj.Gen.OhnMyint,theformernorthernmilitarycommanderwithdeepbusinessrelationsinthecontestedminingtownship.95Afterthe‘pre-castvotes’werecounted,shelost.

InearlyJanuary2011theMyitkyinacourtorderedHtayMyinttopay80,000Kyatperacreofpaddyand150,000Kyatperhouseconfiscated,althoughonlysomefarmerswereeligible


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toreceivecompensation.96Thisisthesameamountoriginallyofferedtothevillagers.AfterelectionsMs.BawkJawentintohidingforprotectionaftermanyauthorityfigurestriedtoapprehendherforquestioningandarrest.97AdditionalreportedYuzanacompanyabusesintheareaincluderape.98

Figure 2 Yuzana company bulldozing land for a cassava mono plantation, Hugawng valley tiger reserve. KDNG, 2010.

4.3 Economic development and natural resources in Burma

4.3.1 Political Economy of Land Development

Sincetheearly1990stheBurmesegeneralshaveslowlydismantledthesocialistapparatustorebuildapartiallycapitalistmarketeconomy,butwithalingeringsocialistideology,lawsandpolicies.Article(35)ofthe2008Constitutionstatesthat,“TheeconomicsystemoftheUnionisamarketeconomysystem.”SeanTurnell,aneconomistfocusedonBurma,notesthatBurmalacksbasicmarketinstitutionssuchastheruleoflawandsoundpropertyrights,andoperatesaccordingtoasetofparallelrulesofinformaleconomysetbythestateandeconomicelitessuchas“arbitraryproceduresfordisputesettlement,nepotisticpatron-clientrelationshipsbetweenthemilitary,stateandbusinessandextralegalallocationsofnaturalresourceconcessions”.99Theresulthasbeenneitherreapingtheproposedequityofsocialismnortheeconomiclifelineofcapitalism;insteadaratherdisastrouscollusionofthetwopoliticaleconomicsystemshasleftfarmersandurbanpoorhighlyvulnerabletosomesectorsoperatinginthemarketeconomybutwithoutadequatelawsandpoliciestoprotectthem.


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Forexample,thestatestillownsalllandandresourcesinthecountry,withmostvillagershavingnoformallandtitlefortheircustomaryagriculturalland.Newpolicieshavebeenpassed,however, allocating land concessions toprivateentitieswhichdonot respectcustomarylandorinformallandholdings.Theresultisanincreasingnumberoflandplotsandgreateracreagefallingunderthecontrolofcompaniesattheexpenseofsmallholderfarmers,whohavenolegalrecoursetoholdontotheirlandagainstencroachingbusinessmen(see section4.2).This ‘neither-socialism-nor-capitalism’ scenario inBurma isespeciallydangerousduetothepoliticalclimateinthecountryaswellastheabsenceofanysafeguardstoprotectfarmersfromtheonslaughtofcapitalismormechanismstohelpthembenefit.Conditionsarenowinplaceforrepeatinghistoryinthemid-1900swithpeasantsdefaultingontheirloansandsubsequentlylosingtheirlandtoIndianChettiars–whichledtosocialupheavalandeventuallytriggeredBurma’sexperimentwithauthoritariansocialism.

Various lawsandpolicieshavebeenenactedandimplementedinthe1990sand2000swhichhaveledtotheprivatesector,bothdomesticandinternational,toengageintheresourceextractionsectors,includingmostrecentlylarge-scaleagriculturallandconcessions(seesection4.2onlandandagriculturallaws/policiesformoreinformationonthedifferentlawsandpolicieswhichhaveusheredintheinvolvementofprivateinvestmentinBurma).Itseemsthattherecentspateofsemi-privatizationisastrategybythemilitarygeneralstostillgenerateameansofeconomicandpoliticalsupportandinfluenceinapost-electionBurma,asprivateconcessionsareallallottedtoregime-favoredBurmesecompaniesinacompletelynon-transparentnor‘free-and-fair’manner.

Burmese Agribusiness Companies

Overalltwodifferentpolitical-economictrajectoriesaretakingplaceinBurma:emergingopportunities forBurmesebusinessmen to invest in landand resources inBurma;andsecondly,bilateralresourceextractionagreementswiththeBurmeseleadersandforeigngovernmentsandcorporations.Bothscenariosarebeginningtoconvergeintoasituationofmuchhigherflowsofdomesticandtransnationalfinancecapitalintovariousresourcesectors,includinglandasavaluableasset.Whileofcoursethemassiveforeignresourceextractionconcessions, suchas inoil, gasandhydropower, should continue to receivecarefulattentionandscrutiny,domesticprocessessupportingprivateinvestment,especiallylandasavaluableresourceinitself,ishighlyimportantyetrelativelyunstudied.Since2008afterCycloneNargis thegenerals, lobbiedbytheBurmeseprivatesector,appeartobechangingtheirapproachtohowlandandresourcesshouldbeusedandmanagedbyBurmeseprivatecompanies.Itissuspectedthepost-electiongovernmentwilllatchontoeconomicgrowthtobolsteritsdomesticandinternationallegitimacyandpopularity.

Agribusiness inBurmaisperhapsthenewestformofprivate-publicpartnerships inthecountry.Theruralpopulationthatengagesprimarilyinagricultureis70-80%ofthecountry’stotalpopulation,withtheagriculturalsectoraccountingforabout35percentofthecountry’sGDP.100Manyfactorshavehelpedformsuchanagribusinessenvironment,suchaspost-Nargisagriculturalaidandrecovery,newlimitedgovernmentloanstoBurmesecompaniestoengageinlarge-scaleagriculturalproduction,adesireforBurmesecompaniestoadvancemodernagriculturaltechniquesto increaseyield(andthereforeprofit),andthecentralgovernment’srecentdeclarationofBurmabeinga“foodsurpluscountry”withnewpriorityonexportingagriculturalcommodities.


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NearlyallagriculturalconcessionsinthecountryarerunbyBurmesecompanies.Thereareveryfew100percentforeign-ownedagriculturaloperationsfunctioninginBurmaduetoveryhightaxesandanextremelyrestrictivebusinessenvironment.However,itissuspectedthatmanyofthemhaveforeigninvestmentbacking,dependingonthesizeoftheconcession,itslocation,andthecropbeingplanted(e.g.,mainlandChineseforrubberinthenorth,MalaysianChineseforoilpalminTennasserim,etc.).Withthegenerals’recentpushforincreasedagriculturalcommodityexport,30-40favoredBurmesecompanieswereselectedtohelprealizethisnewpolicydirective,whichresultedinlarge-scaleagriculturalconcessionsbeingallocatedtothem.By2010atotalof1.7millionacreshadbeenreportedasallocatedto216companies inelevenstatesanddivisions.Whilenearlyhalfof thetotalacreageallocatedwas in Tennasserim (in supportofoil palmplantationdevelopment,mostlycapitalizedbyUHtayMyint’sYuzanaCompany),thenexthighestamountofacreageallottedbystatesanddivisionswasKachinStateatnearly400,000acres(1/2ofwhichisYuzana’ssugarcaneconcessioninHugawngValleyTigerReserve).101

However,theseconcessionsarelocatedinmarginallandsandwithnosupportfromthegovernment.Muchofthe land isoftennotdevelopedbythecompanyfor itsspecifiedagriculturalproduction,andoftentimeswhenthecompanyestablishestheplantation,yieldsareconsiderably low.Asaresult, thesesameBurmesecompaniesarenowengaging incontractfarmingsotocompensateforthelackofreturnfromtheirlargeconcessionsthatrequiredmassivefinancialinvestments,sincetheyobtainedagriculturalcommodityexportquotasalongwiththeirconcessions.Thecompanyprovidestheinputs(loansforchemicalsandseeds)whilethefarmerprovidesthelandandlabor.Thebusinessmencanthenexporttheagriculturalproducepurchasedfromfarmers,whichishowtheycancompensatefortheirfinancial loss indeveloping their awarded concession.Another contract farmingarrangementthatisemergingisfarmersworkingonthecompany’sconcession,inexchangeforrent–butthisoffersverylittlebenefittofarmersattheexpenseofthenewlandlord.

Thesenewdynamicsinthecountry’sagriculturalsectoraremakingbigchangesinthewaythatagriculturallandandtherurallaborforceisusedandmanaged.ThisrepresentsatrendoffurthermarginalizationoffarmersfromworkingtheirlandtowardsbeingwagelaborersforlargeandpowerfulBurmesecompanies.

Thewayagriculturallanddevelopmentisunfoldinginthenorthernethnicstatesofthecountry(KachinandShanStates)isverydifferentthaninBurmanareasintheCentralDryZone,deltaregions,andTenasserimDivision.InKachinandShanStates,thereisverylittleactivitybythesewell-placedBurmesecompaniesbasedinRangoon.ItismostlyconductedbyChinesebusinessmenand investors, oftentimesbehind a local Chinese-Burmesebusinessman,mostlybasedinMyitkyinaandLashio.Themilitaryauthoritiesinthearea,especiallyregionalmilitarycommanders,playanimportantroleinadministeringcontractsforlargerlandconcessions.Inareascontrolledbyethnicpoliticalgroups,thentheChinesebusinessmenmustworkthroughhigherlevelsofthoseethnicpoliticalparties.NearlyallChineseagribusinessinvestmentinKachinandShanStatesissubsidizedbyChina’snationalopiumcropsubstitutionpolicy.102

In2006 theChinesegovernment increasedfinancial incentives toencourageChinesebusinessesinvestinginopiumsubstitutiondevelopmentinnorthernBurmaandLaos.This


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includesstate-backedsubsidiesforChinesebusinessmeninvestinginagriculturalplantationsinnorthernBurma,includingtariff-freeimportquotas.TheMyanmargovernmentincludesintheirannualstatisticsacategoryfor‘AnnualandPerennialCropsSubstitutingforOpiumPoppyinBorderArea’,theonlyindicatorissuedbythegovernmentonacreagesownbyopiumcropsubstitutionprojects.Forannualcrops,atotalofover1.5millionacresweresownby2006-07.Perennial cropshavebeenprojected to reachover600,000acres in2007-8,over50percentmarkupfromtheyearbeforewithnearly400,000acres,whichwasover110percentincreasefromtheyearprior.103Ascanbeseen,thedramaticandcontinualincreaseinareaplanteddoesindeedcoincidewithChina’sopiumcropsubstitutionpolicybeingredesignedin2006withfurtherstatesupportandbroughttonorthernMyanmarbyChinesebusinessmen.

Whetherinthenorthernethnicareas,theCentralDryZone,thedeltaregion,orthefarsouth,farmersinBurmaarelosingtheirland,livelihoodsanddignity.Evengovernmentdataillustratesthetrendsthatsmallholderfarmers’landisgettingsmallerandfewerinnumber,while very large landholdings are growingexponentially.While theBurmesegovernmentcontinuestosupportfavoredBurmesecompaniestoengageintheregime’svariousagriculturalschemes,nopolicieshavebeenenactedtosupportsmallholderfarmersinBurma.Furthermore,nolawsorpoliciesexisttodealwiththeincreasingoccurrenceoffarmersbeingevictedfromtheirsubsistencelandtomakewayforprivatelandconcessions.

Foreign Direct Investment

Ahostofagreementshavebeensignedwithforeigngovernmentsandcorporationsonresourceextractionprojects,especiallyintheoilandgas,hydropowerandminingsectors,as lateroutlined in this report. Inparticular,Chinese investment invarious sectorshassoared in the lastdecade,with2010witnessingunprecedentedeconomic cooperationbetweenBurmaandChina.DuringrecentvisitsbythreeoftheninemembersofthePolitburoStandingCommittee,therespectiveleaderssigned35economicagreements.AndwhenSeniorGeneralThanShwevisitedBeijinginSeptember2010,hereputedlywantedtolearnaboutChina’seconomicreform.104

Althoughskewedbymassiveresourceextractionprojectsrecentlysigned,theamountofChineseinvestmentbetweenjustAprilandAugust2010representedtwothirdsofChina’stotalinvestmentinthecountryinthepasttwodecades.Chinesecompanieshaveinvested$8.2 billionUSD in the resource sector inMarch 2010 alone, including $5billion inhydropower,$2.15billioninoil/gassector,andnearly$1billioninmining.105ThisinvestmentispartofaChinesegovernment30-yearinterest-freeloaninSeptember2010amountingto30billionYuan ($4.2billionUSD) toBurma foreconomicdevelopment tohelp fundhydropowerprojects,roadconstruction,railwaydevelopmentandinformationtechnologydevelopment.106Notonlyhigh-profileagreementsonresourceextractionprojects,butalsobordertraderemainsaveryimportantfacettothetwocountries,withbilateraltradeinthefirstfourmonthsof2010jumpingover75percent,althoughthisisduetoincreasingChineseexportgoodsintoBurma.107YunnanreliesonBurmaforthree-fourthsofitscross-bordertrade,amountingtojustover12percentofitsannualforeigntrade.WhileBurmaisYunnan’slargestexportmarket,itisalsothesecond-largestimportmarket,especiallyrelyingonimportedagriculturalcommodities,Burma’smostsignificantexportproduct.108


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OfcourseChinaisnottheonlyinvestorinBurma,althoughcertainlythemosthighlyprofiled,andwillcertainlybethenumberoneforeigninvestoraftersomeofitsrecentinvestmentsinoil,gasandhydropowergoonline.KoreaandThailand,amongothercountries,alsoprovideampleFDIinBurmafromtheirmassiveresourceextractionprojects(seemoreinsection4.3.2).

Thesefigureshowevergiveanincompleteunderstandingofthedegreetowhichforeigngovernmentofficialsandcompaniesareinvolvedinresourceextractioncontracts.Noneofthis data records informal business deals, illegal imports and exports (not throughgovernment-controlledcheckpoints),norinvestmentinareascontrolledbyethnicpoliticalgroupswitharmedwings,suchasUnitedWaStateParty(UWSP)andKachinIndependenceOrganization(KIO).Duetogreaterrestrictionsandveryhightaxes,companiesobtainlandconcessionsbyinformallysupportingaBurmesecompany,whichisthennotearmarkedasforeigninvestment.

4.3.2 Economic development, conflict and natural resources in ethnic areas

ControlovernaturalresourcesisamajorcauseofconflictinethnicareasinBurma.Forexample, in eastern Burma there has been increasedmilitarization andwidespreaddisplacementwherethereareplans,backedbyThaiandChineseinvestors,tobuildaseriesofdamsontheSalween(ThanlwininBurmese)River.Forexample,inJune2009anoffensiveinKarenStateclosetotheHatgyidamsiteontheSalweenRiverdroveover3,000KarenrefugeesintoThailand.109ObserverslinkedtheoffensivetotheneedfortheStatePeaceandDevelopmentCouncil(SPDC)andtheDemocraticKarenBuddhistArmy(DKBA)togainterritorialcontroloftheareasaroundthedamsite.

Armedconflictovernaturalresourceslikelywillcontinuegiventhesetrends.ThemajorityofBurma’sremainingvaluablenaturalresourcesarelocatedinareaswhereethnicceasefireandnon-ceasefiregroupsoperate.ForeigndirectinvestmentinBurmaisconcentratedinenergyandextractiveindustries110andrecentlytherehasbeenaheightenedinterestfromcountriesintheregionformoreinvestmentopportunities.Giventhelackofsoundeconomicpolicyandsocialandenvironmentalregulations,anincreaseinforeigninvestmentcouldhaveamajornegativeimpactontheenvironmentandcommunitieslivingintheseareas.PlannedoilandgaspipelinesbackedbyChina throughArakanState,MagwayDivision,MandalayDivision,andShanStatehavealreadyresultedinincreasedmilitarizationanddisplacementofcommunitiesalongthepipelinearea.111 112 113Theprojects,currentlyunderconstruction,riskcontributingtoarmedconflictinShanStateanddestabilizingeconomicandregionalsecurity.TheproposedpathofthepipelinesinthecontestedterritoriesofNorthernShanStateissettotraverseareasoccupiedbytheKachinIndependenceArmy’s(KIA)4thBrigade,theKachinDefenseArmy(KDA),andtheShanStateArmy-North(SSA-N)1stBrigade.114TherearealreadyreportsoffightingbetweentheShanStateArmy-North1stBrigadeandtheBurmaArmyinthevicinityofthepipelineroute.115

Thismirrorsthedevelopmentmodel imposedduringtheconstructionofthenotoriousYadanaandYetagungaspipelinesinTennaserimDivision.116Thepipelineswereconstructedinthe1990sbyFrench,American,Thai,Malaysian,andJapaneseoilcompaniesinpartnershipwith theMyanmarOilandGasEnterprise (MOGE)and theBurmaArmythroughareas


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traditionallycontrolledbyethnicKarenandMonarmedgroups–theKNLAandMNLA,respectively.Tomakewayforthepipelines,theBurmaArmyconfiscatedlandandcommittedforcedlabor,torture,andkillingswhileactingassecurityforcesfortheoilfirms.Manyoftheseabusescontinetodaybybattalionsprovidingsecurityfortheoilcompaniesandthepipelines.117 118In1995-1996,therewereatleastthreeattacksintheYadanapipelineareabytheKNLA,twoofwhichtargetedthepipelinespecifically.TheBurmaArmyrespondedby inflictingviolenceon innocentvillagersandexecutingavillageheadmanandelevenothercivilians.119Sincethen,numerouskillingsintheareahavebeendocumented.120

Burmahasrecentlyincreasedbilateraleconomicinvestmentinenergyprojectswithothercountries–mostsignificantlyChina,IndiaandThailand–onprojectsinethnicareas.OtherASEANcountriesincludingMalaysiaandSingapore,andtheRepublicofKoreaarealsokeycounterparts(formoreinformationseesection5ofthisreport).

Pre-andpost-electionpoliticaldevelopmentsdidnoteasetensionsbetweenethnicceasefireandnon-ceasefiregroupsandthegovernment.Leadinguptotheelectionsthegovernmentappliedheavypressureonethniccease-firegroupstotransformintoborderguardforces(BGF)aswellasblockingcertainethnicpoliticalpartiesfromenteringtheelection.Thegovernmentalsosubduedethnicpoliticalpartiesbydisenfranchisingresidentsin300villagesinseveraltownshipsinKachin,Karenni,MonandShanStatesandfourtownshipsintheWa’sselfadministereddivision.121 122Furthermore,armedgroupshavebeguntoreorganize.InSeptember2010ethnicarmedgroupsfromKachin,Shan,Mon,Chin,KarenniandKarenareasagreedtoprovidemilitaryassistancetoeachotherifneeded.Indeed,fightingbrokeoutbetweentheSPDCarmedforcesandDKBABrigade5–abreakawayfactionoftheDKBAthatrefusedtotransformintoaBGF-inMyawaddyandThreePagodasPassinthewakeoftheelectionsinearlyNovember2010,forcingthousandstofleeacrosstheborderintoThailand.Approximately30,000refugeeshavefledacrosstheborderintoThailandsincethe elections, including hundreds fromdirectly upstreamof thedam site (formoreinformationseesection5.1).123 124 125 126 127

While indicatorspoint toa likelihoodof increasedconflict inethnicareas (evenwarasceasefiredealsfallapartfromsomegroups),thereisalsoapossibilityofdecreasedviolenceduetoeconomicmotivations.Investmentcouldresultinlesseningconflictaslocaldealsaremadebetweenbusinesspeople,thegovernmentandlocalethnicleaders.Inthecease-fireagreementsoftheearly1990s,themilitaryregimecommonlyofferedco-operativearrangementstoethnicleaderstoexploitnaturalresourcesiftheyagreedtoacease-fire.However,whilemoreceasefiredealsmaydampenovertviolence,ascanbeseenfrompreviousceasefiresthatviolenceistransformedintonewtypesofconflict,suchasthroughsocialupheaval,increaseddruguse,migration,landconfiscation,etc.

