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and attachment theory

Crittenden and Mary D. S. Ainsworth

has grown exponentially in the years since

child syndrome" (Kempe, Silverman, and

area has experienced many of the conflicts

emerging field #nderlying these problems

ive theoretical approach to child maltreatd 'ampton, 19)! Itis the purpose of this

theory in regard to its ade*uacy in account

abuse and child neglect

ntified as a social issue earlier than child

'owever, in regard to the early literature,

metimes impossible, to ma$e because cases

were included indiscriminately under the

chapter will be to disentangle the conditions

vant attachment theory is to understanding

e focused on identifying the characteristics

re not usually found to be mentally ill, they

gressive, punitive, domineering, and incon

.s more cases of less severe child abuse

the incidence of clear parental deviance

cultural and child influence increased The

h abuse included unemployment, /ob dis

s, and social isolation oflowincome, mul

ly, there has been a focus on those charac

art by grant 2.33 from the &ational 4enter one first author


2/32

ent theory 433

make them targets for abuse. Premature,

ally difficult children have all been identi:

en and Wrench, 1!!" #ational $enter on

" Parke and $oil mer, 1!'.

ns of abuse and increases in both the dataes being tested lead to t*o general conclu:

*ere related to abuse (lo* income, stress,

neighborhoods, unemployment, infant birth

conditions, limited parental education, and

ysical punishment and (- that abusers *ere

nonabusers.

(1!3 to integrate all of this information

abuse occurred *hen a deviant parent of anlly stressful situation (*ithin a society that

has this hypothesis never been tested under

assess the several factors, but also very little

e probability that these factors are causally

elative influence of the correlates of abuse

. 0urthermore, the research has not ade:

bers of families *ith one or more risk con:

children. 2he emphasis has largely been onepossible and seeking linear, additive e/pla:

ct is considerably more scant (Wolock and

ere is evidence that failing to provide ade:

sed to providing inappropriate care is asso:

maternal depression, social isolation, and

, $halmers, 5utten*ieser, and Williams,

lansky, 1!6. o*ever, it is not clear that2here is certainly evidence that not all lo*:

re neglectful, as *ell as evidence that some

higher 78 mothers are unresponsive to their

contribution that a theoretical perspective

se conditions together logically in *ays that

pattern of occurrence of neglect.

have pursued a more sophisticated approach

e models described above. 5oth ;arbarinoproposed comprehensive ecological models

h models replace naive simplicity *ith infi:

tion of the necessary, sufficient, and contrib:

even one case may be impossible" for large

nrealistic. What is needed is a *ay to narro*

that can both e/plain the pattern of occur:


3/32

ENDEN AND M. D. S. AINSWORTH

altreatment and describe the rocess b!

from one erson to another #Aber and

& '()',. Such a model should also be suf0

ations for interention.

/critical causes/ of maltreatment 0 that"ould lead to imroements in the other

to imroed famil! functionin%. 1ecause

t caused maltreatment mi%ht not be the

correct it& such causes mi%ht iml! one

atment and another for the amelioration

at an2ious #or insecure, attachment is a

the ori%in of famil! maltreatment and there man! adanta%es of such a h!othesis.

uch of the e2istin% 4no"led%e about mal0

h not simle& concet "hile concurrentl!

use from ne%lect. Second& because attach0

eor!& it is resonsie to differences in the

hment at different oints in the lifesan.

imossible to deelo aroriate dia%0

"ithout an a"areness of deelomentall!

!& '()'* Sroufe and Rutter& '()5,. Third&

atible "ith a famil! ersectie on mal0

ible "ith an aroach focused entirel! on

theor! also ermits the inte%ration of

onditions and eents "ith interersonal

es uon the deeloment of attachment.

ersecties in the conte2t of a focus on

e considered to ar! across both families

als6 ast e2eriences& current conte2tual

sses as "ell as random #or une2ectable,

el into an oerl! simlistic eer!thin%0is0

althou%h issues re%ardin% maltreatment

! e2erimental means& attachment theor!

ic h!otheses that can be tested "ith mal0

e2tent to "hich attachment0related con0

e comared to that of other theoretical

or! is comatible "ith ecolo%ical theor!

and redicted hierarch! of influences.

some of the basic concets of attachment

secificall! to maltreatment& considerin%

r those roositions.


4/32

ment theory 435

vely new, open-ended theory with eclectic

evision of psychoanalytic theory, particularly

etapsychology, it has been infused by pres-ith an emphasis on ethology and evolutionary

-systems theory and cognitive psychology.

mpt to understand the disturbed functioning

nced traumatic losses or early separations, it

ent that offers eplanations for some types

by, #$%$, #$&3, #$'(). *ince "owlby+s prelim-

$5'), it has stimulated research into socio-

e growth of interpersonal relationships anddings of such research with continuous clari-

ensions of applications. For eample, it sug-

een anomalies of attachment in the parent

rth, #$'().

that there are species-characteristic patterns

because they function to promote species sur-

ene survival. he propensity to develop these

ically and evoed by specific and epectableconditions. Attachment theory applies this

l occurrence of infant attachment to the par-

to the infant, as well as to attachment com-

between adult partners !Ainsworth, #$'5,

construct

e survival of humans and, especially, human

proimity to an attachment figure is main-

ially accomplished through complementary

f behavior. Infant signals such as crying tend

into closer proimity. *uch infant behaviors

g situations, such as those involving loud

e persons or ob/ects, and being left alone, as

r pain. 0nce close bodily contact is attained,

tend to be terminated and other behaviors,

ocali1ing, function to maintain contact with

.

