Caste 1

Caste

Caste is a system of social stratification, where anindividual's identity is a consequence of birth andancestry, their worth intrinsic and unequal.[1] A

pure caste system is a closed system, whichallows for little change in social position. This isbecause birth alone determines a person's entirefuture, allowing little or no social mobility basedon individual effort.[2] It is found in many partsof the world. Here is a picture representing the

casta, a caste system prevalent in Latin Americaduring the Spanish colonial period.

Caste is an ancient socio-cultural phenomena that has evolved throughcenturies and has existed in many parts of the world.[3] It is generallydescribed as any group of people that combine some or all elements ofendogamy, hereditary transmission of occupation], and status in ahierarchy,[1][4][5][6] whose frequently identified and frequentlycontested ethnographic examples are those of the Hindu caste systemof India.[7] Haviland defines caste as a closed form of socialstratification in which membership is determined by birth and remainsfixed for life; castes are also endogamous and offsprings areautomatically members of their parent's caste.[8]

Caste 2

Bhimrao Ramji Ambedkar, a pioneering Indianleader against caste-based social discrimination,was born in an untouchable Indian caste. In hisview, caste can not be defined by any idea ofreligious pollution, or social prohibition on

mutual interaction, or an assumption ofendogamy. The early 20th century India in

Ambedkar's experience was a strictly exogamoussociety because marriage within blood-relations

and class-relations was culturally forbidden.Caste, according to Ambedkar, should be defined

as any social group that develops to imposeendogamy, in a population that is otherwise

exogamous.[9] Exclusiveness and othersociological elements are the result, not the cause

of formation or for existence of Castes.Ambedkar argued that caste system will not end

by violence and political movements such ascommunism; rather, he suggested that caste

system will end when individuals change fromwithin, when all individuals are free to choose,

are equal under law and have the liberty to createand accumulate material and spiritual wealth.[10]

Some literature suggests that the term caste should not be confusedwith race or social class, e.g. members of different castes in one societymay belong to the same race or class, as in India, Japan, Korea,Nigeria, Yemen or Europe.[1][11][12] Usually, but not always, membersof the same caste are of the same social rank, have similar group ofoccupations and typically have mores which distinguish it from othergroups.[13] Other literature, inspired independently by Kingsley Davisand by Robert Merton, suggest that caste systems come in two forms:racial caste systems and non-racial caste systems.[6][14]

The use of a caste system is not unique to any religion. Castes havebeen observed in societies that are, for example, predominantlyMuslim, Christian, Hindu or Buddhist.[1][15][16][17][18]

The word caste can also generally refer to any rigid system of culturalor social distinctions.[13] In Latin American sociological studies, theword caste often includes multiple factors such as race, breed andeconomic status, in part because of numerous mixed births, during thecolonial times, between natives, Europeans, and people brought in asslaves or indentured laborers.[16] Although Indian society is oftenassociated with the word "caste", it has been and is common in manynon-Indian societies.[1][18][19][20][21][22][23]

Identification and sometimes discrimination based on caste, orcasteism, as perceived by UNICEF, affects 250 million peopleworldwide.[24]

Terminology

The word caste is from Latin castus[25] "pure, cut off, segregated", andis etymologically related to carere "to cut off".[26][27]

Portuguese used the term casta to describe inherited class status within the Portuguese society. The use of same wordcastas, and a method of stratifying people based on "breed, race, caste" was common in colonial Spain, throughoutSouth America and Central America, within the last 500 years.[16]

The term caste was applied to Indian society in the 17th century, via Portuguese casta "breed, race, caste".[27] TheDutch too used the word caste in their 19th century ethnography studies of Bali and other parts of southeast Asia.[28]

The terms caste, half-caste and derivatives thereof, were widely used in British colonies, such as Australia, during19th and 20th centuries.[29]

The phrase caste system was first recorded in 1840.[27]

Caste 3

South Asia

India

Caste paintings of Indian Society

Cover page Muslim man Hindu chief

Seri brahmin Fencer Sikh chief

Tribal chief Hindu writer Arab soldier

A manuscript titled Seventy-two Specimens of Castes in India, published in February 1837. Sponsored and compiled for Christianmissionaries, the 72 images claim to be castes of India as witnessed over 25 years. The images include people from various

professions, several of Arab, Muslim and Sikh couples. The manuscript does not list any observed inter-relationship or hierarchybetween the illustrated professions and religious persuasions.[30]

The caste system in India is a system of social stratification,[1][16] social restriction and a basis for affirmativeaction.[31][32] Historically, the caste system in India consisted of four well known categories (the Varnas):[33]

• Brahman (priests)• Kshatriyas (warriors)• Vaishyas (traders)• Shudras (workmen)Some people were left out from these four caste classifications, and were called panchama (literally, the fifth).Regarded as outcastes or untouchables, these were shunned and ostracized. The varnas themselves have been furthersubdivided into thousands of jatis.[34]

Ancient Indian text on laws, such as Manusmṛti suggest a caste system was part of Indian society. These laws inancient India discriminated between castes. For example, the laws of Manusmṛti declare sexual relationshipsbetween men and women of different castes as illegal.[35] Scholars suggest[36][37] that such historicalanti-miscegenation laws, from ancient India to modern United States, that declared intermarriage and sex betweencaste, class or races as illegal, contributed to endogamy and perpetuation of the caste system.Other Indian scriptures suggest ancient Indian law was not rigid about endogamy within varnas, its castes. Forexample, Nāradasmṛti, another text on ancient Indian law, written after Manusmṛti, and dated to be 1400 or moreyears old, approves of many, but not all marriages across caste lines. According to Richard Lariviere, twelve statutesof Nāradasmṛti set out categories of approved marriages between castes.[38] Several statutes recognized offsprings ofmixed castes, much like casta system of colonial Spain.Ancient Indian texts also suggest that the India's social stratification system was controversial, a topic of profoundhistorical debates within Indian community, and inspired efforts for reform.[39]

Caste 4

Contemporary scholars thus argue that the social system was made rigid and the four-fold Varna caste madeubiquitous by the British colonial regime,[31][40] much like the caste or casta systems literature for southeast Asia,Latin America, Africa and the Middle East.[16][41] Before the British use of Varna categories for enumerating andranking the Jatis in the decennial census, the relative ranking of the Jatis and castes was fluid and differed from oneplace to another, based on their political and economic power.[42] Dirks proposes that caste is neither an unchangedsurvival of ancient India nor a system that reflects India's core cultural value. Rather than a basic expression ofIndian tradition, caste is a modern phenomenon, the product of commentaries of 18th and 19th century Christianmissionaries driven to bring religion to uncivilized masses, and the enumerative obsessions of the late-19th centurycensus. Dirks concludes one effect of British rule of India was to make caste into a single term capable of namingand above all subsuming India's social identity in the world.[34]

Upon independence from the British rule, the Indian Constitution listed 1,108 castes across the country as ScheduledCastes in 1950, for affirmative action.[43] The Scheduled Castes are sometimes called as Dalit in contemporaryliterature.[44] In 2001, the proportion of Dalit population was 16.2 percent of India's total population.[45]

NepalThe Nepalese caste system resembles that of the Indian Jāti system with numerous Jāti divisions with a Varna systemsuperimposed for a rough equivalence. But since the culture and the society is different some of the things aredifferent. Inscriptions attest the beginnings of a caste system during the Lichchhavi period. Jayasthiti Malla(1382–95) categorized Newars into 64 castes (Gellner 2001). A similar exercise was made during the reign ofMahindra Malla (1506–75). The Hindu social code was later set up in Gorkha by Ram Shah (1603–36).

Sri LankaThe Caste system in Sri Lanka is a division of society into strata,[46] influenced by the classic Aryan Varnas of NorthIndia and the Dravida Jāti system found in South India. Ancient Sri Lankan texts such as the Pujavaliya,Sadharmaratnavaliya and Yogaratnakaraya and inscriptional evidence show that the above hierarchy prevailedthroughout the feudal period. The repetition of the same caste hierarchy even as recently as the 18th century, in theBritish / Kandyan period Kadayimpoth - Boundary books as well, indicates the continuation of the tradition right upto the end of Sri Lanka's monarchy.