Regionalpoliticscouldalsoplayaroleinsubduingconflict.ChinahasmadeborderstabilityatoppriorityinitsengagementwithBurmaandborderethnicgroups,especiallywiththeUnitedWaStateArmy(UWSA),KachinIndependenceArmy(KIA),andNationalDemocraticAllianceArmy(NDAA),demonstratingitsconcernthatthreatstoborderstabilitywouldthreatenitsstrategicandgrowingeconomicinterests.xxi

xxi BorderstabilitywasapriorityduringtwohighlevelvisitstoBurmain2009and2010,andagainduringThanShwe’svisittoBeijinginSeptember2010.Chinaalsofacilitatedaseriesof13negotiationsbetweenthe


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4.3.3 The Role of International Financial Institutions in Burma

Burmacurrentlyhasasubstantialforeigndebttomultilaterallenders,mostofitwhichisformallyinarrearsxxii.BurmastartedborrowingfromtheWorldBankin1956,buttherehasbeennoWorldBank loan since July1987. Theoutstanding loans to theWorldBank’sInternationalDevelopmentAssociationtotal$719millionUSD.128Since1998,Burmahasbeenin“non-accrualstatus”withtheWorldBank,meaningthattheoverduedebtmustbeclearedbeforetherecanbeanynewlending.Similarly,sinceBurmabecameamemberoftheAsianDevelopmentBank(ADB)in1973itreceivedloanstotaling$530millionUSD,while the country owes theADB $325millionUSD.While not receiving any directdevelopmentfinancing from international financial institutions (IFIs), Burma receivesassistancethroughanumberofavenues.TheInternationalMonetaryFundconducts“ArticleIVconsultations”whichreviewarangeofeconomicpoliciesofitsmembercountries.StafffromtheWorldBankandADBhavejoinedtheconsultationsinthepast.ThelastconsultationwasheldinJanuary2011.129 130

TheADBhasnotprovidedany loanstoBurmasince1986-87.However,theADBhasprovidedandcontinuestoprovideotherkindsofassistancethroughseveralchannels.ThefirstistheGreaterMekongSubregion(GMS)economiccooperationprogramxxiiiinwhichtheADBplaysafacilitatingandsupportingroleinmobilizingprivatesectorinvestment.Thepurposeoftheprogramistofacilitateregionalgrowthanddevelopment.TheADBfundsBurma’sparticipation inGMS-related activities andprojects through their Regional TechnicalAssistanceGrants(RETA).xxiv

In2009theADBreleasedadiscussiondraftenergystrategyfortheGreaterMekongSub-regionentitled‘BuildingaSustainableFuture:TheGreaterMekongSubregion’. 131Thestudyconcludesthatenergy integrationforall formsofenergy includinggas is the leastcostsolutiontomeetingenergydemandintheregion.ThisisthefirstGMSenergystrategytoincludenaturalgas.Asamajorsourceofgasintheregion,Burmaisincludedinthemodel.Currentbilateral tradewithThailand ismentionedand the studyoutlines indetail thecontroversialShwegasproject,whichisdocumentedtohavealreadyresultedinhumanrightsabuses(seesection5.2).

AnassessmentofbiofuelsinBurma,supportedbytheADB’sGMS,promotesthedevelopmentofa long-termbiofuel strategywitha focuson Jatropha.A reportentitled“Statusandpotential for thedevelopmentofbiofuels and rural renewableenergyMyanmar”wasdevelopedaspartof theStrategic Framework forBiofuelDevelopment in theGreaterMekongSubregionwhichpromotesbio-fuelsasasolutiontoenergydeficiencyintheGMS.

KachinIndependenceOrganization(KIO)andthegovernmentbetweenApril2009andApril2010,encouragingdialogueandrestraint.InternationalCrisisGroup,“China’sMyanmarStrategy:Elections,EthnicPoliticsandEconomics”,UpdateBriefing,AsiaBriefingNo112,Beijing/Jakarta/Brussels,21September2010.xxii Anarrearsisadebtwhichremainsunpaid.xxiii TheGMSprogramcomprisesCambodia,thePeople’sRepublicofChina,LaoPeople’sDemocraticRepublic,Myanmar,Thailand,andVietNam.Formoreinformationvisit:http://www.adb.org/gms/xxiv From1January1968to31December2009,consultantswereinvolvedin20,087contractsforADBTAprojectsworth$2.52billion.Duringthesameperiod,consultantsfromMyanmarwereinvolvedin23contractsforADBTAprojectsworth$1.28million.ADB,“ADBandMyanmarFactSheet”,http://www.adb.org/Documents/Fact_Sheets/MYA.pdf,lastaccessed7November2010.


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http://www.adb.org/Documents/Fact_Sheets/MYA.pdf

http://www.adb.org/Documents/Fact_Sheets/MYA.pdf

(formoreinformation,seesection5.5).

AnotherGMSinitiativerelatedtoBurmaisthe‘East-WestEconomicCorridor’(EWEC)(or‘AsiaHighway’)whichisaplantoestablishalandrouteconnectingtheIndianOceanandtheSouthChinaSeathroughBurma,Thailand,Laos,andVietnam.AccordingtotheADB,themainvisionoftheEWECisto“createaneconomiccorridorthatwillstimulatethetypeofeconomicgrowththatreducespovertyandraisesthestandardsoflivingintheareascoveredby the corridor.”132 Theoriginalplanwas to complete themain infrastructurecomponentsof theprogramby2007.Todate, themajorityof infrastructurehasbeencompleted,buttheportsinbothVietnamandBurmahaveyettobefinished.TheroadbetweenThingannyinaugandMyawaddyinBurma,whichispartoftheEWEC,ismostlycompleteexceptfora40kilometerstretchthroughaconflictareainKarenState,wherethereareongoinghumanrightsabuses.133ThebuildingofthisstretchiscontroversialasitwouldprovideincreasedaccesstotheareafortheBurmesemilitary.Furthermore,theroadbisectsseveralprotectedareasinthenorthernpartoftheWesternForestComplexxxvandconstructionwouldresultinloggingofteakforests,threatenwildlifeanddestroyrareandthreatenedtropicalforestecosystems.

AspartoftheEWEC,abordereconomiczone(BEZ)isslatedtobeestablishedinMaeSotinThailandoppositeMyawaddyinKarenState.AnindustrialandexportprocessingzonealsoistobesetupinMoulmein(capitalofMonState).AccordingtotheADB’sEastWestEconomicCorridorstrategyactionplan2009,“theIndustrialEstateAuthorityofThailand(IEAT)hassupportedthecreationofa384hectareindustrialestateinMyawaddy.Two-thirdsofthatareawouldbedesignatedasanexportprocessingzone(EPZ),andelectricitywouldbesuppliedfromMaeSo[t]sincelocalsourcesareunreliable.Insupportoftheseefforts,atradecenterisintheprocessofconstruction.”134Withmanyofthebuildingscomplete,inJuly2007theThaigovernmentwasreconsideringthelaunchingofaspecialeconomiczonebetweenMaeSotandMyawaddy,butrecentconflictinMyawaddywilllikelyputafurtherdelayontheseplans.135

TheotherGMSprogramthat involvesBurma is theGMSMekongPowerGrid,which ispromotedunder the ‘RegionalPower InterconnectionandPowerTradeArrangements’.Accordingtotheplan,firstproposed in1994,aseriesofhydropowerschemes inLaos,Burma,Cambodia andYunnanProvince,China,will export electricity toThailandandVietnam.Aregionaltransmissiongridwillbebuilttoconnecttheseschemes.Thetotalcostfortransmissionandgenerationis$43billionUSD.136 137InternationalRiversresearchshowsthat“sofartheplanningprocesshasbeenpoorwithliterallynoparticipationbycivilsocietygroups,andlittleconsiderationoftheimpactofthedamsontheenvironmentorlivelihoods.Bothnational and regional electricityplanningprocesses todatehave failed tomeetinternationalstandards,suchastheprinciplesofIntegratedResourcePlanning.Asaresult,electricitydemand,inparticularinThailandandVietnamwheremuchofthedams’electricitywillbeconsumed, isover-estimatedandthepotentialcontributionthatrenewableand

xxv TheWesternForestComplexincludestheKayah-KarenMontaneRainForests,whichextendsouthintotheTenasserim(Tanintharyi)Division. TheregioncontainsmainlandSoutheastAsia’slargestremainingtropicalandsub-tropicalmoistbroadleafforests.Tohelpprotectthesespecies,theWorldWildlifeFundhasaddedtheKayah-KarenForeststoitslistoftheplanet’s200mostimportanteco-regions. http://www.earthrights.org/publication/east-west-economic-corridor


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http://www.earthrights.org/publication/east-west-economic-corridor

http://www.earthrights.org/publication/east-west-economic-corridor

decentralizedenergy,energyefficiencyanddemandsidemanagementcouldmakeisnotfullypursued”.138TheADBsupportstheplanforregionalintegrationofpowerbyhostingregularregionalmeetingsbetweengovernments,fundingstudies,andfinancingseveraltransmissionlines.139While,notdirectlyfundedbytheADBthemasterplanincludestheTasangdaminShanstate.ThemaininvestorsareEGATInternationalandtheThreeGorgesGroupCorporation(seesection5.1).

Besides theGMS, theADB is involved in theBayofBengal Initiative forMulti-SectoralTechnical andEconomicCooperation (BIMSTEC)whichconsistsofBangladesh,Bhutan,India,Burma,Nepal,SriLankaandThailand. TheextentofassistancefromtheADBtoBurmaaspartofthisprogramisnotclear.140However,BurmaiscurrentlythefocalpointfortheenergyandagriculturecommitteesandthelatestMinisterialMeetingofBIMSTECwasheldinNaypidawinJanuary2011. 141

Aregionaleconomicco-operationstrategythattheADBhelpeddesignandsupportundertheAyeyawady-ChaoPhraya-MekongEconomicCooperationStrategy(ACMECS)pavedthewayforaplanforThaicontractfarmerstomanageandcultivatemorethan7millionhectaresoflandinBurmaforsugarcane,oilpalm,cassava,beansandrubber.142AmemorandumofunderstandingsignedinDecember2005,designatedfourareasinKarenandMonStates.Thecontractfarmswerealltobeoverseenbythestate-runThaiNationalEconomicandSocialDevelopmentBoard.143In2006,29ThaiinvestorswereallowedundertheoriginalMoUtoexporttheirproductstoThailandduty-free.144AgribusinessandtheThaigovernmentwerethekeydriversoftheproject,howeverin2010theMinistryofAgriculturetoldtheFocusontheGlobalSouthxxvithatcontractfarminginBurmawastheleastsuccessfulamongstthe3neighboringcountriesbecausetheBurmesegovernmentdidn’twantThaitraderstotradewithethnicgroupsalongthebordersodidnotfacilitatetheissuingofCertificateofOriginforthem.145AccordingtoFocusontheGlobalSouth,investorsweremostlysmallandmedium traders thathadalreadybeendoing tradeacross theborder in TakandKanchanaburi.The0tariffbenefittedthemasdidthelegalizationoftheongoingtrade.ThebulkofproducebroughtintoThailandfromBurmaduring2006-2008underACMECSwerepeanut,mungbeanandsesame.Onlyonesugarcompanyinvestedingrowingsugarcaneinabout6000raioflandandthatwasthebiggestagribusinessinvestoravailableinreports(inThai),exceptforCP(corngrowing,feedmills,livestock)whichhasbeeninBurmaforalmost20years.146

Asmentionedearlier,UNEPandtheADBcommissionedthe2006theMyanmarEnvironmentalPerformanceAssessmentwaspublishedaspartofabroaderprogramcalledtheNationalPerformanceAssessment and Strategic Environment FrameworkofGreaterMekongSubregion (GMS). It provides someuseful baseline data covering forest resources,biodiversity,landdegradation,managementofwaterresources,wastemanagement,airpollutionfrommobilesourceandclimatechange. 147

Morerecently,boththeADBandWorldBankgavesupportforreliefandreconstructionafterCycloneNargisthroughASEAN.Afterthecyclonehit,ASEAN,theUN,andtheBurmesegovernmentsetuptheTripartiteCoreGrouptoco-ordinateneedsassessmentsandreceive

xxvi FocusontheGlobalSouthisaprogramofprogressivedevelopmentpolicyresearchandpracticethatworksonregionalandglobalpolicyanalysis,micro-macrolinkingandadvocacyworkwww.focusweb.org


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aidfromdonors.TheADBandWorldBanksentanumberofexpertstoprovidetechnicalassistance for the initialneedsassessmentofcyclonehitareas.Basedon theresultingreport‘ThePost-NargisJointAssessment”(PONJA),theUNissuedacalltotheinternationaldonorcommunitytomakecontributionsof$1billionUSDforrecoveryworkinBurmaoverthenextthreeyears.TheWorldBankgaveagrantof$850,000USDfor“disasterassessmentandrecoveryactivities.”148CivilsocietygroupsbasedontheThai-BurmeseborderraisedconcernsthatwhilethePONJAreportdetailedthe impactof thecycloneandresultingrecoveryneedsinmanysectorsandcyclone-affectedareas,itwasnotcomprehensiveorobjectiveasthegovernmentlimitedthescopeandassessmentofthereport.149InFebruary2009,theTripartiteCoreGrouppublishedafollow-upreport“Post-NargisResponseandPreparednessPlan,”whichestimated$691millionUSDwouldbeneededfor“emergencyreliefandearlyrecoverytowardsmedium-termrecovery.”150 151

InDecember2009,at the invitationofUNESCAP (UnitedNationsEconomicandSocialCommissionforAsiaandthePacific),formerWorldBankChiefEconomistJosephStiglitzconductedatripinBurmatoadviseoneconomicpolicy.Thefocuswasontheruraleconomyand sustainable agricultural development.At theendof the triphemetwith seniorgovernmentofficials,policymakers,developmentpractitionersand scholarsatESCAPsSecondDevelopmentPartnershipRoundtableandDevelopmentForuminNaypidaw.Thefourmainrecommendationswere:examiningcreditpoliciesandincreasingfarmersaccessto credit, social protection for farmers (including crop insurance and employmentguarantees),movingfromalaborintensivesystemtoamoretechnologyandknowledgebased system (which requires education), and transparency in financial systemsandallocatingnational revenue towhere it ismostneeded.152 Stiglitzhighlightedgas andhydropowerandpotentialandactualrevenuesources,andpointedouttheneedforwellfunctioninginstitutionsascriticaltosuccess.153 154Criticspointedtothedecadesofeconomicmismanagement;lackofcomprehensiveplanning;andtheneedforpoliticalandspaceandwillingnessforgenuineeconomicreformbeforeeconomicpolicychangesaremade.SeanTurnell,AssociateProfessorinEconomicsatMacquarieUniversityinSydneypointedoutthatisimpossiblefortheeconomytobepartiallyopentoreform.155Furthermore,neoliberaleconomicreformssuchasthosewhichStiglitzandtheWorldBankadvocatearepromotingunconditionalprivatelandrightswhichcanbeboughtandsoldonalandmarket,whichhaveinothercountriesthroughoutthehistoryofprivatizationhurtsmallholderfarmers.

5. THREATS TO ENVIRONMENT AND LIVELIHOODS

ThemajorityofBurma’sincomecomesfromsellingoffnaturalresources,includingbillionsofdollarsfromgasandhydropowerdevelopment. Investmentcomesfromcountrieswithintheregion–mostsignificantlyChina,IndiaandThailand.Malaysia,Singapore,Japan,VietnamandKoreaarealsokeyinvestorslookingtoincreaseinvestmentsaftertheelections.Theseresourceextractiveinvestmentsdamagetheenvironmentandthreatenlocalresource-basedlivelihoods,particularlyinethnicareas.

In2010TransparencyInternationalratedBurmaalongsideAfghanistaninsecondlastplace(onlySomaliawasregardedasworse)initscorruptionperceptionsindex.156NolawsexistinBurmathatdemandpublicparticipationortransparencyindecision-makingandfinancing


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ofpublicprojects,protectfarmersfromlarge-scaleinvestmentthatleadstolandconfiscation,requiresocialandenvironmentalimpactassessments,providelaborregulationsforworkerson theprojects,orallow famer’sassociationsorunions. Lawsareusednot toprotectpeople’srights,buttoservetheeconomicinterestsoftheBurmesegovernmentprimarilythroughextractingwealth.

Therehasbeenacontinuingincreaseinmilitarization,largescaleresourceextractionandinfrastructuredevelopmentinBurma.Thesefactorsarecausingwidespreaddisplacementandhumanrightsabusesthroughoutethnicareas.ThisispartofasystematicplanofBurma’sgovernmentattemptingtogaincontrolovernaturalresource-richethnicareastocreatewealth,andtoconsolidateitspoliticalpowerbase.

AnalysisofdevelopmentinBurmashouldthereforealsotakeintoseriousconsiderationtheroleofmilitarizationconnectedtodevelopment,andtheimplicationsithasforboththesurroundinglandandpopulationscontainedtherein.Securingresource-richlandsforlarge-scaleresourceextractionprojectsorinfrastructuredevelopmentincreasesBurmesemilitary andpolice presencewhich has serious consequences for local populations.Oftentimescommunitiesareimplicatedinforcedlaborandportering,forciblyrelocatedwithoutcompensation,lossoftraditionalfarmlandsandtheirlivelihoods–withoutanyemploymentorothereconomicbenefits.Militarizationisnotonly linkedwithso-calleddevelopmentprojects,butalsowithconservation.AsthecasestudywiththeHugawngValleyTigerReserveclearlyillustrates,declaringareasasconservationzonesalsoleadstomilitary securitizationof the surroundingareaandpopulation.Bothdevelopmentandconservation result in theBurmesemilitary-state controlling territory, introducingnewgovernanceregimesthatrestrictlocalpopulations’freedomsandwellbeing.

Themarketmayopenupfurthertoforeigninvestmentaftertheelections,butwithoutanyprotectionsofferedtothosemostvulnerable,therecouldbedireconsequencesforBurma’snaturalresources,environmentandruralpopulations,particularlyinethnicceasefireandnon-ceasefireareaswherethemajorityofnaturalresourcesremain.Recentlytherehasbeenaheightened interest fromneighboringcountries to invest further inBurma.Forexample,inSeptember2010,theChinesegovernmentagreedtogivea30-yearinterest-freeloanof30billionYuan($4.2billionUSD)toBurmaforeconomicdevelopmenttohelpfundhydropower projects, road construction, railwaydevelopment and informationtechnologydevelopment.157OnNovember2,2010,5daysbeforetheelectionsinBurma,Thailand’slargestconstructioncompanyItalian-ThaiDevelopmentwasgrantedalong-termconcessiontobuildadeep-seaportinsouth-easternBurma.TheprojectincludesaneightlanehighwaythroughaconflictareawheretheKNLAoperatesinTennasserimDivision,connectingtoKanchunaburiineasternThailand.158TheprojectispartoftheSouth-Southeconomic corridor linking theproposeddeep-seaport toThailandandMalaysia. Thecontractoralsoplansforittobea logisticsandtradinghubfortheregion,althoughfinancehasnotyetbeensecuredfortheproject.