me of an infant+s attachment behavior is the

trusted person !"owlby, #$%$). *ub/ectively,


5/32


ng o security. Attachment beha!ior may

"istance a#ay rom an attachment igure$

rce%tion o e&ternal threat an" no other

Such beha!ior$ ho#e!er$ is not %eculiar

e tolerable time %erio"s an" "istancesmost ol"er chil"ren an" a"ults eel lonely

their lo!e" ones either ine&%licably or or

%ort o an attachment igure "uring %eri0

s "e!elo% through three %hases in the

attachment usually being achie!e" about

he emergence o beha!iors such as loco0

ta'e initiati!e in 'ee%ing %ro&imity an"research has been "e!ote" to this thir"

s #ay to a ourth an" much more so%his0

ater a chil"/s thir" birth"ay$ #ith the

, terme" a 2goal0correcte" %artnershi%3

a"!ance is ma"e %ossible both by the

ication bet#een the %artners through the

an" by his or her increase" ability to see

o another. As

the chil" becomes morer has moti!ations$ eelings$ an" %lans o

better able to communicate moti!ations$

%artners$ become able to negotiate "ier0

al agreement about them )Mar!in$ +,--4

Mean#hile the chil"/s com%etence has

e able to sustain coni"ence in the attach0

ong %erio"s o absence rom them. The

/s sense o security no longer "e%en"s so

e attachment igure as u%on the mutual

een built u% in the %artnershi%. Ho#e!er$

l be han"ica%%e" either in %ers%ecti!e0

icate moti!ation$ eelings$ an" %lans to

ies or %ers%ecti!e ta'ing an" or clearer

un"e!elo%e" or$ i "e!elo%e"$ be li'ely to

"ing an" trust. Ne!ertheless$ normally$

ase" on mutual un"erstan"ing an" trust

n regar" to the other/s %erce%tion o "an0

!er time$ "istance$ or other rele!ant con0

curity.

n be maintaine" #ithout actual %hysical

erio"s o time. During absences$ "istal

s letters an" %hone calls$ can tem%orarily


6/32

ment theory 437

Furthermore, adolescents become active in

outside the family, and more consciously

lity for being an attachment figure to new

affectionate relationships are wanted and

nt, of course, is expected not only to manage

his or her partner, but concurrently to be a

nt figure in the nonsymmetric relationship

to Bowlby, attachment first to the parents

is basic to the security of all.

tem

one of the important speciescharacteristic

d survival. The individual's overt behavior

depends upon the relative strength of acti

s, with the most intensely activated having

systems may often act in synchrony as, for

to the avoidance of the ob"ect feared and to

ent figure other systems are usually anti

tensely activated the other is at least tempo

ral systems that chiefly compete with the

oratory and affiliative systems. As long as the

he more highly activated and his behavior is

proximity to an attachment figure, he or she

onment. $f an infant feels secure in his rela

ever, he can use her as a secure base from

ed with his world and the other people in itetical arrangement itself has survival value,

cognitive, language, and social development

is physical and social environment. Because

ustaining reasonable proximity to a caregiv

t gained under ris#y conditions.

adults normally re%uire much less proximity

n do infants, much the same principle per

oo, en"oy being with those to whom they areey feel free to respond to other demands on

follow up other interests and activities. ow

gested, the attachment system functions pri

ce system. Throughout life, attachment

ivated under stressful conditions that evo#e

opment of #nowledge about the world, com


7/32


red "# feeln$ sec%re a"!%t t&e a'ala"lt#

d. T&%s, t&e nat%re !f t&e c!ndt!ns t&at

fed "# eac& pers!n*s !)n e+perence, par

&s !r &er past and present relat!ns&ps

ruct

s!n !f an attac&(ent s t&e de$ree t!

s !f sec%rt# !r nsec%rt#. H!)e'er, -%al

p!rtant. T&ese ndcate t&e 'ar!%s )a#s

!r &er "e&a'!r, t&!%$&ts, and feeln$s

fanc#, t&ree (a/!r patterns, t!$et&er )t&$%s&ed and are especall# &$&l$&ted n

0Stran$e St%at!n0 1Ans)!rt&, 2le&ar,

a/!r patterns are ndcat'e !f 136 sec%re

, 176 an+!%sa'!dant attac&(ent, )t&

a("'alent !r an+!%sresstant attac&

T&e dsc%ss!n "el!) )ll f!c%s !n t&e

!r and nfant pattern !f attac&(ent, t&e

t# !r %nresp!ns'eness, and ad/%st(entst! acc!%nt f!r t&e "e&a'!r !f dst%r"ed

ldren.

attern of attachment. Infant patterns !f sel# related t! t&e "e&a'!r !f t&e attac&

t&e c&ef e'dence !f t&s s! far pertans

. S%c& e'dence ste(s fr!( t&e )!r9 !f

s%"se-%entl# !t&er st%des &a'e #elded#, R!'ne, and Ta#l!r, 84: E$eland and

ann, Span$ler, S%ess, and =ner, 8>6.

st'e n &er resp!ns'eness t! nfant s$

ect n nteract!n )t& &er and cres rela

separat!ns fr!( &er. W&en &s attac&

# act'ated 1f!r e+a(ple, "# separat!n

rc%(stances6, &e tends t! "e easl# reas

presence, and s s!!n read# a$an t! p%rs /%d$ed t! "e sec%rel# attac&ed t! &s

er tends t! "e naccess"le, %nresp!ns'e,

&s "e&a'!ral c%es s l9el# t! e(er$e as

ent t! &er. 2eca%se &s "ds f!r pr!+(t#

trated, attac&(ent "e&a'!r perssts and


8/32

ment theory 439

e mingled with anger. Consequently, when

behaves ambivalently and is hard to soothe.

e accessible, he is vigilant for any indications

isplays more distress at little everyday sepa+

h behavior is characteristic of the anxiousnt.

voidant pattern of attachment have experi+

who are also inaccessible, unresponsive, or

their behavioral cues. "hese infants behave at

bivalent babies do. #hen the stress is rela+

Strange Situation, they behave quite differ+

on separation and upon reunion they display

r than see$ing proximity to her. %thers dis+and proximity see$ing upon reunion. "his

as a defensive maneuver, similar to the

hildren after long, depriving separations from

savoidant babies differ from the mothers of

&insworth's sample in that the latter are

esponsiveness and accessibility, whereas the

d angry, whether overtly or covertly. )ecauseaversion to close bodily contact, it appeared

ely to be expressed by rebuffing or withhold+

the baby most needed it-for example, when

activated at high intensity. "his implies that

approachavoidance conflict whenever he

other, for he not only feels angry because he

e, but he also fears he may be painfully

se seems to enable him to disconnect hissituational cues that usually activate it.Con+

his mother's departure nor her return as cues

her. *e avoids both the contact+see$ing and

o$e rebuff. ecently, -rossmann et al. /9012

number of their sample of orth -erman

idant pattern, which they attributed to cul+

ependence as early as the middle of the first

attitudes of re(ection2. "his suggests that inclose bodily contact + with or without re(ect+

r the anxiousavoidant pattern.