PakistanReligious, historical and socio-cultural factors have helped define the bounds of endogamy for Muslims in someparts of Pakistan. There is a preference for endogamous marriages based on the clan-oriented nature of the society,which values and actively seeks similarities in social group identity based on several factors, including religious,sectarian, ethnic, and tribal/clan affiliation. Religious affiliation is itself multi-layered and includes religiousconsiderations other than being Muslim, such as sectarian identity (e.g. Shia or Sunni, etc.) and religious orientationwithin the sect (Isnashari, Ismaili, Ahmedi, etc.). Both ethnic affiliation (e.g. Sindhi, Baloch, Punjabi, etc.) andmembership of specific biraderis or zaat/quoms are additional integral components of social identity.[47] Within thebounds of endogamy defined by the above parameters, close consanguineous unions are preferred due to acongruence of key features of group- and individual-level background factors as well as affinities. McKim Marriottclaims a social stratification that is hierarchical, closed, endogamous and hereditary is widely prevalent, particularlyin western parts of Pakistan. Federick Barth in his review of this system of social stratification in Pakistan suggeststhat these are castes.[48][49][50]

Caste 5

Southeast Asia

A Sudra caste man from Bali. Photofrom 1870, courtesy of

Tropenmuseum, Netherlands

Myanmar

Carens, also known as Ka-REN or Ka-reng, are people from Burma-Thailandborder region. They were claimed by Christian missionaries and Britishcolonialists as people who were treated by ethnic majority as low-caste people ordirty-feeders.[51]

Bali

Balinese caste structure has been described in early 20th century Europeanliterature to be based on three categories – triwangsa (thrice born) or the nobility,dwijati (twice born) in contrast to ekajati (once born) the low folks. Four statuseswere identified in these sociological studies, spelled a bit differently than thecaste categories for India:[28]

•• Brahmanas - clergy•• Satrias - knighthood•• Wesias - commerce•• Sudras - servitudeThe Brahmana caste was further subdivided by these Dutch ethnographers into two: Siwa and Buda. The Siwa castewas subdivided into five – Kemenuh, Keniten, Mas, Manuba and Petapan. This classification was to accommodatethe observed marriage between higher caste Brahmana men with lower caste women. The other castes were similarlyfurther sub-classified by these 19th-century and early-20th-century ethnographers based on numerous criteriaranging from profession, endogamy or exogamy or polygamy, and a host of other factors in a manner similar tocastas in Spanish colonies such as Mexico, and caste system studies in British colonies such as India.[28]

East Asia

ChinaChinese society has traditionally been divided into four social classes: scholar-officials, farmers, artisans, andmerchants. Classes within Chinese society were not closed, and imperial China had not been aristocratic since thethird century BCE because of "the meritocratic line in Confucian thinking would eventually find realization underthe empire in the remarkable Chinese civil service examination."[52] According to Anders Hansson, by the Ming andQing dynasties, "upward mobility into the elite was theoretically possible for virtually all male commoners."[53] Thecommoners were called liangmin (良 民), meaning good people. The inferior people were called jianmin (賤 民),meaning cheap, lowly and mean people. The lowest caste, jianmin, included slaves as well people who were borninto families of certain occupations. These occupations considered inferior, shunned and defiling, included nupu (奴仆), changyou (倡 優) and lizu (yamen runners). Within each caste, there were further hierarchies and status levels.The lowest caste, for example, included higher status actors and lower status actors. Domestic servants andagricultural slaves were considered less defiling than actors. The upper castes had special privileges and a separatelegal code. For the same behavior or crime, a person of upper caste was treated differently by law than a person oflower caste. Offsprings inherited their caste status from their fathers (jiefi chengfen or chitsen).[53][54]

The commoner sub-castes in China were four, and were called the simin (四 民). These included the gentlemen (local nobility), farmers, merchants and artisans (士, 農, 工, 商). The simin castes were considered the pure descent people. The so-called lowly, mean people were not part of the simin castes, and they were considered as filthy, dishonored and defiled by birth. Marriage between simin castes (commoners) and so-called lowly, mean castes were

Caste 6

stringently prohibited. Marriages within commoners were also limited to those within sub-castes.[53][55]

Beyond these castes, China had its pariah caste, who were the untouchables and who passed on this status to theirdescendants automatically. The untouchables were considered impure by birth, and had to live in isolation awayfrom rest of the community. Within this outcastes, there were hierarchies, such as dan boat people, bandang people,beggar households, and hereditary servant people. Their state was fixed for life; they were frequently despisedwherever they went, and there was no legal way for them to escape from their inferior status. The outcastes marriedwithin their caste and status level, and taught their offsprings their occupations. Some of the outcast occupationsinvolved human and animal waste, dead carcasses, leather work, human corpse rituals, postpartum blood rituals, andsuch work; for this, the Chinese outcasts were considered a polluted and irreversibly impure segment of the society.The untouchables were different and below the so-called lowly, mean people castes. The treatment of untouchableswas fluid and less harsh in some parts of China, and very rigid in others. All of these Chinese castes belonged to thesame race, same religion and same culture prevalent in their community. In the Chinese system of law, the outcasteswere unequal, had limited or no rights, and in social matters judged accordingly. The social status of outcastesmirrored their legal status, both reflected their sense of social identity. The outcasts were shunned and ostracized bythe upper castes, and the sub-castes excluded, shunned and mutually repulsed the other.[53][56]

Traditional Yi society in Yunnan was class based. People were split into the Black Yi (nobles, 5% of the population),White Yi (commoners), Ajia (33% of the Yi population) and the Xiaxi (10%). Ajia and Xiaxi were slaves. TheWhite Yi were not slaves but had no freedom of movement. While Qing dynasty abolished appointment ofhereditary headmen, slavery and the treatment of poor peasants as serfs continued through 1949.[57]

Watson finds that rigid caste strata system continued after China's communist revolution, and was actively exploitedin rural regions by party officials for control, at least through 1960s.[58][59]

Tibet

Ragyapas - The untouchables of the Buddhistsociety in Tibet. Their hereditary occupation

included disposal of corpses and leather work.Above an image of Ragyapas from early 20th

century.

The Buddhist Tibet, like China and Japan, had a caste system. Thiscaste system, until 1958, had several unusual aspects, such aspolyandry. All Tibetan castes were hereditary and transmitted byparallel descent. All castes were also endogamous and exclusionary.Mobility between the castes was non-existent[60][61][62]

Aristocratic estates of Tibet were called sger gzhis (སྒེར་གཞིས) and thearistocratic lords called sgar pa (སྒེར་པ or སྐུ་དྲག་) were, like inIndia and Europe, the upper caste of the Tibetan society.[63] Monasticestates were called chos-gzhis (ཆོས་གཞིས), linked to Buddhistmonasteries, and were similar to priests or clergy castes of othersocieties. Government estates were called gzhung-gzhis (གཞུང་གཞིས)and similar to the officials in Chinese caste system.

Miser (མི་སེར)[64] were the serf caste. Serfs, the majority of the people, who did the actual work such as farmingwere required in Tibetan society to have a tenure document known as khral-rten (ཁྲལ་རྟེན). The tenure documentallowed the serf a right to an occupation, in exchange for a tax assessment and Taxpayer status. The tax was payableto one of three upper castes of the society - the officials, the monastery or the lord. The tax was a combination oflabor, produce and cash. The tax obligations were annual, inherited by the family unit, and fixed for life. If onemember ran away or married

Caste 7

An aristocratic caste family in Lhasa, Tibet in1936.

into another household or died, the rest of family continued to beresponsible for the tax obligation of the family unit.[61]

Tibet's miser caste had sub-castes, such as nang gzan (ནང་གཟན),[65]

khral pa (ཁྲལ་པ) and dud chung (དུད་ཆུང༌). Spyi mi (སྤྱི་མི) werethe collective common serf caste, who provided services to the villagegovernment or administrative council. Khral rogs (ཁྲལ་རོགས) werevillage soldier or serf providing military service.

