1. accomodation PHONOLOGY Squeezing syllables in an utterance into the same amount of time so that they occupy the same length oftime.

2. acculturation SLA The process by which a person integrates into a particular culture. One of the first theories of SLA that attempted toprioritize social factors over purely cognitive ones. It has been partly rehabilitated under the name socialization.

3. accuracy SLA The extent to which a learner's use of a second language conforms to the rules of the language. Once thought to bea precondition for fluency.

4. achievementtest

TESTING Designed to test what learners have learned over a week, month, term or entire course. Because ___ ___s aredirectly related to the content of the teaching program, they provide feedback on the teaching-learning process, and aretherefore useful data for course evaluation.

5. achievementtest

TESTING A form of assessment administered at the end of a course to monitor the learning process. Also calledsummative tests.

6. actionresearch

METHODOLOGY A form of teacher-driven research, the twin goals of which are to improve classroom practice, and to'empower' teachers. Typically motivated less by the desire to answer the 'big' questions than by the need to solve aspecific teaching problem in the local context.planning->acting->observing->reflecting

7. adolescents METHODOLOGY The ideal time to learn a second language. This age group tends to outperform adults and to progressmore rapidly than younger learners.

8. affect PSYCHOLOGY The general word for emotion or feelings. These factors positively or negatively influence languagelearning. Often contrasted with cognitive factors such as intelligence and learning style. Low ___ive filter=emotionallywell-disposed to processing input High ___ive=won't process input so effecitively.

9. affix,affixation

VOCABULARY An element that is added to a word and which changes its meaning. The process of doing this.

10. affordance LINGUISTICS The language learning opportunities that exist in a learner's linguistic 'environment.' Maximized withmeaningful activities and giving learners feedback.

11. agency METHODOLOGY Control of your own actions, including your mental activity. A notion from critical pedagogy.Learners are not objects of the teaching process; they are subjects of the learning process. A factor that contributes tomotivation.

12. allophone PHONOLOGY A phonetic variation of the same phoneme. Does not affect meaning.13. applied

linguisticsLINGUISTICS Concerned with the application of linguistic theory to solving language-related problems in the realworld. Language planning, speech therapy, lexcography, translation studies, forensic linguistics.

14. appraisal LINGUISTICS Also called stance; the way speakers and writers use language to express their personal attitude to whatis being said or written; one of the main ways that language's interpersonal function is realized; consists of 3categories: affect (personal feelings), judgment (social values and social esteem), appreciation (opinions). These canall be expressed lexically, grammatically or through the use of paralinguistic devices.

15. appropriacy SOCIOLINGUISTICS Using language in a way that is suitable for the context and in a way that meets the expectationsof the people you are communicating with. An aspect of sociolinguistic competence, which is a component of aspeaker's overall communicative competence. (Dell Hymes)

16. appropriation SLA To make something your own. Gaining ownership of a skill by first doing it with someone who is more skilledthan you are until you can control or regulate the skill yourself. A key concept in sociocultural learning theory.Language is not simply a behavior that is conditioned through repeated practice, but that it is one of collaborativeconstruction, in which skills are transferred in socially-situated activity.

17. aptitude PSYCHOLOGY The innate talent or predisposition for language learning. 3 kinds of ability: auditory, linguistic,memory.

18. ARC METHODOLOGY Lesson design proposed by Jim Scrivener that focuses on authentic language use, restricted languageuse and then clarification. These stages can be rearranged and occur many times within one lesson.

19. aspect GRAMMAR The way the speaker's 'view' of an event is expressed by the verb phrase, regardless of the time of the eventitself. 2 of these in English: progressive and perfect.

Cambridge DELTA Module 1 TermsStudy online at quizlet.com/_rjiza

20. assimiliation PHONOLOGY When a sound is modified by a neighboring sound, such as when the final /n/ of green is followed bya /p/, and is pronounced /m/; /t/ /d/=/p//b/; /t//d/=/k//g/

21. audiolingualism METHODOLOGY Became widespread in the US in the 1950s and 60s. Distinctive feature=drilling of sentencepatterns. Came from a view of learning as habit formation (behaviorism). Spoken language was prioritized;translation and the use of metalanguage were discouraged; accuracy was considered a precondition for fluency. Shotdown by Chomsky in the early 60s and the birth of mentalism.

22. authenticity LINGUISTICS Became a priority with the communicative approach. The idea of "grade the task, not the text" wasborn. This kind of interaction is both more communicative and offers more affordances for learning.

23. automaticity PSYCHOLOGY The ability to perform a task without having to focus attention on it. This frees a learner's limitedattentional resources for more demanding activities. A process of setting up chunks and associations that link onestep with another. This doesn't mean a sacrifice of accuracy. When chunks of language are produced in a pre-assembled form, the speaker has much less chance of making mistakes.

24. autonomy PSYCHOLOGY Also called self-directed learning. The capacity to take responsibility for your own learning.25. avoidance

strategySLA Abandoning a message or replacing an original messae with one that is less ambitious.

26. backwash TESTING The way a test affects the classroom teaching that leads up to it.27. behaviorism PSYCHOLOGY A psychological theory popular in the mid-twentieth century that viewed learning as a sort of habit

formation and positive reinforcement. Audiolingualism is the teaching method that is associated with this. stimulus-response-reinforcement. This theory rejected any role, in learning, for mental processes such as thought and reasoning.

28. bilingualism SLA At one point it was considered a handicap to second language learners since (according to behaviorist theory)the first language interferes with the second. ADDITIVE=second language added to first without threatening thespeaker's first language identity; SUBTRACTIVE=the second language replaces the first, threatening the speaker'slanguage identity.

29. broad-bandcurriculum

METHODOLOGY Curriculum in which objectives are broadly identified, eg in terms of general competencies. Allowseach learner to contribute to the best of his/her abilities. Also allows for the teaching and learning of a variety oflanguage areas concurrently. Learning is viewed as holistic, emergent and concurrent. Better suited to cope withdiversity and turn it into a resource.

30. cognitivelearning theory

PSYCHOLOGY A learning theory that draws upon ideas from cognitive psychology, the branch of psychology thatdeals with perception and thinking. Piaget first proposed the view that language develops out of the child's thoughtsand growing awareness of the world. A later version suggests that the child acquires language by forming and testinghypotheses about the adult language it hears around it. Has been criticized as being mechanistic, and for ignoringsocial and affective factors.

31. coherence DISCOURSE How the sentences in a text relate to each other.32. cohesion DISCOURSE The use of grammatical and lexical means to achieve connected text. LEXICAL: repetition, synonyms,

general words, same thematic field, substitution, ellipsis; GRAMMATICAL: references, substitution, ellipsis, linkers,parallelism

33. collocation VOCABULARY Words that frequently occur together. Can be grammatical (collocate with specific prepositions:"account for") or lexical: "narrow escape."

34. communicationstrategy

SLA Ways that learners get around the fact that they may not know how to say something, but that help the learnerachieve their intended message: paraphrase, word coinage, foreignizing a word, approximation, all-purpose words,language-switching, paralinguistics, appealing for help.

35. communicativeactivity

METHODOLOGY Activity in which real communication occurs. Key features: purposefulness, reciprocity,negotiation, unpredictability, heterogeneity, synchronicity.

36. communicativeapproach

METHODOLOGY An umbrella term used to describe a major shift in language teaching that occurred in Europe inthe 1970s. Shift away from language systems and toward how these systems are used in real communication.Linguistic competience replaced with focus on communicative competence. Directly related to functional-notionalsyllabus.

37. communicativecompetence

LINGUISTICS First proposed by Dell Hymes, what you know in order to be able to communicate effectively. The termcontrasts with linguistic competence (Chomsky). Hymes introduced the notion of appropriacy.

38. communitylanguagelearning

METHODOLOGY Also called counseling learning, a teaching method developed by Charles Curran in the 70s in theUS. The learners (clients) sit in a circle having a conversation. They consult with the teacher-knower, who is outsidethe circle, to help formulate each utterance. The conversation is recorded, played back, translated, transcribed,boarded and read aloud.

39. competence LINGUISTICS What we intuitively know about a language in order to be able to use it. Contrasts with performance.This motivates he use of corpus data to inform grammars, dictionaries and classroom materials. I language(internalized language) and E language (I language put to use externally).

40. competency METHODOLOGY A specific practial skill. sometimes in the form of 'can do' statements.41. complexity SLA Gauged by the following factors: amount of subordination, complex sentences, reference, lexical/linking verb

ratio, conjunctions42. comprehension PSYCHOLOGY The process of understanding speech or writing. It results from an interaction between different kinds

of knowledge. Bottom-up vs. top-down processing is involved. Involves different psychological operations, includingperception, recognition and inferencing.

43. computer-mediatedcommunicationCMC

METHODOLOGY The use of networked computers in order to communicate. Can be synchronous (peoplecommunicate in real time) or asynchronous (delayed communication).