nsensitivity or unresponsiveness. "here are a

result in maternal insensitivity. !f a mother

no one, it is expected that it will be difficult


9/32


such !" tht he cn #eco$e securel"

deed' if she hs hd histor" of n-ious

sed lielihood tht her o!n ttch$ent

her infnts. &ecuse e/en nor$l infnt

to her' the n1r"' esclted ttch$ent

ent to her hs lred" #eco$e n-ious

el" or /oid respondin1 or #eco$e n1r"

f n-ious ttch$ent $" #e co$$uni2

ro$ its prent. E/idence tht $others

childhood e-periences !ith her o!n pr2

ltionship !ith her infnt hs #een de$2

he results of n Adult Attch$ent Inter2

r1e' 5pln' nd Min' ()67, !ith thef the children in infnc" s !ell s their

of 1e %Min' 5pln' nd Cssid"' ()67,.

cceptin1 of their reltionships !ith their

rel" ttched infnts nd children. This

nts nd children necessril" hd $others

re si$ilrl" secure. Rther' it su11ests tht

nd ccepted the relit" of their o!n dif2

e/en for1i/in1 their $others' !ere #estti/e effects of their pre/ious insecure rel2

hildren !ith sensiti/e nd responsi/e

s their $ens for doin1 so $" h/e

cure reltionship !ith surro1te ttch2

lin1 or ps"chotherp".

ill" liel" to result in e-tre$es of unre2

sponsi/eness on the prt of n dult in

include unresol/ed tru$tic seprtionsent fi1ures. In t!o s$ples' prents !ho

tch$ent fi1ure in childhood !ere prtic2

ched infnts !hose #eh/ior did not fit

e$ %Ains!orth nd Eich#er1' in press9

7,. Periods of depression or other se/ere

for the prent' recent deth of si1nificnt

of #use' includin1 se-ul #use' $"

close contct. Such situtions cn resultrentl ptterns of cre1i/in1 or in persis2

e t!o conditions re e-pected to #e so$e2

system. Althou1h ll 78 of the infnts in

op the clssifictor" s"ste$ could #e cls2

tterns' it !s #elie/ed fro$ the #e1innin1


10/32

ment theory 441

nts would not fit this classificatory scheme.

ors have identified infants whose behavior

ny of three patterns described by Ainsworth

in and #eston, 1981! $ad%e'arrow, Cum

n, 198! +pie%er and ooth, in press-. woclassificatory system have been ta%en. 0ne

describe the behavior of a number of appar

behavior in the +trange +ituation could

using the Ainsworth criteria ("ain and

oach was the result of studies of samples of

infants and infants of severely depressed

ain and #eston as unclassified were lateriented ("ain and +olomon, in press-. It

stituted a fourth pattern. Indeed it seemed

ed disorgani*ation of one of the three ma3or

+uch disorgani*ations did tend to imply even

the basic patterns of which they were

, a disorgani*ed pattern of infant attachment

tency of maternal behavior rather than pertency is not the daytoday mi/ture of sen

hat is associated with mothers of infants with

. $ather, it appeared to occur when the

t for a sufficiently e/tended period of time

pectations about her behavior. his consis

sudden inter3ection of uite different behav

ions are especially frightening to the child if

ior is itself threatening or if the mother hernd 5esse, in press-.

6s behavior is thought to be consistently and

both a basis for developing e/pectations and

unsatisfying conditions. his situation has

o e/panding the classificatory system. he

on of many children of such mothers does

devised by Ainsworth. Although the behav

present, they are organi*ed differently thanthe development ofthe classificatory system.

insensitive mothers may show in one obser

ypes of behavior described by Ainsworth7 the

indicative of secure or an/ious2ambivalent

indicative of avoidant attachment, and the

mbivalent attachment (Crittenden, 198 a,

198.- In addition, many of the children


11/32

CRITTENDEN AND M. D. S. AINSWORTH

aviors described by Ainsworth or one o the

e Crittenden and Rad#e,%arrow research &ro!ps

in& this pattern as avoidant(a)biva'ent *A(C+.

are partic!'ar'y re'evant here beca!se they per,

. In two separate sa)p'es- )a'treated chi'drenor ab!se,and,ne&'ect were re/!ent'y c'assiied

t and open'y resistant or avoidant and over,

ctive'y. "oth &ro!ps o chi'dren were very dis,

ported by the presence- in )any cases- o c'ini,

o stress *i.e.- stereotypic behaviors s!ch as

he 'oor- wettin&+. 1!rther)ore- these patterns

inants- b!t a'so in preschoo',a&ed )a'treated

an&e Sit!ation wo!'d ordinari'y be epected to

cate&ory o inant Stran&e Sit!ation behavior

t'y tho!&ht o as a disor&ani2ed or) o one o

tenden views the avoidant(a)biva'ent c'assii,

arate pattern , that is- another or&ani2ation o

Ainsworth as re'evant to the assess)ent osec!,

avior o )a'treated chi'dren in the Crittenden

ibed as or&ani2ed aro!nd reso'vin& the con'ict

or proi)ity to the )other and his epectationshis behavior. That is- the )a'treated chi'd needs

h his )other o''owin& separation as )!ch as

t- his eperiences o previo!s )a'treat)ent

the brie separation o the Stran&e Sit!ation-

ct )ore i)perative. However- the )a'treated

pect that his bids or contact wi'' be i&nored-

hed. The abi'ity o s!ch chi'dren to )aintain

ress o separation to&ether with their abi'ity toncontet!a' a&&ression directed away ro) the

sta' and circ!)spect )eans o achievin& pro,

y contro''ed- or or&ani2ed- pattern o behavior.

the disor&ani2ed cate&ory and the avoidant(

other and to the ori&ina' Ainsworth patterns in

here is so)e evidence that the disor&ani2ation

o inants had been reso'ved by the a&e o 4 years

i)i'ar'y both Rad#e,%arrow3s and Crittenden3sa&ed chi'dren who showed the *or&ani2ed+ A(C

at yo!n& chi'dren or&ani2e their behavior )ost

ior is predictab'e re&ard'ess o how sensitive or

'der chi'dren who have had to cope with )a5or

nte&rate that inor)ation into their set o epec,


12/32

ttachment theory 443

anized pattern of responding. The nature of that

research.

