Carbon Compounds in Cells

Mr. Mawn 5 credit biology

4 main atoms• Oxygen

Atomic Number- 8

Valence Electrons- 6

• Carbon

Atomic Number- 6

Valence Electrons- 4

• Hydrogen

Atomic Number- 1

Valence Electrons-1

Nitrogen

Atomic Number- 7

Valence Electrons- 5

Molecules Can Be Organic or Inorganic

No we are not talking about pesticide-free, non-genetically modified, free-range molecules

Organic Molecules..What Are They?? Organic molecules contain ALWAYS contain CARBON

Can contain nitrogen, oxygen, hydrogen, and trace amounts of other elements (iron, copper, magnesium)

All organic molecules contain C-H bonds

Some examples of organic molecules

Carbohydrates, Proteins, Lipids, & Nucleic Acids

Carbohydrates

Grains, Pasta, Bread, Potatoes, Beans

Proteins

– Keratin, Amylase

Lipids

Vegetable Oil, Waxes, Butter

Nucleic Acids

DNA, RNA

What About Inorganic Molecules??

Do NOT contain CARBON

Usually dissolve easily in water

Examples:

Water

Oxygen

Ammonia

Table Salt

Hydrocarbons

Simplest form of organic compounds

These contain ONLY hydrogen and carbon, hence the name hydrocarbons

Can be simple or very complex

Examples

Methane-natural gas

Propane-gas used for air conditioning, grills

Butane-lighter fluid

Carbon

Is very important because it can form 4 covalent bonds

Forms a ‘back bone’ for organic compounds

Can form double bond chains

Ethylene-used to ripen fruit

Can form ringed chains

Benzene-used to make plastics and dyes

Can form straight chains

Butane-lighter fluid

Can form branched chains

Isobutene-used as a refrigerant

Functional Groups Carbon can bond with atoms other than itself (carbon) and hydrogen

These are called functional groups

Functional groups attach to the carbon skeleton

They give the molecule it’s properties

Involved in chemical reactions

Are always polar, which makes them HYDROPHILIC

This is very important for life

Molecules can have more than one functional group

Monomers

What is a monomer?

Mono-means one

Meros-means part

There fore….a monomer is ONE part of a large chain that makes up a LARGER molecule

Monomers bond together to form larger, complex molecules

Examples

Glucose

Polymers

The larger molecule that monomers form are called polymers

Poly-means many

Polymers can be defined as the large molecule that is made from small subunits (monomers) that are bonded together

Examples

Starch, Glycogen, and Cellulose

Making The Polymer

In order to make a polymer, the monomers must bond together….but how?

When glucose bonds to another glucose, a reaction must occur because each glucose does not have an opening for another bond (they are full)

Dehydration Synthesis De= without

Hydro= water

The process of combining TWO molecules to form ONE, through the removal of water (H2O)

One monomer will give up a H+ and another will give up OH-

This will form H2O, and allow the monomers to bond together

Examples

Glucose forming a starch, amino acids forming proteins, and through the building of all macromolecules

Hydrolysis Hydro= water

Lyse=break down

Opposite of dehydration synthesis

This involves the Addition of H2O

To break the bond between a monomer and a polymer, water is added

This reverses DEHYDRATION SYNTHESIS

Example

Digestion

Carbohydrates

Organic compound that consists of only carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen

Usually has a carbon:hydrogen:oxygen atom ratio of 1:2:1, although there are a few exceptions

CH2O

Broken down into 4 chemical groups

Monosaccharides

Disaccharides

Oligosaccharides

Polysaccharides

Monosaccharide

These are the basic units of carbs

Monomers

Simplest form of sugar or 'simple sugars'

Colorless, water soluble, crystalline solids

Many may taste 'sweet'

Examples:

Glucose

Fructose

Both are C6H12O6

Difference?

