byzantine chant in montecassinoc
DESCRIPTION
The association of Montecassino with Byzantine Italy wasoriginally an idea of Drew Maxwell, who spoke about“Byz ant ine Southern Italy, Monte Ca s s ino and theEstrangement of East and West” at the Greifswald conference“Byzanz in Europa” in 2007. The present essay is intended asan answer to his study, and contains references as well toWestern as to Eastern chant sources in Italy.TRANSCRIPT
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ByzantineChantanditsLocalTraditionsinSouthernItaly
beforeandahertheReformofDesiderius,
AbbotofMontecassino
TheassociationofMontecassinowithByzantineItalywasoriginallyanideaofDrewMaxwell, whospokeaboutByzan t ine Sou the rn I t a ly, Monte Cass ino and theEstrangementofEastandWestattheGreifswaldconferenceByzanzinEuropain2007.1Thepresentessayisintendedasananswertohisstudy,andcontainsreferencesaswelltoWesternastoEasternchantsourcesinItaly.
Itwouldbequiteeasytofinishthispaperwiththesecondparagraph.TherearetwotypicalwaysofgivingashortanswertothequestionwhetherDesideriusreformhadanyimpactonItaloByzantinechant.Theydependonthepointofview.
1)TheshortanswerfromaLatinpointofview:2
DesideriusreformhadnoimpactonItaloByzantinetraditions,itwasonlyconcernedwiththeLatinrite.TheAbbey
1TheproceedingswillbepublishedsoonatBrepols.2 For examplePeterHerdesarticlefrom1970anditsItalianrepublication1973,whichwasrecentlyrevisedandtranslatedintoEnglishbyCarinevanRhnandIngeLyseHansen:ThePapacyandtheGreekChurchinsouthernItalybetweenthe11thand13thCentury(Loud&Metcalfe2002,213251).
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ofS.BenedejodiMontecassinohadalwaysgoodrelationshipswiththeGreekChristiansinItaly,andthemostohenquotedevidenceofthatisusuallySt.NeilosstayinMontecassinoandDesideriusroleasadiplomatemediatingbetweentheByzantineemperorsandRomanpapacy,andasanabbotemployingByzantinecrahsmentodecoratetheinterioroftheabbey.
2)TheshortanswerfromaGreekpointofview:3
TherewerenoconflictsbetweentheEasternandtheWesternchurch, insteadtheconflictsexistedbetweenByzantiumandtheNormanconquerorswhoeventuallyexpelledByzantiumanditschurchfromItaly.
Bothanswersdealwithideologicalpresuppositions:
Thefirstshortanswertreatsthereformasaninternalaffaireofthepapacy,whichitwascertainlynotforreasonsIwill explainfurtheron.
ThesecondshortanswertransformstheconflictbetweentheGreekandtheLatinchurch,whichwasmainlycausedbythesupremacyofthepope,intoapoliticalconflictbetweenNormaninvadersandByzantineauthorities.TheassumptionthattheItaloByzantineliturgywhichtheVaticanohenreferredtoastheGreekritewasexpelledbytheNormaninvaders,issomehowjustified,astheNormanconquestofByzantineApuliaandLucaniawasthebeginningofaslowprocessofLatinization.TheItaloByzantinetraditiondidnotonlycontinueunderthistendencyofLatinizationinthefollowingcenturies,but,evenaherthefallofConstantinople,itflourishedespeciallyinthefourmonasticcentresbetweenSicily,SouthernCalabriaandApulia.Sometracesofthisuniquetraditionsurvived,thoughitwasmoreorlessviolently
3ThishistoricalvisioncanbereadinthehomepageoftheOrthodox ArchdioceseItalyandMalta:(01/01/11).
2
http://www.ortodossia.it/San%20Giovanni%20Theristis.html
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ByzantineChantinSouthernItaly(10th11thcentury)
eliminatedbyRomanchurchpoliciesduringthe16th and17thcentury.
ItisplausiblethattheharmonybetweenRome,ByzantiumandBeneventowasdecisivefortheexistenceofthreedifferentliturgicaltraditions,andthereisnodoubtthatthisharmonywasdestroyedbytheunexpectedappearanceofafourthprotagonist:theNormans,whoservedasmercenariesforcertainabbotsofMontecassinoaswellasforcertainprincesofBeneventoandCapua.ButtheNormaninvadershadtheirownwayoflookingforabalance.PartlyinfluencedbytheAndalusiancourt culture andpart ly inspiredby theCarolingianstrategyofdealingwiththepope,theirwaywasquiteodd.
OnthepoliticalsidetherelationsbetweentheNormansandthepapacystartedwithanexchange.Ontheonehand,in1059thePopesformalrecognitionoftheinvaderspoliticalpowerhelpedthemtojustifytheirpresenceamongthelocalpopulation,somuchsothattherewasnoneedforthemtoconquertherestoftheprincipalityofBenevento.OntheotherhandthesupremacyofthepapacyinthechurchadministrationofSouthernItaly(withtheexceptionofSicily)wasfinallyrecognizedbytheNormans,aherPopeNicolasIIhadfoundinthemthemostpowerfulallies.Beforethen,PopeLeoIXhadtriedinvaintoallywiththeByzantineEmperorandwithlocaldukes,inordertodefendSouthernItalyagainsttheNormaninvaders.
Inmyopinion,theimpactoftheliturgicalreform,inwhichAbbotDesideriusparticipated,hastobestudiedfromfourperspectives,whichpartlyneedtobedevelopedbyfurtherresearch:
1. Theperspectiveofthereform:TherelationshipbetweentheAbbeyofMontecassinoandthepapacywithAbbot
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FrederickofLorraineasPopeStephenIXbecamestrongerthaneverbefore.ButitwasduringthepresenceofEmperorOjoIatMontecassino,thattheAbbeywasaskedagaintoconfirmtheFrankishconceptofRomanchant.TheharmonybetweenConstantinopleandRomewasmuchmoreseriouslydisturbedthenthanduringthesocalledoriental schism.WhereasByzantineauthoritiesofthecatepanateacceptedthelocalLatinliturgyandnevertriedtochangeit,therestorationoftheCarolingianreforminspiredcantorsinBeneventoandMontecassinotopreparetheirvisionofaNeogregorianreform.