ay occur at any age. Some of the indications of

er children and adults resemble the indications of

ancy: undue preoccupation with the whereaboutsd undue difficulty in separating from him or her,

ent figure, chronic anger and resentment toward

or use support from the attachment figure when

absence of feeling toward him or her. !ther indi#

to be observed in infancy are: compulsive com#

e attachment figure, compulsive caregiving, or an

iance and emphasis on independence from any

figure. The conditions leading to such anxiety

ing separation from an attachment figure or per#

ponsiveness of an attachment figure, or inappro#

ese conditions can have impact at any time

$owever, they are more influential when they

because previous experiences influence the way

ived and interpreted.

tional construct

infant%s repeated experiences with his mother

ions regarding the nature of future interactions.

the basis for the infant%s development of internal

f his mother and of himself &'owlby, ()*)+. fhis

tly responsive and sensitive to his signals, he

odel of her as responsive and accessible and of

eliciting her response and worthy of it. Such an

ly attached to his mother &Ainsworth et al., ()-+.however, is of a mother who either does not

or who does not respond appropriately, whether

interfering+ or inconsistent. The representational

hese infants of the mother figure reflects the par#

ior his experience with her has led him to expect.

st her to give the ind of response he wants or

s an image of himself as ineffective in obtaining

worthy of it.

fant forms a representational model of his father

igure&s+ who constitute a prominent part of his

that at first the models of such figures, as well as

of self, are independent of each other. Although

in the course of development it happens, these


13/32

. CRITTENDEN AND M. D. S. AINSWORTH

chment figues !ecome moe o less loosel" inte7

odel of attachment figues. As the child continues

ents and esta!lishes ne% elationships %ith oth7

e'peiences into his models of attachment figue

'tent altes his model accodingl". Thus& at an"n )open model) moe o less open to ne% input

!ased on additional e'peience& o ,pehaps not

ood- ethining of pe(ious e'peience. Ne(e7

e cuent model that the indi(idual tends to pe7

d to see out some pesons and situations and

child %hose e'peiences %ith attachment figues

hole& the tas of integating e'peiences into a

models is elati(el" simple. Occasional e'pei7

fustation& o an'iet" do not loom lage enough

all" positi(e natue of the models. Ho%e(e& fo

%hose e'peiences ha(e led to an'ious attach7

tion is moe difficult. 0o%l!" ,1234& 1256- sug7

of e(en one attachment figue ae liel" to !e

ho is inconsistent& sometimes offeing close com7

it& "et often failing to do so& ma" lead a child to

one of a esponsi(e mothe and anothe that isilal" t%o models of self& one of a peson %ho is

and anothe of a peson %ho is incompetent and

of models ma" altenate %ith one !eing uppe7

times the othe.

liel" to !e complicated !" anothe consideation

(e!al communication impo(es& and the child

competent. No longe ae the models !ased solel"

es of e'peience& !ut integation and geneali$a7ceptual pocesses& so that the conceptual fomu7

actual episodes of e'peience that ga(e ise to it.

tual fomulation ma" !e much influenced !"

po(ided !" the paent. Thus& a child %ho is

ad& and is !eing depi(ed o punished entiel" fo

%ho has onl" his !est inteests at heat& is liel"

he as a %ondeful peson and of himself as gen7

It is this set of models that ae liel" to !e most

%heeas his othe model of his mothe as hash&

to his needs and his model of himself as a lo(e7

esentful of unfai teatment tend to be discon7

ious pocessing& e(en though !ased on epeated

ce.

si(e pocesses ae paticulal" liel" to intefee


14/32

tachment theory 445

models that are accurately based on experience

nt, open to new input and consequent adjust0

as an infant was anxious and avoidant in his

and who defends himself from demanding close0

, tends to close himself off from new experiences,r with others, that might invalidate his expecta0

is feeling of distrust of closeness.

red in the light of attachment theory

synopsis of attachment theory provides several

ich hypotheses can be drawn that may explain

children and maltreating parents. "irst, attach0

portant for individual functioning at all ages,

e of attachments changes as a consequence of

primary function of attachments is to promote

of the young, which is precisely what is at risk

Third, whereas humans are genetically predis0

tterns of behavior, an individual$s actual behav0

s determined by an interplay of environmental%

ious experience with similar situations. The pre0

ed as internal representational models of theuding the emotional flavor associated with expe0

"ourth, actual patterns of attachment behavior

ren$s developmental courses &rather than arrest0

matic stage'. "ifth, the effect of the internal rep0

nderlie anxious attachments is to change behav0

current attachments more stressful and future

e secure. "inally, attachment problems are not

ne person$s psychopathology. (ather, they areccessful a relationship is in providing sufficient

ls are freed to attend to other aspects of their

s possible to predict and understand many seem0

adoxical aspects of abuse and neglect. *n the fol0

r of hypotheses drawn from attachment theory

ith the research relevant to them. The intent is

of the theoretical perspective offered, but rather

asis for considering it seriously. The hypotheses

of individual and dyadic functioning &-' anx0

l conflict, &/' child strategies for coping with par0

coping with the environment, &5' niche0picking,

en the theory and the predicted outcomes is the


15/32


model of relationships. To the etent that the

maltreatin$ families pro"ides a !asis for inferrin$

dels% those models &an ser"e as the !asis for pre(

relationships. Indeed% information on the nat#re

in maltreatin$ and ade)#ate families has !een

f the #nderl*in$ representational models and to

the &hild+s atta&hment to his or her mother and

,ith net,or- mem!ers and professionals Crit(

These models ,ill !e #sed in the present diss(

der set of h*potheses.