Most serfs did not have freedom of movement. They were serfs of a specific upper caste household. Some serfs hadfreedom of movement. These serf sub-castes had mi bogs (མི་བོགས), or human lease if translated literally. A serfwith mi bogs status had freedom of movement, but always had two obligations. First, the “human lease” required theserf to pay his lord a payment of an annual sum in cash (a tax) specified in the “human lease”. Second, the serf had toprovide corvée services that were stipulated by the lord. The amount was not fixed, but varied with the lord, as wellas the age, sex and productivity of the serf.Taxpayer status amongst serf caste was of higher prestige, offered political power, potential wealth and authority.Yet, numerous Taxpayer status males voluntarily moved downward into lower status. One reason was that higherstatus families were traditionally expected to be polyandrous to maintain wealth of the family (one woman wouldmarry and mate with many brothers in the same family; this led to sexual competition within the family, severetension, jealousy and conflicts). Many men, usually the younger brothers in a family would stress out, accept lowerstatus serfdom in form of human lease, but one with the possibility of a stable love life, than the emotional trauma ofhigh status and polyandry.[60]

According to social mores and the prevailing law, marriages, entrance into religious life and migration from one’splace of birth to another land required official permission from upper strata (the lord and the councilcommissioner).[61] When permission for marriage was granted by the upper strata of the society, the permissionprocess required a human exchange (mi-brjes, མིང་བརྗེས). The process was required by the lord or thecouncil-commissioner to ensure that their tax-paying source of income was not lost.Tibet also had the pariah caste, who were shunned by the villages and ostracized. These included hereditary beggars,fishermen, musicians, smiths, butchers and undertakers. They did not have to pay taxes to any of the upper castes. Inthe pariah castes, Tibet had untouchables known as Ra-gyap-pa, just like Eta-Hinin of Japan, Para-gyoon of Burma,and Baekjeong of Korea. Ra-gyap-pa lived in ghettos, and their occupation was to remove corpses (human oranimal), dispose of sewage, and deal with convicts.[62][66]

Caste 8

Japan

Japanese samurai of importance and servant.

In Japan's history, social strata based on inherited position rather thanpersonal merits, was rigid and highly formalized. At the top were theEmperor and Court nobles (kuge), together with the Shogun and daimyo.Below them the population was divided into four classes in a systemknown as mibunsei (身 分 制). These were: samurai, peasants,craftsmen and merchants. Only the samurai class was allowed to beararms. A samurai had a right to kill any peasants and other craftsmen andmerchants whom he felt were disrespectful. Craftsmen producedproducts, being the third, and the last merchants were thought to be as themeanest class because they did not produce any products. The casteswere further sub-divided; for example, the peasant caste were labelled asfuriuri, tanagari, mizunomi-byakusho amongst others. The castes andsub-classes, as in Europe, were from the same race, religion and culture.

Howell, in his review of Japanese society notes that if a Western powerhad colonized Japan in the 19th century, they would have discovered andimposed a rigid four-caste hierarchy in Japan.[67]

DeVos and Wagatsuma observe that a systematic and extensive castesystem was part of the Japanese society. They also discuss how allegedcaste impurity and alleged racial inferiority, concepts often quickly assumed to be slightly different, are superficialterms, two faces of identical inner psychological processes, which expressed themselves in Japan and other countriesof the world.[68]

Endogamy was common because marriage across caste lines was socially unacceptable.[68][69]

Japan, like China and Korea, had its own untouchable caste, shunned and ostracized, historically referred to by theinsulting term Eta, now called Burakumin. While modern law has officially abolished the class hierarchy, there arereports of discrimination against the Buraku or Burakumin underclasses.[70] The Burakumin are regarded as"ostracised."[71] The burakumin are one of the main minority groups in Japan, along with the Ainu of Hokkaidō andthose of residents of Korean and Chinese descent.

Caste 9

Korea

Korea had its own version ofcaste system through the 19th

century. Yangban, above, werethe aristocratic caste. Below them

were petty officials, the middlepeople called Chungin. Inferiorand below them were the freedcommoners who were peasants

and merchants called Pyeongminor Sangmin. At the bottom were

so-called vulgar commoners,called Cheonmin caste. Finally,

were the pariah castes, theuntouchable Baekjeong.

Hereditary, hierarchical andclosed, marriages across caste

lines was strongly opposed.[72]

The Baekjeong were an "untouchable" minority group of Korea. The termbaekjeong literally means "a butcher", but later changed into "common citizens" tochange the class system so that the system would be without untouchables. In theearly part of the Goryeo period (918-1392), these minority groups were largelysettled in fixed communities. However, the Mongol invasion left Korea in disarrayand anomie, and these groups became nomadic. Other subgroups of the baekjeongare the chaein and the hwachae. During the Joseon dynasty, they were specificprofessions like basket weaving and performing executions.

With the unification of the three kingdoms in the 7th century and the foundation ofthe Goryeo dynasty in the Middle Ages, Koreans systemised its own native classsystem. At the top were the two official classes, the Yangban that literally means"two classes." It was composed of scholars (Munban) and warriors (Muban). Withinthe Yangban class, the Scholars (Munban) enjoyed a significant social advantageover the warrior (Muban) class, until the Muban Rebellion in 1170. Muban ruledKorea under successive Warrior Leaders until the Mongol Conquest in 1253. In1392, with the foundation of Joseon dynasty, the full ascendancy of munban overmuban was final.

Beneath the Yangban class were the Jung-in (중인-中 人: literally "middlepeople"). They were the technicians. This class was small and specialized in fieldssuch as medicine, accounting, etc. Beneath the Jung-in were the Sangmin (상민-常民: literally 'commoner'). These were mostly the peasants. Beneath the Sangminwere the Chunmin. They were specialised in lowly professions such as executing,butchering etc. These people composed the majority of Korean society until the17th century. Underneath them all were the Baekjeong. The meaning today is thatof butcher. They originate from the Khitan invasion of Korea in the 11th century.The defeated Khitan invaders who had surrendered were settled in isolatedcommunities throughout Goryeo to forestall rebellion. They were valued for theirskills in hunting, herding, butchering, and making of leather, common skill sets among nomads. Over time theirethnic origin was forgotten, and they formed the bottom layer of Korean society. Korea had a very large slavepopulation, nobi, ranging from a third to half of the entire population for most of the millennium between the Sillaperiod and the Joseon Dynasty. Slavery was legally abolished in Korea in 1894 but remained extant in reality until1930.[73][74][75]

The opening of Korea to foreign Christian missionary activity in the late 19th century saw some improvement in thestatus of the baekjeong; However, everyone was not equal under the Christian congregation, and protests eruptedwhen missionaries attempted to integrate them into worship services, with non-baekjeong finding such an attemptinsensitive to traditional notions of hierarchical advantage. Also around the same time, the baekjeong began to resistthe open social discrimination that existed against them.[76] They focused on social and economic injustices affectingthe baekjeong, hoping to create an egalitarian Korean society. Their efforts included attacking social discriminationby the upper class, authorities, and "commoners" and the use of degrading language against children in publicschools.[77]

With the Gabo reform of 1896, the class system of Korea was officially abolished. However, the Yangban familiescarried on traditional education and formal mannerisms into the 20th century. With the democratisation of 1990s inSouth Korea, remnant of such mannerisms and classism is now heavily frowned upon in the South Korean society,replaced by a belief in egalitarianism. However in North Korea, there is still a class system.

Caste 10

Hawaii and PolynesiaAncient Hawaii was a caste-based society, similar to Polynesia.[78][79] People were born into specific social classes;social mobility was not unknown, but it was extremely rare. Each caste had their distinct dresses, mores, hierarchicalstatus. Each caste was subdivided into 4 to 11 endogamous sub-castes. The primary castes were:[79]

• Alii, the royal suuwop class. This class consisted of the high and lesser chiefs of the realms. They governed withdivine power called mana.

• Kahuna, the priestly and professional class. Priests conducted religious ceremonies, at the heiau and elsewhere.Professionals included master carpenters and boat builders, chanters, dancers, genealogists and physicians andhealers.

• Makaāinana, kanaka-wale or noa the commoner caste. Commoners farmed, fished and exercised the simplercrafts. They laboured not only for themselves and their families, but to support the chiefs and kahuna.

• Kauwa, the outcast or slave class. They are believed to have been war captives, or anyone born in an outcast orslave family. Marriage between higher classes and the kauwa was strictly forbidden. The kauwa worked for thechiefs and were often used as human sacrifices at the luakini heiau. (They were not the only sacrifices;law-breakers of all classes or defeated political opponents were also acceptable as victims.)[80]

West Asia

Children in an Akhdam neighbourhood of Ta'izz,Yemen.