2. TheByzantineperspective:TherelationshipbetweenGreekandLatinChristianswasinmostofthecasesneitherbadnorhostile,butsince1059itcouldonlycontinueonconditionthatthebishopsoftheGreekritesworetheoathoffidelitytothepope.TheywereforcedtosubordinatethemselvestotheRomanadministrationofthesuffraganseesinApulia,Campania,Lucania,andCalabria.ThisconditionwascertainlynotacceptedbyallbishopelectsoftheGreekrite.AherthelongperiodofArabSicily(about300years),theSicilianpopulationwasmainlyAraborGreek.ALatinchurchadministrationhadtobeestablishedbytheNormansforthefirsttime,whilethepapacywasforcedintoaratherpassiverole.4
3. TheNormanperspective:TherelationshipbetweentheNormanrulersandthepapacywasambivalentandquitepragmatic.TheNormanswereacknowledgedasrulersbythechurch,buttheywerechargedwiththeconquest
4 HorstEnzensbergersessayaboutDielateinischeKircheunddieBistumsgrndungen inS izi l ien zuBeginnder normannischenHerrschahcanberecommendedforahistoricview,whichtriedtorecognizetheohenfakeddocuments(Enzensberger2000b).
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ByzantineChantinSouthernItaly(10th11thcentury)
ofSicily.AhertheconquestofSicilywascarriedout,acollaborationwiththeArabandtheGreekpopulationwasneeded.InconfirmingtheMuslimlawschools,theNormansfollowedrathertheprototypeofAndalusiathanof anyChrist ianempire. Bytheendof the11thcenturyalotofFrancoNormanaristocratshadbecomepatronsandfoundersofLatinandGreekabbeysinSouthernCalabriaandSicily.AsthefundamentalstudiesofDavidHileyandJeremyJohnshaveshown,theNormanliturgywasveryeclecticandopenminded,anditexperimentedwithvariousreligioustraditions.5
TheacclamationLaudesrexgloriaewassungbythemonksofMontecassinowhentheyconfirmedRichardofAversaasprinceofCapuaandRobertGuiscardasdukeofApulia,CalabriaandSicily.Itwasthefirstaction,aherDesideriushadbeenelectedasthenewabbot.HispragmaticacceptanceofthenewauthoritiesandhiswillingnesstomediatebetweentheNormansandthepapacywereastonishing,consideringthathisfatherhaddieddefendingBeneventoagainsttheNormaninvaders(Loud2007,7071).6
5NeitherthedissertationofJeremyJohnsnorofDavidHileywereeverpublished.Botharestilltheonlymonographicstudiesdedicatedtothistopic,whichisverycrucialfortheunderstandingofliturgictraditionsofSouthernItalyanditsarchitecture(Hiley1981;Johns1984;Hiley2001; Johns2002).FurtherstudiesareinthefieldoftheNormancourtceremonials(Moran1977;Elze1990;Tronzo1997;Elze1998;Tronzo 2007).FromamusicologicalpointofviewscholarsstillmissmonographicalstudiesasthoseaccomplishedbyThomasKellyforTheBeneventanChant(1989)andthereisstillnoentryaboutNormanchantinthestandardencyclopaediasofthediscipline.6GrahamLoudsimageoftheNormanrulersasconventionalChristianscontradictsthequiteunconventionalformsofthecathedralsbuiltduringthisperiod(includingsphinxesassculpturesinthefacades),thefactthatseveralofthemgrewupwiththeSicilianArabculture,and
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4. TheAndalusianperspective:TherelationshipbetweenChristians,SephardimandMuslims,andbetweenNormanSicilyandAndalusiainparticular,wasnotonlyidealizedbyhistorians,butalsobycontemporaryJewishandMuslimtravellersfromfarawaycountries,whowerequitesurprised,whentheyvisitedSicilyandunderstoodtherealityofRogerIIsSicily.HeimitatedtheAndalusiancourtcultureoftheTaifarulers,includingcertainelementsofitsarchitectureandtheharems,buttheArabcourtierswereforcedtoconverttoChristianityandcalledaherLatinnames.HencealotofscientistsandartistslehSicilyforAndalusianSpainoritsAfricanprovinces.NeverthelessthepresenceofSaracensinSouthernItalywasnotonlythetimeofinsecurity,asitwasclearlyshownbytheuncontrolledinvasionsoflooters,piratesandslavetraders,itwasalsothetimeofanopenmindedexchangebetweenMuslims,Sephardim,andChristians,untiltheLatinizationofSicilyledtonewprogromsagainsttheJewishandMuslimpopulations.
Ingeneral,thecurrentresearchaccompanyingtheongoingexcavationsoftheCrdobaPalacemightchangescholarsapproachtothestudyofNormanApulia,Calabria,andSicilyandtheirinterpretationofapastage,duringwhichSouthernItalywasrecognizedforitsculturaldiversityanditsmostfamousmedievalchurchesandcastleswerebuiltinauniquestyle.InthefollowingsectionIwillfocusonthefirsttwoperspectives,butitmightbeusefultokeepinmindtheothersforafullunderstandingoftheeffortsofDesideriusreform.HehimselfwaseducatedattheconventSt.SophiainBenevento.
certainlytheadoptionofMuslimcourtculture(includingharemsandeunochs)butMuslims,whowereforcedtoconverttoChristianity.
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ByzantineChantinSouthernItaly(10th11thcentury)
ThePerspectiveoftheReform
TherehadbeennocloserelationbetweentheAbbeyofMontecassinoandthepapacyforalongtime,astherehadnotbeenanyforlargepartsofSouthernItaly.Alotofdioceseswereinstallednotbeforetheendofthe10thcentury,plentyofthemwerevacantordidonlyexistonpaper,whichexplainsthepresenceofformerlocalliturgiesforsuchalongtime,whenthecathedralsweremostlycentresoflocalcultsandrites(Loud2007,37).TheconceptoftheomnipresenceoftheFrancoRomanchantcanonlybeverifiedbysomedocuments,whichtrytoestablishanimageofthepast,asitwasrequestedbythecurrentsituationanditspoliticalcontext.7ButtheideaofusingtherichAbbeyofMontecassinoasacentreforaliturgicalreformcameprobablynotearlierthanduringthepresenceoftheEmperorOjoI,whorestoredMontecassinosaffiliationtotheFrankishempire.Beforethen,MontecassinohadcooperatedwiththeByzantineauthoritiestodefendtheregionagainsttheArabinvaders.Butthecatastrophicdefeatofhisson,OjoII,againsttheArabsatColonnain982putanendtotheEmperorsplansofliberatingChristianItalyfromtheMuslims.FromthenontheAbbeyofMontecassinohadtopayhightributesforprivilegesofferedbytheauthoritiesofthecatepanate.