India’sbilateralrelationshipwithBurmaisescalating,withtradeup26%andreaching$1.19billionUSDin2010.159Tiesbetweenthetwocountriesweretightenedduringa5-dayvisitbyBurma’smilitarychiefSeniorGeneralThanShwetomeetofficialsinDelhiinJuly2010.AccordingtoBurmesegovernmentsources,thevisitwasofficially“religiousinnature”but


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alsotodiscussbordersecurityandsignagreementsoneconomicco-operation.160 161StateownedIndiancompaniesarecurrentlyinvestinginandplanningtoinvestinanumberofprojectsincludingthegasandhydropowersector,communicationsandtechnologyandtheKaladanMulti-ModalTransportProject.xxvii

5.1 Large Dams

Burma’slargelyruralpopulationreliesheavilyonriversandstreamsfortheirlivelihoodsandculture.Thesearenowunderseriousthreatfromdamdevelopment.Anestimated48hydropowerprojectsarecurrentlybeingplanned,constructedoralreadyexistinBurmaonmajorriversincludingtheSalween/Thanlwin,Irrawaddy,Chindwin,andSittaung,aswellastheirtributaries. 162 xxviii Basedlargelyinborderandethnicregions,25ofthoseprojectsinvolvemegadams,willcostmorethananestimatedUS$35billiondollars163,willproduceanestimated40,000MWintotal,andwillbringinrevenueestimatedatUS$4billiondollarsannually. Thesehydropowerdamsareexpectedtoexportupto90%oftheircombinedgenerationtoneighboringcountriesinsteadofsupplyinglocalpopulationswhofaceseriousongoingenergyshortages.164Mega-damshavealreadybeenbuiltinseveralethnicareas,suchas the LawpitaHydropowerProject inKarenni Stateand LowerPaunglaungandKengtawngdamsinShanstate.165 166

ThereisarushamongstBurma’sneighborstobuildandoperatehydropowerprojects.Inthefirstsevenmonthsofthe2010–2011fiscalyearonethirdoftotalforeigninvestmentinBurmawentintothehydropowersector.167CorporationsandgovernmentsfromChina,India,ThailandandBangladeshhavesignedmemorandawiththeBurmesegovernment. A contractorfromSwitzerland,ColencoPowerEngineeringhassignedanagreementtoprovideconsultingservicesforin-houseengineeringservicesonhydropowerprojectsinMyanmar(includingtheTamanthiDaminWesternSagaingDivisionandtheUpperPaunglaungdaminShanstate). 168 169Therearestillanumberofprojectsthatitishardtoobtaininformationon.Buildingdams insideBurmaoffersanopportunity toacquire cheapelectricity forneighboringcountries,whileinvestorsarenotaccountableforthenegativeeconomic,socialandenvironmental impactsof thedambuilding. Investment revenue from the saleofelectricitywill continue to provide financial and political support to the Burmesegovernment.170Manyoftheproposeddamsarelocatedincivilwarzonesinethnicareaswherethereisincreasedmilitarizationandvillagersfacewidespreadhumanrightsviolationsincludingforcedrelocationandlabor,andinsomecases,torture,rapeandexecution.171

xxviiThe Indiangovernment signedanagreementwith theBurmesemilitarygovernment for theKaladanMulti-ModalTransitTransportProjectinApril2008.TheprojectwillconnecttheeasternIndianseaportofKolkatawithSittweportinArakanStatebysea;itwillthenlinkSittwe(thecapitalofArakanstate)totheland-lockedregionofMizoraminnortheasternIndiaviariverandroad.ItisanticipatedthatthetransportsystemwillremainfullyownedbytheBurmesestate,butbeprimarilyusedbyIndiancompaniestoincreasetrade in agricultural productswith Southeast Asia and link the land-lockedMizoram region to thesea.ConstructionoftheportatSittwehasalreadybegunandiftheprojectproceedsasplanneditwillhaveextensiveimpactonlocallivelihoods,andextremeenvironmentaldamage.Aperceivedneedforhigherlevelsof security in areas surrounding theKaladanProject, aswell as atother locationsdesignated for largedevelopmentprojects(hydropowerandgas/oil)hasresultedinasignificantriseinthemilitarypresenceinWesternBurmaandArakanStateinparticularwww.arakanrivers.net.xxviiiWhilethereare25damsdocumentedbyBurmaRiversNetwork(BRN)membersintheBRN“SaveBurma’sRivers”briefingavailableathttp://www.burmariversnetwork.org/resources/publications/13/499.html,ifallplannedandconstructeddamsinBurmaarecounted,thenumberismuchlarger.


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http://www.arakanrivers.net

http://www.burmariversnetwork.org/resources/publications/13/499.html

Asaresultofdam-buildinghundredsofthousandsofpeoplewillbeleftwithouttheirland,homesandlivelihoods,andbecomeinternallydisplacedormigratetoneighboringcountries.Thousandshavealreadybeenforciblydisplacedwithoutcompensationfrommilitarization. 172

Thedamswillhaveaseriousimpactonfoodsecurityandhealthvulnerability.Refugeesandmigrantworkerswill struggle for their survival inneighboringcountries. Internallydisplacedvillagerswillbeforcedtofindlandtofarmandothersourcesoffoodinsurroundingforests.Thedamswillalsodecreasefoodsecuritythroughtheirnegativeimpactonfisheriesandriverbankfarms.Thereareconcernsabouthealthvulnerabilityinacountrywithoneof theworsthealthsystems in theworld.Directhealthconcerns including increases indiseasesuchasmalaria,dengueandlymphaticfilariasis (asdamreservoirsprovidebreedinggroundsformosquitoes)andtoxicreleasesindamswhichareclosetominingsites.173

ManyofthedamsinBurmathreaten internationally-recognizedbiodiversityyetalmostnoneof the siteshavebeenassessed forenvironmental impacts, apart froma fewasrequestedby foreign investors tomerely rubberstamp theproject.One studyof thebiodiversityoftheWeigyidamareaontheSalweenRiverdocumented194plantand200animalspecies,including42endangeredspecies.TheMyitsoneDamattheconfluenceoftheIrrawaddyRiverinKachinStatewillfloodanarealargerthanSingaporeinoneoftheworld’shottest“hotspots”ofbiodiversity,displacingover15,000people.Damslocatedinbiodiverseareaswillfloodrichlowlandareaswherehundredsofuniquecultivatedspeciescouldbelostforever. 174

5.1.1 Dam projects: A closer look

Irrawaddy Myitsone Dam

TheplannedIrrawaddyMyitsonedamprojectislocatedattheconfluenceoftheMaliandN’MaiRivers,which formsthestartof the IrrawaddyRiverproper inKachinState.TheMyitsonewill displace15,000people,mostly ethnic Kachin, anddestroyMali-N’Maiconfluence,which theKachin regard as their cultural heartland.175 Thedam is beingconstructedbyChina’sstate-ownedChinaPowerInvestmentCorporation(CPI)andBurma’sAsiaWorldCompany.Thedamwillproduce6,000MWofelectricity.SixotherdamsarealsoplannedtobebuiltontheMaliandN’MaiRivers.176MostoftheelectricityproducedbythedamprojectswillbesoldtoChina.

AseriesofbombblastshappenedneartheMyitsonedamsitesinApril2010.xxixBy25January2011,50familiessurroundingthedamsitehadbeenforciblyrelocatedfromtheirhouses.Althoughmore familiesare set tobe forcibly relocated tomakeway for thedam, it isuncertainatthispointwhatthefinalnumberwillbe.177SecurityfortheprojectisbeingprovidedbytheBurmesemilitaryandincreasedeffortsarebeingmadebythemilitarytocontrolthearea. 178Sincethebombingstherehasbeenrestrictedmovementinandaroundthedamsiteandithasbeenhardtoobtaininformation.Followingtheopeningceremony

xxix No-oneclaimedresponsibilityforthebombings,howeverafarmerviewedbymanyasascapegoatwasarrested.OnehypothesisisthatitwastheworkoftheKachinIndependenceArmy(KIA),whichtookactionasapartoftheirrefusaltobecomearegime-ledborderguardforce.AnotherhypothesisisthatitcouldhavebeenanactoftheBurmesegovernmenttosetuptheKIA.


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tobuildthedamheldinDecember2009,thecapacityratingofthedamwasincreasedfrom3,600MWto6,000MW.

Ithasbeenestimatedthatthedamwillsubmergeabout766squarekilometersofold-growthrainforestsituatedintheMizoram-Manipur-Kachinrainforestregion,oneoftheworld’srichbiodiversityhotspotsandfocusareasforconservation.179Astheestimationofsubmergedareawasmadebeforethemassivecapacityratingincrease,totalsubmergedareamaybemuchgreaternow.TheCentralIrrawaddyRiverBasinisalsoastrategicstagingandwinteringdestinationformigratorywaterfowlfromTibetandotherregionsnorthoftheHimalayas.Thedamwilllikelycauseadecreaseinbothwaterqualityandfishpopulations,possiblycausingtheextinctionofbirdsfoundnowhereelseonearthandputtinggreaterstressonthecriticallyendangeredIrrawaddydolphin.180Thesituationisfurthercompoundedbythereservoirdischargeofaccumulatedmercuryfromgoldminingoperationsinthearea.Also,thedamwillchangenutrientflowstotheIrrawaddyDelta,where60percentofBurma’sriceisproduced.181

Shweli River Dams

InShanState,aMoUhasbeensignedbetweenaChinaandBurmatoconstructathree-tierdamcascadealongtheShweliRiver.TheShweli1wascompletedinlate2008.TheprojectisownedbyaChineseconsortiumthatincludestheYunnanMachineryEquipmentImportandExportCompanyLimitedandasubsidiaryofChinaSouthernpowerGridCorporation(CSG).ThedamwasbuiltbyChina’sSinohydroCorporation.HundredsofvillagerswereforcedtolaborfortheprojectwithoutpaymentandlocalwomenwereforciblymarriedtotheBurmaArmytroopsthatenteredtheareatosecurethedam.Beforetheproject’sstart,therewerenorestrictionsonvillagermovement.However,newBurmaarmycamps‘securing’thedamareahavelimitedvillageraccesstotheirfarmlandsandteaplantations.Villageraccesstoelectricityfromtheprojectisuncertainasisaffordabilitytovillagersifpowerbecomesavailable.Twootherdamsareplanneddownstream.182

Salween River Dams

OnBurma’ssectionoftheSalweenRiver,sevendamsarecurrentlyproposed,theTasang,KunLong,NongPa,Ywarthit,Hatgyi,Weigyi,andDagwin.TheproposedSalweendamsarealllocatedinconflictareaswheremilitaryfightingstilltakesplace.Dozensofvillageswillbedirectlyimpactedand/orrelocatedfromthedam’sfloodplain.Inaddition,theHatgyiandYwarthitdamsare locatedclosetofault lines.183 InaphenomenonknownasRiverInducedSeismicity, it isalsopossiblefordamstocauseearthquakes.184OftheSalweenDams,thetwomostadvancedaretheHatgtyiinKarenstateandtheTasanginShanstate.BothofthesedamsareintheThaigovernmentspowerdevelopmentplan(PDP).

AnMOUforthelargestoftheSalweenDams,theTasang(7,110MW)wassignedinNovember2010.InvestmentwasincreasedfromUS$6BilliontoUS$10Billion.ThemaininvestorschangedfromMDXThailandtoEGATInternationalandThreeGorgesGroupCorporation.185 TheTasangDamwillsubmerge870km2oflandinShanState.Between1996and1998decadesofmilitaryconflictintheareagavewaytotheforcedrelocationof60,000peoplein thedamareaandareasadjacent to thedam.Anestimated14,800of thosepeople


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http://www.internationalrivers.org/en/china/chinas-global-role/china-southern-power-grid

http://www.internationalrivers.org/en/china/chinas-global-role/china-southern-power-grid

http://www.internationalrivers.org/en/china/chinas-global-role/sinohydro-corporation

comprisetheKengKamculturalgroupwhichtherealizationofthedamprojectthreatenstowipeout.OngoingrampantloggingintheTasangDamprojectareaanditssurroundstoserviceChineseandThaihardwoodmarketsfurtherthreatenthefutureoflocalecologiesandthepeoplewhodependonthem.186

InApril2010,anMOAwassignedwiththeBurmaMinistryofElectricPower,andChinaandThailandfortheHatgyidaminKarenstate(1360MW).187ThedamisbeingbuiltbytheEnergyGeneratingAuthority of Thailand (EGAT) and funded by China’s SinoHydroCorporation.ThesigningoftheMOAcamedespiteareportbyacommittee(setupbyThaiPrimeMinisterAbhisitafterpressurefromcivilsocietyto investigatehumanrightsandenvironmentalviolationsinthedamarea)statedthatthegovernmentshouldinstructEGATtoconductanEIAinThailandincompliancewithThailegalstandards.ApreviousEIAwasdeemedincomplete.188Therehasbeen increasedmilitarizationaroundthedamsite. InJune2009,anoffensiveinKarenstateclosetotheHatgyidamsitedroveover3500Karenrefugees into Thailand. Thefightingwas linked to theneed for the State Peace andDevelopmentCouncil(SPDC)andDKBA(abreakawaygroupoftheKarenNationalUnion)togainterritorialcontroloftheareasclosetodamsite.AftertheNovember7,2010electioninBurma, conflictagainescalated inKaren state.Manyunitsof theDemocraticKarenBuddhistArmywhorefusedtobecomeaborderguardforceandareheadquarteredadjacenttotheHatgyidamsite,arenowactivelyfightingtheregime’stroops,andtogetherwiththeKNU,nowcontrollargeswathesofterritoryinthevicinityofthedam,andelsewhereinKarenState.Approximately30,000refugeeshavefledacrosstheborderintoThailandsincetheNovember2010election,includinghundredsfromdirectlyupstreamofthedamsite.189 190

Dams past and present

KarenniState’sLawpitapowerplantandconnectedMobyeandDatawchadamsbuilttosupplyelectricitytoRangoon,Burma’scapitalatthetime,representsthefirstlargescalehydropowerprojectbuiltinBurma.Powerplantrelateddevelopmentandmilitarizationoftheareasaw114villagesflooded191;12,000peopledisplaced;anestimated18,000landminesplanted;a localpopulationsubjected to forced labor, sexualviolence,andextrajudicialkillings;andprioritizedwaterschedulingleadingtocropdestruction.Eightypercentofthelocalpopulationstillhasnoaccesstoelectricity.192

ThenearbyUpperPaunglaungDam,beingbuilttoboostthepowersupplytoBurma’snewcapital,Naypyidawxxx,isagainabusinglocalpeople’srights“inthesameway,astheyfindthemselvesdispossessedoftheirlandsandtheirresourcesbeingsiphonedoffatgunpoint”.193 Forcedresettlementwithoutinformedconsentorcompensation,andthesubmersionoffertilefarmlandandforestsfaceslocalpeoplesandspecies.Aswithotherlargedamprojects,uniquelocalculturesandethnicitiesarealsothreatenedwithextinction.Connectedabusesalreadydocumentedintheregionincludeforcedlabor,forcedconscription,restrictionsonlanduseandrenewedconflict.194

xxx TheLowerPaunglaungDamcompletedin2005iscurrentlysupplyingelectricitytoNaypidaw.


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Burma Rivers Network, Dams in Burma, “Save Burma’s Rivers”, http://www.burmariversnetwork.org/resources/publications/13/499.html

(Note:thismapdoesnotincludealltheplannedandconstructed48damssuchastheplannedLaymro,SaiDun,ThaHtayChaungandAnnChaungdamsinArakanstateandtheplannedPawnandThabetdamsinKarennistate)


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5.2 Oil and Gas Extraction

Burmaisrichinoilandgasresources,whicharelocatedbothon-andoff-shore.Todaymanyinvestors,muchlikeinthehydropowersector,aregainingaccesstotheseenergyresources,includinggovernmentsandcorporationsfromChina,India,Thailand,SouthKorea,FranceandUSA.ChinesecompaniesarethefastestgrowinginvestorsinBurma’soilandgassector.195

ForeigninvestmentprovidescrucialsupporttotheBurmesegovernmentandincreasedenergy security for countries suchasChinabut local communitiesgainnobenefitsorcompensation.