44. concord GRAMMAR Also called agreement. The name given to the grammatical relationship whereby the form of one wordrequires a corresponding form in another. In English, it's the case with subjects and verbs (I like, He likes...).

45. connectionism PSYCHOLOGY A model of learning which belongs to what are called usage-based accounts of language acquisition.It does not presuppose any innate language-learning faculty, nor any rule-learning and rule-using. It assumes we arementally predisposed to look for associations between elements and create links between them in response tofrequently encountered patterns of usage.

46. consciousness-raising CR

PSYCHOLOGY The way that learners become aware, or are made aware, of features of the language they are learning.The term belongs to cognitive learning theory, which claims a central role for conscious mental operations inlearning. Things teachers do with this potential: enhancing the input in some way so as to make certain items moresalient; asking learners to infer rules from examples (inductive learning); asking them to compare their own outputwith that of more proficient users of the target language (noticing the gap); problematizing the input; pushed output(noticing the holes in the present state of their language.

47. constructivism PSYCHOLOGY A theory of learning that claims that individuals actively construct knowledge, rather than passivelyreceiving it. Supports the case for learner-centered instruction and experiential learning. Underscores the argumentfor personalization. Key figures=Jean Piaget and Jerome Bruner. Contrasts with behaviorist theory and isideologically aligned with cognitive learning theory, mentalism and, most closely, humanism.

48. content andlanguageintegratedlearning

METHODOLOGY CLIL Teaching a subject through English. Also called content-based teaching. A strong form of thecommunicative approach in that there is no predetermined language syllabus.

49. contingency PSYCHOLOGY The sense that what is happening is connected to what has just happened and what is about tohappen.

50. contrastiveanalysis

SLA The way the the linguistic systems of two languages are compared and contrasted. Used to be thought that acomparison between a learner's L1 and L2 would predict the errors that a learner would make; the underlyingassumption was a behaviorist one--that L1 interference was to blame. Many errors are now attributed todevelopmental causes, not interference. The best predictions of this are in the area of phonology.

51. conversationalimplicature

DISCOURSE The ability to infer from what has been said what has not been said.

52. conversationanalysis

DISCOURSE Concerned with describing the structure of conversational interaction, including the sequentialorganization of talk and the ways that speakers repair communication problems. The basic unit of talk is the turn.Managed by turn taking, includes adjacency pairs, conversational openings and closings, backchanneling and repairstrategies. Limited in that it divorces conversation from its context.

53. co-operativeprinciple

DISCOURSE The principle that speakers try to co-operate with one another. When people take part in a conversation theydo so on the assumption that the other speakers will observe certain unstated rules. First articulated by H.P. Grice,included 4 maxims: maxim of quantity: make your contribution as informative as requiredmaxim of quality: make your contribution one that is truemaxim of relation: make your contribution relevantmaxim of manner: avoid obscurity and ambiguity. be brief and orderly. Has been criticized as being culturally biased.

54. corpus LINGUISTICS A collection of actually occurring texts (either spoken or written) stored and accessed by means ofcomputers, and useful for investigating language use.

55. corpuslinguistics

LINGUISTICS The use of corpora for researching language structure and use; has lead to the development of grammarsand dictionaries that claim to be more reliable than their forbears, in that they are based on attested data. Has beencriticized on the grounds that the information it reveals relates only to language performance.

56. coursedesign

METHODOLOGY The design of a language teaching program and of the specific materials to be used on a program. Stagesinclude needs analysis, goal setting, syllabus design, materials choice, assessment instruments, evaluation procedures.

57. criterion-referencedtest

TESTING Test in which the candidate has to achieve a certain agreed standard in order to pass.

58. criticalpedagogy

METHODOLOGY Has roots in progressive education and is also sometimes called transformative education. Gainedprominence through Paulo Freire. Assumes that education can never be purely disinterested or neutral. It either functionsto maintain the status quo or it works to change the status quo. Has been influenced by humanism, learner autonomy,literacy training, critical discourse analysis, identity politics and cultural studies.

59. criticalperiodhypothesis

PSYCHOLOGY Neurological factors occurring at puberty mean that thereafter you can't just pick up a language as you didwhen you were a child.

60. Culture LINGUISTICS Refers to those highly valued activities and artifacts related to the arts.61. culture LINGUISTICS Addresses these questions:

What is the relationship between language and culture and to what extent do languages express cultural values? Does learning a second language involve learning a new set of cultural values? Does teaching a second language involve teaching the culture of the language? Is there a homogeneous English culture? How do cultural factors impact on methodology? How and to what extent should methodology adapt to take account oflocal cultural practices? Is there such a thing as intercultural competence, analogous to communicative competence, and if so, how is it fostered?

62. curriculum METHODOLOGY The whole complex of ideological, social and administrative factors which contribute to the planning ofits teaching program. Embodies several decisions: 1. about the objectives or goals of the program2. about the content--from these decisions the syllabus will be derived3. about the method of instruction4. about how the program is evaluatedConcerned with the beliefs, values and theory, not with how they are realized.

63. deductivelearning

PSYCHOLOGY Occurs when a rule or a generalization is first presented to the learners, and then they go on to apply it inpractice activities. Associated with approaches such as grammar-translation. Can be very effective in teaching form of thelanguage.

64. deixis GRAMMAR The way language points to spatial, temporal and personal features of the context. The speaker's location isthe _____ center, and these expressions distinguish between 'near' the speaker and 'away' from the speaker. Can beexpressed by certain verbs, which have direction built into their meaning: come, go, bring, take.

65. descriptivegrammar

LINGUISTICS Describes, in a systematic way, the rules that govern how words are combined and sequenced in order toform sentences in a given language. Deal with morphology and syntax. Can be formal or functional.

66. diagnostictest

TESTING A form of assessment given before the entry of a course to identify a learner's particular needs (as in needsanalysis).

67. dialect SOCIOLINGUISTICS A regional or social variety of a language.

68. dictogloss METHODOLOGY A form of dictation in which students hear the complete text (short) and then reconstruct it frommemory. Learners first work individually, then in pairs, then in groups, each time comparing their versions of the textand negotiating changes.

69. directapproach toconversation

METHODOLOGY Argues that the characteristic features of conversation, as identified in conversation analysis, shouldbe taught explicitly and in isolation, before being integrated into freer practice activities. These features includeconversational gambits, turn-taking, use of discourse markers, appraisal language, vague language, etc.

70. directmethod

METHODOLOGY An umbrella term for a wide range of language teaching methods that emerged in the later part of the19th century. They shared the belief that only the target language should be used in the classroom and that therefore translation shouldbe avoided at all costs. Started with Maxmilian Berlitz. Borne out of the demand for learning languages for internationalcommerce and tourism. Laid the foundations of applied linguistics. In the US, it ingested behaviorist theory and becameaudiolingualism.

71. discourseanalysis

DISCOURSE Any connected piece of speech or writing. The study of how such stretches of language achieve bothcohesion and coherence.

72. discoursemarker

DISCOURSE Also called pragmatic markers. Words or expressions that normally come at the beginning of an utterance,and function to orient the listener to what will follow. Can indicate some kind of cane of direction in the talk or appeal tothe listener in some way.

73. discrete-point test

TESTING Test that tests individual components in isolation.

74. discussion METHODOLOGY Opportunity for learners to interact freely and spontaneously, to cope with unpredictability, to voiceopinions using language that is both complex and fluent. More structured than conversation. Risks: might get out ofhand, learners might feel unduly constrained by the TL, some learners might dominate.

75. displayquestion

METHODOLOGY Questions asked by the teachers in order that learners can 'display' their knowledge. They typicallyinitiate a 3 part exchange that is characteristic of classroom interaction and is called IRF (interaction, response, follow-up). Usually aimed at finding out what learners can say in the TL. Contrast with real questions.

76. dogme ELT METHODOLOGY The name of a loose collective of teachers who challenge what they consider to be an over-reliance onmaterials, including published coursebooks, in current language teaching. Based on DOGME 95, a group of Danishfilmmakers who vowed to make films using minimal means for maximum effect. Proponents say they are not so muchanti-materials as they are pro-learner, and thus align themselves with other forms of learner-centered instruction andcritical pedagogy.

77. drama METHODOLOGY Can provide entertaining practice opportunities, as well as offering a useful springboard into real-lifelanguage use. A greater range of registers can be practised than are normally available in classroom talk. Can includeroleplays and simulations.

78. drill METHODOLOGY Repetitive oral practice of a language item, whether a word, a sound, a phrase or a sentence structure.Follow a prompt-response sequence. Were a defining feature of the audiolingual method and were designed to reinforcegood language 'habits.' Can still be communicative with an information gap type element built in ('find someone who...').