Amongthepopesofthe11thcenturyLeoIX(104954)wasthefirsttoreorganizetheLatinchurchinSouthernItaly.AxelBayerregardedthereinstallationofthepapaljurisdictioninitsformerfrontiersnotonlyasalongtermproject,butalsoasthe
7 OtherdocumentsandfakedchartaestressthegoodandcontinuousrelationsbetweenMontecassinoandByzantium,butitseemsusefultounderstandthepragmaticintentionsofacertainchroniclerinthecontextofthecontemporarydiplomacy(includingfictivekinshipsbetweenabbotsandCarolingiandynasties),asGrahamLouddidinhisessayMontecassinoandByzantiuminthetenthandeleventhcenturies(Loud2000,EssayII).
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motivationbehindPopeLeoIXshesitationtoagreetoanalliancewithByzantiumaimingtodefendSouthernItalyagainsttheNormaninvaders(Bayer2004,59):
DiesesVerhaltenerklrtsichausderAbsicht,daskirchlichKonstantinopel unterstehendeSditalien(Lukanien,wahrscheinlichganzKalabrien,denSdteil derSalentinischenHalbinsel)wiederdemPrimatRomszuunterwerfen.Zwar wardieslediglicheinFernzielderrmischenSditalienpolitik,deren Hauptaugenmerkseit1051aufdasFrstentumBeneventgerichtetwar.Doch h`eeingemeinsameserfolgreichesmilitrischesVorgehengegendie NormanneneineFestigungderbyzantinischenHerrscha_ inSditalienzur Folgegehabt,unddieswredenAussichtenaufRckgewinnungderalten rmischenJurisdiktionsgrenzenabtrglichgewesen.
LeoIXpaidwithhislifethefactthatheunderestimatedthepoweroftheNormans.ButhisreformprojectwaslatercontinuedbyPopeStephenIX(8/10573/1058),theformerAbbotFrederickatMontecassino,soitwashardlysurprisingthattheunificationoftheliturgyandofitsmusicinSouthernItaly,whichwasneverrealizedbefore,becamepartofit.8
In1054FrederickwaspartofthedelegacythatwenttoConstantinopleandmadeascandal.9ButthisepisoderatherprovedthatchurchmendidnotreallycooperatewiththeplanofPopeLeoIXandtheEmperorConstantineIX,butitdidnotchangetheirpolicies.Thethesisconcerninganestrangementis
8 FrdricdeLorrainemusthavebelievedintheFrenchcantorsGregorianorRomanFrankishconceptoftheRomanliturgy.Ontheotherhand,therewasaneedtointegratetheItaliancantorsideaconcerningtheunifiedrite.ForanexchangebetweenMontecassino,GlanfeuilandSt.MaurdesFosssseeJeanFranoisGoudesennescontributioninthisvolume.9In1054thefuriousCardinalHumbertofCandida,likeFrdricpartofLeoIXslegacy,leh apapalbullintheHagiaSophia,inwhichthecardinalpretendedtoexcommunicatethePatriarchKeroulariosbyordersofthePope,whohadalreadydied.OtherscholarsregardHumbertasaclericwhowassofamiliarwiththeGreektraditionastobechosenbyLeoIXforthisdiplomaticmission.
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ByzantineChantinSouthernItaly(10th11thcentury)
usefultorecognizecertainconflictsbetweenGreekandLatinchurchmen,buttherelationsbetweenConstantinopleandRomewerecertainlybejerthaninOjonictimesincontrastwiththelaterhistoricalconstructionofanorientalschism.Hence,thereisnorealconnectionbetweenanantiByzantineajitudeandPopeStephenIXsprohibitionoftheAmbrosianchant,aslongasitisunderstoodasaLatinliturgyinspiredbythepresenceofGreekmonksinGreekdominatedregions(SouthernApulia)oftheformerDuchyBenevento.
WhatwasthediscontinuitybetweenOldBeneventanchantandtheBeneventanchantredefinedbytheNeogregorianreform10? TowhatextentdidDesideriusobeyStephensexclusionoftheAmbrosianrite?
IfweobservetheexperimentsofcantorsintheearliestBeneventanchantmanuscripts,wefindvariouscollectionsfollowingdifferentproportionsofBeneventanandRomanFrankishchant.HereIwilldiscusssomemanuscriptsofDesideriusschoolbeforehisreform:thechantbookswhichwerepresumablywrijenfortheuseinSt.Sophia.
TheGreekandLatinprocessionalantiphonsforGoodFridayareohen perceivedasadoubletwhichbelongstotheOldBeneventanchant,butnottotheNeogregorianchant.Thetroparion(Ex.1)isthesecondoftwoantiphonswhichcanbealsofoundastropariainByzantinemanuscripts,whiletheotherantiphonsoftheGoodFridayprocessionareratherpresentinItaliantraditionsliketheonesofRome,Milan,RavennaandAquileia.ThesameistrueforthistroparionandacomparativetranscriptionbyNeilMoranshows,thattheBeneventanversionisclosertotheByzantinesources(Moran2010).ThesimpleRomanantiphonwasbasedontheByzantine
10 ThetermNeogregorianisusedherefollowingtoLuisaNardinissuggestiontoemployittodistinguishtheCarolingianredactionofGregorianchantfromtheBeneventanofMontecassino(Nardini2007).
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psalmodyofplagiosdevteros,emphasizingtheopenFendingbyadifferentiaofthepsalmody,whiletheAmbrosianantiphonwasaproperrealizationoftheByzantinepsalmody. AcomparisonwithByzantinechantmanuscriptshasfirsttofacethedifficulty,thattheByzantinesourcesarelater.Ingeneralasystematicdistributionoffullynotatedmanuscriptsdidnotdevelopbeforethe11th and 12thcenturyandadiastematicnotation(MiddleByzantinenotation)wasnotusedbeforethe13thcentury.TheearlierformsofPalaioByzantinenotationwereusedbetweenthe10thand12thcentury.Theseconddifficultyisthatthebookswhichcontainthistroparion,areusuallychantbooksoftheConstantinopolitancathedralrite.