ExportofnaturalgasisthemostlucrativeindustryinBurma,currentlyaccountingfor12.5%ofBurma’sGDP. 196AccordingtotheInternationalMonetaryFund,ithas,howevercontributedtolessthanonepercentofthebudgetrevenue,withmuchoftherevenuereportedlyneverenteringBurma.197Gasaccountsforover70%ofallforeignexchangereserves,withsalestotalingaround$3billionUSDannually.198Hadthisincomegoneintothestatebudgetitwouldhaveaccountedfor57%ofthetotalbudgetrevenue.199

Thefirstforeigninvestmentprojectafter1988whenthegovernmentbegantopartiallyliberalizetheeconomywasthedevelopmentoftheYadanagasfieldintheAndamanSeaandtheconstructionofagaspipelinethroughceasefireandconflictareasinMonStateandTenasserimDivision in easternBurma. Theprojectwasmanagedby themilitarygovernment’sstateownedcompany,theMyanmarOilandGasEnterprise,inpartnershipwithTotal(France),Unocal(US)andPTTExplorationandProduction(PTTEPThailand).MostofthegasisboughtbythePetroleumAuthorityofThailand(PTT)andrelativelylittleofthegasorrevenuegeneratedbenefitspeopleofBurmaorthecountry’sownenergysecurity.200 Burma’sgasandoilisbeingexportedwhileatthesametimemostpeopleinBurmalackenergyforelectricityorcooking.201

Theconstructionofthepipelineinthelate1990sresultedinhumanrightsabusesandmuchenvironmentaldestruction.Theseincludedmilitarizationofthearea;forcedrelocationofcommunitieswithoutcompensation;confiscationofagriculturallands;forcedlaborandforcedporteringtoconstructmilitarycampsandmilitaryinfrastructure;sexualviolence;andclearingoflandandroadconstructionalongthepipelinecorridorandpotentialsupplyroutes.Unocal,theUS-basedcompanymanagingtheprojectatthattimeinpartnershipwithFrance-basedTotalandtheBurmesemilitaryregime,facedlawsuitsforcomplicityinhuman rightsabuses through theAlienTortClaimsAct. Inearly2006Chevron (whichabsorbedUnocal)agreedtomulti-milliondollarsettlements,buthumanrightsabusesbypipelinesecurityforcessuchasextrajudicialkillings,forcedlaboranduncompensatedlandconfiscationsareongoingandweredocumentedinlate2009.202 203ItwasrecentlyreportedthattherehasbeenincreasedmilitarizationaroundthepipelineareainaceasefireareainMonstate,duetotensionsoverwhetherornottheNewMonStateArmywillagreetobecomeamilitary-governmentledborderguardforce.204

This investment innaturalgasextractioncameinatacrucialtimeforthegovernment,whichinthelate1990swaseconomically isolatedbytheinternationalcommunity.Thepipelinehascontinuedtoprovideasignificantcontributiontothegovernment’slong-termfinancialviability.ArecentreportbyEarthRightsInternationalestimatedthatfrom1998-


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2009,theYadanaProjectgeneratedatotalofover$9billionUSD—overhalfofwhich,about$4.6billionUSD,wentdirectlytothemilitarygovernment.205

Thereisnoindependentoversightforrevenuesfromtheoilandgassector.TherevenuesarerecordedbyBurma’spublicaccounts inBurmeseKyatat theofficialexchangerate,whichover-valuesthecurrencybyupto200times.AnearlierreporthadrevealedthatportionsofgaspipelinerevenuewereintwoofSingapore’slargestoffshorebanks,andthattheseaccountscouldbeusedforanypurpose.206Theproject iswidelyregardedasthesinglelargestofficialsourceofincomefortheregimewhichspendsoverhalfofgovernmentspendingonthemilitary.207 208Gasrevenuesaremostcertainlybeingusedtopurchaseweaponsandmilitaryequipment,andmaybefundingthemilitarygovernment’sallegednuclearweaponsprogramwhichincludesanestimated$3billionUSDspentonanetworkofmilitarytunnels.209

TheregimeissettoearnmorewiththeShweGasproject,whichaloneisprojectedtoearnatleast$1billionUSDayearfortheregimeforthenext30years.210InArakanState,westernBurma,plansforonshoreandoffshorenaturalgasandoilproduction,constructionofa2,800kmpipelinecorridortoaccommodatedualoilandgaspipelinesstretchingtoYunnanProvinceinChina,andthedevelopmentofadeepseaportarenowunderway.GasfieldswerediscoveredbyDaewooInternationalLtd.,aSouthKorea-basedcompany,offthecoastofArakanStateintheBayofBengalin2004.Thethreefields,collectivelylabeledShwe,theBurmesewordforgold,haveanestimated4.5-9.1trillioncubicfeetofgas.211Thelarge-scalenaturalgasprojectisbeingdevelopedwithDaewooInternationalLtd.(51percentstake)inconsortiumwiththeKoreaGasCorporation(KOGAS),ONGCVideshLtd.ofIndia,GAILLtd.ofIndia,asajointventurewiththeMyanmarOilandGasEnterprise(MOGE).212 TheChinesegovernmentsignedanagreementwiththeBurmesegovernmentinmid2009whichmadeChinathesolebuyerofthegasreserves.213ThepipelinesarebeingbuiltbyChina’slargestoilandgasproducer–theChinaNationalPetroleumCorporation(CNPC).Thesaleofthedepositswillmostlikelybecomethemilitarygovernment’ssinglelargestsourceofforeignincome.

Thegaspipelineisscheduledtobefullyoperationalin2013.Chinaisalsosettobenefitfromtheoil transportpipeline,whichwillenableoil tobe importedtoChinafromtheMiddleEastandAfrica.The2,380kmcrudeoilpipelinewillrunfromMadayIslandintheBayofBengaloffthecoastofArakantoKunming,China.Itisestimatedtocost$1.5billionUSDandwilltransport12billioncubicmetersofcrudeoilperyeartoChina.TheChinaNationalPetroleumCorporationstartedtheconstructionofaseaportonMadayIslandinOctober2009.Theconstructionoftheseaportisexpectedtobefinishedwithintwotothreeyears,andtheportisslatedtobebusierthanChina’sShanghaiseaport.China’scrudeoiltankerswilldockthereontheirwayfromtheMiddleEastandAfrica.214

ExperiencefromthedevelopmentoftheYadanaandYetagungaspipelinesineasternBurmademonstratethatpipelineconstructionandmaintenanceistiedtoaseriesofhumanrightsabuses.215Thehumanrightsandenvironmentalimpactsarealreadybeingfelt.Inmid-2009therewerereportsofforcedlandconfiscation,relocationsandhumanrightsabusesdueto the constructionof China’s crudeoil port atMaday Island inArakan State.216Nocompensationwasprovidedtolocalresidentsforthelandthatwastakenfortheproject.


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MorehumanrightsabusesinwesternBurmaandalongthepipeline’sroutetoChinaarelikelyinthenearfuture.Over8,500soldiersarecurrentlystationedalongthepipelineroute,anditisexpectedthatasconstructionprogressesmoresoldierswillmoveintotheareaincluding‘specialbattalions’withexperiencein‘pipelinesecurity’operations.InJune2010BurmesejuntaissuedalettertohundredsofvillagersinwesternBurmaorderingthemtovacatetheirland.217

Over400millionpeopleliveinthecatchmentareaoftheBayofBengal,subsistingatorbelowthepovertyline.Theseprojectsarethreateningthelivelihoodsofthousandsoflocalfarmersandfishermenanddestructionoftheenvironment.MiningoperationsforseaportconstructioninlateOctober2009aroundMadayislandkilledhundredsoffishanddestroyedimportantlocalfishinggroundswherelocalpeoplehavebeenfishingforcenturies.218Oilspills fromtanker traffic,andoilexplorationandproduction threatenfisheriesand thelargelyintactecosystemoftheArakancoast.Naturalgasproductionandtransportcouldresultintheleakageofchemicalsandpotentialgasblowoutswhichcauseenvironmentaldamage.219

Figure 3 Daewoo clearing pipeline route for the offshore gas terminal, Arakan state. SGM, 2011.


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5.3 Mining

Burmahasanumberofrichmineralresourcedepositsincludingtungsten,tin,zinc,silver,copper,lead,coal,goal,andindustrialminerals.220Antimony,limestone,andmarbledepositsalsodotthelandscape.221Gemstonesincludingdiamonds,rubies,andsapphirescanalsobefoundinBurma’ssoil.Burmaisalsothelargestjadeproducerintheworld.222NinetypercentofChina’sjadeite,thehighestqualityofjadeintheworldandonlyfoundinBurma,comesfromtheminesatHpakant,KachinState.223AftersigningaceasefirewiththeKachinIndependenceOrganization(KIO)in1994,theBurmesegovernmentassumedcontroloftheselucrativejadecaches.224

TheBurmesegovernmentmaintainsthat‘allnaturallyoccurringmineralsfoundeitheronorunderthesoilofany landonthecontinentalshelfaredeemedtobeownedbythestate’.225TheminingsectorisdirectedbytheMyanmarMinistryofMineswhosevariousbranches investigatepotentialmineraldeposits andgrantmining concessions to closepartnersincludingregionalcommanders,theBurmeseprivatesector,andsomeceasefiregroups.Since1988,whentheeconomywasopeneduptoforeigninvestment,theMinistryofMinesbegantoencouragelocalandforeigninvestmentintheminingindustry.226VerylittleinformationonthehundredsofofficialandunofficialminingconcessionsgivenbyBurma’sMinistryofMinestolocalandforeigninvestors(mostlyChineseenterprises)inthepast20yearsisavailabletothepublic.Manyoftheseminingcompanieshavefriendlytiestonon-statearmedgroupsallacrossthenation.227OnereasonthattheextentofChina’sstakeinBurma’sminingsectorisincrediblycomplicatedtogaugeisthatasizeableportionofminingoperationsinthecountryaresmallerinscale,remote,anddifficulttoaccess.228

Itisdifficulttoobtaindataontheincomethatthegovernmentreceivesfromminingexports.Forexample,officially,Burmaannuallyexports$60millionworthofpearls,sapphires,jade,andrubies,mostlytoThailandandChina.229However,someexpertsbelievethatgovernmentfiguresdownplaytheactualmagnitudeofthegemtradebyafactorof10.230

Duetothelackoflawsandregulationsprotectingtheenvironmentagainsttheimpactsofmining,miningposesagravethreattothemountainousregionsinthenorthanddelicatecoastalareaswheretiniscollected. Upuntilabout20yearsago,miningoperationswererelatively small in scale and causeminimal impacts to theenvironment.231 Traditionalmethodsofminingforgold,gems,andothervaluablemineralsrelymostlyonshovels,picks,pansandscreen.232Forthepasttwodecades,therehasbeenashifttowardslarge-scale—andmuchmoreenvironmentallydestructivetechniques.233

GoldminingisparticularlyrampantinKachinState,innorthernBurma,especiallyalongtheIrrawaddyandChindwinRivers.234In2007,theKachinDevelopmentNetworkingGroup(KDNG)reportedthefollowingimpactsofindustrialmininginKachinState:

Land,includingforests,isindiscriminatelyclearedforhydraulicandpitminingoperations.Pitmininggutstheremainingsoil,leavingitpock-marked…whilehydraulicminingblastsawaysoil[,]causingerosiononriverbanks.Wastesfromtheminingprocess,includingmercurycontaminatedrocksandsoil,


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arediscardedthroughoutthe[demolished]landscape.Grazinggroundsandhabitats for animals aredestroyed aswell as anyplant life that could[previously]growintheareas.235

Copperminingisthemostdestructiveformofmining.OpenpitminingwhichisusedinBurmarequiresthatthelandscapebestrippedofsurroundingforestsandvegetationandnaturaldrainagebedrasticallyaltered.Thisgreatlydestabilizesthetopography.236Burma’slargestmineistheMonywaProject,anopenpitcopperminelocatedinSagaingDivisonincentralBurma.LocalpeopleatMonywacannolongerfarmtheirlandduetohighlevelsofsulphuricacidinthesoilandwater,pushingsometoartisanalminingxxxi,andcreatingalocaleconomicshift—whichhasoccurredelsewhereinBurma—fromasubsistence-basedtoacash-basedeconomy.237Theshifttoartisanalminingfurtheradverselyaffectstheenvironmentandincreasesinflation,makingitdifficultforpeopletomeettheirbasicneeds.Itisalsonoteconomicallysustainableasitrequiresnocapitalinputsandthusnoaddedreturnoninputs;itisavehiclefortheperpetuationofpoverty.238

TheMonywaminecomprisesoffourcoppersulfidedeposits.Thefirstthreepitsarenearingdepletion.InJune2010themanagingdirectorofstate-ownedcompanyUMEHL(UnionofMyanmarEconomicHoldingsLimited)signedadealwithChineseweaponsproducerNorincoInvestors to invest in the last copperdeposit, ‘Letpadaung’.xxxii TheLetpadaungcopperdeposithasbeenestimatedtoholdasmuchas3,800,000tonsofcopperenoughtoproduce125,000tonsayearfor25years.239

AsofNovember2010,excavationofBurma’ssecondlargestirondepositonPinpetmountaininTaunggyi Township, southernShanState seems imminentasbulldozershavebegunclearingthearea.240TheprojectsiteisnearaconflictareawheretheShanStateArmySouthandPa-OhNationalLiberationArmyareresistingtheBurmesemilitary.Thesituationremainsunstable.241Themountainishometo7,000mainlyethnicPa’OhandShanvillagers.Another35,000livingalonganearbytributaryareendangeredbypossiblepollutionfromuntreatedwaterandheavymetalladentailings.242Themountainhas70milliontonsofhematiteandlimoniteore.243StakeholdersinvolvedincludetheTyazhpromexportCompany(Russia)andDanieliCompany(Italy).Farmersatthesitearebeingdisplacedandtherearefearsoffurtherforcedrelocation.Constructionofanironfactoryhasbegun.InJune20097,000acresoffarmlandwasconfiscatedforthefactorycompound.InSeptember2010,farmersinonevillagewereoffered5,000 kyat ($5.34USD)per acrebut they refused to accept theinadequatelysmallamount.InMarchandApril2010,villagerswereforcedtosell300acresoflandatapricefarbelowmarketratesforanewbuilding.

xxxi Artisanalminingisdrivenbypovertyandischaracterizedbyrudimentary,traditionalmethods.Itislaborintensiveandoccursinformally,alwaysasameansofsubsistence.Itrequireslittletonocapitalinputs.xxxiiTheothercurrentinvestoristheMonywaTrustwhichreceivedassetsfromIvanhoeMinesLtdofVancouverin2007onconditionthatitfindsabuyerforIvanhoe’sshareofthemine.IvanhoeMinesoriginallyestimatedthat$500millionUSDwouldbeneededtodeveloptheresourceextractionprojectandsoughtAsianpartnersapparentlyunsuccessfullytojoinintheventure.Norinco’sdealwasreportedintheMyanmarTimesinAugusttobeabilliondollars.IftheMyanmarTimesstoryiscorrect,thepricetagforgettingthecopperoreoutofLetpadaung isdouble theoriginalestimate.Courier InformationService, “LetpadaungCopperProject toReceiveBillionDollarInvestment”August16,2010.


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Figure 4 Polluted water from Tigyit coal mine, flowing into upper Balu creek then Inle lake. PYO 2010.

A250-milepipeline transferringnaturalgas to the iron factoryhasdestroyedvillagers’farmlandsalongtheroute.244HundredsoffarmershavelosttheirlandfortheKehsiMansamcoalmineandcoalpowerplantinTigyit,bothinShanState,which,alongsidethenaturalgaspipelineandahydropowerplant inKengTawngwillprovideenergytooperatethefactory.245Ironoresamplesatthesitehavetestedhighforarseniccontent,raisingfearsthattheminingoperationswillimpactfarmersatthefootofthemountainastheirfieldsmaybecoveredwithtoxicwastesoils.ReutersNewsAgencyrevealedinJulythatChina’sTaiyuanIronandSteelGroup(TISCO)signedanagreementtoworktogetherwiththeChinaNonferrousMetalMiningGroup(CNMC)indevelopingamajornickelminingprojectatTagaungtaung,MandalayDivision. Thecostof theproject isestimatedat$800millionUSD.246

Burmahasover16large-scalecoaldeposits,withatotalofover270milliontonsofcoalresources.TheTigyitcoalmineinsoutheasternShanstate,just13kmfromInleLake,isBurma’sbiggestopenpitcoalmine,producing2,000tonsofcoaldaily.ThereisalsoacoalfiredpowerplantinTiygitwhichisslatedforuseattheIronminingfactoryinTaunggyi.PollutedwaterfromthemineandwastefromthepowerplantflowviatheBalucreekintoInleLake,howeverasyettherehasbeennostudyontheimpactoftheprojectonthelake.Implementationof themineandpowerplantbegan in2002byChinaNationalHeavyMachineryCorporationandBurmesecompaniesEdenGroupandShanYomaNagar.Two


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villageswereforcedtorelocate,andover500acresoffarmlandwasconfiscated.Airandwaterpollutionisthreateningtheagriculturallivelihoodsandhealthofnearly12,000peoplethatlivewithinafivemileradiusoftheprojectsites.247

Mining in Shan State has brought about themany environmental andhuman rightstransgressionsincludingforceduncompensatedrelocationofethniccommunitiesandtheforcedsaleofland.InSengPinin2004,about150Akha,SamTao,andLahufamiliesfromfivevillageswereforcedtomovebytheceasefireNationalDemocraticAllianceArmy(NDAA)tomakeroomfor200Chinesefamiliesworkingatacoalminethere.Similarly,inApril2006,ninevillageslocatedninemilesoutsideofKengtungwereorderedtorelocatetofacilitatecoalminingoperations.248 Thai, Chinese,Russian, Italian, SouthKoreanand JapanesecompaniesalloperateinShanStateinconcertwiththeBurmesegovernment,Burmesecompaniesandethnicarmedgroups.249 250 251 252

AtleastsevencoalminesareactiveinsouthernandeasternShanStatewithatleasteightmoreinvariousunconfirmedstatesofoperation.Activemininginthestatealsoincludesoneironmine,twomanganesemines,threegoldmines,onezincmine,twoplatinummines,andonerubymine.ShanStatehasbothahistoryofminingand isrich inmineralsyetuntapped. In rarecases local communitiesareable tohaltoravoiddestructiveminingactivitieson their lands through collectiveaction. Inother cases companiesmayholdgovernment,butnotlocallygrantedrightstoaminebutareunabletoworkthedepositduetoconflictandanunstablepoliticalandbusinessclimate.253 254 255 256 257

ThefullextentofpollutionfromtheseminesintoMekongtributariesandtheirsurroundingenvironmentsisunknown.FoodsecurityimpactsontheShan,AhKha,andLahuvillagerslivingdownstreamfromminingoperations,andwaterpollutionarealreadybeingfelt.Onevillagerstated“Ican’tseethecatfishbecausethewaterisdirty.”258

In1997, theSPDCbegan togivegoldmining concessions toBurmesebusinessmen inShwegyinTownship,PeguDivision.By2005therewereover40miningcompaniesintheShwegyinarea.Landwasoftenconfiscatedandvillagersweredeniedaccess touplandfarms.Theareawasheavilymilitarizedtoprotectthecompanies.Villagershadnoalternativesourceoflivelihoodsoformedsmallgroupsandsoldtheirlandtoinvestinmachineryandobtainedgoldminingpermits.Traditionallyvillagersinthisareadependedonriversandforestlandsfortheirlivelihoodsandculturalpractices.Nowculturalpracticesandknowledgeofsmall-scaleminingtechniquesisbeinglost.Thelocalenvironmenthasalsobeenseverelyaffected.Miningoperationshavedrainedwatersources,increasedsoilerosion,andriverspollutedwithmercuryandotherchemicals.Mercuryishighlytoxictotheenvironmentandposesseriousriskstopublichealth.259Thevastmajorityoftoxicwastesfromgoldextractionprocesses is disposedofuntreateddirectlyonto landand intowaterways, effectivelypoisoning the soil and compromisingwater quality.Mercuryxxxiiiand other toxics arebiomagnifyingxxxiv infoodchainsandaccumulatinginthetissuesoflivingorganisms,withnegativeeffectsonfloraandfauna,localbiodiversity,andhumanhealth.260

xxxiiiLiquidmercuryisverypoisonoustopeopleandanimals,causingmanygovernmentstobanitsuse.However,itisstillwidelyutilizedthroughoutthegoldminingprocesstoseparategoldparticles.xxxivTheincreaseofconcentrationofasubstance,suchaspesticidesorothertoxics,inhumansandanimalsduetotheirconsumptionofotherorganismsloweronthefoodchain.