79. dynamics METHODOLOGY The actions and interactions, both conscious and unconscious, that take place between members of agroup, whether the whole class or sub-group. Instrumental in forging a productive and motivating classroomenvironment. Determined by the composition of the group (age, sex, status), the patterns of relationships between groupmembers, physical factors such as group size, the task itself.

80. eclecticism METHODOLOGY Combining techniques and activities from different methods in your teaching. Motivated by differentreasons, one being a general distrust of a 'one size fits all' method. Ts sometimes think that certain methods are notsensitive enough to such variables as the context, culture and learning styles of the students. Has been criticized on thegrounds that it lacks principle and encourages an 'anything goes' approach to teaching. Principled ____ subscribes to a'post-method' philosophy.

81. elision PHONOLOGY This happens when a sound is omitted, because another, similars, sound follows. This is common whentwo plosive sounds occur togeher. walked to=walktuh; baked beans= bakebeans; last week=lasweek; next,please=neksplease

82. ellipsis DISCOURSE Leaving elements out of a sentence because they are either unnecessary or because their sense can beworked out from the immediate context. Very common in spoken language and is also a common feature of certain texttypes where brevity is a priority (i.e. postcards).

83. end-weight DISCOURSE A principle in which new information is placed at the end of a sentence rather than at the beginning, whichis normally reserved for given information.

84. error SLA An instance of the learner's language that does not conform to accepted norms of usage, and which is attributed toincomplete or faulty learning. Usually defined in terms of adult native speakers. Sometimes distinguished from mistakes,the former being due ot lack of knowledge (i.e. competence), and the latter being due to the demands of performance.Categorized in a number of ways: pronunciation, vocabulary, grammar or discourse; or according to the way they depart from the norm (omission,addition, mis-selection, misformation, misordering); also categorized according to their cause.

85. evaluation METHODOLOGY Not to be confused with assessment. Can be ongoing (formative): getting feedback on the curriculum inaction. Can be final (summative): when the outcomes of the program are evaluated according to the goals that wereestablished at the outset. Procedures involve the use of questionnaires, interviews, observation, meetings and focusgroups.

86. examination METHODOLOGY A formal test that is usually administered by some examining body.87. exercise METHODOLOGY An activity that involves the controlled manipulation of the forms of the language. Contrasts with more

meaning-focused, and less tightly controlled, activities such as tasks. Usually written, like the equivalent of drills.Closed=only 1 answer; open=more than one possible. include gap fills, sentence transformations, ordering exercises,matching exercises, insertion exercises, deletion exercises, translation exercises, error-correction exercises.

88. experientiallearning

METHODOLOGY A general term for 'deep end' approaches to learning that rate direct practical experience over thelearning and application of abstract rules. This might take the form of TBL, discovery learning or content-based learning.Belongs to the constructivist school of learning theory in which knowledge is a mental construct which is subject toconstant re-evaluation and reconstruction. The cycle consists of alternating stages of action and reflection. Shares withmentalist theory a belief in the value of inductive learning. Shares with humanism a commitment to whole-personlearning and with critical pedagogy a belief in the transformative power of direct experience. Particularly appropriate inteaching young learners.

89. face DISCOURSE The desire to be appreciated (called positive __) or the desire not to be imposed upon (negative ___).90. face

threateningacts

DISCOURSE Requests and invitations are these because they expose both the speaker and the addressee to the risk of arefusal. Often prefaced by a question which gives the addressee a let-out.

91. facilitation METHODOLOGY A way of thinking about teaching that recognizes the fact that teachers do not directly cause learning,but that they can provide the conditions in which learning happens. The notion comes from humanist theory and partlyfrom critical pedagogy, both of which credit the learner with agency in the learning process. Community LanguageLearning is a good example of this.

92. feedback SLA The information, either immediate or delayed, that learners get on their performance. Traditionally takes the form ofcorrection. Can be explicit or implicit.

93. finite verbs GRAMMAR Show that they are related to a subject by having person, number and tense. "Brad works for his uncle."94. first

languageacquisition

PSYCHOLOGY It takes place relatively quickly. It is systematically staged. It happens despite the 'poverty of the stimulus.'It results from contact and interaction and not from any formal teaching. Given a reasonable amount of exposure, it isalways 100% successful. We are hard-wired to learn a first language.

95. fluency SLA The ability to speak a language idiomatically and accurately, without undue pausing, without an intrusive accent,and in a manner appropriate to the context. The ability to produced and maintain speech in real time. This involves:appropriate pausing, long runs, formulaic language, production strategies. Can also be called "communicativeeffectiveness" regardless of formal accuracvy or speed of delivery.

96. focus onform

SLA When conscious attention is directed to some formal feature of the language input. It has been argued that this is anecessary condition for language learning. Meaning is not enough. It can occur at any stage in classroom instruction.Correction is also a kind of this.

97. form LINGUISTICS The way a word, phrase or sentence is written or pronounced, independent of its meaning. Oftencontrasted with function.

98. formallanguage

SOCIOLINGUISTICS A style of language that is appropriate in situations where there is social distance betweenspeakers, or where the situation or topic requires a degree of seriousness. Not to be confused with politeness. It is morecommon in print, such as in official documents. Characterized by: complex sentences, frequent use of the passive, reported speech, fast modals, long and complex noun phrases, longwords with Greek or Latin roots.

99. formulaiclanguage

LINGUISTICS Those sentences of two or more words that operate as a single unit. They are not generated word by word,but are stored in the memory and retrieved as if they were one-word vocabulary items. Also called lexical chunks, multi-word units, ready-mades, prefabricated language and holophrases. Can be classified in the following categories: collocations, phrasal verbs, idioms, sentence frames, social formulae, discourse markers. They make for easy access in real-time speaking conditions and aid fluency because of the low planning time required.Can also help make speaker sound idiomatic, a feature of the target speech community. The central platform of theLexical Approach.

100. fossilization SLA When an error becomes a permanent feature of a learner's interlanguage. In theory such errors are resistant tocorrection. It has been hypothesized that the lack of instruction (and therefore the lack of a focus on form) is the maincause. May also be due to a lack of negative feedback on errors or the lack of a push to make learners' output moreaccurate. Some learners also have no social motivation to improve their interlanguage.

101. function LINGUISTICS The communicative purpose of a language item. It is also the communicative uses to which forms andmeanings are put. To assign a ____ to a text or an utterance requires knowledge of the context in which the text is used.Can be micro (speech acts with +ing) or macro (expressive purposes, regulatory purposes, etc). Differ from notions,which describe areas of meaning.

102. functionalsyllabus

METHODOLOGY A syllabus based around a list of language functions. Often combined with notions. They weredeveloped to support a communicative approach. If these have survived at all, it's as one strand in a multi-layeredsyllabus.

103. functionwords

GRAMMAR Those words which have a mainly grammatical function (also called grammar words). Includes auxiliaryverbs, determiners, pronouns, prepositions, conjunctions and some adverbs. Contrast with content words. Of the 50most common words in English, 49 are these.

104. futurity FUNCTION Expressed bywill + infinitivegoing to + infinitive present simplepresent progressivewill + be + present participlewill + have + past participleSometimes determined by speaker's perception of, or attitude to, the future event being referred to.

105. genre LINGUISTICS Any type of spoken or written discourse which is used and recognized by members of a particular cultureor sub-culture. As these become established, they acquire a conventionalized structure and often a characteristicvocabulary and grammar. Involves features at macro level (overall organization) and micro level (specific grammaticaland functional features).

106. genre-basedapproach towriting

METHODOLOGY An approach that is similar to a product approach. Starts with a model text (authentic) that issubjected to analysis and replication. These are closely associated with their contexts of use, and they are analyzed infunctional terms as much as in linguistic ones. Has been particularly influential in the teaching of academic writing.

107. grammaring LINGUISTICS A term coined by the applied linguist Diane Larsen-Freeman in order to capture the notion of grammarbeing more a skill than an inert body of knowledge. The process by which a sequence of words if fine-tuned in order tocreate a more complex message than mere words can express. Has also been used to describe the way the learner'smental grammar develops, over time, from a mainly lexical mode into a fuller mode (mirrors L1 acquisition).

108. grammar-translationmethod

METHODOLOGY Developed out of a way that classical languages (Greek and Latin) were traditionally taught. It wasn'tfully formalized until the mid-19th century, when it became institutionalized in schools in Germany. First known as thePrussian Method. Grammar is taught deductively (rules first) and accuracy is highly prioritized. Seriously challenged bythe Reform movement of the late 19th century.

109. highlightingform

METHODOLOGY When a teacher draws learners' attention to features of spoken or written language using: modelling, finger-coding, cuisenaire rods, boardwork, substitution tables. Takes place in close association with themeaning of the item.

110. homographs VOCABULARY Words that are written the same way, but pronounced differently, and which have different meanings. A long and windy road. A windy night.