Ex.1:Benevento,Bibliotecacapitolare,MS40,fol.1011
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ByzantineChantinSouthernItaly(10th11thcentury)
Theearliestmanuscriptscannotbedatedearlierthantothe12thcenturyandare thoseof theSlavicreceptionofthecathedralrite.TheSlavictraditiondevelopeditsownnotationsystemandtodaythereisjustavagueunderstandingofit.Theearliestlayerofasmatika,psaltikaandkontakariahassurvivedintheItaloByzantinemanuscriptspresentingByzantineroundnotation(notbeforethe13thcentury).CharacteristicfortheItaliantraditions,GreekaswellasLatin,isthepresenceofdifferentlayersofthesamesong,becausethebooksofthecathedralriteusuallycontainthemelismaticelaborationofsimplermodels,astheycanbefoundinbooksofthedifferentLatintraditions.ThereasonforthisdifferenceisthatthevastcollectionsofthereformedchantrepertoriesaretentimeslargerthantheByzantinemasschantthechantsungduringtheDivineLiturgy.Thereareveryfewchantgenreswhicharechangedfrequently(proprium).Alargerrepertoryofpropriumchanthastobesungduringthemorningservice(orthros)anditcanbefoundinthekontakarion, while largerpartsoftheordinariummissaedidnotchangeatall,soitwasusuallysunginmelismaticvariationsespeciallythesoloistsparts.
The melos o f t h i s troparion hasopencadencesonaandG,notonF,whiletheclosingandfinal cadenceisonE.TheByzantinemodalsignature is chosplagios devterosenaphnos,becausetheEmodehasoneGcadencewhichisprolongedbyanFendingwithapoderma.
ThewrijentransmissionofthistroparioninBeneventanmanuscriptsissoconstant,thateventheNeogregorianmissal(Benevento,Bibliotecacapitolare,MS33),whichcorrespondstotheCarolingiansacramentariesexceptthatitisdatedabout100yearslater,alreadyofferstheearliestversion,thoughonlyinLatintranslation.ThisprovesthatthisalienelementwasforaBeneventancantornotastrangeratall.ButtheAmbrosiantextredactionmighthaveservedasajustification,whileits
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modalstructureratherfollowedtheByzantineredaction.IthadobviouslyaByzantineorigin(cantopatriarchino) and hadprobablyderivedfromanearliertime,whenBeneventoovertookpowerinApulia,whichhaduntilthenbeenruledbytheRavennaexarchate.TheBeneventanversionhasinfluencedthemodernredactionofthesocalledGregorianchant,nottheFrankishone(Moran2010,3,ex.1).
IproposetodistinguisholderlayersofaByzantineinfluencefromthecontemporaryinfluencebetweentheGreekandtheBeneventanchant,asitexistedduringtheearly11thcentury.Theantiphon Crucemtuamadoramuswa sprobablyneitherGregoriannorNeogregorian,butitwasnotatedinseveralchantmanuscripts,becauseitwasaparaliturgicalsong.Theprocessionalantiphonasagenrewasalwayswithinthelimitedmeasure,whichallowedacantortoinscribehislocaltraditionintothemediumofthereform.11
Thisexamplewasobviouslynotatallrejected b y thereform,becausethetroparionhadbeenkept in the laterBeneventanmanuscripts.ButinacontemporarymanuscriptthebeginningofthedismissalofkatechoumenoiwasremovedtheexaposteilarionSiquiscathecuminisest(Ex.3),whichispartoftheEasterVigilMassinthetraditionofRavennachant(Levy1970).Itsmelodicstructure,whichwastakenfromtheSanctusduringtheAnaphorapartoftheDivineLiturgy.Itsmelosisthemesosdevteros(theGmodeasamediantbetweenbnaturalandE)inByzantinemanuscripts(Levy1958).
ThedivisionoftheDivineLiturgyintwoparts,the
11 ItwasalreadytheexperienceoftheCarolingianreform,thattheRomanliturgyhadnotprovidedanyantiphons fo r a lot o f localprocessions,solocalantiphonswerefixedintonotationforthefirsttime.Inthisparticularcase,theCarolingianantiphonhastheOldRomantextredaction,butitiscombinedwiththetrisagion,whiletheRomancantorsusedthesametrisagionasanantiphonforthefollowingImproperium.
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ByzantineChantinSouthernItaly(10th11thcentury)
scripturalreadingsandtheeucharisttheformerisopenfort h e katechoumenoi, whilethelajeris justreservedtothebaptized(),wasaswellusedinearlypreGregorianmassformularies,whethertheywereGreekorLatin.TheexclusionofthesecondpartwasratherusefulduringtheearlyChristianperiod,whenChristianityasanewstatereligionrequiredthebaptismoflargerpartsofthepopulation.
SimilartextscanalsobefoundintheearliermassformsofGallicanandAmbrosianchant.ButinthecontextofthegradualforSt.Sophia(Ex.2)aswellasinanothergradualofBenevento(Ex.3)thedismissalchantonlyappearsonceayearinthemassforHolySaturdaynotaher,butbeforethescripturalreadings.HereitsimplycorrespondstothelateroffertoryOmnesquiinchristobaptizatiestis(fol.1920),sobaptismwasobviouslyassociatedwiththevesperofHolySunday.
InthecontextoftheByzantineliturgyandstillinOrthodoxservicestoday,theordinarychantoftrisagion,whichwasjustusedasanantiphon(troparion)oftheentranceandbecamelatera troparionwithoutanyantiphonalstichonbeforetheepistel,wasreplacedbythebaptismhymnbetweenEasterand
Ex.2:Benevento,Bibliotecacapitolare,MS40,fol.19
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Pentecost.Thelajerstonalityandmelosisthesameasthatoftheresurrectionhymn: the plagiosprtos.TheLatinoffertorywiththesametextisacompositionintheHypodorianmode(plagalD),whichismadeupaccordingtotheCarolingianpajerns:itstartswithinthelowerfourthunderthefinalisD,whiletheBeneventancompositionisjustmoremelismaticthantheversioninthemoderneditionoftheGradualetriplex.InthecontextoftheBeneventanmassforHolySaturday,thegradualbeforetheepistleisaveryshortversionoftheGreekDoxaenypsistis (Gloriainexcelsis),whichremindsoftheGallicanhabittoreplacethetrisagionwiththedoxaduringthemassonfeastdays.
Intheothergradualtheliturgicalcontextisthesame,butapalimpsestofthefirstpartofthedismissalchantshows,thatitwasnolongerused.Onlythebeginningwasremoved,sothatitsformerpositionwasstillrecognizable.Theprecedinglitany,whichisanothertraceofanoldermassliturgy,isthesameasintheformergradual o f S t .Sophia,butslightlycorruptedtoassimilateittotheRomankyrie:christeeleysoninsteadofchriste,audinos(MS40,fol.19).