Social stratification similar to caste system elsewhere in the world, hasbeen part of West Asia and neighboring regions, both before and afteradvent of Islam. Caste system in Islam has several unusual features.For example, an organized priestly caste was absent. The clerics hadother roles and did not rank the highest in the social hierarchy.Aristocracy and other social strata were prevalent. A passage inMuhtasar kitab al-buldan illustrates the division of Islamic society intostrata: "First are the rulers, whom their deserts has placed in theforemost rank; second are the viziers, distinguished by wisdom andunderstanding; third are the wealthy upper classes, lifted by theirpossessions; fourth are the middle classes who are attached to theupper three by culture (ta'addub); the remainder are the lowest classes that are filthy refuse, a torrent of scum, noneof whom thinks of anything but food and sleep."[81][82] In Persian history, between four and six strata have beenreported, with cultivators, menials, qadis, khatibs, muhtasibs and other occupations at the bottom.

These caste strata were endogamous, exclusionary and their social status inherited. In most cases castes had no socialmobility. In some cases, mobility was possible; for example, a slave caste member could get manumission accordingto a mukatab. In some societies, social mores dictated that women could only marry a man of her own caste or acaste higher than her own. Men had no such rules.[82][83]

“Discrimination rooted in caste or similar systems of rigid social stratification has been observed in the Middle East. In Yemen, for example,the Al Akhdam is a socially condemned group treated as non-citizens and engaged in the disposal of human waste. ”

—International Labour Organization, United Nations, [84]

The castes were called by different names in different regions of West Asia. The upper castes examples includeAshraf, 'Alids, Saiyids, Quraysh, and Mir. The middle castes included Ajlaf, Shaykhs. The lowest castes includedslaves, human chattels and people of particular occupations; examples include Ghulams, Mamluks, Janissaries,Jariya, Milk al-Yamin, Ma'dhun-bi-l-tijara, Arzal, Helakhor, Bediya, Subyan, Andal. Anyone born to a female fromthe slave caste was automatically a slave no matter whether or not the parents were Muslim.[85]

Caste 11

West Asia has witnessed a numbers of pariah castes, a social status granted to them by birth. They have beenshunned and ostracized by their local communities. Example pariah castes include Huteimi, Sulaib, Jabarti, Hijris,Jabart or Gabart, Akhdam amongst others.[82] These castes are considered ritually unclean. Serjeant reports them asamongst the untouchable castes of South Arabia.[86][87]

Arabian PeninsulaMainstream Arab society can be conceived of as divided into three classes, Bedouin (nomads), farmers fellahin(villagers) and hadar (townspeople), though these are often little more than descriptive. Tribal loyalties are regardedas more important in Arabian society.

YemenIn Yemen there exists a further class, the African-descended Al-Akhdam who are kept as perennial manualworkers.[88][89] Though conditions have improved somewhat over the past few years, the Khadem are stillstereotyped by mainstream Yemenese society, considering them lowly, dirty, ill-mannered, immoral anduntouchables. A 2008 New York Times report claims that Yemen has over 1 million of these discriminated andostracized Al-Akhdam people, that is about 5 percent of Yemen population.[90]

Latin America

Depiction of casta system in Mexico, 18th century

The Spanish and Portuguese colonists of the Americas instituted asystem of racial and social stratification and segregation based ona person's heritage. The system remained in place in most areas ofSpanish America up to the time independence was achieved fromSpain. Classes were used to identify people with specific racial orethnic heritage.

Among the racial classifications used then in Spanish America are:Peninsular, Criollo, Castizo, Mestizo, Cholo, Mulato, Indio,Zambo and Negro.

Cahill suggests that the social structure engineered by colonialSpaniards, with limpieza de sangre, in South America and NewSpain, one based on race, ethnicity and economic condition was acaste system.[16] The Spanish colonial rule posited, according toCahill, that the character and quality of people varied according totheir color, race and origin of ethnic types. For governance ease,the Spaniards developed a complicated breeding calculus toclassify people into twenty-one castas, or genizaros. Both theSpanish colonial state and the Church expected higher tax andproportionate tribute payments from those of darker color andlower socio-racial categories.

Caribbean Nations

Modern day social stratification in Caribbean nations such as Jamaica and Haiti developed during the colonial era.Tekla Johnson has called these closed, hierarchical social stratification as castes. The colonial empire planters fromBritain and France, and other European powers stratified laborers. Johnson describes that the African identity was

Caste 12

influenced and caste system constructed by dividing enslaved Africans, mixed race offsprings, and indenturedservants by their occupations, and by skin color. These distinctions created divisions among workers and colorproved a singularly powerful and enduring symbol of social and economic mobility, or lack thereof. These racialclassifications for Africans and further divisions for 'mixed-race' offspring traditionally served colonial interests. Theperpetuation of caste system amongst Africans continued through the 20th century, claims Johnson; it helpedmaintain social control in the caribbean nations.[91][92]

Tekla Johnson is not alone in her findings. Franklin Knight describes the social stratification as castes as well, as doother authors. Knight notes that the caste system was not limited to Africans but was extended to the whites. At thetop were the elite Europeans who owned plantations. Next in social hierarchy were the occupational merchants,officials, doctors and clergymen. At the bottom of the white social hiearchy came the so-called "poor whites," oftengiven such pejorative names as red legs in Barbados, or walking buckras in Jamaica. The lowest hierarchical layer ofwhites included small farmers, servants, laborers, artisans, as well as the various hangers-on required by theso-called "deficiency Laws" - laws requiring plantations to retain a minimum number of whites to safeguard againstslave revolts. Slaves and indentured laborers were people outside of this structure, they were segregated from others,and were further classified into separate groups. Beyond these were colored people of mixed descent, who weretreated with suspicion.[93][94][95][96][97]

AfricaVarious sociologists have reported caste systems in Africa.[18][98][99] The specifics of the caste systems have variedin ethnically and culturally diverse Africa, however the following features are common - it has been a closed systemof social stratification, the social status is inherited, the castes are hierarchical, certain castes are shunned whileothers are merely endogamous and exclusionary.[100] In some cases, concepts of purity and impurity by birth havebeen prevalent in Africa. In other cases, such as the Nupe of Nigeria, the Beni Amer of East Africa, and the Tira ofSudan, the exclusionary principle has been driven by evolving social factors.[101]

West Africa

A Griot, who have been described asan endogamous caste of West Africawho specialize in oral story telling

and culture preservation. They havebeen also referred to as the bard

caste.

Among the Igbo of Nigeria - especially Enugu, Anambra, Imo, Abia, Ebonyi,Edo and Delta states of the country - Obinna finds Osu caste system has been andcontinues to be a major social issue. The Osu caste is determined by one's birthinto a particular family irrespective of the religion practised by the individual.Once born into Osu caste, this Nigerian person is an outcast, shunned andostracized, with limited opportunities or acceptance, regardless of his or herability or merit. Obinna discusses how this caste system-related identity andpower is deployed within government, Church and indigenous communities.[18]

The osu class systems of eastern Nigeria and southern Cameroon are derivedfrom indigenous religious beliefs and discriminate against the "Osus" people as"owned by deities" and outcasts. The Songhai economy was based on a castesystem. The most common were metalworkers, fishermen, and carpenters. Lowercaste participants consisted of mostly non-farm working immigrants, who attimes were provided special privileges and held high positions in society. At thetop were noblemen and direct descendants of the original Songhai people,followed by freemen and traders.[103]

Caste 13

A Madhiban, also known as Midganor Medigan or Boon or Gaboye,specialize in leather occupation.

They have been listed as one of threeoccupational castes discriminated in

East Africa. Austrian Red Crossreports that they, along with Tumaland Yibir people are locally knowncollectively as sab, meaning low

caste people.[102]

In a review of social stratification systems in Africa, Richter reports that the termcaste has been used by French and American scholars to many groups of WestAfrican artisans. These groups have been described as inferior, deprived of allpolitical power, have a specific occupation, are hereditary and sometimesdespised by others. Richter illustrates caste system in Cote d'lvoire, with sixsub-caste categories. Unlike other parts of the world, mobility is sometimespossible within sub-castes, but not across caste lines. Farmers and artisans havebeen, claims Richter, distinct castes. Certain sub-castes are shunned more thanothers. For example, exogamy is rare for women born into families ofwoodcarvers.[104]

Similarly, the Mandé societies in Gambia, Ghana, Guinea, Côte d'Ivoire, Liberia,Senegal and Sierra Leone have social stratification systems that divide society byethnic ties. The Mande class system regards the jonow slaves as inferior.Similarly, the Wolof in Senegal is divided into three main groups, the geer(freeborn/nobles), jaam (slaves and slave descendants) and the underclass neeno.In various parts of West Africa, Fulani societies also have class divisions. Othercastes include Griots, Forgerons, and Cordonniers.