111. homonyms VOCABULARY Words that are written and pronounced the same way, but have different meanings. I like pizza. What does she look like?

112. humanisticapproaches

METHODOLOGY Learning approaches that assert the central role of the 'whole person' in the learning process.Emerged in the mid-20th century as a reaction to behaviorism and to counterbalance the exclusive intellectualism ofmentalism. Identifies with the autonomy movement, learner-centered instruction, whole language learning and criticalpedagogy. Most closely associated with the Silent Way, Community Language Learning and Suggestopaedia. In recentyears, has come to include NLP and the theory of multiple intelligences.

113. hyponym VOCABULARY A specific item of a larger category. An orange is a fruit (orange is the specific item).114. hypothetical

meaningFUNCTION Contrasts with factual meaning and refers to situations that are assumed to be improbable or impossible.Sometimes the term counterfactual is used to describe impossibility. Frequently expressed by conditional constructions.

115. identity PSYCHOLOGY One of the most important functions of language is as a marker of _____. Speakers make accent anddialect choices in order to align themselves with particular socially and geographically defined groups. Learners canalso try to identify with a discourse community. L2 ___ may either support or threaten their first language ___, and thisin turn will affect their success. Multiple factors affect the learner's notion of this: gender, ethnicity, job, familyrelationship, etc.

116. idiom VOCABULARY A word sequence whose meaning is not literal (cannot be easily worked out from its individual words.Can be classified in a variety of ways: metaphorical: a hot potato, the tip of the icebergrestricted collocations: pitch black, fat chancephrasal verbs: pick up, get onfrozen similes: as old as the hills, as easy as piebinomials and trinomials: hook, line and sinker, spick and spanproverbs and catchphrases: waste not, want noteuphemisms: pass awaytrue idioms (fixed and non-literal): spill the beans, fly off the handleMore in informal spoken language and often with an interpersonal function.

117. idiomaticity LINGUISTICS The extent to which a person's language sounds native-like. Has been a key influence on the developmentof the lexical approach.

118. immersion SLA When children, as a group, are taught some or all of their school subjects in a language that is not their mothertongue. It is aimed at fostering bilingualism. Can be total (when all curriculum subjects are taught in the secondlanguage) or partial (when only some subjects are taught in the second language). Should be distinguished fromsubmersion (only individuals, not a group).

119. indirectapproach toconversation

METHODOLOGY Argues that conversation is best learned by having conversations. Syllabus might consist of a list oftopics to talk about or of situations where conversations are likely to occur.

120. individuallearnerdifferences

PSYCHOLOGY Variations based on learning styles, abilities, needs and drives. Reflected in the differences in the rate atwhich learners learn and in their eventual levels of attainment. Key factors are biological, personality, cognitive andaffective. Outcomes of this research were: learner training procedures, learning strategies, one-to-one teaching and self-access centers.

121. inductivelearning

PSYCHOLOGY The process of working out rules on the basis of examples. Also called discovery learning. Has been acore principle in such natural methods as the direct method and audiolingualism. More recently has been promoted as ameans of consciousness-raising.

122. input SLA the spoken or written language that learners are exposed to. You cannot learn a language without this. Krashenargues that this is all that is necessary for language acquisition to take place, but it must be comprehensible and one stepabove the learner's interlanguage.

123. input flood SLA To include an item lots of times in a text to increase the chances of learners noticing it.

124. instructions METHODOLOGY The way that teachers manage classroom learning. Usually verbal. Will normally include some ofthe following features: a frame, a brief summary, the organization, the procedure, the mode, the outcome, a strategy, the timing, a cueHave a directive function and are typically realized using the imperative.

125. intake SLA According to cognitive learning theory, the conscious process of noticing features of input results in this. The partthat was taken into short-term memory, the first step in the process off accommodating it into the learner's developinginterlanguage system.

126. integrativetest

TESTING Test that combines various components of a skill.

127. intelligibility PHONOLOGY When other people can understand what you are saying. Has resulted in the phonological core--featuresof phonology that are crucial.

128. interaction SLA When learners communicate with one another, or with their teacher, or with the other speakers of the targetlanguage. Learner-learner ____ is a defining feature of the communicative approach, promotes good group dynamicsand is a step toward learner autonomy.

129. interactionhypothesis

SLA Michael Long's theory that tasks that promote negotiation of meaning are beneficial. Exchanges where learnersjointly resolve a communication problem provide a source of comprehensible input. Long argues for the need forinteraction, primarily because it is a site for negotiating meaning, called discourse repair strategies.

130. interlanguage SLA The grammatical system that a learner creates in the course of learning another language. it is neither their firstlanguage system, nor the target language system, but occupies a transitional point between the two. Seen as anindependent system in its own rright, and not simply a degenerate form of the target language. Reflects the learner'sevolving system of rules. It follows particular stages, no matter what the learner's first language is. Initially called thebasic learner variety. Partial competence is a valid objective in second language learning.

131. intonation PHONOLOGY The music of speech. A suprasegmental feature of pronunciation, meaning that it is a property of wholestretches of speech rather than of individual segments. Functions of this are: grammatical function: indicating the difference between statements and questionsattitudinal function: indicating interest, surprise, boredom; what is called high and low involvementdiscoursal function: contrasting new information with information that is already known, hence shared betweenspeakersServes both to separate the stream of speech into blocks of information (tone units), and to mark information withinthese units as being significant. High key=implies a contrast in attitude with respect to the preceding utteranceLow key=Speaker is adding something that is obvious or by the way

132. juncture PHONOLOGY This is the pausing (or lack of pausing) at the boundary between two sounds, which accounts for thedifference between ice cream and I scream.

133. languageacquisition

SLA The non-conscious and natural process of internalizing the rules of a language, as in L1. What is popularly calledpicking up a language. Learners will construct a mental grammar of the language naturally by a process called creativeconstruction.

134. languageanalysis

LINGUISTICS The study of the systems of a language, such as grammar and phonology, for the purposes of thelanguage. Typical topic areas are tense, modality, vocabulary, discourse analysis, phonemes, stress and intonation.

135. languageawareness

LINGUISTICS A teacher's or learner's explicit knowledge about language, often gained through language analysis.Includes not only systems of the subject language, such as its grammar and phonology, but also knowledge of its socialand cultural role. Helps inform the design and choice of materials, syllabuses, classroom teaching methods and tests.

136. learner-centeredinstruction

METHODOLOGY Aims to give learners more say in areas that are traditionally considered the domain of the teacher orof the institution. Movement toward learner autonomy. Also describes ways of organizing classroom interaction so thatthe focus is directed away from the teacher.

137. learnertraining

METHODOLOGY The aim of this is to help learners make the most of the learning opportunities that are available tothem. in the long term, it is directed at achieving autonomy in language learning. Typical procedures include:having learners complete questionnaires designed to help them identify their own learning styleshowing learners how to get the most out of available resourcestraining learners in effective reading and listening strategiesexperimenting with techniques to aid memorization

138. learningstrategy

PSYCHOLOGY Techniques or behaviors that learners consciously apply in order to enhance their learning. Becomes a___ ____ when the intention is long-term learning rather than solely immediate understanding. Some characteristics ofgood learners include: actively seeking out real-life opportunities to use the L2not being afraid of appearing foolish in using the L2paying attention to the formal properties of the L2monitoring their own performance in the L2 and trying to learn from their errorsmaking intelligent guessesOften grouped according to whether they are cognitive, metacognitive or social/affective strategies.

139. learningstyle

PSYCHOLOGY Your preferred way of learning. Can be influenced by biographical factors or by innately endowed factors.Usually presented in polarities. Includes: analytic, global, rule-users, data-gatherers, reflective, impulsive, group-oriented, solitary, extroverted, introverted,verbal, visual, passive, active.

140. lessondesign

METHODOLOGY The way that individual lessons are structured. Provides a secure framework within which a certainamount of spontaneity and improvisation can be accommodated. Includes PPP, TTT, TBL.

141. lesson plan METHODOLOGY A document that maps out the teacher's intentions for the lesson. It reflects the teacher's planningdecisions as well as the teacher's understanding of the principles of lesson design.

142. lexicalapproach

METHODOLOGY An approach to language teaching that has chosen vocabulary (including collocations and formulaiclanguage/chunks) as the main focus for syllabus design and classroom teaching. Emerged out of development of corpuslinguistics, especially with frequency and collocations. Michael Lewis argues that language consists of grammaticalizedlexis, not lexicalized grammar. Jane and Dave Willis worked on the assumption that the most frequent words in anylanguage express its most frequent meanings. In their view, words are really 'small grammar' and grammar is 'bigwords.' Willis' favored TBL; Lewis argues for a more analytic, text-based approach.

143. lexical item VOCABULARY A term used to get around the fuzziness of the word 'word.' Any item that functions as a single meaningunit, regardless of its different derived forms, or of the number of words that make it up.