SincetheAbbeyofMontecassinobecamethecentreofthe
Ex.3:Benevento,Bibliotecacapitolare,MS38,fol.46
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ByzantineChantinSouthernItaly(10th11thcentury)
LatinchantreformforSouthernItaly,therewasthechanceforBeneventancantorstoinfluenceinalimitedmeasuretheconceptofGregorianchant,asaresulttheBeneventangradualsshowdifferentredactionsdealingwiththeFrankishRomanandtheBeneventanschool.InthisrespecteventhemissalMS33isnotsofarfromthegradualsofBenevento,theRomanFrankishrepertorywasjustmoredominantinthiscollectionthaninthoseofthelatermanuscripts.
AlastexamplemayillustratethecreativityofSouthernItaliancantors,usingwellknownformstakenbothfromByzantineandfromolderLatinliturgies(Ex.4).12
12 Thistranscriptionisalreadywellknown,becauseitservedasanexampleofGallicanchantinBrunoStbleinsentryGallikanischerRitusintheoldMGG,thoughitiscertainlynotGallican.Kenneth
Ex.4:Rome,BibliotecaApostolicaVaticana,Regin.lat.334,fol.8787
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Thislitanycouldbeconservedasaprocessionalantiphonin a processionalwrijenforS.DomenicodiSora(Molise)inBeneventanscriptureandnotation.Butitisnotaprocessional antiphonatall,itwasjusthiddenthere.13Mytranscriptionalsofollowsthemistakes:TheredFlineatthebeginningofthefirstrowisslightlytoolow,butinthemanuscriptthereisanotherlinecoredintothefolioandthesecondligature(pes)startsonthisline.ThismeansthatthelowestnoteisalwaysF.
Accordingtomyinterpretationthebisalwaysnatural,evenifthemelosjumpsintothetritone.ThiskindoftonalityiscertainlynottheGuidonianconceptoftheautentustritus,butitisthediatonicconceptofchosvarys(tritusplagalis),whilebflatasthepurefourthtothefinalisFisindicatedbytheenharmonicphthoranana().14InthisrespectthelastexampleisaLatincompositionwhichtestifiesaninspiringexchangebetweenBeneventancantors(inMolise)andGreekpsaltes.
LevysearlyarticleaboutthehistoryoftheSanctusmentionsanotherprocessionalantiphonforDedicationinthismanuscript,whichhasaLatintranslationofthecherouvikon(Levy1958,39).13Thisisthereason,whysomeeditionsofSanctustropesdonotmentionit,butitisaSanctustropeindeed.Themanuscriptconsistsoftwobooksboundtogether,sotheprocessionalstartsonfolio57andcanbedatedaround1100.14Thismelosbelongstothe,butitsfinalisisGsol.ChristianTroelsgrdtranscribedapsalmodyforvarysendingonthetetartos(2006),butitwasalsoknownintheRomanandGregorianreceptionofthekoinnikon forHolySaturdayintheoffertoryGustateetvidete.Hence,itisnotsurprisingthatthetonaryofToulouse(Paris,Bibliothquenationale,fondslat.1118,fol.109)describesundertherubrictritusjusttwoplagalithefirstisidentifiedwithanintonationformulastartingoncandendingonG[!].Thesecondplagalishasanothermelos,itdescendstotheplagalfourth,butitsambitusisgoingupsohighaswellthatitincludesthemeloiofautentustritus.
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ByzantineChantinSouthernItaly(10th11thcentury)
TheByzantineperspective
TherelationshipbetweenGreekandLatinChristianswasnotalwaysasunproblematicasithasohenbeenassumed.15
AherPopeNicholasIIabandonedtheplanofhispredecessorstoallywiththeByzantineempire,hefoundintheNormandukesthemostpowerfulpartners.WithsuchalliesthePopenolongerhadtodealwithcompromisesasearlierpopeshaddonewiththeByzantinepatriarchswhowerewillingtocollaboratewithRome.
Hence,theecclesiasticaladministration,asfarasitwasestablishedinSouthernItaly,wasruledbythepapacy.Greekarchbishops(inCalabria,Campania,Lucania,andApulia)hadtoswearanoathoffidelitytothepopeandtojointhepapalsynods.16Theseconditionswerenotacceptedbyallbishopelects,asforexampleBasiliodiReggio,whowaselectedasecondtimeunderRuggeroBorsaandwhorefusedasecond
15 Itisnotnecessarytorepeat,whathasbeenwrijenbyVeravonFalkenhausen(1983b;2007)andGrahamLoud(2000,EssayII;2007,494524)abouttherelationshipbetweenGreekandLatinChristiansinSouthernItaly.16InhisHabilitationsschrihGeorgGresserwroteaboutthesynods,thattheyhadbecomeaveryimportanttoolforthereformingpapacy(Reformpapsjum)sinceLeoIX(Gresser2006,542):
WenndieReformppste,allenvoranLeoIX.,durchdieunglaublicheSteigerung derSynodenfrequenzdieDurchsetzungderReformzieleauchmitder DurchsetzungdesppstlichenPrimatesinganzEuropaverbindenwollten, mutensiesicheinGremiumschaffen,dasganzaufsiezugeschni`enwarund indemdieKommunikationdabeigewissermaeninFormeinerEinbahnstraeverlief.DiezahlreichenBelegedafr,dagenaudiesesVorgeheneben nichtdenBeifalldesdieKirchereprsentierendenEpiskopatesfand,lassensich inderDarstellungimmerwiederfinden.
Thisveryspecificrolewhichthesynodshadduringthereform,mightalsohelptoexplaintheajitudeofBasiliodiReggioandotherGreekchurchmen,whowereexcluded,becausetheydidnotaccepttheprimacyofRome.
17
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time,beforehewasreplacedbyaLatincandidate.17
IfweregardtheNeogregorianreformaspartoflongtermtasksofthecontemporarypapalreform,itisalsonecessarytounderstandthekeyrolewhichtheNormansplayed,whentheywerechargedaspapalvassalstoreconquerArabSicily.ParalleltothereconquestofSicily,therewerealsotheCluniacplansconcerningthereconquestoftheNorthernpartofAndalusianSpaininthesecondhalfofthe11thcentury,especiallytheJerusalemoftheWest:SantiagodiCompostela.ButthemoststrikingdifferencewasthattheNormansasthenewkingsofSicilybecameadmirersandimitatorsoftheAndalusianculture,astheyhadfounditinArabSicily.