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LocallivelihoodshavebeenfurtherimpactedbyanelectricityproducingdamontheShweGyinriver.Despiteflooding,manysmallscaleoperationscontinuetopursuegoldfromrafts.InnearbyMawtamawarea,amemberoftheKarenEnvironmentCommitteereportsthatsmallscalegoldminingprovidesameansthroughwhichlocalpeopleareabletobuybasicdailynecessities.However, theSPDC, theKNUandthecompanies involvedremain themajorbeneficiariesofgoldmininginShwegyinTownship.261

5.4 Deforestation

ThemostrecentdatafromtheForestDepartmentlistspercentageofnaturalforest(bothclosedandopenforests)in2010at47percent(only23percentofwhichisclosedforest),withabout67millionhectaresoftotalforestland.262ArecentFAOstudyclaimsthepercentagechangeofthetotalforestareabetween1990and2000was-6.9percent,andthatbetween2000and2005was-3.7percent.From1990to2005,thetotalforestareachangedattherateof-10.3percent.263FromtwoperiodicalassessmentsonforestcoverofMyanmar,itwasfoundthatannuallyover100,000hectaresofnaturalforestswerelostduringtheperiodfrom1975to1989whileforestarealostinlateryearsfrom1989to1998wereover450,000hectaresperannum,equalinga1.4percentannualforestlossduringthatperiod.Thisistheequivalentofclearingmorethan75soccerfieldsofforestsanhour.264Itshowsthatrateofdeforestationafter1989hadbeen fourtimeshigher than thatofbefore1989.However,many organizations question the validity of those figures. In the 1990s,deforestation inBurmawasestimatedby theRainforestActionNetwork tobemuch higher-from800,000to1millionhectaresayear.265Burmahasbeenmarkedasthecountrywithoneofthehighestdeforestationratesintheworld.266 267 268

AccordingtoarecentpresentationbytheForestDepartment,“Themajoraccelerationafter1989coincidedwiththeopeningoftheforestrysectortotheprivatesectorintheaftermathoftheeconomicreformsof1988.”Inadditiontocommercialloggingactivities(legalandotherwise),forestsarealsobeingdecimatedbyprivateagriculturalconcessions,whichinfactsometimesactasacoverforloggingwithlittleagriculturalcropsevenplanted.Forestdegradationcanbelinkedto taungyapracticestoo,althoughitdependsonthetypeofforest,agriculturalpractices,populationdensityandtraditionallandmanagementstrategies,amongothercomplexvariables.

5.4.1 Logging

A2009 report byGlobalWitness “ADisharmonious Trade: China and the continueddestructionofBurma’snorthern frontier forests” states thatwhile loggingmayhavedecreasedinnorthernBurma,itisstillamajorsourceoffinanceforthemilitarytocontinuerepressionofethniccommunities:

In2007-08,timberwastheSPDC’sfourthmostimportantexportcommodityearningit$538USDinlegalforeignexchange.Foreignexchangeearnings,derivedfromthesaleoftimberandothernaturalresources,areimportanttotheregimebecauseinternationaltradeisalmostexclusivelyconductedinhardcurrency,usuallyU.S.dollars.BybuyingtimberfromofficialSPDCsources, eventimberproduced inaccordancewithBurma’s forest laws,


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companiesarecontributingdirectlytothefinancesofthemilitaryregimewithalltheconsequencesthatthatentails.Thelinkbetweentimberrevenueandtheregime’sviolentrepressiononcivilianswillonlybebrokenoncethehumanrightsabusesstop.269

Thecountry’sforestshavebecomeasourceofsignificantincomeforthegovernmentandarmedoppositiongroups,wherebothlegalandillegalloggingisstillongoing.SincetheeruptionofcivilwarinBurma,allpartiesinvolvedinthecurrentconflicthavereliedontheextractionofnaturalresources,primarily loggingandmining,tofundtheirarmies.ThescaleofloggingrosedramaticallyaftertheStateLawandOrderRestorationCouncil(SLORC)emergedin1988,andagainafterethnicpoliticalgroupssignedceasefireswiththejunta.ThemostseriousdestructionfromlogginghasoccurredinethnicareasalongtheborderswithChinaandThailand,namely,KachinState,ShanState,KarenniState,KarenState,andTenasserimDivision.270China,Thailand,andIndiaareBurma’sbiggesttimberimporters.271

Previously,theseareascontaineduntouchedforestreserveswithavarietyofhardwoodandtropicalrainforestsandincludedmanyimportantwatershedareas.DozensofloggingconcessionsweresoldbytheSLORCtonumerousThailoggingcompaniesintheearly1990s,and loggingwas thegovernment’sprimary sourceofgaining long sought-after foreigncurrency.Revenuefromloggingwasextremelylucrative,averagingatthattime$200millionUSDayear.272

Atthesametime,logginghasalsoprovidedincomeforethnicarmedoppositiongroups.Manyof the loggingconcessionssoldwere located inareascontrolledbythesearmedgroups,includingtheKarenNationalUnion(KNU),theNewMonStateParty(NMSP),theKarenniNationalProgressiveParty,andtheMongTaiArmy.273Afterthesigningofceasefireagreements, logging radically increased inKachinStateand innorthernShanState, asceasefiregroups liketheKachin IndependenceOrganization(KIO), theUnitedWaStateArmy(UWSA),theShanStateArmy-North(SSA-N),andtheNewDemocraticArmy-Kachin(NDA-K)beganpredominantlyrelyingonsellingtimbertocontinuetofundtheirarmies,administrationanddevelopmentprograms.274Forexample, theKIO losttheir territorialcontroloverHpakantjademinesasconditionalundertheir1994ceasefireagreementwiththeregime.Theythenturnedtotheothervaluabletradableresourceundertheircontrol–timber.

AfterthelitanyofceasefireagreementswithethnicpoliticalgroupsoperatingalongtheChinaborder,ChinesecompaniesthenjoinedThailoggersinvigorouslycuttingdownforests,includinghighly-prizedteak.275In2004,JohnBuckrell,thenthespokespersonfromGlobalWitness’sBurmaprogram,stated,“LoggingintheKachinStateissevereandchaotic,anditisclearthatlocalpopulationhasbenefitedlittleineconomicterms.”276

InnorthernShanState,SPDCmilitiagroupsandaboutsevenceasefiregroupsareinvolvedinlogging.277IndiscriminatelogginghasdestroyedmanyofShanState’sforests,andonlyafewstrandsofteakstillremain.278

Frommid2008 to July2009, theBurmesegovernment sold logging concessions to11BurmesetimberfirmsinKNU-heldTenasserimDivision.279TheKNUhasalsograntedlogging


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rightstoThaiandBurmesecompanies.WhilethegeneralconsensusisthattheKNUdoesnotwanttoallowfurtherloggingintheirareas,theyreluctantlyconcededtoafewofthesecompaniesduetoeconomicnecessity.

AccordingtoMinorityRightsGroupInternational, inKarenniState“loggingofteakandothertimbersisofteneitherdoneillegally,orpermittedbyBurmeseauthoritiesincompletedisregardofanypre-existinglandorusagerightsoftheindigenousKarenni.”280

5.4.2 Case Study: Logging in Kachin State

LoggingbusinesscontinuesinKachinStatewithlittleornobenefittolocalpeople.RecentfieldresearchconfirmedthatafewChinesebusinesspeople,somehighrankingKIOofficials,andsomewell-connectedKachinandBurmesebusinesspeoplegetthemostbenefitfromthe loggingtrade.KIOofficialsoftengiveconcessions,withbribesgiventoSPDC’sareamilitarycommanderstofacilitatethedeals.ChinesebusinesspeoplethenfacilitategettingthelogstoChinabyworkingwithlocalvillagersandtraderstotransportthelogsacrosstheborder.Teakandotherhighlyvaluablehardwoods,suchasironwoodandrosewood,inKachinStatehaveallbutgonethroughselective loggingforthesedesiredexpensivespecies.Nowsomelocalpeoplehavestartedcuttinglessvaluablewoodtoproducecharcoaltosupplementtheirmeagerincome,alongwithsellingbigbanyantreeswhicharebeingreplantedalongtheroadinChina.Asaresult,manyareasinKachinStatehavebecome

Figure 5 After depletion of the majority of large trees, small trees are being cut down by local business people and exported to China, Kachin state. Local researcher 2010.


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deforested. Thefield research showed that compared to2002-2007, loggingbusinessdecreasedinMaiJaYangby2010becausetherearenomorebigandvaluabletreesleftthere.However,theloggingtradehasextendedtoN’manYang,Mambaw,andSinboandbeyond,especiallyareasunderroadconstruction,oftenbyChinesecompanies.281

AseasternKachinStatebecomesmoredeforested,companiesaregoingfurtherwest,suchasintheTriangleAreaandinSagaingDivision,tofindremainingvaluabletrees.SometreesarealsocomingfromHugawngValleyfromYuzana’smassiveagriculturalconcession.ButasthegovernmentasgreatercontroloverKachinState,evenlogsthatarecutthereoftengothroughSPDC-controlledbordercheckpointsordowntoRangoonforexport.ThesenewdevelopmentshavecomeattheexpenseoftheKIOtaxingboththecuttingandthecross-bordertradeoflogs,leavingthemwiththusfundstocontinuetheirstruggle. 282

5.4.3 Rotational Agriculture and Fuel-wood Demand

WhileloggingistheprimaryreasonforforestlossandfragmentationinBurma’smountainousborderregionsintheNorthandEast,forestconversion,charcoalproduction,andfuel-woodcollectionare leadingcauses fordeforestation in the lowlandsof centralandsouthernBurma.TheWorldBankestimatesthatthree-quartersofBurma’senergyneedsaremetbyfuel-woodandcharcoaltomeetsuchneedsascooking,lighting,andheating.WhilesomeindigenouspeoplesliketheKarenclaimtopracticetraditionalagriculturalmethodsthatdonotdestroyforests,therotationalfarmingsystemsofKarenandotherethnicgroupsliketheKarenni,Kachin,Chin,andShanarelargely—andperhapsunfairly—blamedbytheBurmesegovernmentforcontributingtoheavyforestloss.283 AccordingtoBurma’sForestryDepartment,in1998almost23%ofthetotallandareawasaffectedbyshiftingagriculture.284 Officially,thegovernmentregardssuchdeforestationcausedbyswiddenagriculturetobeamanifestationof“socialdisadvantages”andpoverty,anddoesnotrecognizethesustainablelivelihoodandlandmanagementtechniquesofruralcommunitiesinethnicareas.285Infactswiddencultivation,dependingonhowitispracticedandpopulationlevelsinthearea,cancontributetobiologicaldiversityandenrichtheecosystem.Thisscientificevidence,however,isoverlookedaspartofthegovernment’saimtoeradicateshiftingcultivationinordertoresettleuplandsubsistencecommunitiesintomilitary-surveillancelowlandvillages.OneoftheclearobjectivesoftheMinistryofAgricultureandIrrigation(MoAI)istoendtaungya cultivationinfavorofpermanentagriculture.286

5.4.4 Mangrove deforestation

Oftendominatingthecoastlinesoftropicalandsubtropicalareas,mangrovesareabridgebetweenterrestrialandmarineenvironmentprovidingperfectconditionsforextremelydiverseandproductiveecosystems.Themangrove forests transferorganicmatterandenergyfromthelandtothesea,formingthebaseofmarinefoodwebs.Theyarealsohometoawidevarietyofmarineandterrestriallife,andserveasnurseriesforcoralreefsandcommerciallyimportantfishspecies.Inaddition,mangroveforestsplayavitalroleintrappingsediments,therebystabilizingcoastlinesandprotectingcoralreefsandseagrassmeadows.ThethreemainareasofmangroveforestsinBurmaarelocatedinArakanState,Irrawaddy(Ayeyarwady)DivisionandTennasserimDivision.Mangroves canalsobe foundon thecoastlinesofMonStateandRangoonDivisions.


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TheMyanmarEnvironmentalPerformanceAssessment(EPA)detailsthatsincetheearly1920s,asoneofthemainBritishcolonialdevelopmentpolicies,wideswathesofmangroveforestshavebeeneliminatedforpaddyfarming,andlatershrimpfarming.Theforestsalsoprovidefirewoodforlocalcommunities,andasourceofcharcoalforthepopulation.In1924,therewere253,018hectaresofmangrovesinthedeltaforestreserve,butthiswasdwindleddowntojust111,939haby2001.287Inthe1980s,fuelwoodextractionforcharcoalproductionbegantotakeitstollonmangroves,andwassubsequentlybannedinthe1990s,althoughthepracticecontinues.Habitatdestructionreacheditspeakin2001,with35,836hectareslostthatyear,anamountequivalentto24%ofthetotalmangroveforestareain2000.288

Previouslythemaincauseofmangrovedeforestation(particularlyinthedeltaarea)wasrice cultivation.According to theMangroveActionProject, 85%ofmangroves in theIrrawaddyDeltahavebeenlosttoricefarming.289Shrimpfarmingisnowconsideredtheleadingcauseofmangrovedeforestationalongthecoastline.TheEPAstatesthat“shrimpfarmingisthemaincontributortothelossofmangroveinthedeltaarea”.TheNetworkonEnvironmentalandEconomicDevelopment(NEED)estimatesthatabout65%ofArakanState’smangroveshavebeencutdowntomakeroomforcommercialshrimpfarms,andtoalesserextent,brick-makingforBurmaArmybattalions.290

AlongBurma’sAndamancoastline,traditionalfishingcommunitiesarebecomingfurtherentrenchedinpovertyastheirmeansoflivelihoodandnourishmentisbeingwipedout.291

Figure 6 Confiscated land for shrimp farming causing mangroves to die, Rathedaung township, Arakan state. NEED-Burma 2011


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AcasestudyMyebonTownship,ArakanStateshowedthatthelivelihoodsoflocalpeoplewhotraditionallyfarmedshrimpinmangroveforestshavebeenaffectedbytheincreaseincommercialshrimpfarming.Theynowhavetoapplyforpermits,whiletheircatchingareashavealsobeenlimitedbytheencroachingcommercialshrimpfarms,whichclearlargeareasofmangrovetoestablishpondsthatareintensivelyfarmed.ManyvillagersnowworkonThaitrawlersorhavelefttofindjobsinneighboringThailand.292

AfterCycloneNargistheUNFoodandAgricultureOrganizationstatedthatpartsofBurma’scoasthadbeen largely cleared (forfishponds, agricultural landandestablishmentofsettlements,andover-exploitationofthemangroveresource)inrecentdecadesandthatthisleftcoastalcommunitiesmoreexposedtocyclonedamageasthecoastlinelackedaprotectiveforestbuffer.293

ThegovernmentandNGOshaveembarkedonanumberofmangrovereforestationinitiativesover thepast10years.AfterNargis theseeffortsweresteppedupandrecentlyanewnetworkcalledMangroveEnvironmentResearchNetwork(MERN)composedof17localNGOswasformedtoco-ordinatetheseeffortswithafocusonaquaforestry.Thenetworkfocusesonconservationandlivelihoodimprovementinitiatives.Forexample,aspartoftheaquaforestryprograminIrrawaddyDivision,farmerswillbreedfish,prawnandmudcrabs.294

5.4.5 Impacts of Deforestation on Local People and the Environment

Unabatedandwidespreadforestlossisasourceofmuchsufferingforlocalcommunities,the ecosystems they rely upon for their livelihoods, and the surroundingwildlife.Deforestationthreatensthelivelihoodsandculturalpracticesofindigenouspeopleswhodependonforests.Logging,mining,hunting,andotherextractiveindustrialactivitiesthattakeplaceintheforestdonottotallyeliminatealltreecover,butinsteadstriptheforestofdesiredtreespeciesandleavebehindsoftwoods,malformedanddiseasedtrees,easy-to-burnforestslashxxxv,stranglingvines,andfast-growingintroducedweeds.Localbiodiversityisfurtherdegraded,astimbercompaniesdestroyandfragmentseveralofthelastknownextensiverainforestsofSoutheastAsia,hometomanyendangeredspecies.Logginghasalsobeenshowntobedirectlyresponsibleforfloods,soilerosion,landslides,sedimentationbuild-upbehinddams,riversiltation,increaseddryseasonwatershortages,stuntedfarmproductivity,anddecliningtopsoilfertility.

WhileBurma’svaluableforestsarebeingexploited,verylittlebenefit,economicorotherwise,aresharedwithlocalcommunities.295Inaddition,depletedforestsaregenerallyignoredandnotreforested.

5.5 Large Scale Agricultural Concessions

Overthepastdecade,andespeciallysince2008,theBurmesegovernmenthaspromotedtheestablishmentof large-scalemonocultureplantations inBurma.MostgovernmentinitiativespromoteindustrialcropssuchasJatropha,palmoilandrubber,aswellasannual

xxxvForestslashreferstotheunusableresidueleftonthelandafterloggingoperations.Thisincludestreebranches,tops,bark,unusablelogs,uprootedstumps,andbrokenoruprootedtrees.


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cropssuchascassava, sugarcane,andpaddy rice.Thesegovernment-led initiativesarechanneledthroughmilitary-favoredcompaniessuchasYuzana,HtooTrading,Dagon,MaxMyanmar,andarethreateninghumansecurity,ecologicalintegrity,landtenureandfoodsecurity,andtheoveralllivelihoodsoflocalfarmers.ThisispartofawidertrendthroughouttheMekongregionoverthelastdecadeofforeign-investedplantationdevelopment.

AgriculturaldevelopmentinBurmahasreceivedanewboostwiththegovernment’spartialliberalizationof theagricultural sector. Following the1991Wastelands Law, aprivatecompanyisabletoleaseupto5,000acresforupto30years(withapossibleextension),orupto50,000acresforperennialcrops.Inreality,however,landblocksoftenaregivenallatonce,andsometimesfarexceedingthe50,000acremax.Whilemostoftheagriculturalinvestmentisingovernment-controlledareas,insomecasesagriculturalconcessionsaregrantedbyaceasefiregroupwithinitssemi-autonomousterritory.

Nearlythree-fourthsofthecountry’spopulationliveinruralareas,andalmostthesamepercentageofpeoplearedependentonlandastheprimarymeansforlivelihood.296

Ingovernment-controlledareas,40-60%offarminghouseholdsrelysolelyonsmallfarmsunder5acresor2hectares(underminimumsubsistencelevels),withsomeareas(suchaseastern Shan State) recordingmuchhigher percentages.297 About one-quarter of allhouseholdsinnon-conflictareas(SPDC-controlled)inBurmaarelandless,butthatfocusesmostlyonBurmeselowlands.Onereportexamininglandtenureinsecurityinuplandethnicareasfoundbetween8-50%landlessnessinsouthernShanStateand35%inpartsofKachinState.298Seetablebelowforgovernmentdata.Landlessnessvariesgreatlywithgeographicalareaandsocio-economicstanding,withsignificantdifferencesbetweenrural-urban,lowland-upland,andwealthy-poor,amongotherfactors.

No. of HH-based Land Holdings by Size of Holding.

Size of Land Holding 1993 % 2003 % Growth (%)

UnionTotal 2,729,258 100% 3,338,152 100% 22%

1 Under1Acre 187,494 7% 471,782 14% 152%

2 1Acreandunder3 713,889 26% 766,422 23% 7%

3 3Acresandunder5 563,175 21% 635,806 19% 13%

4 5Acresandunder10 759,028 28% 796,439 24% 5%

5 10Acresandunder20 413,695 15% 504,426 15% 22%

6 20Acresandunder50 90,997 3% 157,945 5% 74%

7 50AcresandOver 986 0% 5,332 0% 441%

Source: Report on Myanmar Census of Agriculture 2003 (Union), p 38.

MoAIisfollowingliberalizationtrendsinallowingprivateentitiestoleaseagriculturallandplots.Assuch“nationalcompaniesandassociationsintheprivatesectorareencouragedandgrantedrightstodeveloptheseareasforthecultivationofpaddy,pulses,oilseeds,industrialcrops,rubber,oilpalm,etc.”299In2001morethanonemillionacreswereallocated


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tonearly100enterprisesandassociations(CSO2003).By2008,almost200companiesweregranted1.55millionacresforcommercialfarming.Andby2010thetotalconcessionareahasexpandedfurthertonearly1.75millionacresallocatedto216differentprivateBurmesebusinesses (nationalonly,not foreign).Whilenearlyhalfof the total acreageallocatedwasinTenasserimDivision(insupportofoilpalmplantationdevelopment),thenexthighestamountofacreageallottedbystate/divisionwasKachinStatewith11companiesreceivingnearly400,000acres.InsouthernShanState,over65,000acreswereallocatedto12companies,andover40,000acrestoninecompaniesinnorthernShanState.300Thefollowingtableliststhenumberofcompaniesandtotalacreageawardedforeachstate/division,asprovidedbyMoAI.