Tamari has described endogamous castes of over fifteen West African peoples,including the Tukulor, Songhay, Dogon, Senufo, Minianka, Moors, Manding,Soninke, Wolof, Serer, Fulani, and Tuareg. Castes appeared among the Malinke people no later than 14th century,and was present among the Wolof and Soninke, as well as some Songhay and Fulani populations, no later than 16thcentury. Tamari claims that wars, such as the Sosso-Malinke war described in the Sunjata epic, led to the formationof blacksmith and bard castes among the people that ultimately became the Mali empire. As West Africa evolvedover time, sub-castes emerged that acquired secondary specializations or changed occupations. Endogamy wasprevalent within a caste or among a limited number of castes, yet castes did not form demographic isolates accordingto Tamari. Social status according to caste was inherited by off-springs automatically; but this inheritance waspaternal. That is, children of higher caste men and lower caste or slave concubines would have the caste status of thefather.[99]

Central AfricaAlbert in 1960 claimed that the societies in Central Africa were caste-like social stratification systems.[105] Similarly,in 1961, Maquet notes that the society in Rwanda and Burundi can be best described as castes.[106] The Tutsi, notedMaquet, considered themselves as superior, with the more numerous Hutu and the least numerous Twa regarded, bybirth, as respectively, second and third in the hierarchy of Rwandese society. These groups were largelyendogamous, exclusionary and with limited mobility.[107] Maquet's theories have been controversial.

East AfricaIn a review published in 1977, Todd reports that numerous scholars report a system of social stratification indifferent parts of Africa that resembles some or all aspects of caste system. Examples of such caste systems, heclaims, are to be found in Rwanda and Ethiopia in communities such as the Gurage and Konso. He then presents theDime of South-West Ethiopia, amongst whom there operates a system which Todd claims can be unequivocallylabelled as caste system. The Dime have seven castes whose size varies considerably. Each broad caste level is ahierarchical order that is based on notions of purity, non-purity and impurity. It uses the concepts of defilement tolimit contacts between caste categories and to preserve the purity of the upper castes. These caste categories havebeen exclusionary, endogamous and the social identity inherited.[108]

Caste 14

The Borana Oromo of southern Ethiopia in the Horn of Africa also have a class system, where the Watta, anacculturated Bantu group, represent the poorest class.The traditionally nomadic Somali people are divided into clans, wherein the Rahanweyn agro-pastoral clans and theoccupational clans such as the Madhiban are sometimes treated as outcasts.[109]

North Africa

Timbuktu huts - the homes of formerserf caste of Tuareg people

In Islamic North Africa, caste system has existed in recent centuries amongst theTuareg people. The castes include: nobles (imoshar), clerics (ineslemen), pastoralvassals (imghad), and artisans (inadan). The clerics occupy an inferior positionto nobles in the Tuareg hierarchy of castes.[110] All of these people of Tuaregcastes are of the same race, religion and culture.

Below the four castes were slaves (éklan or Ikelan in Tamasheq, Bouzou inHausa, Bella in Songhai). Eklan were further split into distinct sub-castes, andtheir serf status was inherited. Other Tuareg castes were also hereditary andsocial strata closed with one exception: if a slave woman married a noble orvassal, her children could belong to the respective free caste. A 2005 BBC News report claimed that 8 percent ofmodern Niger's population continues to be slave, discriminated and routinely humiliated.[111]

Sahrawi-Moorish society in Northwest Africa was traditionally (and still is, to some extent) stratified into severaltribal classes, with the Hassane warrior tribes ruling and extracting tribute - horma - from the subservient Znagatribes. Although lines were blurred by intermarriage and tribal re-affiliation, the Hassane were considereddescendants of the Arab Maqil tribe Beni Hassan, and held power over Sanhadja Berber-descended zawiya(religious) and znaga (servant) tribes. The so-called Haratin lower class, largely sedentary oasis-dwelling blackpeople, have been considered natural slaves in Sahrawi-Moorish society.[112][113]

In Algeria, "desert Berbers and Arabs usually have a rigid class system, with social ranks ranging from nobles downto an underclass of menial workers (mostly ethnic Africans)"[114]

Europe

Troisordres - A symbolic imageof three orders of caste hierarchy

in late 18th century: The ruralthird estate carrying the clergy

and the nobility.

According to Haviland, social systems identical to caste system elsewhere in theworld, are not new in Europe. Stratified societies were historically organized inEurope as closed social systems, each endogamous, into for example nobility,clergy, bourgeoisie and peasants.[8] These had distinctive privileges and unequalrights, that were neither a product of informal advantages because of wealth norrights enjoyed as another citizen of the state. These unequal and distinct privilegeswere sanctioned by law or social mores, confined to only that specific social subsetof the society, and were inherited automatically by the offspring.[115] In someEuropean countries, these closed social classes were given titles, followed moresand codes of behavior according to their closed social class, even wore distinctivedress. Royalty rarely married a commoner; and if it did, they lost certain privileges.This endogamy limitation wasn't limited to royalty; in Finland, for example, it was acrime - until modern times - to seduce and defraud into marriage by declaring afalse social class.[116] In parts of Europe, these closed social caste-like groups wereestates.[117]

Along with the three or four estates in various European countries, another outcast layer existed below the bottom layer of the hierarchical society, a layer that had no rights and was there to serve the upper layers. It was prominent

Caste 15

for centuries, and continued through middle 19th century. This layer was called serfs. In some countries such asRussia, the 1857 census found that over 35 percent of the population was serf (крепостной крестьянин). While theserfs were of the same race and religion, serfs were not free to marry whomever their heart desired. Serf mobilitywas heavily restricted, and in matters of who they can marry and how they lived, they had to follow rules put intoplace by the State and the Church, by landowners, and finally families and communities established certain socialmores that was theirs to follow because the serfs were born into it.[118]

In modern times, regions of Europe had untouchables in addition to the upper castes and serfs. These were people ofthe same race, same religion and same culture as their neighbors yet were considered morally impure by birth,repulsive and shunned, just like the Burakumin caste of Japan and Osu caste of Nigeria.[15][119][120][121]

A sense of hereditary exclusion, unequal social value, and mutual repulsion was part of the relationship between thedifferent social strata in Europe.[122][123] In late 19th century through the early 20th century, millions of the outcasts,downtrodden and socially ostracized people from Europe migrated on their own, or transferred as indenturedlaborers to the New World.[124][125]

Roma

Romani people have been variously described as the low-caste oruntouchable people of Europe. While some are dark skinned and insiston their own customs, others are of the same color and are Christians orMuslim like the communities they live in.[126] This map shows their

relative distribution in various parts of Europe.

The discrimination of Roma people, in different partsof Europe, for the last 1000 years, has been anelaborate and complex social system. In the best oftimes, the European social system enforced elementsof endogamy, closed occupation, culture, socialclass, affiliation and power - all of which define anycaste system. In the worst of times, such as duringthe World War II, just like Jewish people, they weregathered in concentration camps andexterminated.[127][128]

Alaina Lemon writes that in parts of Europe, Romapeople have been called children of India; or worse,in eastern Europe as Asian parasites. Everywhere,their Indic origins have been reduced from historicalnarrative to a source of stereotypes about India.These stereotypes and prejudices about India havebeen projected onto Roma people. Some Europeancommunities, claims Lemon, consider the Roma people to be of low caste. They have been called untouchables inEurope.[129][130]

Czech Republic

Caste system in Czech Republic and neighboring countries emerged few centuries after an equivalent system wasprevalent in Western Europe. According to Gella, kingdoms in this region of Europe were in constant threat ofinvasion. The royalty created a system of warrior nobility to preserve their kingdom.

Caste 16

Along with the rest of the world, Europe has had its ownperiods of social trauma. Twice in Europe's history, for

example, Romani people were the target of genocide.[127] Inother periods, they were expelled, or children forcibly

removed from their parents so that they can learn a superiorculture.

Above, a photo of Romani people in the Bełżec exterminationcamp awaiting instructions.