in$ mothers are epe&ted to ha"e ,or-in$ mod(

t% &ontrol% and re5e&tion. Their epe&tations of

ro#nd the idea that others ,ill attempt to domi(

ds of the other and re5e&t them ,hen the* press

et. Their model of themsel"es ,ill !e tied to the

,ill not ,illin$l* $i"e #p% needed ps*&holo$i&al

e)#entl*% &oer&ion and "i&timiation ,ill !e &en(

ons of themsel"es. The a&&ompan*in$ affe&t ,ill

epe&ted to ha"e models &enterin$ aro#nd the

he* ,ill not per&ei"e others as ha"in$% or !ein$

* need. Neither ,ill the* see themsel"es as effe&(nd s#pport of others. The affe&t a&&ompan*in$

one of emptiness and depression.

ontrast% ,ill ha"e models &entered aro#nd ideas

&it*. The* ,ill per&ei"e others as helpf#l and

i"e themsel"es as &apa!le of o!tainin$ help and

and also of pro"idin$ s#pport to others. The

e one of satisfa&tion Crittenden% /012!3.

ral h*potheses% !ased on atta&hment theor* andor-in$ models% re$ardin$ the !eha"ior of mal(

atin$ parents.

families ,ill !e epe&ted to form anio#s atta&h(

. 7or maltreated &hildren% this ,o#ld mean an(

nts3. 7or maltreatin$ ad#lts% this ,o#ld in&l#de

e ad#lts+ parents% to their partners% and to their

anio#s atta&hments ,o#ld !e distorted internal

f the self and others3. The )#alit* of pre"io#s

infl#en&e% !#t not ,holl* determine% the nat#re


16/32

attachment theory 447

ence that relationships in abusing families are anx3

tigations using the Strange Situation procedure

to assess the $ualit% of the child&s relationship to

ren, ranging in age from Ito 4 %ears, have been

tached to their mothers ('rittenden, !"a, !"b)!") +aensbauer and armon, !"-) Schneider3

on, and 'icchetti, !"# and to show the anxious0

cular. 1onlaborator% derived evidence of anxious

ing mothers and their children comes from a stud%

n&s response to protective da%care ('rittenden,

fer $ualit% of attachment from observations of par3

s previousl% noted, maternal insensitivit% (i.e.,ponsiveness# in interaction with the child has been

xiet% in the Strange Situation (Ainsworth et aI.,

d Ta%lor, !"4) 'rittenden, !"a) Sroufe, !"#.

ence that abusing mothers are more harsh, interfer3

ative when interacting with their children (/urgess

den, !", !") 'rittenden and /onvillian, !"4)

feld, !"2) ash, 8ohnson, and 9ovit:, !"2) ob3

7!) 6asserman, +reen, and hianon, !"2#. Such

ervations of children across the full range of child3

inference that maltreated children of all ages will

ched to their parents.

e nature of adult attachments to parents, partners,

primaril% from famil% histor% data regarding the

such relationships. /ased on the inferred nature of

of relationships, it would be expected that mother3

uld be non3egalitarian (i.e., composed of a domi3

artner# and that there would be conflict over thesenerall% consistent with this h%pothesis in terms of

en marriages, and, especiall%, wife abuse (/aldwin

ohl and errenohl, !") 8ohnson and orse,

of ental ealth, !77) =err%, 6ells, and 5oran,

, !"#. oreover, following a separation, man%

another abusive partner or remain single, whereas

more liel% to remain with the children&s father or

rson, Schellenbach, and 'onger, !") >riedman,rom, !7!) 9otelchuc, !"-#. This suggests an

he abusing parents to incorporate new information

s increasing the lielihood of the repetition of pre3

:ation of the concept of maternal bonding to the


17/32


numerous suggestons that ma!treatng mothers

ther %h!#ren &He!'er, ()*+ Hur#, ()*- "n%h

gh there s no 'orma! assessment o' the $resen%e

seems reasonab!e to assume that a mother 0ho

n'ant su''%ent!" to mantan !'e has 'orme# a$ossb!e that the nature o' that bon# s #''erent

than 'or a#e2uate mothers. One stu#" that has

orte# that mothers 0ho !ater abuse# or neg!e%te#

ther atttu#es to0ar# the $regnan%", n ther

me#ate!" 'o!!o0ng #e!ver", an# n ther behav>

# &5ra", Cut!er, Dean, an# 6em$e, ()**/. Ho0>

!ess sub7e%tve measures 'oun# no ev#en%e o'

ng mothers &Ege!an# an# aughn, ()8(/. Stu#es

''e%tveness o' nterventons to m$rove bon#ng

ts su%h that t s un%!ear 0hether or not e3ten#e#

9or home vstaton are he!$'u! &5ra" et a, ()**

Saun#ers, an# Ingram, ()8;/.

an3ous atta%hment o' an abusng $arent to her

0th the e3$e%taton o' an an3ous re!atonsh$

. Abusng $arents have re$orte# beng abuse# b"

)*; S!ver, :arton, an# Dub!n, ()+*/ or beng

oo# &6ote!%hu%1, ()8mo#a! %!ass'%atons #''ere# 'rom that

te# %h!#ren 0ho 0ere not avo#ant ten#e# to be

ra%ton 0th ther mothers, neg!e%te# %h!#renthan ether #''%u!t or %om$u!sve!" %om$!ant

%e that neg!e%tng a#u!ts 'n# t #''%u!t to !eave

hment re!atonsh$s 0th rron'am!a! $artners

then the neg!e%tng mother=s o0n mother serves

e %h!#ren, thus enab!ng the mother to avo# the


18/32

tachment theory 449

ch individuals take on reciprocal, care"giving

that anxious attachments will be associated with

the individual that, in extreme cases such as

to behavior that would otherwise be considered

is, of course, the situation of the abused infant.

forming an attachment to his primary caregiver

ches him that this attachment figure may be ahere is evidence that anxiously attached children

gry with the parent and also seek excessive close"

children would be expected to defend and pro"

ndangers them. #ndeed, many investigations of

by the child$s unwillingness to implicate the per"

the child$s protection from parental reprisal has

bused children, especially girls, have been found

s though the parent"child roles were reversed

, *9++ -orris and ould, *9/0 Steele and 1ol"

is not dissimilar to 3owlby$s concept of compul"

way of maintaining closeness to an attachment

ing pervasive anger with the person being cared

uld be expected to show similar incompatible

n although the child is particularly sought as the

er possesses and who will love her back. #n fact,

other$s intrusiveness may be interpreted by thegger her own re!ection of him. The child$s use of

e mother and often promiscuous seeking of affil"

have similar effects the mother did not want to

but neither did she want a demonstration of her

without her or to obtain support from someone

esire to establish more satisfying and secure rela"

scents and maltreating adults would be expected

iduals who will tend to contribute to the main"tionships. -any would unwittingly carry into

wariness or suspicion of other people and exces"

from the few who were known well. hen cur"

unsatisfying, there could easily be a precipitous

ully, more rewarding attachment. owever, the

and5or previous partners would remain stressful


19/32


!" de#andin$ness% distust% and h!stilit& !uld

. *uthe% thee is a eas!na(le li+elih!!d that

pe)eive (!th the sp!use and an& )hilden as

n)e athe than as e)ipients !" nutuan)e.