144. lexicalpriming

LINGUISTICS First elaborated by Michael Hoey, suggests that learning a language is essentially learning the primingsof its words. This includes its grammar, which itself is the accumulated effect o the primings of function words.According to this approach, learners need massive exposure to input, and guidance in extracting patterns from it.

145. lexical set VOCABULARY Sets of words that share a meaning relationship. menu, starter, napkin, wine glass, tip, bill all share ameaning relationship. Sometimes a close association can cause 'interference'.

146. lexical verb GRAMMAR A content verb, not a function verb. It has a dictionary meaning, rather than serving any sort of grammaticalfunction.

147. lexis LINGUSTICS A technical term for the vocabulary of a language, as opposed to its grammar.148. liaison PHONOLOGY This is where a sound is introduced at word boundaries, especially after words ending in a vowel, as in

law and order=lohrandorder149. linguistic

imperialismSOCIOLINGUISTICS The often destructive effect that majority languages have on minority languages and cultures. Somescholars, such as Robert Phillipson and Alistair Pennycook, argue that the teaching of English not only threatens locallanguages, but does so in was that perpetuate colonial attitudes and practices.

150. linguistics LINGUISTICS The study of human language in general. Includes not only the structure of language (grammar,phonetics, semantics), but also the purposes for which language is used (pragmatics). Prior to the 20th century, wascalled 'philology' and was primarily focused with the comparative study of languages (always written and often dead).Early 20th century, Swiss philologist Ferdinand de Sausseure shifted the focus on to the principles governing thestructure of living languages. His primary concern was semiotics. Lead to the Prague School-->functional approaches +behaviorist theory--> structuralism, which was concerned with describing linguistic structures, with little or no referenceto their meaning or use. 1950s=Noam Chomskky and mentalism. Still a focus on forms that how they're realized in realuse. Michael Halliday was one linguist who accounted for the way linguistic forms related to their contexts.

151. linker DISCOURSE Words that join what has already been said or written to what follows. Show the sense relationshipbetween the two linked elements and include: additives (and, firstly), summatives (in sum), appositives (namely, in other words), contrastives (but, instead),concessives (however), resultatives (so, therefore), temporals (then, next). Discursive texts often have a high frequency of linkers to achieve cohesion.

152. linkers DISCOURSE Used to connect what has been said to what follows. and, but, or, so, because153. listening

subskillsMETHODOLOGY The skill of understanding spoken language; can be practiced through comprehension activities,bottom-up processing activities, top-down processing activities,

154. literacy SOCIOLINGUISTICS The ability to read and write in a language, usually one's own. Increasingly becoming anecessary skill in ESL/EFL.

155. literature DISCOURSE Refers to texts that have a mainly expressive function and which are highly valued in a particular culture.These texts do not feature much in ELT material because they are considered difficult.

156. long passive GRAMMAR A passive construction followed by a by-phrase, identifying the agent.157. materials METHODOLOGY Anything that is used to support the learning process. Includes coursebooks, workbooks, visual

aids, charts, etc. They relieve the teacher of having to do copious preparation; they are a stimulus to languageproduction; they provide immersion-like language exposure; they allow learners to continue studying outside class;they provide variety and entertainment.

158. meaning LINGUISTICS Language consists of forms that express certain ____s. The study of ____ is called semantics.Establishing this is one of the most important functions of a language teacher. Can be literal (denotation) or simplyassociated or cultural (connotation).

159. memorization METHODOLOGY To intentionally commit something to memory. Has been out of favor in language teaching becauseit's associated with rote learning. It doesn't necessarily have to be mindless or meaningless, though. A speaker'sfluency depends on having a bank of chunks. 3 key processes that aid in this: elaboration: processing new information more elaborately improves its chances of being remembered. rehearsal: mental recycling of material retrieval: the more times a word is retrieved from long-term memory, the easier it will be to access in the future. Bestway is through distributed practice. Mnemonics, keyword technique and word cards are all useful techniques.

160. memory PSYCHOLOGY Distinguish between: sensory: An echo or visual impression that lasts only a few secondsworking: holds and processes information in the short termlong-term: the part that stores information more permanently.

161. mentalgrammar

LINGUISTICS The way that a language is represented in your mind: it is the internalized, and usually implicit,knowledge about the way the language works. It is part of every user's competence. Should not be confused withaccuracy.

162. mentalism PSYCHOLOGY The theory that language is an innate property of mind. Primarily associated with the work of NoamChomsky, and represents a reaction to a purely behaviorist view of language acquisition and a return to the rationalistphilosophy of Descartes: "I think, therefore I am." Assumes the existence of a built-in universal grammar andpresupposes an inborn language acquisition device.

163. metaphor LINGUISTICS A figure of speech where one thing is stated in terms of another. Tends to be associated with literarylanguage. They structure the way we think about, and perceive, the world. Can help learners make sense of phrasalverbs and the way prepositions are used in time expressions. Includes a lot of formulaic language and collocations. Grammatical: the way in which concepts that are normally expressed in one grammatical form (such as verbs), areexpressed in another (such as nouns). Can sometimes thinly mask a particular ideology or mindset (a flood ofimmigrants=disastrous).

164. method METHODOLOGY A system for the teaching of a language that is based either on a particular theory of language or ona particular theory of learning, or both. These theories underpin syllabus type, materials and activities. Should not beconfused with coursebook or methodology. Nowadays, the term 'approach' is used almost exclusively because had beentoo prescriptive and too insensitive to local contextual factors.

165. minimal pair PHONOLOGY A pair of words which differ in meaning when only one sound (one phoneme) is changed. Thedifferences can be either vowels or consonants.

166. mixed ability METHODOLOGY A marked difference among learners in terms of aptitude, learning style and/or motivation. Shouldbe distinguished from mixed levels. Can be viewed as either a classroom management issue or as a syllabus andmaterials issue. More acute problem in narrow-band curriculum than in broad-band curriculum.

167. modality GRAMMAR The lexical and grammatical ways used by speakers to express their attitude to what they are saying. Can bedivided into two groups: extrinsic and intrinsic. intrinsic: reflects speaker's attitude to the necessity or desirability of the situation; allows us to express a range ofinterpersonal meanings. extrinsic: the speaker's assessment of the likelihood of the situation; allows us to talk about 'the world out there.'

168. modal verb GRAMMAR A class of auxiliary verb. There are nine 'pure'. Pure in the sense that they fulfill the formal requirements ofauxiliary verbs: form their negatives with 'not'; form questions by inversion with their subject; no infinitive forms,participles or the 3rd person; always 1st in the verb phrase. Can express 2 kinds of meaning: likelihood/possibility(extrinsic) or speaker's attitude (intrinsic). A number of other single-word and multi-word verbs that combine with other verbs to express modal meaning. Semi-___or marginal ____.

169. modelmuddlemeddle

METHODOLOGY Lesson design in which the teacher models a task; learners attempt to do the same task in pairs orsmall groups, while the teacher monitors, intervening where necessary in order to help the learners perform the taskeffectively; finally, individuals perform the task to the whole group.

170. monitoring SLA When speakers attend to what they are saying as they say it. Often involves repairing (either by self-correcting orclarifying). Krashen's ____ hypothesis claims that learners use knowledge that they have learned in order to editutterances that are generated by knowledge that they have acquired. He claims that this is the only use of learnedknowledge. Can be monitor over users and under users.

171. morpheme PHONOLOGY The smallest meaningful unit in a language. Mean ing ful. Mean can stand on its own (free morpheme),but ing and ful can't (bound morphemes). Bound morphemes are mainly affixes.

172. morphology GRAMMAR The area of grammar concerned with the formation of words. Contrasts with syntax. Divided into twobranches: inflectional and derivational. inflectional=describes the way that words, such as verbs, are inflected in order to convey different grammaticalmeanings. She works, she worked, she is working; where s, ed, and ing are different inflectional affixes. derivational=the way lexical words are formed, by, for example, affixation and compounding. Thus, the words inflectionand inflectional are derived from inflect.

173. motivation PSYCHOLOGY What drives learners to achieve a goal; a key factor in determining success or failure in languagelearning. A distinction is made between 2 orientations: instrumental and integrative. instrumental=when the learner has a functional objective, such as passing an exam or getting a job. integrative=when the learner wants to be identified wit the target language community. Sources: intrinsic or extrinsic. intrinsic=pleasure of doing a task for its own sake. extrinsic=receiving some sort of reward. Factors that contribute: attitudes, goals, value learner attaches to achieving the goals, expectancy of success, self-esteem,intrinsic interest, group dynamic, teacher's attitude

174. multipleintelligences

PSYCHOLOGY First proposed by Howard Gardner, views intelligence as being multi-dimensional. Includes:verbal/linguistic, logical/mathematical, visual/spatial, bodily/kinasthetic, musical/rhythmic, interpersonal,intrapersonal. Advocates argue that learning is optimized when these different intelligences are engaged. Belongs to humanisticapproaches with a 'new age' flavor.