This warrior nobility were given exclusive rights to land,each with glebae adscripti (peasants tied to the land). Thiswarrior caste thus became landowners. Caste consciousness,hereditary titles, exclusive privileges and stratadiscrimination followed. As armies modernized into infantryand team effort, the warrior caste evolved into modern formof nobility caste. The political boundaries shifted with timebetween Poland, Hungary, Czech Republic and othercountries; the three social strata remained a constant: clergy,nobility and peasants.[131]

Spain

Spain has had a number of isolated and endogamous socialgroups where an individual's mores, culture and worth is setat birth. These groups had negligible mobility. Examplegroups include the Vaqueiros de Alzada of Asturias, theMaragatos of Leon, the Agotes of Navarra, and the Kale (gypsies) of the entire Iberian peninsula. These have beencalled castes, and by some as accursed races.[132][133]

France

Cagots were the shunned caste ofFrance. They were considered

polluted and untouchables by birth.They were not allowed to enter a

Church through the main entrance.Above is a segregated drinkingfountain for Cagots in Oloron

Cathedral.

Under the Ancien Régime, French society was divided into three estates ("États"in French). The first estate was the clergy, the second estate was the nobility, andthe third estate were the commoners ("Tiers État" in French). The clergy itselfwas divided into an upper and a lower strata. Even after the French Revolution, aclosed system of social stratification continued through the 19th century. Thesegroups were endogamous, marriages were arranged particularly in the aristocracyand bourgeoisie classes. Social mobility between these strata, regardless of anindividual's effort, was difficult and uncommon.[134]

Roland Mousnier is amongst those French sociologists who found that theFrench society was stratified beyond three levels. Mousnier proposed thatFrance, in modern history, had at least four major social levels and ninesub-hierarchies. He observed that the closed social system idea in Franceresembled in design the essence of a caste system. The vertically ordered societyhad social mores and inherited sense of maître-fidèle relationships between thoseconsidered to be the superior and the inferior.[135]

The history of France, along with Spain, has other sides of caste systems. Along with Romani people (also calledGypsie), France has long shunned Cagots (also called Agotes, Gahets, Gafets, Capets, Caqueux). For centuries,through the modern times, the majority regarded Cagots of western France and northern Spain as an inferior caste,the untouchables. While they had the same skin color and religion as the majority, in the Churches, they had to usesegregated doors, drink from segregated fonts, receive communion on the end of long wooden spoons. It was aclosed social system. The socially isolated Cagots were endogamous, and chances of social mobilitynon-existent.[136][137][138][139]

Caste 17

NetherlandsThe hierarchical social strata in Netherlands included prince, noblemen (some called Ridder, knight), clergy,patricians (councilmen and officials), bürghers (commoners), plebeians (vagabonds), and peasants. The nobility waseither inherited op allen (by all descendants), or by met het recht op eerstgeboorte (first born male per Salic law).The noblemen and clergy had exclusive privileges and rights, such as being tax exempt. The lowest castes, thepeasants supported the upper estates of society not only through direct taxation but also agriculture and keeping oflivestock.[140]

The Dutch created unusual caste policies in their colonies. For example, in Sri Lanka, the Dutch formallypromulgated a rule that automatically expelled any Dutch woman from the Sri Lankan Dutch community, if shemarried a man who was not Dutch. McGilvray argues that this was caste-like solicitude for endogamy, and wasaimed to prevent low status intermarriages.[141] There was no equivalent rule for expelling Dutch men. The Dutch inSri Lanka were not an exception; over time, laws forbidding intermarriages between social strata were seen in othercolonies, such as South Africa.

GermanyGermany had its hierarchical social strata like The Netherlands before the 20th century.Early modern era in Germany also witnessed the so called unehrliche Leute (dishonourable or dishonest people), anoutcaste group. They were considered dishonourable by virtue of their trades. This dishonour was either hereditaryor it arose from ritual pollution whereby honourable citizens could become dishonourable by coming into casualcontact with members of these untouchables. Therefore, the social mores required the upper caste honorable peopleto shun and ostracize the lower caste dishonourable people. Exclusion led to endogamy. The dishonourable peopleincluded the executioners, skinners, grave-diggers, latrine-cleaners, shepherds, barber-surgeons, millers, sow-gelders(spay female animals), and bailiffs. The honourable and dishonourable people were from the same race, religion andculture. Stuart has described unehrliche Leute caste in the city of Augsburg over three centuries through early 19thcentury in early modern Germany. She notes that this was a closed system, with negligible social mobility, and thisseverely affected the self identity of the so called dishonourable people.[142] Other sociologists such as Danckertclaim unehrliche Leute caste and other hereditarily excluded poor were present elsewhere in ChristianGermany.[143][144]

England

Reeve and serfs ca. 1310

In medieval Anglo-Saxon England, society was organized, accordingto Alfred the Great into three hierarchical orders: Gebedmen (men whopray), Fyrdmen (men who fight), Weorcmen (men who work).[145]

Other classifications included Ethel (nobles), Eorls (freemen) andCeorls (villeins, farmers).

Even past the medieval times, characteristics of a closed social systemsthat define any caste system, existed in England through the moderntimes. Beatrice Gottlieb notes that households in England, just like therest of Europe, experienced social stratification from ancient timesthrough the 20th century. Inheritance and a sense of social value fixed for life, two key requirements of any castesystem according to Haviland,[8] was a pervasive principle of almost everyone's life.

The principle of inheritance continues to recent times. The House of Lords of the UK parliament had, for examplethrough the 1990s, over 700 members with a hereditary right to being a lawgiver; this practice was reformed in 2004,still some 92 parliamentary seats are set aside for hereditary peers as of 2012.[146][147] Edward Freeman called suchpeerage system as a privileged hereditary caste.[148]

Caste 18

More generally, inheritance now is quite different than those in the past. Offsprings still inherit, to the extent theparents own something of material value, and leave instructions in their will or per local laws. In past, however,everything was inherited - material possessions, social status, lifelong occupation and a personal sense of value. Thisprinciple defined the closed system, and this principle was not a function of one's skin color or religion or economicclass. It applied to all of England, or Europe for that matter. At the highest levels of hierarchical society, titles andnames and special privileges were inherited. Status was enshrined in the law, regarded as hereditary, and fixed.Mobility was inconceivable. A serf, a commoner, a gentleman, a lady, a lord, a noble or a royalty was what he or shewas from birth. Even those in the Church inherited their privileges and status. From clergy jobs to farming toshepherd to smith to cobbling jobs, virtually all occupations were inherited. Peasants whose job was to deliver babieswere the offspring of the previous holder of that job. This system was so fixed, the mores so strong, the affiliationand culture so widely ingrained that while nobles were insisting that certain exclusive privileges be theirs, theirsalone and of their offsprings, shepherds in the countryside were insisting, occasionally with violent demonstrations,that their jobs be strictly hereditary. In economically impoverished times, such demands for hereditary exclusivityand related mores were stronger.[122]

Endogamy within England's closed social strata was common.[149]

The social structure and classes in England remains a controversial topic. Like the rest of the world, social mobilityin modern England - and Europe - has increased because of industrialization, economic growth, access to knowledge,and cultural transformations. Sociologists such as Mike Savage suggest there is not simple decline of social strataidentities, but rather a subtle reworking of how the strata is articulated.[150]

IrelandIreland had social strata that were hereditary, closed and hierarchical. Examples include Flaith (lords, warriors), ÁesDána (druids, fili, bards) and Áes Trebtha (farmers). These three orders were later subdivided into seven ranks orgrades.[151]

In some ways, Ireland's caste system was unique from other countries of the world. Along with the nobility andclergy caste, the Celtic population treated poets as the upper caste. Known as the bards caste, they and other uppercastes had privileges that they inherited by birth. These castes had sub-castes, each with its privileges, itsdistinctions, its peculiar dresses. The bards, according to Williams for example, were divided into so-called Fileas orFili, who accompanied the Celtic chief. Below the Fileas, were the Brehons - the second layer of bards caste. TheBrehons composed verses of law. The third sub-caste were the Senachies who preserved the genealogies in a poeticform, along with the annals of time. The Senachies were the repository and disseminators of Celtic cultural truths.The bards and other upper castes were exempt from lay courts, and they were also endogamous. The farmingpeasants and artisans were at the bottom of the social strata.[152][153]

Over the modern history of Ireland, Greer and Murray observe that it would be difficult to find a more rigid exampleof caste system than that of 19th-century rural Ireland, with its landlords and peasants. The society was closed,endogamous and with no mobility.[154]

Caste 19

Hungary

Hungarian nobles, circa 1831

Before the 19th century, closed social hierarchies were common inHungary. Each had their own mores, hereditary privileges (maioresnatu et dignitate), and endogamous practices. The Hungarian casteswere: Nobility (főnemesség), Nobles of the Church (egyházi nemesek),and commoners. Each of these had their own segregatedsub-hierarchies - for example the prelates, the magnates and thenobles-in-laws. These sub-classifications and privileges changed overthe history of Hungary. The special privileges for the Clergy and theNobles continued through Hungarian Revolution of 1848. Even pastthe 1848 Revolution, these closed social systems continued to enjoyhereditary power and privileges through late 19th century.[155]