Granted Area for Large-scale Commercial Farming, updated Jan 31, 2010.

State/Division No. of companies Granted Area (acre)

Kachin 11 393,292

Kayin 1 2,161

Sagaing 27 95,557

Tanintharyi 37 671,053

Bago(East) 9 5,859

Bago(West) 7 13,913

Magwe 38 202,492

Mandalay 16 10,300

Yakhine 14 2,602

Rangoon 7 30,978

Shan(South) 12 65,772

Shan(North) 9 40,937

Ayeyarwady 28 193,353

Total 216 1,728,269

Source:DAP,Myanmar Agriculture in Brief,2010:82.

Governmentdata illustrates trends in increasingacresof landbeing transferred fromsmallholderfarmerstoprivatecompanies.Whatistermed“non-householdspeciallandholdings”(i.e.landownedbyprivatecompanies)increasedby900percentfromthemid-1990stomid-2000s,and325percentfortotalarea ofprivatelandholdings.301

Largelandholdingshasclearlyincreased,whichcanbeaccreditedtotheexpansionofthecultivationofwhatthegovernmentnowlabelsas‘wastelands’underthe1991WastelandLaw.The‘wastelands’arefarmlandswithoutgovernmentregistrationtitles,whichveryfewfarmerscanobtain;ineffectthencustomaryfarmlandisforciblyconfiscatedandgrantedtotheprivatecompany.Thetablebelowillustratestheseworryinglandprivatizationtrends.


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No. of HH and non HH-based Holding.

Holdings 1993 2003 % change

1.TotalNumberofLandHoldings 2,729,820 3,343,793 22

1.1HouseholdBasedLandHoldings 2,729,258 3,338,152 22

1.2NonHHBasedSpecialLandHoldings 562 5,641 904

Source: Report on Myanmar Census of Agriculture 2003:19

Without the systematicmappingof lands suitable for large-scale industrial agriculturalconcessionsand transparentallocationof this land, this contentiousand ill-conceivedprogramisopentoabusebyofficialsandinfringingonfarmers’livelihoodsandcustomarylandrights.Thereisacompletelackoftransparencyandaccountabilitywithinthetop-downlandallocationprocess,sideliningthe farmersandotherstate lineagencies inplaceofmilitaryauthorities.

InBurma, cropping intensity and yields is higher for smallholders compared to largeconcessions,despitegovernmentrhetoriconleasingwastelandstoprivatecompaniestoreachfoodsurplusquotas.Evenagovernmentdocumentrecognizesthat“non-householdbasedlandholdingssuchasprivatecompanieswhoappliedforlargeamountsoflandareasforcultivationhadnotyetutilizedthewholeareaforcultivation”.302ThisisbecausemanyofthelargeBurmesecompanieshavebeencoercedbytheregimeleadersintodevelopingtheconcession,despitenotwantingtogetinvolvedinthiscampaignbecauseoftheveryhighinitialinvestmentcostsbornentirelybythecompany.Inthissense,thecompaniesdo‘foot-dragging’strategiestoavoidinvestingmorecapitalintodevelopingtheconcession.Itisalsowellknownthatsomecompaniesinvolvedintheloggingbusinesswhoreceiveagriculturalconcessionslogtheland,sellthetimberontheblackmarket,andthenvacatethelandwithouteverplantinganycrops.Companiesthathavethefinancialresourcesandconnectionstopotentiallymakelargeprofitstrytodeveloptheirentireconcession.

Confiscating smallholder customary farms tomakeway for large-scale private landconcessionshasatremendousimpactonthesocio-economicconditionsofthesurroundingarea,attheregionalscale,andevenatthenationallevel.Farmerswhoareforciblyevictedfromtheirfamilyfarmsoftengofurtherafieldtolookfornewfieldstocultivate,whichtheyclearonforestedhillsidesoruseanexistingswiddenfromarelative,eitherforfreeorwithanarrangedpayment.Thesenewfarmingplotsareoftenatleastahalf’sdaywalkfromthevillage,requiringthatthecultivatorsstayatthefieldsiteforlongperiodsduringplantingandharvestingtime,creatingwhatlocalresearcherscall‘satellitevillages’.

Foodsecurityisbeingrapidlyerodedfromlandconfiscations.Ifahouseholdcannotfindanewplotoflandtofarmnearby,thentheymustbecomewagelaborers,bothforon-andoff-farmlabor.Whilenewlandconcessionsrequirewagelaborerstopreparethefield,plant,weedandharvest,companiesoftendonothirelocalfarmers–whowerekickedofftheircustomaryland–inethnicareas.InsteadtheyoftenhirelabormigrantsmostlyfromtheCentralDryZoneandthecyclone-affecteddeltaarea.Fewlocalsarehiredforthesejobs,thusminimizinganylocaleconomicbenefits.Thisiscausinghostilitywiththelocalethnicpopulations,whofeeltheconcessionsandassociatedlabormigrationaspartofapost-warmilitarystrategy.


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Therearemajorenvironmentalconcernswithregardtomonocultureagriculturalplantations.Landmanagementsystemsthatmaintainbiodiversityarethemosteffectivestrategytoadapttoclimatechangeandenhancefoodsecurity.Mono-plantationsdegradethesesocio-ecological benefits.Anagricultural concessionentails clear-cutting the landand thenbulldozingtheareatoprepareforplantingtheseedlings,whichofteninvolvesburninganyremainingunmarketablewoods. Theburning, churningof soil, and lackof treeshasdeleteriouseffectsonthelocalclimateandcontributestoglobalwarmingbyreleasing,insteadofabsorbing,carbondioxide.Otherconcernsincludedisruptionofnaturalwatercycles,overuseofwaterforirrigation,soilandwaterpollutionaswellashumanpoisoningfrom chemical inputs, and loss ofwildlife fromhabitat destruction, infrastructuredevelopment,andincreasedhuntingpressuresfrommigrants.

5.5.1 Profiled Agricultural Commodities

Rubber plantations

RubberisnowthemostwidelyplantedindustrialcropinBurmatoday.TheBurmesemilitarygovernmenthasa30-yearrubbercropdevelopmentgoalof1.5millionplantedacres.Fromjustover550,000acresplantedin2005-06,sownacreagejumpeduptoover725,000acresthefollowingyearwhenChinesesubsidieswereavailable.Injustunderfiveyears–from2004-05to2008-09–theacreageofsownrubberinnorthernBurmamorethandoubledfromjustover½millionacresto1.057millionacres.303Totalacreageplantedthenincreasedto1.14millionacresin2009-10andexpectedtoreach1.23millionin2010-11.304

WhilemostofBurma’srubberproductionstillcentersontraditionalrubber-growingareasinsouthernBurma,especiallyMonState(firstpromotedbythecolonialBritish),therehasbeenamajorexpansionoflarge-scalerubberplantationsineasternKachinStateaswellasnorthernShanstateincludingtheWaautonomousregion.Rubberplantationsingovernment-controlledterritoriesaremoreconcentratedalongroads,suchasontheoldBurmaRoadinnorthernShanState.ButinWaAutomousRegiontheWaauthoritieshavecoveredwholemountainsinrubber,makingWaterritorythe“centeroftherubberrevolutioninnorthernBurma”.305About90percentoftherubberproducedisexportedtoChinaandfiveASEANcountries—Malaysia,Singapore,Vietnam,ThailandandIndonesia.306

Chinaisamajorplayerinthecountry’srubbersectorinthenorth–bothintermsoffinancingandoverland imports. Investors fromothercountriesarealso showing recent interest,especiallyforlandinthesouth.Chineseinvestmentinplantationsofrubberandothercrops suchas corn, cassava, rice, tea, sugarcaneandwatermelon inBurmahasbeenunderway since themid-2000s, largelyfinanced throughChina’snationalOpiumCropSubstitution policy. The Chinese national program is implemented throughChinesebusinessmenwhoreceivestate-backedfunds.ZaoNoamclaimsinhisarticlethat“Chinesecompaniessometimes[operatinginBurma]workwithaBurmesecompanywhichiseitherowneddirectlybyagovernmentmilitaryofficialoranarmedethnicgroupofficial,orhasverygoodconnectionstomilitaryofficials.AChinesecompanynormallyprovidestechnicalexpertisealongwithseedlings,fertilizerandcapitalexpenditures,whilethelocalgovernmentand/orcease-firegroupauthoritiesprovideland,oftenconfiscatedfromfarmers,andlabor,


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oftenforced.Chinesebusinessmenusuallypayforlaborthroughlocalauthoritiesratherthandirectlytothefarmers,whousuallyearnonlyafractionofwhatispaid”307

Thecropsubstitutionprogramisintendedtosubsidizefarmers’non-poppylivelihoodsbutisactuallydestroyingthosealternativelivelihoodsinrubberproductionareas.308ThemannerinwhichChina’sopiumcropsubstitutionpolicyisbeingimplementedisnotaidinglocalalternativelivelihoodsasintended.Furthermore,andmoreworrying,itappearstoactuallybepartlycontributingtotherecentspikeinopiumpoppycultivationinnorthernBurma.Ruraluplandfarmerswhoselandwasconfiscatedandwithoutemploymentoptionsareperhapssometimeresortingtooneofthefewoptionsremaining–cultivatingpoppyathigherelevationsunsuitableforrubber.

Chinesearenottheonlyinvestors.InApril2010theVietnamgovernmentsignedagreementsintwelvekeyinvestmentareasinBurmaafterabilateralvisit.Aspartofthegovernmentdeals,aMoUwassignedfora120,000acrerubberconcessionlocatedbetweenTaungupTownshipandMaEiSub-TownshipinSouthernArakanState.309

Largescalerubberplantationsaredisplacingsmall-scalefarmersfromtheiruplands,wherefoodcropsaregrownandwhichsincethebanningofpoppyproductionhasbecomethesole sourceofhousehold income.Displaced local farmersand their familiesare facingseriousfoodinsecurityandarenotbeinghiredbackaslaborers.Instead,particularlyinKachinstate,laborersfromotherpartsofthecountryarehired.Accordingtobusinessmen,Burmesewithpreviousexperiencetappingrubberarepreferred–sothatBurmanBurmesefromthesoutharemigratingintonorthernBurmaforseasonalwork,causinghostilitywithlocalethnicfarmers.310Inothercases,especiallyinWaAutonomousRegionwhererubberplantationdevelopmentaspartoftheopiumcropsubstitutionpolicyismostintense,localfarmersareoftenusedasseasonallabor.However,thereareallegationsthatthisiseitherforcedlaborasdictatedbythelocalWaarmyofficialoverseeingtheplantation,oraverysmallpaymentisofferedwhichonlycoversfoodandcigarettesfortheday.311 312Theworkersarepaid,onaverage,2,500Burmesekyat($2.50USD)perday.313TherestofthemoneypaidbytheChinesebusinessmanispocketedbythelocalmilitaryofficialsoverseeingtheconcession.314

DuetostrongBurmesemilitaryandceasefiregroupcontrolovertherubberconcessionallotments,poorfarmersareleftoutofthispotentialnewopportunityforsmall-holderrubberplantationslikethatinMonState.However,farmersinKachinandnorthernShanStatelackcreditandloanopportunities,aswellassecurelandrightstoeconomicallyandsociallybenefitfromtherecentrubberboom,whichtakesatleastsevenyearsbeforetreesproducelatex.315TheinabilityforruralfarmerstobenefitfromrubberissummarizedbyNoam:“Ahighinitial investmentisrequiredwithoutanyreturnforat leastsevenyearswhentherubbertreesaretapped,andsmall-scalefarmersareunabletoreceiveloans,becausewithoutpoppycultivationtheynolongerhaveanycollateral.Inaddition,rubbergrowersdependonChina for thevolatile cashcropmarket, leaving farmersextremelyvulnerable to thefluctuatingandunpredictableChinesedomestic rubbermarket—asevidencedbythetemporaryrubberpricecrashaftertherecentglobalmarketmeltdown”.316


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ArecentdocumentarybyKwekalu,aKarenmediagroup,exposedinDecember2009over250acresoflandweretakeninLerPaDohvillage,Kaserdohtownship,TennasserimDivisionforarubberplantation.ThedocumentaryrevealsthataBurmesecompany,BiPwoTwe,forcedvillagerstosellthelandatabelow-market,companyprice.Ifvillagersdidn’tsellthelandtheyfearedthatthelandwouldbetakenbyforce.Consequently,thelandwassoldunderitsvalueandmanyvillagershadtheirland(whichwasprimarilyorchards)takenjustwhenthetreeswerebearingfruit.Onevillagerexplained:“Onmylandthetreeshadalreadybaredfruit.TheytoldmeifIdon’tsellthelandthenIwouldhavetoleave.Theysaidtheywouldtakeandpayfor3acresbuttheytookmorethan3acres.”Anothervillagercomplained:“Theydidn’tpayuptothevalueofmy land!”Villagersarenowdisplacedand living intemporaryhutsonuplandfarmlandnear their formerorchards.Thecompanyplans toconfiscatemoreland,andvillagersareconcernedtheywillbecomerefugeesastheyhavenoplacetogo.317

Jatropha

InDecember2005Burma’smilitarygovernmentbegantoimplementanation-widecropcampaigntoplantfivemillionacreswithJatropha curcasforbiodieselproduction.Jatropha curcas isoneofa seriesof feedstocks suchas soy,palmoil, sugarcanewhichcanbeprocessedintobiodiesel.Theoilfromitsnutscanbemixedwithdiesel,andusedasalow-gradefuel;butnotuntilthe5thyearorlatercanthetreesoffercommercialuse.Thereis

Figure 7 Rubber plantation, near Lashio, northern Shan state. Local researcher, December 2010.


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uncertainty surrounding theenvironmental andeconomic feasibilityof Jatropha asanenergycropastherehasnotbeenanycomprehensiveresearchconducted.318 Nevertheless,eachstateanddivisionwasorderedtoplant500,000acresofJatropha,takingoff2millionfromthenationaltargettoaccommodatethatitisanimpossiblequotaforsmallerstates/divisions,someofwhichareonlynominallycontrolledbythegovernment.Since2006,teachers,students,children,farmers,nurses,civilservants,andprisonershavebeenforcedtoplantthetreealongroadsides,atschools,hospitalsandreligiouscompounds,includingontheirownfarmlands.319Further,Burmesecompaniesareinvolvedinlarge-scale jatropha plantationsmuchlikeforrubber.

Jatrophacanbeplantedonmarginalsoilsanddoesnothavetocompetedirectlywithfoodcrops;howeverinBurmaitisbeingplantedonfarmlandwhichthendirectlyimpingesonpeople’s foodsecurity.The Jatrophanationalcampaignhasresulted inforced laborforplantingandconfiscationoffarmlands.Farmersareboundtoproductionquotasenforcedbystrictlaws.Interviewsrevealthatpeoplehavebeenfined,arrested,andthreatenedwithdeathfornotmeetingquotas,damagetoplants,defyingorders,orcriticismofthecampaign.Overeighthundred“jatropharefugees”havealreadyfledtoThailandfromsouthernShanStatealone.320Largescaleplantations(ofupto2,500acres)haveignoredlocalclimateandsoilconditionsandbeenplantedhaphazardly,withpoortechniquesandbadseedstock,resultingincropfailureratesrangingfrom25-75%.321

Accordingtointerviews,Burmesecompaniesareonlyexportingthenutsinsteadofusingitasadomesticbiodieselsourceasasubstituteforimportingoil.ForeigninvestmentinJatropa hasalsobeennoted in interviews,originatingmostly fromMalaysianChinese,mainlandChinese,SingaporeandThailand–buttheplantationsaremanagedbyBurmesecompanies.322 323

Palm Oil

Oilpalmisnoexceptiontothegovernment’srecentpushforfurtherdevelopingthecountry’sagriculturalsectorhand-in-handwiththeprivatesector.TheoilpalmsectorhasspecificallybeentargetedbecausethegovernmentwantstodecreasetheirrelianceonedibleoilpalmimportsfromMalaysia,whichamountstoover20,000tonspermonth.SotheBurmesegovernmentnowencouragesthecountry’sprivatesectortoboostdomesticproductionsotodecreaseimportsandassociatedcosts.OilpalminBurmaissofarusedasamuchmoreaffordableedibleoil,whichcostsabouthalfthepriceofothercookingoils,suchassesameandgroundnut.Noplanscurrentlyexisttouseitasabiofuel,however.

Thecountry’soilpalmindustryiscenteredinTennasserim(Tanintharyi)DivisionstartingsouthofTavoy(Dawei),whichismostsuitableforthepreferredclimateofoilpalm.ThissouthernextensionofBurma is alsowhere theworld’s last remaining intact lowlandDipterocarprainforestsreside,includingtheinfamousGurney’sPittabird.ThisisperhapsthemostthreatenedecosysteminSoutheastAsiaasMalaysiaandIndonesiahavealreadyconvertedtheirrainforests intooilpalmestates. Inorderforthecompaniestodeveloptheiroilpalmestate,theymustclear-cuttheland,sellingthelargervaluablelogsontheblackmarket,andburningtherest.Sometimesthecompaniesneverevenplantoilpalm,theconcessionawardedbeingjustacoverforverylucrativeloggingoperations.


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Accordingtogovernmentfigures,500,000acresofoilpalmconcessionshadalreadybeenawardedtoBurmesecompaniesinTennasserimDivisionby1999.By2009-10,thetotalconcessionareahaddoubled to justover1millionacres toabout40privateBurmesecompanies,althoughthemajorityofconcessionareasarecontrolledbyonlyahandfulofcompanies.However,onlyafractionofthetotalawardedconcessionshaveactuallybeenplanted.Accordingtogovernmentstatistics,about250,000acreshaveactuallybeenplantedsince2008-09,whichrepresentsa25percentincreasesince2006-07.Therehasbeenasteadyincreaseinoilpalmeveryyearthisdecadewithanoverall250percentincreasesince2000-01.324

ThevastmajorityoftheoilpalmplantationsareownedbyBurmesebusinessmen,withonlyasmallpercentageownedbythegovernment.Themilitaryandsmallholderfarmersalsocultivateamuchsmalleracreageofoilpalm.

ThemainBurmesecompanydevelopingtheindustrialoilpalmsectorisclearlyHtayMyint’sYuzanaOilPalmCultivationCompany,asubsidiaryoftheinfamousYuzanaCompany.Hewasthefirsttobeawardedaprivateoilpalmconcessionin1999,nowtotaling120,000-150,000acresinTanintharyiDivision.YuzanaCo.isalreadyharvestingandprocessingoilpalmfromtheirplantationswiththeirhigh-capacitycrudeandrefinedprocessingfactoriesfinishedafewyearsagointhearea.TheothercompaniesalreadyharvestingpalmoilalsoselltheirproducttoYuzanaCompany,whohasnoweffectivelymonopolizedthedomesticoilpalmsector.