e)t% the paad!, is that individuals h! despe-

supp!t !" !thes ael& see+ it ! see# )!#-

ve it. nde the stess !"a (ie" sepaati!n "!#

en esp!nd t! the need "! thei #!thes ith

!a#in$ a!und the !!# /Cittenden% 125a3

126. Ne$le)tin$ adults esp!nd t! the !pp!-

ithdaal and7! a denial !" "eelin$s !" l!ne-

n% 122a3 P!lans+&% audin% A##!ns% and

lteat#ent ill (e ass!)iated ith di""eent !$a-

elevant t! the )hilden's intea)ti!n ith the

ani8ati!ns )an (e e,pe)ted t! )han$e as a "un)-

e)t the )!#petin$ desies !" #alteated )hilden.

$es in the die)ti!n !" devel!p#ent athe than

l p!)esses at an in"antile sta$e.

ith thei #!thes% a(used in"ants have (een

than !the in"ants3 h!eve% the eviden)e su$-

ehavi! is tied t! the i##ediate intepes!nal

!" innate in"ant te#pea#ent /Cittenden% 12%

!thes' esp!nse t! su)h (ehavi! is !"ten t!

"ant% thus in)easin$ his distess. Su)h a #!the in he atte#pts t! satis"& he (a(&. I"she )ann!t

nd app!piatel& t! he )hild's (ehavi!al )ues

n t! please he% !ne !uld e,pe)t the )!n"li)t t!

"uthe endan$ein$ the in"ant.

that% t!ad the end !" the "ist &ea !"'li"e% #an&

t! a))!##!date thei #!thes% "ist% (& inhi(-

nd% late% (& leanin$ t! t!leate thei #!thes'

int and even t! )!#pl& ith he desies /Cit-and Di9alla% 1226. :& s! d!in$ the& )han$e the

!# #utual an$e t! supe"i)ial )!!peati!n and

dea(le eviden)e that #an& !lde a(used )hil-

l% vi$ilant% and )!#pliant /een% aines% and

Oppenhei#e% and 9indsa&% 1;56.


20/32

tachment theory 451

children make the transition from resistant to

larly if there is no way for the child to predict

e parent (as in abuse$and$neglect, see below, it

for him or her to inhibit some behaviors and

please the mother. "hus, by the second year ofatterns for coping with the distress ofliving with

to have developed# a negative, resistant one and

one.

ct their children would be e!pected to foster dif$

ponse. %ike abused children, neglected children

achment figure when they are an!ious or under

sed children, they have learned that their moth$signals. "hey learn that they are ineffective at

and obtaining maternal cooperation in meeting

, most children would be e!pected to intensify

uced results, they would probably maintain a

and demanding behavior. n the other hand, if

ded to the intensified attachment behavior, they

become depressed and withdrawn or to ignore

heir pursuit of other satisfactions. 'n addition,g children and the active, disorgani)ed children

raw forth a response from their environment,

o their mothers. 'f their generally unresponsive

and angered by their intensified demands, the

ce the interpersonal conditions associated with

.

t

these styles of interpersonal behavior will be

of the children+s e!ploration of their environ$

postulate that the attachment and e!ploration

on best when balanced with each other. "hus,

nger, the attachment system is activated, result$

other and child. -hen child and mother feel

l free to e!plore the environment safely. ecause

ither protected ade/uately by pro!imity to theelief that she will be available, their ability to

y would be e!pected to be impaired.

ho were avoidant of their mothers could be

d successfully only when there were (lno indi$


21/32


on!ent and "2# no indicators of !aterna$ stress

tions the' co&$d e()ect to *e safe. When there

or !aterna$ signa$s of danger, the' +o&$d face

t. The st&dies &sing the Strange Sit&ation indi

ons so!e a*&sed chi$dren are a*$e to !aintain, +hereas others are *oth s&fficient$' an(io&s to

!other and a$so s&fficient$' angr' to *e &na*$e

$', dis)$a'ing *oth aoidance and a!*ia$ence

The aoidant chi$dren +o&$d th&s *e e()ected

e()$orator' *ehaior, +hereas the !ore dis

ght *e )reocc&)ied +ith !anaging their safet'

'. St&dies *' Crittenden "/015a#, Dietrich et a$.

! "/0# s&))ort these e()ectations in ter!s of#8 a*&sed chi$dren, as a gro&), hae $o+er D7s

$dren. When the D7 of the a*&sed chi$dren is

their tendenc' to &se the co!)&$sie-co!)$iant

*eco!es c$ear that there are i!)ortant +ithin

t a*&sed chi$dren tend to hae higher than nor

chi$dren +ho are )assie-+ithdra+n or diffic&$t

"Crittenden and Di9a$$a, /011#.

dra+n chi$dren +o&$d *e e()ected to find it dif

fro! their !others to ena*$e the! to e()$ore

esta*$ish re$ationshi)s +ith other )eo)$e8 the'

&na*$e to e()$oit the $earning )otentia$ of their

dent&ro&s neg$ected chi$dren +o&$d hae the

rience, *&t at ris to their safet' and +itho&t the

fa!i$' !e!*ers in attach!ent re$ationshi)s

t other as)ects of their socia$ eco$og', s&ch as

, and, for the chi$dren, schoo$ e()eriences. The

tterns of *ehaior +o&$d genera$i;e to inc$&de

inc$&de the )erce)tion and inter)retation of

!ode$s of rea$it' and the tendenc' to re)eat

or in ne+ sit&ations.