175. narrating FUNCTION Telling stories. A universal function of language. Covers many sub-genres: anecdotes, fables, jokes, urbanlegends, etc. Serves an interpersonal function. Structure has been broken down into the following components: abstract, orientation, complicating event, resolution, coda. Sequence varies according to genre.

176. narrow-bandcurriculum

METHODOLOGY Curriculum in which each stage of the syllabus is highly specified, usually in terms of discrete items ofgrammar, and where mastery of one stage is a prerequisite for the next. Learning is viewed as segmented, incrementaland sequential.

177. naturalapproach

METHODOLOGY First used in the 19th century to describe teaching methods such as the direct method, that attemptedto mirror the process of learning a first language. Translation and grammar explanations were rejected, learners wereexposed to sequences of actions and the spoken form was taught before the written form. Term was resurrected by TracyTerrell in the 70s. Endorsed by Krashen and shared principles with TPR.

178. naturalisticlanguageacquisition

SLA Language acquisition that takes place in naturalistic (ie, non-classroom) settings. Contrasts with instructedlanguage acquisition.

179. needsanalysis

METHODOLOGY The process of specifying the learners' language needs in advance of designing a course for them,especially an ESP course. Data are usually collected by means of questionnaires or interviews.

180. negativepoliteness

DISCOURSE Social behavior which avoids imposing on others. Achieved by saying please or acknowledgingimposition and then apologizing.

181. neuro-linguisticprogramming

PSYCHOLOGY A theory about the way the mind processes experience and language. Concerned with the brain,language and learning. Shares with the theory of multiple intelligences the view that the mind is predisposed to processexperience in different ways/modalities. Learners have preferred thinking styles, or metaprograms. Many of its ways ofestablishing rapport are already well-established in literature on affect and in humanistic approaches.

182. no-interfaceposition

SLA The claim that acquisition and learning are separate, independent processes, that do not influence one another.

183. non-finiteverbs

GRAMMAR Do not show person, number or tense contrasts. The infinitive, present and past participles are forms ofthese. "Before working for his uncle, Brad used to work for his father."

184. norm-referencedtest

TESTING Test in which there is no criterion for passing, but a candidate's results are interpreted in relation to theresults of other candidates.

185. noticing SLA When your attention is attracted to a feature of the language that you are exposed to and you make a mental note ofit. Proponents of cognitive learning theory believe that it's a prerequisite for learning, but not the only one. Turns'noise' into input before it becomes intake (before it's moved into long-term memory).

186. noticing thegap

SLA When learners are made aware of a gap in their language knowledge. Can trigger the restructuring ofinterlanguage.

187. notionalsyllabus

METHODOLOGY A syllabus that is organized according to general areas of meaning that are used in most grammars.A reversal of the form to meaning organization. When combined with functions, forms the backbone of thecommunicative approach. Survives now as just one strand of what are known as multi-layered syllabuses.

188. object GRAMMAR The person or thing in a sentence or clause that is affected by the action of the verb. Usually a noun phraseor a pronoun.

189. one to oneteaching

METHODOLOGY Individualized instruction, in contrast to the teaching of small or large groups. Usually occurs faceto face, and at times, over the phone, or at a distance. Advantages for the student: undivided attention of the teacher, optimal opportunities for participation, classes can betailored to their particular needs, pace and learning style. Advantages for the teacher: no mixed levels, mixed abilities, diverse interests or different learning styles. Teacher canallow learner some choice in lesson content and direction. Disadvantages: can be intensive, tiring experiences for both the learner and the teacher. Limited possibilities forcommunication (only 1 channel).

190. order ofacquisition

SLA The order in which grammar items are thought to be acquired. It is also called the natural order and the order ofdevelopment. Research was first carried out in L1 acquisition by means of morpheme studies. In the 70s, applied toSLA. The order is the same, irrespective of the learner's L1, age, or the order in which they are taught these items.Prompted Krashen to formulate his natural order hypothesis. According to this view, teaching can't change the route ofacquisition, but it can speed up the rate of acquisition.

191. outputhypothesis

SLA The theory that output, especially spoken output, is a necessary condition for language acquisition. ContradictsKrashen's input hypothesis. Merrill Swain argues that learners have to be pushed to produce comprehensible output aswell. Forces learners to pay attention to features of the grammar that they might otherwise not notice. Puts them in abetter position to notice the gaps in their language knowledge. Developed out of immersion teaching in Canada.

192. pairwork METHODOLOGY A form of classroom interaction in which learners work in pairs to achieve a task. Open pairs,closed pairs. Can be organized around mingling or milling, dyadic circles, parallel lines, poster carousel

193. paradigm LINGUISTICS A way of displaying the different forms of a word in the form of a list or table. The relationship betweenelements in a chain is called a syntagmatic relationship: This little pig went to market; this little pig stayed at home.Went and stayed have the same paradigmatic relationship, as do the words market and home. These are typically displayed in substitution tables.

194. paragraph DISCOURSE A way of organizing written texts into a sequence of topic-related sentences. The division of a text intothese is an indication of its macro-structure. These contribute to the overall coherence of a text.

195. paralinguistics LINGUISTICS The study of non-linguistic means of vocal communication. This includes the different kinds of voicequality, as well as the use of loudness, intonation and tempo to convey particular emotions and attitudes. Also usedto describe non-vocal features of communication--such as the use of gesture, facial expression and eye contact. Bodylanguage=kinesics. A related area is proxemics--the study of how speakers use and interpret variations ininterpersonal distance, posture and touch, during face-to-face communication.

196. parameter SLA One of the 2 components of Chomsky's universal grammar. Different languages construct phrases differently.The limited choice of variants is controlled by ____s. These are switched to one setting or another when the child isfirst exposed to language data. English is head-first (verbs before their complements). The choice between head-firstand head-last is governed by a ____. Principles are universal, but ___s are language-specific. Learning a secondlanguage involves learning its particular ___ settings.

197. parsing GRAMMAR The process of analyzing sentences into their component parts. Once a staple activity in traditionalgrammar teaching. Also the term used to describe the largely unconscious mental processes by which a reader orlistener works out the grammatical structure of sentences or utterances.

198. participle GRAMMAR Non-finite forms of verbs. That is, they don't show contrasts of tense, number or person, and they can'toccur alone as the main verb of the sentence. There are two types: present and past. Generally, present ___ expressesthe course of a process; past ___ describes its result or effects.

199. passive GRAMMAR Contrasts with active, and together they make up the system called voice. Voice is the way that therelationship between the subject and the object of the verb can be changed without changing the basic meaning ofthe sentence. Many reasons for this: to distribute information according to what is not known and what is known.Only transitive verbs can take this voice. Much more common in written language.

200. pause filler DISCOURSE A word or sound used to avoid frequent, long or silent pauses. Used to maintain fluency.201. pedagogical

grammarLINGUISTICS A kind of descriptive grammar designed for teaching and learning purposes. Focuses on grammar as asubsystem of overall language proficiency, as distinct from form, phonology or discourse. More selective than alinguist's grammar. Formal rather than functional.

202. perfect GRAMMAR One of the two verb aspects in English, the other being the progressive. It combines with tense. Thebasic meaning is 'before--and connected to--a point in time.' At least 2 reasons to view an event in this retrospectiveway: 1. although finished, it is still relevant. 2. to indicate that an event is unfinished. Why it often combines with expressions of duration.

203. personalization METHODOLOGY When someone uses language to talk about their own knowledge, experience and feelings. Goodpreparation for the kinds of situations of genuine language use that learners might encounter outside the classroom.Influenced by humanistic approaches, which give it more coherent rationale and suggest a broader range of activitytypes. Creates better classroom dynamics. The mental and emotional effort that is involved in finding personalassociations with a language item is likely to add cognitive and affective depth.

204. phatic language DISCOURSE Language whose purpose is to smooth the conduct of social relations. Unlike transactional language,this language has an interpersonal function. Typically formulaic, as in the case of greetings, and is a characteristicof what is called small talk. Plays a very important role in the formation and maintenance of social groupings.

205. phoneme PHONOLOGY One of the distinctive sounds of a particular language. It is not any sound, but it is a sound that, tospeakers of a language, cannot be replaced with another sound without causing a change in meaning.

206. phonetics PHONOLOGY The science of speech sounds, including the ways that these sounds are produced, transmitted andreceived. Language teaching is less concerned with this than phonology.

207. phonics METHODOLOGY An approach to the teaching of L1 reading that is based on the principle of identifying sound-letterrelationships and using this knowledge to 'sound out' unfamiliar words when reading. Has been criticized because itencourages an exclusively bottom-up approach to reading, ignoring the value of recognizing whole word shapes, orusing context clues to decode new words. Contrasts with more holistic, top-down approaches to teaching literacy,such as those advocated in whole language learning. In second language teaching, only really applies to younglearners.