'Building blocks'

Oligosaccharides

Oligo-short

Saccharide-sugar

These are 'short chain sugars'

Contains typically 2-10 monosaccharides

Examples:

Seeds use stored oligosaccarides when they germinate as initial energy

Blood type

A and B blood = have 2 different oligosaccharides in their membranes

AB has both oligosaccharides

O has neither

Disaccarides

Formed when TWO monosaccarides bond together through a dehydration reaction (dehydration synthesis)

Examples:

Sucrose

'Table Sugar'

Composed of glucose and fructose

In 2011, 370,272,000,000 lbs of sugar was produced (168 million tonnes)

Lactose

Found in milk

Formed from galactose (less sweet) & glucose

Milk consists of 2-8% of lactose

Lactose intolerant

Maltose

Formed from two glucose monomers, through........dehydration synthesis

Produced when amylase (saliva) breaks down starch

Used in the brewing process.....which creates beer

Polysaccharides

Poly-many

Saccharides-sugar

Can contain hundreds to thousands of monosaccharides

General formula is CxH2O

Composed of long chains of monosaccharides bonded together by dehydration bonds

Examples:

StarchCelluloseGlycogen

Starch

Consists of a large number of glucose monomers

3 or more

Produced by plants as an energy source

Tends to form a coil or helix shape

Most common carb in the human diet

Potatoes

Wheat

Corn

Rice

CelluloseMost abundant organic compound on Earth

The most purest natural form of cellulose is cotton (90%)

Composed of glucose monomers linked together by dehydration synthesis

Most animals can not digest cellulose, and it is used as a bulking agent for feces

Exception would be termites

Used in wood & paper

Glycogen

Multi-branched polysaccharide

Used for energy

Stored in the liver and the muscles

Can be quickly used as energy if a sudden need for glucose arises

Branches arise every 10-12 glucoses

Muscles break down glycogen when you jog, run, lift weights

Liver breaks glycogen down to maintain blood-glucose levels

Lipids

Fats, waxes, sterols, phospholipids

Consist of mainly C-H bonds

Hydrophobic

Greasy or oily to the touch

Used for energy storage, structural components of cell membranes, and by signaling molecules

Fats

Fats are triglycerides

Can be solid or liquid

Consist of glycerol and three fatty acids

Dehydration synthesis

Glycerol

Backbone for all lipids

Colorless, odorless, and has a sweet taste to it

Fatty Acid

Yield large amounts of energy when metabolized

Can you spot the functional group??

CarboxylCan be saturated or unsaturated

Unsaturated Fats

Have double bonds between carbon atoms

Come from plants

More double bonds = more vulnerable to become rancid

Generally liquid at room temperature

Examples:

Olive oil, canola oil, sunflower oil, flax seed oil, vegetable oil

Saturated Fats

Do not contain double bonds

Are 'saturated' with hydrogen (maximum amount)

From animals, and are solids

Examples:

Cheese, butter, fatty meats, chocolate,

Phospholipids

Form cell membranes for cell membranes

Form 'lipid bilayers'

Usually consist of a head that is hydrophilic and a tail that is hydrophobic

Keep water soluble molecules out

Similar to triglycerides, but instead of 3 fatty acids they have 2 fatty acids and a phosphate functional group

Examples:

Very abundant in egg yolks, soy beans, and liver

Waxes

Consist of an alcohol and a fatty acid

Various uses such as coating on leaves and stems, coating on fruits, used to make honeycombs (beeswax), and used to coat animals (lanolin wax from wool)

Plants secrete wax to control evaporation and hydration

Very hydrophobic

Carnauba wax

Obtained from the Carnauba palm in Brazil

Used to coat sweets shoe polishes, coat the under hull of speed boats, and used in many cosmetics such as lipstick, eyeliner, mascara, eye shadow, & deodorant

Often combined with other waxes

Sterols

Contains a characteristic arrangement of FOUR carbon-hydrogen rings

Notice the rings, 3 six sided rings and 1 5 sided ring

Functional groups attach onto the rings, giving the molecule it's properties

Examples

Cholesterol

Sex hormones, testosterone and estrogen

Anti-inflammatory drug dexamethasone

Testosterone

Found in both male & females

Male sex hormone

Responsible for creating muscle mass, bone mass, and growth of body hair, as well as reproductive tissue