ed chi$dren are co!)$iant +ith ad&$ts, there is

an' are aggressie, *oth in and o&t of schoo$ or

a$ston, /0/8


22/32

ent theory 453

ers. Such vigilance resulting from internal

e could easily lead the abused child to mis

and to respond with aggression himself. Of

his aggression will only confirm his model.

abused adolescent males and promiscuousther change in coping strategy !Silver et al.,

more mature, although eually inappro

ssociated with violence at home and reflect,

tence and control that comes from ta(ing

, the attempt to find security and acceptance

reating and adeuate mothers have been

he mothers) relationships with their infantsothers appear to have the social s(ills to

ver, those relationships are neither stable

b&. 'nstead, abusing mothers perceive their

endable and they in tum are perceived by

e. /ost abusing mothers) relationships are

nd in violent uarrels and enduring bitter

arents find it relatively easy to obtain 1obs,m any length of time. The most common

e disputes with the employer or cowor(ers.

e relation between fathers) 1ob satisfaction

ildren. lthough this finding has been inter

tatus leads to violence, it is eually possible

o manage personal relationships so as either

d personal satisfaction in the 1obs they have

perative relationships with their children.

en neglected tend either to be withdrawn

organied, active, and aggressive.

hips reflect distortions similar to those of

They have very few friendships outside of

ve tend to be seen infreuently and (nown

- audin and olans(y, "#+$- olans(y,

behavior would be predicted to be adaptive

nse of promoting their immediate survival

ongterm !ultimate& sense of personal men

rvival. The maladaptation would be based


23/32


at defensive ode!s ip!" per#eptua! e$#!usion

on of the eanin% of soe iportant per#eived

of t&o patterns shou!d 'e #onsidered( #opu!sivetan#e. The #opu!sive!" #op!iant #hi!d in inter)

nt inhi'its responses that the parent dis!i*es and

parent prefers. This strate%" has the advanta%e of

a! vio!en#e. It is a!so !i*e!" to tea#h the #hi!d to

rpersona! 'ehavior of others+ this s*i!! a" prove

ations. In addition, the #op!iant strate%" a"

d-or nurturan#e of the parent ifthe parent desires

. Ho&ever, these out#oes are the resu!t of the

in &a"s that do not ref!e#t his fee!in%s. The an%er

ons that !ed to inhi'ition a" 'e#oe asso#iated

o a diinution of satisfa#tion in a#hieveent and

% &ith an%er and #oer#ion. Thus, a #opu!sive

% &ith a'use a" #oe to #onsist of /I0 e$#essive

attendant ris* of s"steati# isinterpretation of

10 superfi#ia! #op!ian#e in situations in &hi#h

po&erfu! /&ith the ris* of never testin% the is)

rdin% the possi'!e hosti!it" of others0, and /20s* of possi'!" e$#!udin% soe eotions fro per)

pattern is often !a'e!ed anipu!ative and a"

ponse of 'oth soe a'used #hi!dren and an"

nsistent &ith the deve!opent of representa)

as po&erfu! and hosti!e, the se!f as !ova'!e

an eotiona! overtone of an$iet" and repressed

eain overt!" an%r" and resistant fa#e different!" to e$perien#e #ontinued parenta! an%er and

" their o&n fee!in%s. Thus, their ode! of others

their ode! of these!ves #ou!d in#!ude 3ustifi)

'ehavior. Therefore, overt!" an%r" a'used #hi!)

e$#!ude inforation defensive!" or to s"steati)

ver, the #osts of su#h a deve!openta! path&a"

ed a'use and the possi'i!it" that an%er &i!! per)

!s 'ehavior, thus !eadin% to the a##urate per#ep)and, in the e$tree, to de!inuen#". The 'a!an#e

as opposed to defensive0 ode!s that #an be #on)

idua! finds a ore responsive su'stitute atta#h)

at the individua!s an%er &i!! #oe to doinate

.

tiona!e are s#ar#e, 'ut &hat !itt!e there are, are


24/32

achment theory 455

e been abused but do not themselves abuse their

more open about their anger over their mistreat

ir decision not to follow their parents' model

". #oreover, these parents report having sup

$ther nonabusing but formerl% abused parentstant supportive relationship during childhood.

ve not onl% the immediate advantage ofhe1ping

lt eperiences, but also the longterm advantage

models to include more positive images of the

sociated feeling of satisfaction. &uch changes

the individual will be able to form other sup

future.

dence that members of abusing families do per

e differentl% from other people. Although there

hildren are constitutionall% or temperamentall%

(+rittenden, 15a- geland and &roufe, 11-

/", there is considerable evidence that their

be so (Herren)ohl and Herren)ohl, 11".

have been thought to have higher epectations

ute intentions to them inappropriatel%, the evi

ravit0 and riscoll, 12- 3osenberg and 3ep

n abusing mothers have been shown videotaped

ppear to respond more negativel% and feel more

rodi and amb, 16". *his suggests that the

epectations or attributions or with insufficient

elopment- instead, the problem seems to be tied

d emotional responses.

of abused children, there is some evidence that

ceptive of the social behavior of adults (+um

ad)e9arrow, 11" and less perceptive of theiravior (+amras, :row, and 3ibord%, 12". ur

such sensitivit% is tied to ;


25/32


dren, the to !ri"#r$ !#ttern% to &e con%idered

e!re%%ion* #nd +ndi%ci!lined #cti(it$. Mo%t

!#rent% too +nre%!on%i(e or the" to de(elo! #

er, #% the$ de(elo! "o&ilit$, the$ the"%el(e%

n#t+re o their en(iron"ent. In !#rtic+l#r, the$i"+l#tion ro" #ll #%!ect% o their en(iron"ent.

d#!ti(e #nd d#ngero+%. It!ro(ide% the o!!ort+

orld #% ell #% contingencie% in it/ hoe(er,

o+t or the el#re o the $o+ng neglected child,

l h#r". In #ddition, the child0% %e#rch or %ti"

rg#ni1ed, relecting hi% l#c- o e'!erience ith

t thin-ing #&o+t h$!er#cti(e children %+gge%t%

er%ti"+l#ted, the$ #re +nder%ti"+l#ted to the

% #ttention )2+#$, 35*. S+ch # r#tion#le o+ld

ct+red &eh#(ior o %o"e neglected children.