CompaniesmakecontractswithBurmanlaborfrommostlythecentralDryZone,shippingthem to TennasserimDivisionusing the government-ownedMyanmar Star Shipping.However, about fairpercentageof themonly then slipacross theborder intoRayong,Thailand–acommonillegalentrypointforBurmesemigrants.

It isunclear thedegree towhichBurmese companiesare self-financing theiroil palminvestment.Inthemid-2000stheMyanmarEconomicBankgaveabigloantoBurmesecompaniesinvestingintheoilpalmsectorbuttheconditionswerenotoverlyfavorable.Sincethennomoreloanshavebeenprovidedtocompaniesinvestinginoilpalm.

ApparentlythereisnoformalforeigninvestmentinBurma’soilpalmsector,althoughitissuspectedthatsomeoftheBurmesecompanieswithextensiveoilpalmconcessionsarefinanciallybackedbyforeigninvestors,particularlyMalaysianChinese.Itisbelievedthatforeigninvestmentwillsoonfloodintothecountry’soilpalmsector,however.AlreadythereisspecificinterestalreadyexpressedfromThailand,Malaysia,KoreaandChina,withpendingcontractsforseveralforeigncompaniesbeingdiscussed.TheBurmesegovernmentnowencouragessuchforeigninvestmentastheywillobtaingoodprofitfromthehightaxeschargedtoforeigncompanies,aswellashelpreachtheirexportquotas.

Agribusinessasnowpracticed inBurmaemploysdestructiveprofit-maximizing farmingtechniquesonlybenefitingmilitary-favoredBurmesecompanies, foreign investors, andgovernments,butwhichseriouslyimpactsonlocalfoodsecurityandlivelihoodsaswellastheenvironment.Companiesdonothavetheresourcescapableofproducingconsistentlyhighyieldsonsuchlargeexpansesofland,whichisevidencedbytheslumpinagriculturalproductivitydespitemillionsofacresnowallottedtocompanies.Smallholderfarmersare


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regardedasusinglandmostefficiently,andarebestsuitedtoworkingappropriatelyinanygivenenvironment,unlikenationalagriculturalprogramswithstatequotas.

5.5.2 Case Study: Degradation of Inle Lake

ThesecondlargestfreshwaterlakeinBurma,InleLake,isafamoustouristdestinationjustsouthofTaunggyiinShanState.Itislocated890metersabovesealevelintheBaluChaungvalleybetween theSinduang (to theeast)andLetmaunggwe,ThandaungandUdaungmountainranges(tothewest).325 326 ThirtystreamsfeedintoInleLake,whichthenheaddownstreameventuallyreachingtheMobyeDamandtheLawpitaHydropowerPlants.Lakedepthvarieswiththeseasonandissaidtoliesomewherebetweensevenmetersandfourmetersalthoughonemorerecentestimateputsittwometerslowerthananypreviousestimate.327 328 329

EnvironmentalandculturalsignificanceofInleLakehaslongbeenrecognized.InleLakeanditssurroundingsbecamealegallyprotectedbirdsanctuaryin1985.ThegovernmentsetuptheSteeringCommitteeofInleLakeConservationin1992.330In1998,InleLakewasnamedoneoftherepresentativesoftheEarth’s200mostvaluableeco-regions.331InleLakeisalsohometothePhaungDawOoPagodaandtheInthapeople,famousforastyleofboatrowingthatusestheleg,thehallmarkofthetouristindustrythere.In2006,InleLakeanditssurroundingswerenamedhometonineindigenousfishspeciesincludingthelocallyprizedInleCarp(locallycalled“nga-phein”),anestingplaceoftheSarusCraneandhabitatforawidediversityofmigratoryandresidentbirdspecies.

Inthepasttwentyyearsthepopulationinthe560m2LakeInleareahasgrownbynearly40%toover140,000in2005. 332BesidestheInthaethnicpopulation,theareaalsohasmanycommunitiesofShan,Pa’oh,Danu,TaungyoandBurmans.Livelihoodsintheregionincludeagriculture,fishing,textilecottageindustries,tourism,fishfarms,metalsmithingandmotordriventransportation.Traditionalfloatinggardensarealsoauniquelivelihoodpracticeinthisecosystem.333 334 335 336 337

Thepresenceofwidespreadhydroponic agricultureon Inle Lakehas given rise to aneconomicallyimportanttomatocropwithadistributionchainreachingintoThailand.338

Despitetheimplementationofawidevarietyofimprovementandrehabilitationprojectssince1992,thelakeisshrinkingeveryyear.xxxviFurthermore,in2010thewaterlevelofthelakedroppedtoitslowestlevelin50years.339Lowlakewaterlevelsandshrinkingopenlakeareadirectlyimpactlakeecologicalsystemsandtheabilityoflocalpeopletocarryoutlakebased livelihoods.Lakewaterquality isalsodegradingdue to theuseofchemicalfertilizersandpesticidesforhydroponicagriculture.Lakewaterisnolongersafefordrinkingand lake-borneecologiesare struggling toadjust tohighchemical andnutrient levels.Twentyyearsofexposuretotheneurotoxinsinchemicalpesticidesandfertilizersandalackof knowledgeonhow to safelyusepesticidesaredirectlyaffecting localpeople’s health.340 341

xxxviReasonsforshrinkingaredebated.There isspeculationthat ithasmainlyhastodowiththefloatinggardensandlesswithupstreamsedimentationandgeneralwatershedissues,Othersarguethat“upstream”threatsinthewatershedaremainlytoblame-shiftingcultivation,irrigationanddeforestation.Changingclimatechangepatternsarealsoanotherpossiblefactor.


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“Inle Lake deterioration is the serious concern for the local people, business men and other different stakeholders. … Huge problems lie ahead and the water level has gone down quite steep. … The problem is urgent it will not go away soon. The problem requires massive infrastructure resources not just money but technical and for those of us who believe individual and collective to make the difference and do this together from donors to private sector, NGOs and government.” – in opening remarks 30 July 2010 meeting of The Environment Thematic Working Group Meeting.

UNagencies,governmentandnationalconservationNGOFREDAhavesetupanenvironmentsteeringcommittee.Oneoftheinitiativesistotoco-ordinatetheidentificationofenvironmentalprotectionactivities to implementaround InleLakewith local communities.TheGlobalEnvironmentFacilitywillfund0.5millionfor10projectsaroundthelake.342 343 344

5.6 Illegal Wildlife Trade

IllegaltradeinwildlifeisrampantinBurma.Manywildlifespecies,oftentimes endangered, aresmuggledthroughBurma’sporousborders,especiallyalongborderwithYunnanProvince,China.Oneof themost charismatic speciessmuggled is theAsianelephant,which are especially prized fortheir ivory.Up to250elephantshavebeensmuggledtoThailandtowork in thetourismsector inthepastdecade,mainlythroughThreePagodasPass.345

ArecentreportbytheNGOTRAFFICobserves that non-governmentcontrolledareas in thenorthofBurmaborderingChina,IndiaandThailand, play amajor role infacilitating regional trade inbigcats and other endangeredspecies:“Partsandderivativesofbig cats and live animals aresourced inMyanmar, Thailand,LaoPDR,MalaysiaandIndiaandtraffickedacrossnationalbordersinto these non-governmentcontrolledareaswhere theyarestored,wholesaledandretailedtolocalandinternationalbuyers”346.

Figure 8 Black Bear being traded at Sop Lwe, Mekong river, Shan State. Wild animals are sold and sent through Lao to China and Vietnam. LNDO 2010.


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IntheChinesebordertownofMongLainShanState,speciesforsaleinthemarketincludedblackbears,macaques,smallprimates,pangolins,andrarebirds.347Hides,leopardandtigerskins,deerhorn,andliveBurmesestartortoisesandcobrascanalsobefoundthere.SomeoftheseliveanimalsareontheInternationalUnionfortheConservationofNature’s“RedList”ofcriticallyendangeredanimals.348OtherwildlifefromShanStateboundforChinaincludesotters,chameleons,grasslizards,snakes,crickets,dungbeetlesandgeckos.349SuchblackmarketgoodscanalsobefoundinmanyofBurma’sbordermarkets.

5.7 Climate Change

AccordingtoarecentADBreport,theSoutheastAsiaregionishighlyvulnerabletoclimatechange“with itsextensive,heavilypopulatedcoastlines; largeagricultural sectors;andlargesectionsofthepopulationlivingunder$2oreven$1aday.”350Inrecentyearstherehasbeenanincreaseofdroughts,floods,tropicalcyclonesandheatwaves;ifnoactionistakenthepeopleandenvironmentintheregionarelikelytosuffer(onaverage)morethantherestoftheworld.351TheIntergovernmentalPanelonClimateChange(IPCC)reportsthatlowlyingcoastalareas,smallislandsanddeltaslikethoseoftheIrrawaddy,Salween,SittaungandKaladanriversinBurmaareatseriousriskofsealevelrise,especiallyduringcyclonesandfloods.Sealevelrisewilleventuallydisplacemillionsfromthedenselypopulatedandfertileplainsandcoastalcommunities.

Climatechangeisalsoexpectedtoincreasewatershortagesanddroughtsinsomeareas.There isevidence that theHimalayanglaciers that feedBurma’smain riversareslowlymelting.352ThismeansthatovertimeBurma’sriverswillsoonlosesignificantamountsofwaterflowandvolume.Combinedwiththeflow-changingeffectsofdozensofdamsinBurmaandChina,waterwillbecomeincreasinglyscarce,resultinginmoredamagetobothbiodiversityandlocallivelihoods.

TheBerlin-basedclimatewatchdog,Germanwatch, rankedBurmaas the secondworstcountryaffectedbyextremeweathereventscausedbyclimatechangefrom1990to2008.Thegroupsaidthat“poorerdevelopingcountriesareoftenhitmuchharder…theseresultsunderscoretheparticularvulnerabilityofpoorcountriestoclimaticrisks,despitethefactthatabsolutemonetarydamagesaremuchhigherinrichercountries.”353ThereportalsorankedBurmaastheworst-hitcountryintheworldin2008duetotheimpactofCycloneNargis,whichdevastatedtheIrrawaddydeltainearlyMaythatyear,killinganestimated150,000people.About2.5yearslater,CycloneGirihitthewesterncoastofArakanStateonOctober22,2010whichisconsideredtobethesecondworstdamagingcycloneafterNargisinBurmaonrecord.Atleast45peopledied,70,975lefthomeless,15,000housescompletelydestroyedwithatotalofatleast200,000peopleaffectedand7,081hectaresofagriculturallanddestroyed.354

BurmeseweatherexpertspointoutthatclimatechangehasbeenshorteningandshiftingBurma’smonsoonpatternsince1977.355ReducedrainbringingstormactivityintheBayofBengalandincreasedfrequencyandintensityofextremeweathereventshas ledtoanincreaseinheatindicesandadecreaseinannualrainfall.356 357BetweenJanuaryandJuly2010southernandeasternShanState,Karen,MonandKarenniStates,aswellaslower


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Sagaing,southernPegu,IrrawaddyandTennasserimDivisionshadabout20%lessrainthaninanaverageyear.358

Dr.TunLwin,aformerdirectorgeneraloftheDepartmentofMeteorologyandHydrology,sayshisanalysisshowsthatextremeweatherevents,suchastornados,stormsandlightning,haveincreasedinfrequencysince2006.Therewasnotasingletornadoinalmost50years’timesince1958.Butintheperiodfrom2006to2009thenumberoftornadoeswas16,11,8,and16intherespectiveconsecutiveyears.Anotherindicatorofextremeweatheristhatthenumberoflightning-causeddeathsincreasedtoashighas100between2006and2009. 359Theweatherexpertexplainedthatthemaincauseofextremeweathereventsisthatthemonsoonperiodhasshortened,thepre-monsoonandpost-monsoonperiodshavebecomelonger,thelikelihoodofcumulonimbuscloudstoformishigherwhichintheendcreatestornadoes,strongwinds,lightningandisolatedheavyrain.360TheMyanmarTimesalsoreportedthat2010summersetnewheatrecordsinsomeareasofthecountrybecauseoftheeffectofElNinoin2009-2010.

Compared to industrialized countries, andevendeveloping countries,Burma’s carbonfootprintisminimal,mostlybecauseofthelackofindustryandveryfewcarsonapercapitabasis.Widespreaddeforestationinthecountry,however,meansthatithascontributedtolargevolumesof carbon,an important factor inglobalwarming. Inaddition, the largeshallowreservoirsofthedamsproducemethane,whichisapowerfulgreenhousegas.361 Rice cultivation infields thatarekeptflooded through thewholegrowingperiodalsoproducesmethanegas.362

AlthoughBurmaisnotabigcontributortogreenhousegases,thecountrycouldplayanimportant role in climate changemitigation, for example throughREDDmechanisms.However initiatives suchas theseare controversial.REDD,or reducedemissions fromdeforestationanddegradation,developedin2005fromagroupofcountriescalledtheCoalitionforRainforestNations.363Itisbasedontheideamakingpaymentstogovernments,companies, and forest owners in the South to discourage deforestation and forestdegradation.364 In2007attheConferenceofthePartiestoUNFCCCinBali(COP-13),anagreedtextonREDDwasoutlined,knownasREDD+.REDD+includesnotjustdiscouragingdeforestationandforestdegradationbut‘conservation’,‘sustainablemanagementofforests’,andenhancementofcarbonstocks.xxxvii

Asexplainedearlierinthisreport,in2010theBurmesegovernmentexpressedinterestinREDD+butitwasmutuallyagreedthattheywouldnotformallyproceedwithanapplicationtojoinatthistime.UN-REDDishowevercurrentlysupportingrepresentativesfromcivilsocietyorganizationsandMinistryof Forestryofficials to attendREDD+ trainings andworkshops(seesection3.6.3).

ThereismuchdebatesurroundingREDDprograms.REDD-Monitor,awebsitethatsharesinformation about howREDD is developing explains that REDD is one of themost

xxxvii Policyapproachesandpositiveincentivesonissuesrelatingtoreducingemissionsfromdeforestationandforestdegradationindevelopingcountries;andtheroleofconservation,sustainablemanagementofforestsandenhancementofforestcarbonstocksindevelopingcountries”,seeUNFCCCCOP13,http://unfccc.int/resource/docs/2007/cop13/eng/06a01.pdf#page=8


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controversialnewissuesintheclimatechangedebate,andthatREDD+hasactivitiesthatcouldhavenegativeimpactsonindigenouspeople,localcommunitiesandforests:

“1. “conservation” soundsgood,but thehistoryof theestablishmentofnational parks includes large scale evictions and loss of rights forindigenouspeoplesandlocalcommunities.

2. “sustainablemanagement of forests” could include subsidies tocommercialloggingoperationsinold-growthforests,indigenouspeoples’territoryorinvillagers’communityforests.

3. “enhancementofforestcarbonstocks”couldresultinconversionofland(includingforests)toindustrialtreeplantations,withseriousimplicationsforbiodiversity,forestsandlocalcommunities.”365

Point3wasaddressedinasafeguardoutlinedintheCancunagreementattheUNFCCCCOP16inCancunin2010.xxxviiiIfthereareadequatesafeguardsandpoliticalwilltoimplementREDD+, then communitiesmaybenefit from theprogram.However, so far indigenouspeoplesrightshavenotbeenadequatelyrecognizedorprotectedinanyagreementsonREDD.366 367

6. CONCLUSION

InordertotakestepstowardsecologicallyandsociallyresponsibledevelopmentinBurma,Burmamusthaveasoundpolicyframeworkforenvironmentalprotectionandsustainabledevelopment that enables citizens to take part in decisionmaking about their owndevelopment,andensuresresponsibleprivatesectorinvestment.Untilthen,newforeigninvestorsinvestinginenergy,extractiveandplantationsectorsshouldrefrainfrominvesting.Existinginvestorsshouldimmediatelyceaseallproject-relatedwork-particularlyinsensitiveareasthroughoutBurma-untiladequatesafeguardsareinplacetoensureinvestmentdoesnotleadtounnecessarydestructionofthenaturalenvironmentandlocallivelihoods.Atthesametime,InternationalNGOsandUNagenciesshouldensurepeoplearerecognizedaskeyactorsintheirowndevelopment,ratherthanpassiverecipientsofcommoditiesandservices;andcivilsocietyorganizationsshouldempowercommunitiesthroughoutBurmatounderstandtheirrights.

xxxviii“Actionsareconsistentwiththeconservationofnaturalforestsandbiologicaldiversity,ensuringthatactionsreferredtoinparagraph70ofthisdecisionarenotusedfortheconversionofnaturalforests,butareinsteadusedtoincentivizetheprotectionandconservationofnaturalforestsandtheirecosystemservices,andtoenhanceothersocialandenvironmentalbenefits”,seeannex1paragraph2(e),UNFCCCCOP16http://unfccc.int/files/meetings/cop_16/application/pdf/cop16_lca.pdf


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http://unfccc.int/files/meetings/cop_16/application/pdf/cop16_lca.pdf

http://unfccc.int/files/meetings/cop_16/application/pdf/cop16_lca.pdf

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13 Smythies1986, cited inMyanmar: InvestmentOpportunities inBiodiversityConservation.UNDPandBirdLifeInternational,2005.

14 UNDPandBirdlifeInternational,Myanmar:InvestmentOpportunitiesinBiodiversityConservation,2005.

15 MyanmarNationalCommissionforEnvironmentalAffairs,Myanmar:NationalEnvironmentalPerformanceAssessment(EPA)Report,GMS,Bangkok,2006.

16 UOhnInterview,“TheMangroveForests:Burma’sBestBiodefense”,TheIrrawaddy,Sept.2008,Vol.16No.9,http://www.irrawaddy.org/article.php?art_id=14163,lastaccessed22Oct.2008.


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19 BurmaRiversNetwork, “MekongRiver”,http://www.burmariversnetwork.org/burmas-rivers/mekong.html,lastaccessed2July2009.

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21 ThomasHogue,AssociatedPress.“OilCompaniesFuellingBurmaJunta”,TheStar,2Oct.2007,http://www.thestar.com/article/262493,lastaccessed2July2009.

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23 BritishPetroleumPLC, StatisticalReviewofWorldEnergy, June2010,http://www.bp.com/liveassets/bp_internet/globalbp/globalbp_uk_english/reports_and_publications/statistical_energy_review_2008/STAGING/local_assets/2010_downloads/natural_gas_section_2010.pdf,lastaccessed16Feb.2011.

24 CIAWorld Factbook – Burmahttps://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/bm.html#top,lastaccessed20February2011.

25 TheGulfToday,“SinopecfindsoilandgasdepositsinMyanmar”,7January2011,http://gulftoday.ae/portal/ddd95ecc-919c-442f-a971-2eea5fe1cbc3.aspx

26 TheGulfToday,“SinopecconfirmsgasfindinMyanmar”14January2011http://sinopeccorpmalaysia.blogspot.com/2011/01/sinopec-confirms-gas-find-in-myanmar.html

27 RajeevJayaswal,“IndianOil,OilIndiaintalkstobuyintoEssar’sMyanmargasblock”24Aug.2010http://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/news-by-industry/energy/oil--gas/Indian-Oil-Oil-India-in-talks-to-buy-into-Essars-Myanmar-gas-block/articleshow/6423763.cms

28 “Myanmareconomy:foreigninvestmenthassurged”EIUViewsWire,NewYork,September29,2010


30 Mongabay.com.“MyanmarDeforestationRatesandRelatedForestryFigures”,http://rainforests.mongabay.com/deforestation/2000/Myanmar.htm,lastaccessed7July2009.