Males have 7-8 times the amount females have

EstrogenFemale sex hormones

Responsible for female growth spurt

Enlarges the uterus, ovaries, preparing for pregnancy

Development of breasts

Males have estrogen, just less

CholesterolRequired to build and maintain cell membranes

Aids in the manufacture of bile (helps digest fats)

Helps metabolize fat soluble vitamins (A, D, E, & K)

To much, builds up and clogs arteries

Proteins

Do most of the work in a cell, and are required for:

Structure

Function

Regulation of body's tissue and organs

Polymers of amino acids

Made up of hundreds to thousands of amino acids

20 different types of amino acids

Seven Major Classes of Proteins

Structural- Largest proteins in terms of mass

Keratins, collagens, silk and insect fibers

Skin, fur, hair, nails, tendons, ligaments, spider silk

Contractile- These control muscle movements

Actin & myosin which are found in skeletal muscles

Storage- These store amino acids and provide nourishment

Albumin, milk, kernel in seed, glutamine

ContinuedDefensive- Defend against invasion and protect against injuries

Fibrinogen- prevents blood loss by clotting

Transport- Carry specific molecules from one organ to another

Hemoglobin- Transports oxygen throughout the body

Signal- Control biological activities

Insulin, necleoproteins

Enzymes- Catalysts- promote chemical reactions in an organism and regulate the rate at which they occur

Trypsin & pepsin- aid in food digestion and breakdown

Amino Acids

Building blocks or monomers of proteins

Human body can produce 10....the rest come from the food we eat and are called essential amino acids

More than 500 exist

Consist of three parts

Carboxyl group

Single hydrogen

Amino group

R group (side chain)

The R group or the side chain determines the amino acids properties and functions, and is what separates them from one another

Body does not store amino acids like starch and fat, so we much acquire them everyday by the food we eat

Peptide BondsCovalent bond between 2 molecules

Carboxyl group of molecule 1 reacts with amino group of molecule 2

Dehydration Synthesis....this means that..

Water is produced

Only found in proteins

These form peptides

Which are short polymers composed of amino acid monomers

Polypeptide

Many amino acids connected by peptide bonds

Protein's 3-D Structure

There are 4 distinct levels of protein structure

Primary Structure- This is the linear sequence of the amino acids

This is the basis of how we identify proteins

Secondary Structure

How the amino acids interact

Patterns of hydrogen bonds

ContinuedTertiary Structure

Protein is fully folded

Kept together by interactions between the R groups of the amino acids and hydrogen bonds

Proteins can be fully functional here, and do not move on

Examples:

Lipase and sucrase Quaternary Structure

Interaction between the different polypeptides

Some proteins have 2 or more polypeptides

They have an additional level of organization

Examples: Insulin, hemoglobin

Denaturation

This is the process of changing the proteins shape

When denaturation occurs, the protein can no longer function properly

Secondary structure and tertiary structure are changed

Changes can occur because of temperature, or pH

Examples:

Egg whites, ceviche, or meat

Nucleotides

Monomers that make up nucleic acids

Serve as chemical energy in metabolism (ATP)

Structure

Nitrogen base

5 carbon sugar

phosphate group

DNA

Sugar base is deoxyribose

RNA & ATP

Sugar is ribose

Nitrogen bases

Adenine, Guanine, Thymine, Cytosine, Uracil

Nucleic Acids

Essential for all forms of life on Earth

DNA

Deoxyribonucleic acid

Genetic information inherited from parents that controls the life of the cell and the organism

RNA

Ribonucleic acid

Carries information from the DNA to the ribosome for protein synthesis

Found in abundance in all living things....one of the 8 characteristics of life!

Responsible for encoding, transmitting, and expressing genetic information

HAPPY HALLOWEEN

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