#re #&le to oer little to their child &e$ond the

t#in lie. The$ neither re%!ond to their child0%

their child0% #cce%% to # %ti"+l#ting en(iron"ent.

neither le#rn %tr#tegie% or eng#ging their !#rent

oring the en(iron"ent. Their !#%%i(it$ i% # or"

e%+lt% ro" # l#c- o ##rene%% o the !otenti#l

S+ch children c#nnot &e de%cri&ed #% co!ing ith

g (icti"i1ed &$ it.

lect. The e(idence !re%ented %+gge%t% th#t the

#ltre#t"ent dier% #ccording to t$!e o "#ltre#t

!re%ent#tion i% di%torted in to #$%. Fir%t, it

re#t"ent i% o %i"il#r %e(erit$ or th#t %e(erit$ i%

cond, it #%%+"e% th#t the condition% o #&+%e #nd

%i(e. O co+r%e, neither #%%+"!tion relect% ther#tion#le #% !re%ented ith the%e di%tortion% or

to highlight the dierenti#l n#t+re o the to

the contr#r$, it i% nece%%#r$ to gr#!!le #t le#%t

%it+#tion%. D#t# on to gro+!% o children #re

#(e &een onl$ "#rgin#ll$ "#ltre#ted #nd tho%e

#nd neglected.

"#rgin#ll$ "#ltre#ted gener#ll$ %ho # !#ttern

hich i%, #% e'!ected, le%% e'tre"e th#n in "#l "ild de(elo!"ent#l del#$, gener#l coo!er#

r#ction ith their !#rent%, #nd "ildl$ #n'io+%

3, 35#, 3#, &*. Si"il#rl$, their "other%

#nce in childre#ring !r#ctice%. The !ri"#r$ di

en #!!e#r% not to &e the "#ltre#t"ent it%el &+t

Where#% their "other% #re in %o"e #$% #nd #t


26/32

ent theory 457

ive, at others they are harsh and/or unre-

children both to determine what causes the

ior and also to develop internal models of

that are consistent and useful in predicting

, generalized anxiety and sometimes undis-children to social and academic problems.

n, in contrast, experience general unrespon-

of harshness. ften both their exploration

for attention lead to parental punitiveness.

unresponsiveness that the abused and the

an ma#e regarding their parents' behavior

ir parents and themselves. Although the sit-

d and unpleasant, children who experiencecan often learn to cope with the predictable

not true for the abused-and-neglected child.

istortions and, further, finds that his own

be expected that the coping strategies used

flagrant acting out with extreme disregard

d withdrawal, severe psychosomatic illness,

ns of deflecting the anger of the threatening

of these !%rittenden, &((a, b, c".

mpt to apply the principles of attachment

nt. In the process, a number of points have

has pervasive psychological effects* the

e+ually well to cases with or without physi-

utcomes of maltreatment are developmentalferent aspects of personal functioning at dif-

affect the direction of future development

problematic and immature stage. Third,

different ages, there is developmental coher-

nd izley, &(&, p. ". )ourth, the devel-

outcome of individual differences as well as

y, the experience of abuse is +uite different

ith regard both to parental behavior and togies.

ot intended to focus on dyadic, attachment-

t to the exclusion of organismic or societal

d to provide a means of !&" identifying a

the impact of many associated conditions

maltreatment affects so many areas of indi-

d !" identifying those individuals and fam-


27/32


le to other sour"es o# i#lue"e a$ to su%%est

The a$vata%e o# "osi$eri% a&ious atta"h

is that it im(lies a (ro"ess throu%h whi"h its

as o((ose$ to merel* i$eti#*i% the "orrelates

e (arsimoious without !ei% trivial.theoreti"al a((roa"h is a trasa"tioal e"olo%i

eviromet asso"iate$ with maltreatmet a$

as well as o (aretal "hara"teristi"s. As i$i

il$ varia!les $o ot) i well "otrolle$ stu$ies)

$ o maltreati% #amilies. O the other ha$

ilit* to eli"it materal res(osiveess) es(e"iall*

usatis#*i% materal !ehavior. Su"h situatios

rs(e"tive o# atta"hmet theor*) as re#le"ti% theather tha as !ei% a (aret or a "hil$ "hara"ter

or* is ot ui$ire"tioal i its a((roa"h to "au

i$ivi$uals- e&(erie"es with atta"hmet #i%ures

hreatei% as well as what (atters o# "o(i% are

#lue"e) there is "osi$era!le evi$e"e that the

omi" status are also the "orrelates o# maltreat

some so"ietal "o$itios have !ee asso"iate$

altreatmet #or e&am(le) i"reases i uem

te$ with i"reases i a!use /0usti"e a$ Du"a)

1234. The ature o# the asso"iatio is ot "lear.

th a uem(lo*e$ #ather a!use their "hil$re) it

h* some #amilies) a$ ot others) are vulera!le

t o# their "hil$re. It is (ro(ose$ here that $is

i(s i the #amil* leave #amil* mem!ers vuler

situatios su"h as uem(lo*met. The (oit is

are irrelevat to the i"i$e"e o# maltreatmet.the 7ualit* o# relatioshi(s is o a "otiuum)

te&t ma* $etermie the (oit alo% the se"ure

i"h ris+ #or maltreatmet !e"omes immiet.

t o# $eleterious so"ial "o$itios ol* allows oe

"e o# maltreatmet. owi% the ature o# #am

a$ the i$ivi$uals- asso"iate$ re(resetatioal

to s(e"i#* more (re"isel* whi"h #amilies a$9or

t vulera!le to e&teral stressors.e$ to su((ort this a$ the other h*(otheses

% or o# (oor 7ualit* as a result o# (oorl* mea

servatios) et". This is es(e"iall* true i ol$er

ets. I a$$itio) ver* little o# the evi$e"e was

e&t o# testi% atta"hmet theor*. This is u#or

o# itsel#) $imiish the (otetial o# atta"hmet


28/32

ent theory 459

testable hypotheses regarding the nature,

ment. Itis now necessary that investigators

k, 198, and !tarr, 198, to test other thee:arro, M. (191!. oung 5$%drens res4onsesa++e'$on )& o'5ers $n '5e +a#$%&. Child Development, 86, 167:

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