31 HumanRightsWatch,Burma’sGemTradeandHumanRightsAbuses,29July2008,http://www.unhcr.org/refworld/docid/4896c48d1e.html,lastaccessed16February2011.

32 MyanmarNationalCommissionforEnvironmentalAffairs,Myanmar:NationalEnvironmentalPerformanceAssessment(EPA)Report,GMS.Bangkok, 2006.

33 TunMyint,APerspectiveonBurma,www.ref-msea.org/burma.pdf,lastAccessed12February2009.

34 PeterGutter,EnvironmentalLawinBurma,LegalIssuesonBurmaJournal,BurmaLawyersCouncil,No9,August2001,http://burmalibrary.org/docs/LIOB09-environment_and_law_in_burma.htm.

35 PeterGutter,EnvironmentalLawinBurma,LegalIssuesonBurmaJournal,BurmaLawyersCouncil,No9,August2001,http://burmalibrary.org/docs/LIOB09-environment_and_law_in_burma.htm.

36 MyanmarNationalCommissionforEnvironmentalAffairs,Myanmar:NationalEnvironmentalPerformanceAssessment(EPA)Report,GMS.Bangkok, 2006.

37 MyanmarNationalCommissionforEnvironmentalAffairs,Myanmar:NationalEnvironmentalPerformanceAssessment(EPA)Report,GMS,Bangkok, 2006.

38 MyanmarNationalCommissionforEnvironmentalAffairs.Myanmar:NationalEnvironmentalPerformanceAssessment(EPA)Report.GMS.Bangkok: 2006.

39 AlanK.J.Tan,“PreliminaryAssessmentofMyanmar’sEnvironmentallaw”,FacultyofLaw,NationalUniversityofSingapore,Asia-PacificCentreforEnvironmentalLaw(APCEL),03June2003.


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40 BEWGmeetingwithUNEP,meetingminutes,AsiaInstituteofTechnology,Bangkok,10September2010.

41 AlanK.J.Tan,“PreliminaryAssessmentofMyanmar’sEnvironmentallaw”,FacultyofLaw,NationalUniversityofSingapore,Asia-PacificCentreforEnvironmentalLaw(APCEL),03June2003.

42 TheInternationalAssociationforImpactAssessment,“PrinciplesofEnvironmentalImpactAssessmentBestPractice,”http://www.iaia.org/modx/assets/files/Principles%20of%20IA_web.pdf,lastaccessed30June2010.

43 MyanmarNationalCommissionforEnvironmentalAffairs.Myanmar:NationalEnvironmentalPerformanceAssessment(EPA)Report,GMS,Bangkok, 2006.

44 AccordingtoconversationwithBurmeseNGOin2006.ThesameNGOhasconductedmanyotherEIAsforotherdamsslatedonriversinnorthernBurma.

45 MyoNyunt,“DevelopmentofEnvironmentalM.anagementMechanisminMyanmar”,Asia-EuropeJournal,Vol6,2008.

46 Aimforhumanrightshttp://www.aimforhumanrights.org/about-us/,lastaccessed23November2010.

47 “TheUnionshallprotectandconservenaturalenvironment.”

48 “ThePyidaungsuHluttawshallhavetherighttoenactlawsfortheentireoranypartoftheUnionrelatedtomattersprescribedinScheduleOneoftheUnionLegislativeList.ScheduleOneoftheUnionLegislativeList:Section6.Energy,Electricity,MiningandForestrySector(c)Minerals,mines,safetyofmineworkers,andenvironmental conservationand restoration; (f) Forests; and (g) Environmentalprotectionandconservationincludingwildlife,naturalplantsandnaturalareas.”

49 “Ch.4Self-AdministeredDivisionandSelf-AdministeredZone(EthnicStates)LeadingBodiesSection196.ThelegislativepowerrelatingtothematterslistedintheScheduleThreeforrespectiveDivisionsorZonesareallottedtotheSelf-AdministeredDivisionortheSelf-AdministeredZoneLeadingBodies.ScheduleThree,ListofLegislationof theLeadingBodyofSelf-AdministeredDivisionorSelf-AdministeredAreaSection7.ConservationandPreservationofForestSection8.PreservationofNaturalEnvironment inAccordwithLawPromulgatedbytheUnion.”

50 Chapter8,Citizen,FundamentalRightsandDutiesoftheCitizens:Section390.EverycitizenhasthedutytoassisttheUnionincarryingoutthefollowingmatters:(a)preservationandsafeguardingofculturalheritage; (b) environmental conservation;(c) striving fordevelopmentofhuman resources; and (d)protectionandpreservationofpublicproperty.

51 BEWGmeetingwithUNEP,AsiaInstituteofTechnology,Bangkok,10September2010.

52 NCEA,MinistryofForestry,UnitedNationsEnvironmentProgrammeRegionalCentreforAsiaandthePacific,NationalSustainableDevelopmentStrategyforMyanmar,2009.


54 CBD,SecretariatoftheConventiononBiologicalDiversity.“SustainingLifeonEarth”,2000,http://www.cbd.int/convention/guide.shtml,lastaccessed16February2009.

55 CBD,TextoftheConventiononBiologicalDiversity,http://www.cbd.int/convention/convention.shtml,lastaccessed31August2010.

56 ZaoNoam,Paul SeinTwa,KatrinaWinters, “IndigenousPeoplesandBurma’sNBSAP:AStrategy forParticipation”, AResourcePaper for the3rdAsiaRegionalConferenceon IndigenousKnowledgeandBiodiversity,Lijiang,Yunnan,China,June2007.





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61 InternationalWorkingGrouponIndigenousAffairs,“DeclarationontheRightgsofIndigenousPeople”,http://www.iwgia.org/sw248.asp,lastaccessed5December2010.

62 InternationalLaborOrganization,IndigenousandTribalPeoplesConvention1989,http://www.ilo.org/ilolex/cgi-lex/convde.pl?C169,lastaccessed28February2011.

63 AdamH.Oswell,“TheBigCatTradeinMyanmarandThailand”,TrafficSouthEastAsia,2010.

64 Mizzimanews,Burma’sWildCatsatRisk,http://www.mizzima.com/news/inside-burma/1145-burmas-wild-cats-at-risk.html

65 “Burma’sIllegalTradeinEndangeredAnimals”,http://www.thirteen.org/scienceandnature/burma-illegal-trade-in-endangered-animals,lastaccessed12February2009.

66 AdaptationLearningMechanism,www.adaptationlearning.net/program/myanmar-national-adaptation-programme-action-napa,lastaccessed31August2010.

67 MeetingwithUNDPUN-REDDRegionalCo-ordinator,UNoffice,Bangkok,20September2010,andfollowupcorrespondence15November2010.

68 InternalDocument

69 FREDA,FREDAorganizationalbrochure,Yangon,Myanmar,2010

70 ECODEV,organizationalinformation,2011.

71 UNDPwebsite, “UnitedNationsDevelopmentProgramMyanmar”, http://www.mm.undp.org/, lastaccessed20Feb2011.

72 UNDPwebsite, “UnitedNationsDevelopmentProgramMyanmar”, http://www.mm.undp.org/, lastaccessed20Feb2011.

73 UNEPcorrespondencewithBEWG,21December2010.

74 MyanmarDepartmentofMeteorologyandHydrology,“AirPollutionandRelatedLawsandPolicies inMyanmar”,PowerPointpresentation,(yearunspecified).

75 BEWGmeetingwithUNEP,meetingminutes,AsiaInstituteofTechnology,Bangkok,10September2010.

76 MeetingwithUNDPUN-REDDRegionalCo-ordinator,UNoffice,Bangkok,20September2010,andfollowupcorrespondence15November2010.

77 DepartmentofAgriculture(DAP),MinistryofAgricultureandIrrigation(MoAI),“MyanmarAgricultureataGlance”,UnionofMyanmarGovernment,2009.

78 GlobalWitness,AConflictofInterests:TheUncertainFutureofBurma’sForests,London,UK,2003



81 PersonalcommunicationbyforeignresearcherwithretiredBurmesegovernmentofficialinJuly2010.

82 PersonalcommunicationbyforeignresearcherwithretiredBurmesegovernmentofficialinJuly2010.

83 InterviewconductedbyananonymousforeignresearcherinJuly2008.

84 FoodSecurityWorkingGroup(FSWG),“LandTenure:AfoundationforfoodsecurityinMyanmar’suplands”,BriefingPaper,2010,http://www.myanmarfswg.net/.

85 InterviewbyforeignresearcherinJuly2009.

86 KachinDevelopmentNetworkingGroup(KDNG),Tryants,Tycoons,andTigers:YuzanaCompanyRavagesBurma’sHugawngValley,2010,http://www.burmalibrary.org/docs09/TyrantsTycoonsandTigers.pdf,lastaccessed26March2011.


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89 KachinNewsGroup(KNG),“HVDAPCmembersforciblyconfinedtoHugawngValley”,9October2007.



92 KoHtwe,“FarmersFightfortheirLandinKachinState”Irrawaddy,15October2010,http://www.irrawaddy.cc/article.php?art_id=19744.


94 NangKhamKaew,“KachinCourtClearsYuzanaTycoon”,DemocraticVoiceofBurma,13October2010.http://www.dvb.no/news/kachin-court-clears-yuzana-tycoon/12212.

95 MizzimaNews,“Kachinteacher,landactivisttostandinPhakantforNDF”,24September2010,http://www.mizzima.com/edop/interview/4398-kachin-teacher-land-activist-to-stand-in-phakant-for-ndf.html

96 KhinHninHtet,“Court‘cheats’Yuzanalandgrabvictims”,DemocraticVoiceofBurma.January11.2011,www.burmanet.org/.../democratic-voice-of-burma-court-‘cheats’-yuzana-land-grab-victims-–-khin-hnin-htet

97 SaiZomHseng,“Activistinhidingtoescapearrest”,Irrawaddy,January202011,http://www.irrawaddy.org/article.php?art_id=20574

98 KachinNewsGroup(KNG),“TwoKachinwomenrapedbyYuzanaCompanyworkers”,16November2010.


100 DepartmentofAgriculture(DAP),MinistryofAgricultureandIrrigation(MoAI),“MyanmarAgricultureataGlance”,UnionofMyanmarGovernment,2009.

101 DeptofAgric.Planning(DAP),“MyanmarAgricultureinBrief”,UnionofMyanmarGovernment.MoAI,2010.

102 TransnationalInstitute(TNI),“AlternativeDevelopmentofBusinessasUsual:China’sOpiumSubstitutionPolicyinBurmaandLaos”,DrugPolicyBriefingNo.33.November2010.

103 DepartmentofAgricultureandPlanning(DAP),MoAI,CDROM.UnionofMyanmarGovernment,2008.

104 InternationalCrisisGroup(ICG),“China’sMyanmarStrategy:Elections,EthnicPoliticsandEconomics”,AsiaBriefingNo.112,21September2010.

105 AungHlaTun,“ChineseinvestmentinMyanmartops$8billionthisyear”,Reuters,16August2010.

106 MoeSetandMinLwin,ChinatoloanBurma30billionYuan,Irrawaddy,05October2010http://www.irrawaddy.org/article.php?art_id=19520,




88





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http://www.irrawaddy.cc/article.php?art_id=19744


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http://www.burmanet.org/.../democratic-voice-of-burma-court-'cheats'-yuzana-land-grab-victims-�-khin-hnin-htet





109 SawYanNaing,“ThailandBeginsforcedRepatriationofKarenrefugees”,Irrawaddy,5Feb2010.


111 EarthRightsInternational,“TheBurma-ChinaPipelines:HumanRightsAbuses,ApplicableLaw,andRevenueSecrecy”,SituationBrieferNo.1,March2011,ChiangMai,ThailandandWashingtonD.C.

112 InternationalCrisisGroup,“China’sMyanmarStrategy:Elections,EthnicPoliticsandEconomics”,UpdateBriefing,AsiaBriefingNo112,Beijing/Jakarta/Brussels,21September2010

113 ShweGasMovement,“CorridorofPower:China’sTrans-BurmaOilandGasPipelines”,September2009.

114 EarthRightsInternational,“TheBurma-ChinaPipelines:HumanRightsAbuses,ApplicableLaw,andRevenueSecrecy”,SituationBrieferNo.1,March2011.

115 EarthRightsInternational,“TheBurma-ChinaPipelines:HumanRightsAbuses,ApplicableLaw,andRevenueSecrecy”,SituationBrieferNo.1,March2011.

116 Since1996,EarthRightsInternationalhasproducednumerouspublicationsonthehumanrightsimpactsoftheYadanaandYetagunpipelines.Seewww.earthrights.org/publications.

117 EarthRights International, “BrokenEthics: TheNorwegianGovernment’s Investments inOil andGasCompaniesOperatinginBurma(Myanmar),”December2010

118 EarthRightsInternational,“EnergyInsecurity,”July2010.



121 SawYangNaingandLawiWeng“ECAfraidofLosingPoll inEthnicAreas”http://www.irrawaddy.org/article.php?art_id=19498,Irrawaddy,05October2010.

122 SawYangNaingandLawiWeng“ECAfraidofLosingPoll inEthnicAreas”http://www.irrawaddy.org/article.php?art_id=19498,Irrawaddy,05October2010.

123 RefugeesInternational,“Thailand:NoSafeRefuge”,http://refugeesinternational.org/policy/field-report/thailand-no-safe-refuge,24March2011,lastaccessed27March2011.

124 SalweenWatchStatementtoPrimeMinisterAbhisitVejjajiva,“StatementcallingfortheHatgyiDamprojecttobestoppedimmediately”,March2011.

125 Al Jazeera, “ThousandsfleeMyanmarclashes”,8November2010,http://english.aljazeera.net/news/asia-pacific/2010/11/2010118479326824.html,

126 LawiWeng,“DKBAtroopsseizethreepagodapass”,Irrawaddy,8November2010,http://www.irrawaddy.org/article.php?art_id=20004

127 WaiMoe,“MaeSotburdenedbythousandsofBurmeserefugees”,Irrawaddy,8November2010,http://www.irrawaddy.org/article.php?art_id=20005.


129 YukiAkimoto,“PoisedtoEngage:TheADBinBurma”,inFocusAsien,Vol.34Asienhaus,2009.


131 AsianDevelopmentBank,BuildingaSustainableEnergyFuture:TheGreaterMekongSubregion,ADB,Philippines,2009

132 ADB,“EastWestEconomicCorridorStrategyActionPlan”,ADB,May2009,http://www.adb.org/GMS/Economic-Corridors/EWEC-SAP.pdf.


89





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133 MarwaanMacanMarkar,“South-eastAsianHighwayhitsroadblockinBurma”,IPSnews,http://ipsnews.net/news.asp?idnews=52671

134 ADB,“EastWestEconomicCorridorStrategyActionPlan”,ADB,May2009,http://www.adb.org/GMS/Economic-Corridors/EWEC-SAP.pdf

135 BangkokPost,“GoodSEZ’smakegoodneighbors”,05July2010,http://www.bangkokpost.com/news/asia/184970/good-sezs-make-good-neighbours

136 International Rivers, “MekongPowerGrid”, http://www.internationalrivers.org/en/node/1775, lastaccessed17February2011.

137 InternationalRivers,“Takingawaytheriver:theMekongPowerGrid”,http://www.internationalrivers.org/en/node/1780,lastaccessed17February2011.

138 EmailcorrespondencewithDr.CarlMiddletonSouthEastAsiaProgramDirectorInternationalRivers,17February2011

139 Dr.CarlMiddleton,“RegionalElectricityPlanningandTransboundaryRural-UrbanDivide”,InternationalSeminaronRural-UrbanTensions,Violence,&ConflictTransformation:ThailandinGlobalComparativePerspective, FacultyofPoliticalScience,ChulalongkornUniversity26-27August2010,ChulalongkornUniversity,Bangkok,Thailand.


141 BIMSTEC,“JointStatementoftheThirteenthBIMSTECMinisterialMeetingNayPyiTaw,22January2011”,http://www.bimstec.org/13th_MM_details.html,lastaccessed11April2011.

142 CliffordMcCoy,“CapitalizingtheThai-Myanmarborder”,AsiaTimes,July21,2007,http://www.atimes.com/atimes/Southeast_Asia/IF21Ae02.html

143 SaiSilp,“ContractFarmersFaceStiffChallenges”,Irrawaddy,April202006,http://www.irrawaddy.org/article.php?art_id=5667.

144 CliffordMcCoy,“CapitalizingtheThai-Myanmarborder”,AsiaTimes,July21,2007,http://www.atimes.com/atimes/Southeast_Asia/IF21Ae02.html

145 EmailcorrespondencebetweenBEWGandFocusontheGlobalSouth,21February2011.

146 EmailcorrespondencebetweenBEWGandFocusontheGlobalSouth,21February2011.

147 MyanmarNationalCommissionforEnvironmentalAffairs.Myanmar:NationalEnvironmentalPerformanceAssessment(EPA)Report.GMS.Bangkok: 2006.

148 ASEANmediarelease,June162008.

149 “PostNargisAnalysis:TheOthersideoftheStory”,http://www.dhf.uu.se/pdffiler/burma_post_nargi_analysis.pdf,October2008.

150 TCG,“Post-NargisRecoveryandPreparednessPlan”,http://www.aseansec.org/CN-PONREPP.pdf,December2008


152 NoleenHeyzerandProfessor JosephStiglitz,“TranscriptofPressConferenceontheESCAP/MyanmarSecondPartnershipDevelopmentRoundtableandForum”,Singapore21December2009.

153 NoleenHeyzerandProfessor JosephStiglitz,“TranscriptofPressConferenceontheESCAP/MyanmarSecondPartnershipDevelopmentRoundtableandForum”,Singapore21December2009.

154 Mungpi,“‘Economicsandpoliticsinseperable’StiglitztellsBurma,Mizzimaonline,http://www.mizzima.com/news/inside-burma/3173-economics-and-politics-inseparable-stiglitz-tells-burma.html17December2009.

155 Mungpi,“‘Economicsandpoliticsinseperable’StiglitztellsBurma”,Mizzima,http://www.mizzima.com/news/inside-burma/3173-economics-and-politics-inseparable-stiglitz-tells-burma.html17December2009.

156 TransparencyInternational,“CorruptionPerceptionsIndex2010results”,http://www.transparency.org/policy_research/surveys_indices/cpi/2010/results,lastaccessed16November2010.


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http://www.transparency.org/policy_research/surveys_indices/cpi/2010/results

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157 MoeSetandMinLwin,“ChinatoloanBurma30billionYuan”,Irrawaddy,05October2010,http://www.irrawaddy.org/article.php?art_id=19520

158 TheaForbes,“ThaiengineeringgiantsignsTavoyportdeal”,Mizzimaonline,10November2010,http://www.mizzima.com/business/4563-thai-engineering-giant-signs-tavoy-port-deal.html

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