ConcerningtheestablishmentofaLatinchurchadministrationinSicily,FranconormannobleandroyalfamiliesactedaspatronsbothforGreekandforLatinmonasteries.LargeLatinAbbeyswerefoundedtosejledownLatinChristiansinSicily,whentheislandwaspopulatedbyanArabmajority,GreekandSephardicminorities,andaverysmallnumberofLatinChristians.SmallerGreekabbeyswerefoundedaswelltoholdtheGreekpopulation,andthereasonwhyalotofthemdidnotsurvivealongtime,wasratherthatsomeoftheirpatronizingfamiliesweremoreambitiousthantheycouldaffordoverthenextgenerations.
DuringthisprocesscentresofGreekmonasticismhadgrown,whichhadneverexistedbefore.Ahierarchywasestablishedbetweenlargerandsmallerabbeys,inwhichthearchimandritsofthelargermonasterieswerechargedwiththetask of cont ro l l ing the smal le r abbeys , which weresubordinatedcells(metochia) . In 1132 the firstcentrewas
17 FordiplomaticreasonstheNormandukestriedtwicetoestablishaGreekarchbishopinReggio,andinbothcasestheyhadtolookforaLatinprelate,becauseBasiliowasnotpreparedtosweartheoath,tosubordinatetothepopeandtojointheWesternsynods.
18
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ByzantineChantinSouthernItaly(10th11thcentury)
establishedinMessina:theArchimandritatodelSS.Salvatore.18
Other archimandritateswereestabl ished inCalabria(S.AdrianodiRossano,since1192S.MariadelPatiron),inLucania(SS.EliaeAtanasioinCarbone)andinTerradOtranto(S.NicoladiCasole,nearNard).HistorianshavedebatedonwhetherthisconceptwastakenfromaBenedictinepracticeorfromLucasstayonMountAthos(Loud2007,507),butthereisnodoubtthathistypikoncreatedalotofconflictsbetweensomeabbotsandthearchimandrite (Falkenhausen1983a),especiallyconflictsbetweentheDioceseorArchdioceseofMessinaandtheArchimandritateSS.Salvatore(Enzensberger2000a).Concerning the sources most manuscr ip ts of ra therrepresentativeliturgiescannotbedatedearlierthantothe13thcentury,afewtothe12thcentury.Butespeciallyfortheolderformsofmonasticism,wehavemainlyevangeliariesandprophetologia,afewdocumentsandeuchologia.19
DuringtheperiodofArabSicilysomeGreekabbotsandcharismaticreligiousfromValDemoneexiledtothemainlandnorthwards, andtheir highactivity in foundingnewmonasteriescanbeeasilyexplainedbythefrequentchangesoflocationtheyfeltforcedtododuringtheirlives.20These
18 TheAbbeyS.SalvatoredellAcroteriowasbuiltsince1122onthepeninsulaS.Ranieri.In1131RuggeroIIorderedatypikonbyBartolomeodiSimeri,AbbotofS.MariadelPatiron,butitwaswrijenbyhisnoviceLuca,whobecamethefirstarchimandriteofthenewbuiltAbbeyin1132(Enzensberger2000a).AherfurtherdonationsbytheKingtheAbbeybecameoneoftherichestlandownersofSicily.Duringthe16thcentury,underCharlesV,thecommunityhadtomoveandtheformerbuildingsbecamepartofthefortificationsfortheportofMessina.19 AndrJacobsstudiesofeuchologiahaveshowntheveryuniqueredactionofdifferentformulariesoftheDivineLiturgyincludingtheItaloByzantineLiturgyofS.Pietro(1974;1980;1984;1985).20 TypicalroutesareSicily,Calabria,Peloponnes,Calabria,Lucania,Sardiniaetc.(Mnager1958).Thegeneraltendencywastoescape
19
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OliverGerlach
movementsweremainlycausedbySaracens.ThisexternalviewofArabSicilycanbeexplainedbydocumentswhichshowthatMuslimmercenariesweresometimesemployedbythecaliphate,byByzantineauthorities,andevenbyBeneventanprincesorthepapacy.Inadditiontothem,therewerealsolootersandpirates,whousuallyburneddownsejlementsandsoldtheinhabitantsasslaves,oraskedforhightributesascompensation,inordertoleaveanabbeylikeMontecassinoinpeace.
EvenaprestigiousrefugeeliketheAbbotNeilosofRossanohadexactlythesamedestiny,anditmusthavebeenasurpriseforthemonksofMontecassinotoreceivearareanachoretelikehimintherichAbbey.21Andhelookedforit,becausehewasmainlyinterestedinitsfortificationsanditssoldierswhocoulddefendtheAbbeyagainstinvaders.
AsafamouscharismaticAbbotwhowasongoodtermswithAbbotAligernofMontecassino,hecouldintroducehiscommunityinaveryelegantway.Followinganinvitationof theAbbot,hearrivedpossiblyona20thMarchofthe980s,toperformaserviceonthenextmorning(orthros)inhonourofthe
northwards.TheterritoryofthePrincipalityofBeneventoandCapuahadbecomesosmallduringthe10thcentury,thatitspopulationwasmainlyLatin,butalotofGreeksfromSicilyorCalabria,likeS.NilodaRossano,arrivedtherelookingforarefugefromtheSaracens.21InordertoillustratetheeconomicautonomyofGreekmonasteriesinNeilostime,VeravonFalkenhausenreferstoanepisode,inwhichNeilosabsenceinsynodswasexcused.Inthisexcusehewascomparedtoaunicorn,whichcanbehardlyfound(Falkenhausen1978).InfactthelijlemonasteriesfoundedbyGreekmonkslikeNeiloswereveryhardtocontrolbothbythepatriarchandbythepope.ThisexplainsthechangethattheRomanreformcouldachieveundertheNormanrule,whenRogerIIestablishedmonasticcentresaccordingtothemodel,codifiedinthetypikonoftheArchimandritateS.SalvatoreinMessina.
20
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ByzantineChantinSouthernItaly(10th11thcentury)
AbbeyspatronSt.Benedict.22
ItisnotonlymentionedinhisVita,thathecomposedahymnforS.BenedejodaNorcia,inhisanthologyofNeilospoemsSofroniGassisipublishedalso24akrostichadedicatedtoS.Benedejofor the odes o f the kanntakenfromacertainheirmos(1906,4449).HiscriticaleditionismainlybasedonthemnaionforMarch,asitwaswrijendownbyNeilosIIfortheAbbeyofGrojaferrataduringthe12thcentury(Grojaferrata,BibliotecadellaBadiagreca,..VII,fol.8488)thelaststationandabbeyfoundedbyNeilosI,thepoetoftheseakrosticha.
InthispaperIwouldliketoanswerthequestionfromamusicologicalpointofview:whichwasNeilosmethodofcomposingtheakrostichaforoneofthemostimportantsaintsoftheLatinchurch,whodoesusuallynotappearinaByzantinemnaion?