208. phonologicalcore

PHONOLOGY The name given to those features of pronunciation that are considered essential in order to beunderstood when speaking English as an International Language. Features that are crucial in ensuring intelligibilitybetween non-native speakers of English. Includes the following features (as proposed by Jennifer Jenkins): most consonant soundsconsonant clusters at beginnings of words, but not necessarily the endvowel length distinctions (long vs. short vowels)nuclear stress (correct placement of stress in an utterance)

209. phonology PHONOLOGY The study of the sound system of a particular language, and how this system is used by its speakers toexpress meaning. Describes the abstract system that allows the speakers of a language to distinguish meaning frommere verbal noise. Concerned with both segmental (smallest units of speech) and suprasegmental (larger elements)features, such as stress, rhythm and intonation (sometimes called prosody of speech).

210. phrasal verb GRAMMAR A combination of a verb and one or two particles. The particle is either an adverb or a preposition, or both.Four types:prepositional verbs: V + Prep. particle + object 'Can you deal with it?'intransitive phrasal verbs: V + adv. particle 'A storm blew up.'transitive phrasal verbs: V + adv. particle + object 'I'll pick you up at 8.'phrasal prepositional verbs: V + adv. particle + prep. + object 'We've run out of gas.'

211. phrase GRAMMAR A unit of one or more words that form a single element of a clause structure. It occupies the level on thegrammatical hierarchy between individual words and clauses. 5 types, each associated with one of the 5 word classes:noun, verb, adjective, adverb, preposition.

212. placementtest

TESTING A form of assessment given at the entry of a course to ascertain a learner's level.

213. polysemy VOCABULARY "Many meanings." Refers to the case where one word has more than one related meaning. Thus, theword "chip" can mean 1) a piece of deep-fried potato, 2) a small piece of wood, 3) an electronic component. The wordsall have a common, core meaning.

214. portfolio TESTING A collection of original work that is put together by a student for the purposes of assessment. It may includesamples of classwork, homework, or even audio/video recordings. May also include some form of self-assessment orreflection.

215. positivepoliteness

DISCOURSE Social behavior which expresses positive attitudes to other people. Can take the form of thanking, payingcompliments, showing agreement, using terms of address that increase the hearer's sense of importance, using terms offamiliarity that imply a close friendship, even if there isn't one.

216. possibility FUNCTION Degrees of likelihood of past, present and future events and situations. Degrees range from certainty,through probability, to impossibility. Expressed by: modal verbs (may, could)adverbials (perhaps, maybe, probably)adjectives (likely, possible)nouns (chance, likelihood)A distinction is made between factual ___ and theoretical ___. The beach may be crowded. vs. The beach can be crowded.

217. practicability TESTING How easily a test is able to be administered.

218. practice METHODOLOGY To do something a number of times in order to gain control of it. Fundamental to cognitive learningtheory. Through ___, a skill becomes automatic. Sociocultural learning theory also finds room for __: performing a skillwith the assistance of someone who is good at it can help in the appropriation of the skill. Different types: Controlled: can be controlled in language or in interaction. Maintains a focus on accuracy and pre-empts or correctserrors. Free: allows learners a measure of creativity, and the opportunity to integrate the new item into their existing language'pool.' mechanical: form of controlled where the focus is less on the meaning of an item than on manipulating its componentparts. meaningful: requires learners to display some understanding of what the item that they are using actually means. communicative: learners interacting to complete some kind of taskreceptive: involve the learners in identifying, selecting, or discriminating between language items but not actuallyproducing them. productive: learners have to produce the target items.

219. pragmaticcompetence

LINGUISTICS The knowledge that language users have that enables them to take contextual factors into account whenusing and interpreting language.

220. pragmatics LINGUISTICS The study of how language is used and interpreted by its learners in real-world situations.221. prescriptive

grammarLINGUISTICS A manual that states rules for how language shoudl be used, rather than how it is used. Many traditionalgrammars were of this type, and most manuals of correct usage and style guides still are. This type of grammar isconsidered at best a curiosity and at worst reactionary.

222. prescriptivegrammar

LINGUISTICS Prescribes correct usage, according to the standards of some group. What you ought or ought not to say.Seen as a marker of group membership. Not what we mean in the context of EFL/ESL.

223. presentation METHODOLOGY The stage of a lesson in which a new language item--typically a grammar structure, but can also bevocabulary, pronunciation or features of discourse--is introduced to the learners. Can be either deductive or inductive.Aimed at matching a language form with a meaning. Should normall include some check on the learners' understanding(CCQs). Should be a short stage of the lesson, to allow maximum time for communicative practice.

224. presentationpracticeproduction

METHODOLOGY Lesson design in which a pre-selected grammar item is first presented using direct methodtechniques, then practised in a controlled way, then practised by means of a freer, productive activity such as a roleplay.The design that has prevailed in ELT methodology for the past half century. Final stage reinforced by the advent of thecommunicative approach. This design has been criticized because the first two phases receive undue emphasis. To someit's a very mechanical model of learning.

225. priming LINGUISTICS The process by which, through repeated encounters, a word gathers particular associations. Theseassociations may be with other words, as is the case with collocations. Or may be semantic associations (particularmeanings), colligtions (grammatical patterns). These patterns are strengthened through repeated encounters.

226. processapproach towriting

METHODOLOGY Approach in which writers do not in fact start with a clear idea of the finished product. The textemerges out of a creative process which includes: planning, drafting and re-drafting, reviewing, publishing. It's a moreorganic sequence of classroom activities. Has a lot in common with the communicative approach in that the writerinteracts with a reader for a particular purpose.

227. productapproach towriting

METHODOLOGY An approach in which the focus is exclusively on producing a text that reproduces the model learnersare initially given. Involves analyzing and imitating models of particular text types. Each of the features is practiced inisolation, then recombined in tasks aimed first at reproducing the original and then at producing similar textsincorporating different content.

228. proficiency SLA The degree of skill with which a learner can use the language.229. progressive GRAMMAR One of the two verb aspects in English. Combines with tense to tell us what an action is/was like. The event

is viewed as being 'in progress' (in the present or in the past, depending on the tense). Not usually possible with stativeverbs.

230. progress test TESTING A form of assessment administered periodically during a course to monitor the learning process. Also calledformative tests. These are set because they encourage revision.

231. project work METHODOLOGY The preparation and presentation of a project, either by an individual or (more usually) a group. Therationale is essentially the same as TBL. The preparation of these usually extends over more than one lesson.

232. pronoun GRAMMAR The relatively small word class of words that can be used to substitute for a noun or a noun phrase. Theyinclude: personal pronounspossessive pronounsdemonstrative pronounsinterrogative pronounsrelative pronounsindefinite pronouns reflexive pronounsreciprocal pronounsquantifiersThey aid in the overall cohesion of a text.

233. pronunciationteaching

PHONOLOGY The general term for that part of language classes and courses that deals with aspects of phonology inEnglish. Includes segmental and suprasegmental features. Can be either integrated or segregated. Integrated=dealtwith as part of the teaching of skills of grammar and vocabulary, or of speaking and listening. Segregated=treated inisolation. Pre-emptive or reactive.

234. quanitifiers GRAMMAR Words or phrases which specify quantity or amount. They either precede nouns (as determiners) or standon their own (as pronouns). The choice of these is often determined by whether the noun that follows is countable oruncountable; and if, countable whether it is singular or plural. These can be categorized as being: inclusive (all, both, each, every)an indefinite quantity (some, several, any)a large quantity (most, much, lots of)a small quantity (a few, a little, a bit of)a comparative quantity (more, less)negative quantities (no, neither, none)numbers partitives (a piece, a bottle)

235. question GRAMMAR The basic distinction between asking and telling. This is the main way of performing the asking function.Contrasts with statements. Classified as: yes-nowhalternative (Shall, Did)tagdeclarative: "You're sure you're okay?"rhetoricalindirect and reportedBasic operation in forming questions in English is the inversion of the subject and the (first) auxiliary of the verb

236. reading METHODOLOGY A receptive skill, but it doesn't mean that it's passive. It's an active, even interactive process.Learners need to be able to decode the letters, words and grammatical structures of the individual sentences (bottom-up processing). They also enlist top-down processes, such as drawing on discourse and schematic knowledge, as wellas on immediate contextual knowledge. Involves an interaction between these different levels of knowledge, whereknowledge at one level can compensate for lack of knowledge at another. Different subskills incluce:skimming (gist)scanning (searching for specific information and ignoring everything else)detailed (extracting the maximum detail from a text)aloud (a prepared speech or lecture, or a story or extract from a newspaper)

237. receivedpronunciation

PHONOLOGY The type of pronunciation of British English that is considered the regionally neutral standard.Provides the model most widely used in the teaching of British English. The argument for using this English in recentyears has been challenged, especially with the growth of English as an international language.