Szelényi observes that at the start of the 20th century, Hungary along with other countries in Central Europeresembled a caste society.[156]

RussiaRussia has had a long history of caste system. The details changed with time, the core was the same: a hierarchicalsociety, with each strata closed, privileges that were hereditary,[157] and mobility was non-existent.Noble gentry had serfs to serve them. Both the nobility and the serfs had sub-layers and social ranks.[158] Palmerobserved that Russian society in early 20th century had a rigid insistence and strict observance of differences insocial rank. The serfs of a lower level, for example, would never take their meals with serfs of a higher level.The Russian priests formed a caste apart, according to Palmer. They were distinct from both the peasants and thenobles. The sons of priests were forbidden to undertake other occupations, and compelled to become priests. Priestscould marry, but only within their caste. For centuries, the priestly caste had remained an unmixed social group.There was near universal prejudice against the priests among other social strata.[158][159]

Sweden and Finland

Stories on shunned social strata from 1948

The four estates in Sweden and Finland were the clergy, nobles,burgesses and peasantry.[160] The hierarchical, exclusionary andhereditary characteristics of these were similar to estates in other partsof Europe.

Below the four estates, were the villeins. To reflect how the peoplebelonging to the upper castes saw them, the Finnish word for"obscene", säädytön, has the literal meaning "estateless".

In Sweden, one of the shunned social strata in modern times has beenthe Tattare. They were called natmandsfolk in Denmark.[161] In Norway, they were called fanter. Another word forthem was kältringar. They emptied the latrines, worked as hudavdragare (processing skin, leather), chimney sweepsand busters at night. In 1948, Sweden witnessed Tattarkravallerna Jönköping, where the prejudices for this socialstrata led to speeches on how these people were degenerate, impure, parasitic and corroded from within, triggeringviolence and cleansing.

Caste 20

PolandPalmer noted the caste system prevalent amongst Polish people in the 20th century, in his essay onAustro-Hungarian life in comparison to life in continental Europe. He noted:

"The Polish aristocracy is, in fact, a caste entirely apart from the people. This, it is true, is also the case amongthe aristocracies of nearly all Continental countries, but in hardly any other nationality is the gulf so wide asalmost to exclude the possibility of mutual feelings of respect. The Austro-German nobles, though no less acaste, are, as a rule, decidedly proud of the Germanic peasantry, and regard them as infinitely superior to thoseof other races. The Magyar nobles have, perhaps, an even higher opinion of the peasantry of their ownnationality. The Polish peasant, on the contrary, is not regarded with greater contempt by the Austrians,Prussians, or Russians than he is, with rare exceptions, by nobles of his own race."

— Francis Palmer, reporting on life in Europe[162]

Lenin called Jewish people in Poland as a caste, a claim that became controversial. Celia Heller has called the rigidsocial segregation and status of Jewish people from Middle Ages through early 20th century in Poland as a closedcaste system.[163]

ItalyGeorges Dumézil in his controversial trifunctional hypothesis proposed[164][165] that ancient societies had three mainclasses each with distinct functions: the first judicial and priestly; the second connected with the military and war,while the third class focussed on production, agriculture, craft and commerce. Dumézil offered Roman empire withits flamens, legions and peasants, along with the caste system in India to illustrate his theory.After the Roman empire, hierarchical castes continued in Italy from ancient times to the medieval times. JacobBurckhardt, in his cultural classic The Civilization of the Renaissance in Italy, observed that hierarchy, exclusionaryand inherited caste structure was pervasive in Italy, from the nobili caste to the merchants to the peasants. Thesecastes had a complex structure in the fragmented city states of Italy such as Genoa, Venice, Naples, Roma, Florenceand Lombardy; in some, the merchants were the nobili, in others the nobili despised the merchant caste and wereagriculturalists, in yet others the nobili caste despised all work. Even the Church and hereditary clergy had becomehighly hierarchical, and the holders of benefices, the canons and the monks were under scandalous aspersions andmutual repulsion. It was Renaissance in Italy, in the late Middle Ages, that started a movement of hostility to castehierarchy, and then a shift towards ideas of equality, merit, freedoms, skepticism, innovation, judge people by theirtalent and not by their birth, and such concepts.[166]

Racial versus non-racial caste systemsThe term caste entered American debates long before the American Civil War, in the antebellum era and hascontinued through modern times. Frederick Douglass, William Garrison, Horace Greeley, Harriet Stowe, WilliamSeward, Gerrit Smith, Charles Sumner, Theodore Parker, and Cassius Clay used the term caste, rather than race orclass, in their writings and speeches to discuss and inspire America to abolish slavery.[167]

In 1936, Warner published[168] his analysis of society in American deep south, and concluded it was a caste system.While various scholars such as the Swedish Nobel Laureate Gunnar Myrdal agreed[169] with Warner, other scholarssuch as Oliver Cox disagreed. Cox argued in 1948 that caste cannot be compared to race or class, because, accordingto him, caste was static, the social inferiors in a caste system were ‘content with their situation’, and there was nosocial movement for their betterment. According to Immerwahr, by 1960, Cox claims were demonstrably false andabsurd.[167][170]

Before civil rights laws were passed in the United States, Benjamin Mays noted that African Americans were the ‘untouchables’ of America.[171] Martin Luther King Jr. called southern social structure as a caste system.[172] Some referred to it a racial caste system.[173][174][175] While calling the social structure as a racial caste or caste-like

Caste 21

system, these scholars noted that African Americans were segregated, shunned through refused entry into restaurantsand hotels, isolated, excluded, and fixed in a hereditary system with the anti-miscegenation laws declaring interracialsex or marriage a criminal offense. Other scholars have referred to it simply as a caste system.[176][177]

The term caste has been used in many other contexts. For example, Burris has reviewed sociological publicationsand used the theories of Weber and Bourdieu to describe academic caste systems.[178] In American law andconstitutional studies, the term caste has been used to distinguish the social structure envisioned by founders ofAmerica with that of historical Europe. For example, Justice Harlan in 1896 Plessy v. Ferguson landmark SupremeCourt opinion, wrote, 'There is no caste here. Our constitution is color-blind.' In contemporary literature, scholarsrefer to the anticaste principle and various forms of racial and non-racial caste systems, particularly in the context ofthe Fourteenth Amendment of the American Constitution.[179][180][181]

Theories on caste formationCaste system develops, in view of Ross,[12] when the worth difference within a society sharpens to such a point thatthe social superior shuns fellowship and intermarriage with the inferior, thus creating a society made up of closedhereditary classes. This happened in European history for centuries. For example, among the Saxons of the eighthcentury social divisions were cast-iron, and the law punished with death the man who should presume to marry awoman of rank higher than his own. The Lombards, claims Ross, killed the serf who ventured to marry a freewoman, while the Visigoths and Burgundians scourged and burned them both. Among the early Germans a freedmanremained under the taint of ancestral servitude until the third generation, i.e., until he could show four free-bornancestors.As class lines harden, the upper class becomes more jealous of its status and resists or retards the admission ofcommoners, however great their merit or wealth. This was the motivation of observed caste lines in the RomanEmpire. Castes become a means to block social mobility. Over time, it does not matter if an individual has merit ortalent or creative energy. The birth or purity of blood becomes more decisive for social status than the differences ofoccupation or wealth which raised up the original social inequalities. Worth distinctions which in their early formmay stimulate the ambitious to do their best become paralyzing as they stiffen into caste, because they grant norecognition to individual achievement.According to Ross, over time, character contrasts between segregated social classes are interpreted as inborn. Todivert attention from their underpinning of privilege, the superiors point to the low-caste and say: "Look, they are thedull-witted, the incapable, we are the well-born, the fittest. Our mastership and our reward are of Nature's owngiving. We are the cream that rises to the top of the milk."Caste systems dissolve away, according to Ross, when all individuals have freedom, knowledge and a social systemthat gives free play to competition.[12]

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[10] K. Jamanadas. "Ambedkar and Communism" (http:/ / www. ambedkar. org/ Babasaheb/ Ambedkar_and_Communism. htm). .[11] Alfred Rosenberg, The Myth of the Twentieth Century, 1930; and Hans F.K. Günther, The racial elements of European History, 1927[12] Edward Ross (May, 1917). "Class and Caste: III. Segregation and Subordination (see discussion on 20th century Europe)". American

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[47] Barth, Fredrik (1962). E. R. Leach. ed. The System Of Social Stratification In Swat, North Pakistan (Aspects of Caste in South India, Ceylon,and North-West Pakistan) (http:/ / www. questia. com/ PM. qst?a=o& d=2995517). Cambridge University Press. p. 113. .