Hiswaywasthemostcommonpossible:hechoseamonasticgenre,becausehewasanabbotaddressingthemasterofWesternmonasticism,andasusualhetransformedanexistinghymntextofthisgenre,dedicatedtothemotherofgod(theotokos) , andadapted i t to S .Benedejo.Followingtheconventionofheirmologichymns,hecomposedthepoemalongamelodicmodel(heirmos)whichalreadyexistedtomemorizetheverycomplexmeteroftheodes. Oursources,whichdatebacktoabout150yearslater,tellusthattheuseofcommemoratingS.Benedejoduringthemorningserviceof
22 ThereisnoexactdateinhisVitaandonlyfewtestimoniesinLatinhagiography,butNeiloscommunityarrivedmostlikelyinthoseyears,whenRossanowasnearlypermanentlyajackedbylooters(Mnager1958,758)andwhentheEmperorOjoIIwasdefeatedandkilledbyArabsoldiersinsouthernCalabriaandhisplantoconquerSicilyfaileddefinitely.ThediplomaticrelationshipbetweenMontecassinoandByzantiumbecamemorerelaxed,andtheAbbeywasinterestedinimprovingagaintherelationshipwiththeByzantineauthorities.
21
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OliverGerlach
St.ByrillosdaywascontinuedinByzantineItalyatleastinthosemonasteriesfoundedbySt.NeilosofRossanosinceValleluce,theGreekmonasteryonthelandedpropertyofMontecassino.
Theheirmologionanditsoktchossystemwhichconsistedofeightdiatonicmodes(choi)andtwophthorai(thechromaticnenanandtheenharmonicnana),wasoriginallycreatedbymonksoftheLavraAgiosSabasnearJerusalemduringthe7thcentury,anditwasintendedtoreplacetheConstantinopolitantraditionofthekontakion,ahomileticgenreofpoetrywhichbecameveryfamousthankstothecontributionsofRomanosMelodosduringthe5thcentury.TheHagiopolitanreformintroducedtheoktchosbymelodicmodelsofthebookstropologionandheirmologion,whichorderedthedifferentmeloiaccordingtotheeightchoi,whileConstantinopolitanpsaltesusedthesystemoftheAsma:asystemof4kyrioi, 4 plagioi,4mesoi, and 4 phthorai. Thegenreof heirmologionreferredincontenttothecanticlesorbiblicalodes(cantica),whichhadbeenrecitedduringtheorthrossincetheoldestservices.ForcertainoccasionsthisrecitationwasreplacedbythekontakiaintheConstantinopolitancathedralrite.ThemonasticSyrianArmenianoktchosreformwasalreadyconfirmedbyaGreeksynodin692,buttheGreekaswellastheItalianredactionwhichwasestablishedduringthe9thcentury,favoredthehymnologistsofthe8thcentury.23Untiltodaythehymnsoftheheirmologionhavehadtobesungtogether withfurtherakrostichacomposedoverthesamemelodicmodeloftheheirmologion,whichiscalledheirmos.Theakrostichahadalwaysbeensungfromasecondbookwithoutnotation,calledmnaion.
23BythetimewhenIoannisDamascene,AndreasandKosmasjoinedtheLavraAgiosSabas,thereformhadalreadybeendone.Theircreationswereestablishedinatypeoftropologion,whichbecamefamousunderthenameofitsintroductorytreatise,Hagiopolites(Jeffery2001).
22
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ByzantineChantinSouthernItaly(10th11thcentury)
InthemnaionofGrojaferrata,thereisonecompositionofSt.NeilosofRossanowhichconsistsoffourstrophesforeachoftheeightodesofthekann,andtheyfollowthemelodicmodeloftheheirmosinthechosplagiosdevteroswhichwereprecededandidentifiedwithitstextintheheirmologion.Itsincipitiswrijeninredinkoverthetextoftheakrosticha:
Thebeginningofthefirststropheistakenfromanotherfamoushymnoftheheirmologion,butitisnotreferredtothefirstbiblicalode(theprayerofMosesaherleadingthepeopleofIsraelthroughtheRedSea),itisahymndedicatedtothemotherofGodandtakenfromanotherheirmosofthechostetartos.
In order to findthe melodyof thefir s t odeinthechosplagiosdevteros,whichisthemodelusedhere, I consultedthreeheirmologia f romdifferentperiodsandwassurprisedtofindthattheyalldeliverthesamemelodyinaquitedifferentversion.24HereIwanttoconcentrateontheearliestversionofanheirmologion,whichwaswrijenaboutthesametimelikethemnaion:
24Theothertwolaterheirmologiawereonecopyofanheirmologion inConstantinopolitanredaction,madewithseveralmistakesbyLectorTheophylaktosin1281(E..),andanothermuchlaterheirmologionfromthe15thcentury(VaticanLibrary,Palat.gr.243).Eventhecadencesofthethreeversionsareohennotonthesamepitch,neitherarethecadenceformulasthesame.Despiteallthesedifferencesitseemsthatthe12 thand15thcenturyItalianredactionareclosertoeachotherthantotheConstantinopolitanversion(Ex.7).
Ex.5:Gro`aferrata,BibliotecadellaBadiagreca,..VII,fol.84
23
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OliverGerlach
Thecadenceoncwiththexron()attheendofthethirdline()cannotbefoundintheotherheirmologiaand
forasimplemodel,representingamelosofacertainchos,itisaratheroddchange.Inthe15thcenturyitisjustacadenceonthekyriosdevteroslikebnatural.
Ex.7:Gro`aferrata,BibliotecadellaBadiagreca,..II,fol.171171
Ex.6:Gro`aferrata,BibliotecadellaBadiagreca,..III,fol.186186
24
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ByzantineChantinSouthernItaly(10th11thcentury)
TheConstantinopolitanversionisnoteasytoreconstruct,becausetheinkwasremovedfromthesurface,sothatfolio171rectoishardlyreadable(Ex.7).Neverthelessitisreadableenoughtounderstandthattheredactingnotatorhaschangedthecadencesonprtosanddevterosfromaandbtotheloweroctave(octaveequivalance),probablyinspiredbytheimageofthetyrannicforcesatthebojomoftheRedSea.
Thesamesubjectistreatedinthe15thcenturyversionbychangingthefinal cadence,sothat it endsonthekyriosbnatural,andnotontheplagios.Inthe12thcenturyversionthecadencesonprtosanddevterosareDandE(fihhequivalence).Butthemaincontrastisherebetweenthetonalityofplagios devteros(lowE)andthephthoranana(likeCmajor)onGcfwiththecadenceoncinthehigherregister.