238. reference DISCOURSE The relation between language forms and things in the real world. Also has a narrower sense, anddescribes the relation between language forms and their referents in discourse. Anaphoric: back referencecataphroic: forward referenceexophoric: direct reference to the non-linguistic contextThese all aid in cohesion. Deicitic terms typically have exophoric reference.

239. reflection PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT A key stage in an experiential learning cycle that also includes planning, actionandlearning. This involves more than simply remembering. Being able to think critically about experience, to identifyproblems, and to 're-frame' these problems. Also a component of the action research model.

240. register LINGUISTICS The way that language use varies according to variations in the context. It is a term that is usedparticularly by proponents of systemic functional linguistics. They argue that there is a correlation between the forms oflanguage and features of the social context. Key factors are the field of discourse (what is being talked or written about)the tenor (the relationship between the participants)the mode (whether the language is written or spoken).These constitute the ___ variables of a situation. It is of particular relevance in the teaching of genres.

241. reliability TESTING When a test gives consistent results. Often an effect of the test design. Also at risk the more subjective thescoring is.

242. repair DISCOURSE To correct or modify what you have just said, so as to make it more accurate or more intelligible. Can beself-initiated or other-initiated.

243. repetition METHODOLOGY Underlies many language learning strategies, and it has always been considered a sound learningstrategy. Audiolingualism helped make __ scientific and developed a sophisticated repertoire of drills. Post-behavioristapproaches continued to promote ___, believing that it helps fix language in the memory. The way the item is processedis more important than the number of times it is repeated.

244. requesting FUNCTION Belongs to the general class of speech acts that are about getting people to do things, such as commanding,persuading, and asking favors. Most of these involve the use of modal verbs.

245. restructuring SLA Responding to new information by re-organizing to accommodate it. The term in cognitive learning theory used todescribe what seemed to happen to the learner's developing interlanguage system as it adapted to new input. At somepoint, a rule for regular past tense formation is applied to all verbs in past contexts. The system has now sped upprocessing, but it may result in what is called backsliding, which is what happens when the learner overapplies the rule(or overgeneralizes it). Without ____, fossilization can occur.

246. revision TESTING The process of reviewing previously studied material, especially in advance of a test. The most effective formsinvolve revisiting previously studied material and processing it in a novel way. This should happen as soon as possibleafter first meeting it, and then at successively longer intervals of time.

247. rhythm PHONOLOGY The way that some words are emphasized so as to give the effect of regular beats. Can be stress-timed(English) or syllable-timed (French and Spanish). Interacts with stress and intonation to help speakers organizespeech into meaningful units.

248. routine METHODOLOGY Regular procedures that impart a sense of structure, rhythm and flow to the class. Some aremanagement-oriented, some are teaching-oriented. Expert teachers regularly use a relatively small number of these intheir classes, but they are performed fluidly and purposefully. Learning to teach is primarily a case of acquiring arepertoire of these that can be adapted to different classes, levels and circumstances.

249. rubric METHODOLOGY The set of instructions (usually written) that tells students what they have to do for a test or anexercise.

250. scaffolding SLA The temporary interactional support that is given to learners while their language system is under construction. Itis this support that enables them to perform a task at a level beyond their present competence. The term derives fromsociocultural learning theory, which views learning as being jointly constructed. it not only provides a conversationalframework, but it is believed to shape language acquisition itself.

251. schemata PSYCHOLOGY The way that knowledge about a topic or a concept is represented and organized in the mind. They helpus to make sense of experience, and hence they are crucial in comprehension. Also used to refer to the temporary mentalpicture that a reader or listener constructs when processing a text.

252. secondlanguage

SLA Any language that has been learned subsequent to the acquisition of the first language. The term additionallanguage is sometimes preferred.

253. secondlanguageacquisition

SLA The study of how second (or additional) languages are acquired. It is a relatively new field of study, emerging in thewake of behaviorism to offer a satisfactory explanation of either first or second language acquisition. To what extent are the processes the same as those of FLA? Why is it seldom, if ever, as successful as FLA? Why do some learners learn better and/or faster than others? Why do learners make errors? How does the L1 affect the learning of the L2? Does instruction help? And if so, how? Researchers use as data learner output, the input they're exposed to, age, aptitude, motivation and learning style. 3 areas account for this study: UG, cognitive learning theory and sociocultural learning theory.

254. self-accesscenter

METHODOLOGY That part of a language teaching institution that is allocated to self-directed study. Popular at theheight of the learner autonomy movement. Many are re-absorbed into the instution's library or turned into internetrooms.

255. semantics LINGUISTICS The study of meaning, including the way words relate to the things that they refer to in the real world. Inlanguage teaching the focus is on the meaning relationship between words, such as similarity and oppositeness. Oftencontrasted with pragmatic meaning, in that it focuses on the literal meaning instead of the effect.

256. sentence GRAMMAR the largest purely grammatical unit in a language. Everything beyond the ___ is only weakly linked ingrammatical terms. In speaking, speech is sometimes broken into utterances instead.

257. shortpassive

GRAMMAR A passive construction without a by-phrase. Used when the agent is not known, is obvious or because thespeaker doesn't wish to identify the agent.

258. silent period SLA The lengthy period of time children learning their first language go through when they simply listen before theyventure their first words. Some researchers have argued that this is a necessary stage in language acquisition. Itprovides and opportunity to comprehend input. Methods based on this are TPR and the natural approach. Someevidence suggests that learners use this period to engage in private speech (a kind of silent or sub-vocablized rehearsalphase).

259. silent way METHODOLOGY A method that was developed by Caleb Gattegno in the '60s. Normally grouped among the humanisticapproaches to language learning. Gattegno believed language learning was self-initiated and self-directed. T's role wasas a facilitator. Learning is largely mediated through the use of two aids: Fidel charts of color-coded sounds of thelanguage, and cuisinaire rods--small, colored blocks of wood of varying length. Rods and charts were used to create andreflect upon basic sentence patterns. This method deliberately keeps the vocab load low. It has only ever had fringestatus.

260. skills METHODOLOGY A way in which language is used. Language ___ contrast with language systems. These are dividedinto receptive (reading and listening) and productive (speaking and writing). This division has been fundamental incourse design and lesson planning. The separation into discrete skills overlooks the fact that mot communication isinteractive, involving both reception and production, and often in equal measure. To separate these distorts howlanguage is really used.

261. socialization SLA The process by whcih we become members of a particular group. It means adopting--or adapting to--the values andcustoms of the target group. A growing school of thought views L2 learning as a process of this, not of acquisition. Thedominant metaphor is that of apprenticeship, in which the learner is gradually inducted into the target culture,including its language. This makes more sense in an EFL context than and ESL one.

262. socioculturallearningtheory

PSYCHOLOGY Comes from the pioneering work of Lev Vygotsky, a child psychologist in the 30s in the then USSR. Sawlearning as a social process: through social interaction the learner is assisted from dependency toward autonomy. Thistheory situates the learning process firmly in its social context (as opposed to mentalism). All learning--including L1and L2--is mediated through social and cultural activity. Mediation typically takes the form of assisted performance withscaffolding until learner is able to appropriate the knowledge. Learner graduates from a state of other-regulation to self-regulation.

263. sociolinguistics SOCIOLINGUISTICS The study of the way language and society are interrelated, and in particular the way differentsocial contexts influence language use. The major contribution to language teaching was the impetus it gave to thedevelopment of the communicative approach. Descriptions of how language is used in different communitiesprompted scholars to re-think the goals of L2 teaching and to describe these in terms of functions rather thanstructures. Bilingualism, language and gender, language and power and language planning all fall under thisumbrella.

264. songs METHODOLOGY An entertaining and often memorable way of contextualizing language. Have inbuilt repetition,which adds to their potential as sources for incidental learning. Many display instances of high frequency idiomaticlanguage, including formulaic language. Downside=often ungraded, colloquial, and even ungrammatical.

265. speaking METHODOLOGY Generally thought to be the most important of the 4 skills. Often equated with proficiency in thelanguage. Main difficulties include: takes place spontaneously and in real time, so planning and production overlap.If too much time is spent planning, production suffers. If too much focus on production, accuracy suffers, whichcould prejudice intelligibility. Speaker needs to have achieved a degree of automaticity in both planning andproduction. A core vocabulary of 1000-1500 high-frequency words and expressions will provide most learners with asolid basis.

266. speech act DISCOURSE "Doing something" with words. Most require their purpose/illocutionary force to be inferred. Theconditions that determine the appropriacy and interpretation of these are the concerns of pragmatics. Can be 1 of 5types: representatives: describe states or events in the world. directives: aimed at getting people to do things. commissives: commit the speaker to a course of action.expressives: express feelings and attitudes. declaratives: by uttering these, speaker changes the situation. This theory