The12thcenturyversion(Ex.6)fitsthemosttothetextoftheakrostichon,becausethetemporarychangeinregisterandintonality(thephthoranana)occursexactlybeforethebeginningofthenextline(),whichisaddressingBenedictdirectly.Butthefollowingkolonendsanthekyriosdevteros:
, Openmymouth, andclarifythetongue, andenlightenmymind,, ovenerableholyTrinity,
throughthepuresupplications, ofBenedict,yoursaint, wholivedinasaintlyway. whichpleasesyou.25
Thenewcolourofthephthorananaisassociatedwiththeunderstandingofthemimeticpurifyingideasofthehonouredsaint,whichareinapowerfulcontrasttothemelosofchos plagiosdevteros,usedforthecherouvikonandfortheantiphonon
25 IwouldliketothanktheItalianhymnologistDonatellaBuccawhopreparedanItaliantranslationofthefirstandthefihhstropheforthepresentationandwhocorrectedtheEnglishtranslation.
25
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OliverGerlach
GoodFriday(Ex.1).
TheCoislinVnotationusedintheearlierheirmologion (Ex.6),isalatePalaioByzantineform,closesttotheMiddleByzantinenotation.Onlyatthebeginningthefallingthirdis notindicatedbythelatersystematicuseofthepnevmata.Butthechangetothelowerregisterisindicatedbythechamil()inthesecondlineaherthekolon.
Neverthelessamongthethreeheirmologiatheoldestonepresentsthemostchanges,and,althoughitwaswrijenabout150yearsaherNeilosvisit,itisineveryrespecttheclosestonetotheoraltransmissionamonghiscontemporaries.
Thiswasalsotrueforthethirdode,whichservedasmodelforthenextfourakrosticha(5th8th).26Itchangestothechromaticgenosbythegreatsignintheolderheirmologion,butwhilethephthoranenanreignsthroughthewholeodeintheConstantinopolitanredaction,itisresolvedagainbythephthora nana(xron).Aherthisresolution,themelosjumpsbackintothelowregistertoswitchbackintothediatonicmelosofchos plagiosdevteros.
26ThesecondodedoesnotexistintheheirmosaccordingtothegoldenkannofJohnDamascene.Itisnotusedatallintheheirmologianowadays,whileitwassungincertainheirmoiofthefasteningtime.AlthoughthefeastofSt.Benedictisonthe21March,Neilosparticularchoiceoftheheirmoshasnosecondodeinitskann.
Ex.8:Gro`aferrata,BibliotecadellaBadiagreca,..VII,fol.84
26
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ByzantineChantinSouthernItaly(10th11thcentury)
ThetextofthefirstakrostichoncreatedoverthethirdodemodelreferstoanepisodeofS.BenedejosVita:
, Revealingthedivinegrace youhavemade thebrokenkneadingtrough new,
andyouhavewithdrawninacave, for36months, obeying. toRomanservantofChrist.
Alaterreadermightsuspectthatthesewordsweremeantasanallusiontothepolemicazymondebate70yearslater27,butinhissituationNeiloswouldhavehardlytalkedaboutbreadif hehadknownabouttheselatercontroversies.Hewasratherwellknownforhisemphasisontheasceticaspectsoftheanchoritetradition.28Thiswasalsohismotivationtoadmire
27Duringthe1050sthePatriarchKeroulariosaskedtheProtosynkellostointerrupttheserviceintheLatinchurchesofConstantinople,todefilethesacramentalbread,andtoclosedownthechurches,whichuseunleavenedbreadfortheeucharist.Inabout1045,theazymondebatewasusedagainstthemonophysitismproclaimedbythechurchintheArmeniankingdomAni,aheritwasconqueredbytheByzantineempire.ThepolemicbytheArchbishopLeoofOhrid,wrijenagainstLatinChristiansduringthe1050s,wasinspiredbythisdebate.28 InanepisodeofhisVitathepeasantStefanosaskedtoNeilosifhe
Ex.9:Gro`aferrata,BibliotecadellaBadiagreca,..III,fol.186
27
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OliverGerlach
andtohonourBenedictasthemasterofWesternmonasticism.
NeilosofRossanoasaguestoftheAbbeyS.BenedejodiMontecassinohadchosenarathercomplicatedmodeloftheheirmologion. Itsperformancehadnotonlytoimpress,butalsotocommunicatethedistinctionoftheGreekmonasticriteanditsindependencefromtheBenedictinetraditioninSouthernItaly.IamtemptedtoregardhischoiceasadiplomaticstrategytoconvinceAbbotAligernandhiscommunity,thatNeilosandtheGreekmonkswererecognizedasanautonomouscommunitythatwasallowedtostayinaplaceseparatedbytheAbbeyofMontecassino.ThemonksofMontecassinoinvitedNeilosandhismonkstostaytogetherwiththemintheAbbeySt.Benedict,whichwouldhavemeanttoabandonsoonerorlatertheirowntradition.ButattheendNeilosdiplomaticintentionbehindtheuseoftheGreekserviceinhonourofSt.Benedictwassuccessful:hiscommunitywasallowedtostayinanindependentlocationinValleluceaplace,whichwassituatedwithintheAbbeysestates.29
couldbecomeamonkunderthedirectionofSt.Neilos,butNeilosrefusedhimwiththewordsyouwilldieofhunger,heshouldratherenterintoacenobitemonastery.ButStefanosrepliedthatasapeasanthewasusedtohunger.Healreadyknewmonasticlife,buthedislikedit,hence,hepreferredtostayinthecavewithNeilos(Falkenhausen2010,149).29WhileNeiloswasongoodtermswithAbbotAligern,hewasdisgustedbyManso,whofollowedAbbotAligernaherthepoliticalmurderofPrinceLandenulf,butalsobyhisownprosperingcommunity,sothatheleh ValleluceandfoundedanothercommunitynearGaetathelaststationbeforeGrojaferrata.NeiloswouldcertainlynothavelikedBasilio,theonlyGreekAbbotofMontecassino,whowasrecognizedbythechroniclerLeoofOstiaratherastheprincesbusinessagentthanasanabbot(Loud2000,II,44).
28
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ByzantineChantinSouthernItaly(10th11thcentury)
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Byzantine Chant and its Local Traditions in Southern Italy before and after the Reform of Desiderius, Abbot of MontecassinoThe Perspective of the ReformThe Byzantine perspectiveBibliography