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[50] McKim Marriott (1960). Caste ranking and community structure in five regions of India and Pakistan (http:/ / www. worldcat. org/ title/caste-ranking-and-community-structure-in-five-regions-of-india-and-pakistan/ oclc/ 186146571). .

[51] Yule and Burnell (1903). "Hobson-Jobson" (http:/ / dsal. uchicago. edu/ cgi-bin/ philologic/ getobject. pl?c. 0:1:413. hobson). p. 163. .[52] Charles Holcombe (15 November 2010). A History of East Asia: From the Origins of Civilization to the Twenty-First Century. Cambridge

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[62] A. T. Grunfeld (1996). The Making of Modern Tibet. ISBN 1-56324-713-5.[63] "Tibetian & Himalayan Library (sger pa/)" (http:/ / dictionary. thlib. org/ internal_definitions/ public_term/ 43568?mode=search). THL

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[94] George E. Simpson (1st Quarter, 1962). "Social Stratification in the Caribbean" (http:/ / www. jstor. org/ stable/ 274141). Phylon 23 (1):29–46. .

[95] Daniel Livesay (2012). "The decline of Jamaica's interracial households and the fall of the planter class". Atlantic Studies 9 (1): 107–123.doi:10.1080/14788810.2012.637002.

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[97] Leah Gordon (2011). "Caste in Haiti" (http:/ / www. leahgordon. co. uk/ pdf/ invite-caste. pdf). .[98] James B. Watson (Winter, 1963). "Caste as a Form of Acculturation". Southwestern Journal of Anthropology 19 (4): 356–379.[99] Tal Tamari (1991). "The Development of Caste Systems in West Africa". The Journal of African History 32: 221–250.

doi:10.1017/S0021853700025718.[100] Leo Igwe (21 August 2009). "Caste discrimination in Africa" (http:/ / www. iheu. org/ caste-discrimination-africa). International Humanist

and Ethical Union. .[101] SF Nadel (1954). "Caste and government in primitive society". Journal of Anthropological Society 8: 9–22.[102] "Ethiopia: Treatment of Madhiban/Midgan/Medigan minority clan" (http:/ / www. unhcr. org/ refworld/

country,,ACCORD,,ETH,,4a16a50b2,0. html). ACCORD. 20 May 2009. .[103] http:/ / www. africankingdoms. com African Kingdoms Songhai Class System[104] Dolores Richter (January 1980). "Further considerations of caste in West Africa: The Senufo". Africa 50: 37–54. doi:10.2307/1158641.[105] Ethel M. Albert (Spring, 1960). "Socio-Political Organization and Receptivity to Change: Some Differences between Ruanda and Urundi".

Southwestern Journal of Anthropology 16 (1): 46–74.[106] Jacques J. Maquet (1962). The Premise of Inequality in Ruanda: A Study of Political Relations in a Central African Kingdom. Oxford

University Press, London. pp. 135–171. ISBN 978-0-19-823168-4.[107] Helen Codere (1962). "Power in Ruanda". Anthropologica 4 (1): 45–85. JSTOR 25604523.[108] D. M. Todd (October 1977). "LA CASTE EN AFRIQUE? (Caste in Africa?)" (http:/ / journals. cambridge. org/ action/

displayAbstract?fromPage=online& aid=7903506). Africa 47: 398–412. .[109] I. M. Lewis, A pastoral democracy: a study of pastoralism and politics among the Northern Somali of the Horn of Africa, (LIT Verlag

Berlin-Hamburg-Münster: 1999), pp.13-14[110] Ronald Niezen. The origins of indigenism: human rights and the politics of identity. University of California Press. pp. 76–78.

ISBN 0-520-23556-8.[111] Hilary Andersson (11 February 2005). "Born to be a slave in Niger" (http:/ / news. bbc. co. uk/ 1/ hi/ programmes/

from_our_own_correspondent/ 4250709. stm). BBC Africa, Niger. .[112] Fair elections haunted by racial imbalance (http:/ / www. irinnews. org/ report. aspx?ReportId=70522)[113] Mauritanian MPs pass slavery law (http:/ / news. bbc. co. uk/ 2/ hi/ africa/ 6938032. stm) by BBC News[114] Oxfam (http:/ / www. oxfam. org. uk/ coolplanet/ ontheline/ explore/ journey/ algeria/ ethnic. htm) by 'ethnic Africans' it is meant negro

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[115] Michael Bush (1983). European Nobility: Noble Privilege. Machester University Press. ISBN 978-0-7190-0913-6.[116] "Penal Code of Finland, see Article 18 (Rikoslaki 18 luku § 1/Strafflagen 18 kap. § 1); this is a Finnish language site, use google translator"

(http:/ / www. heikniemi. fi/ rikoslaki/ rl18. html). Suomen Rikoslaki, Finland. .[117] John J Macionis and Linda M Gerber (2008). Sociology (6th Canadian Edition, see Chapter 10) (http:/ / wps. pearsoned. ca/

ca_ph_macionis_sociology_6/ 73/ 18923/ 4844405. cw/ index. html). Pearson Publishing. ISBN 978-0135049549. .[118] Alexandre Avdeev, Alain Blum, Irina Troitskaia, Heather Juby (Nov-Dec, 2004). "Peasant Marriage in Nineteenth-Century Russia".

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New York Times. 4 March 1888. .[120] Graham Robb (2007). The Discovery of France. pp. 48–56. ISBN 0-393-05973-1.[121] "The Persistence of "Superstition and Idolatry" among Rural French Calvinists". Church History 65 (02): 220–233. June 1996.[122] Beatrice Gottlieb (1994). The Family in the Western World from the Black Death to the Industrial Age. Oxford University Press.

ISBN 978-0-19-509056-7.[123] Lester Frank Ward (1906). Applied Sociology - A treatise on conscious improvement of society by society. Ginn & Co..[124] Loretta Matulich (1971). A cross-disciplinary study of the European immigrants of 1870 to 1925. Arno Press. pp. 199–202.

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MacMillan Company. pp. 10–11. ISBN 978-0-678-00321-3. .[126][126] Timothy Gall (1997). "Worldmark Encyclopedia of Cultures and Daily Life (see Volume 4)". ISBN 978-0-7876-0552-0.[127] Thomas Acton. "Authenticity, Expertise, Scholarship and Politics: Conflicting goals in Romani studies" (http:/ / www. gypsy-traveller. org/

pdfs/ acton_article. pdf). University of Greenwich. .[128] "Roma in the Czech Republic: Identity and Culture" (http:/ / www. unhcr. org/ refworld/ docid/ 3ae6a80f1c. html). Immigration and

Refugee Board of Canada. November 1997. .[129] Alaina Lemon (2000). Between Two Fires: Gypsy Performance and Romani Memory from Pushkin to Post-Socialism. Duke University

Press. ISBN 978-0-8223-2493-5.[130][130] Mark Braham (1993). "The untouchables: a survey of the Roma people of Central and Eastern Europe". United Nations High

Commissioner for Refugees.[131] Aleksander Gella (1989). Development of Class Structure in Eastern Europe. State University of New York Press. ISBN 0-88706-833-2.[132] Maria Catedra (1992). This World, Other Worlds: Sickness, Suicide, Death, and the Afterlife among the Vaqueiros de Alzada of Spain.

University of Chicago Press. ISBN 978-0-226-09716-9.[133] Isambard Wilkinson (16 August 2003). "Spain's damned maragatos seek salvation" (http:/ / www. telegraph. co. uk/ news/ worldnews/

europe/ spain/ 1439069/ Spains-damned-maragatos-seek-salvation. html). London: The Telegraph, United Kingdom. .[134] John McKay (2007). A history of Western Society. Houghton Mifflin. ISBN 978-0-618-94629-7.[135][135] Roland Mousnier (1976). "Recherches sur la stratification sociale a Paris aux XVIIe et XVIIIe siecles". A. Pedone.

ISBN 978-2-233-00019-4.[136] Sean Thomas (28 July 2008). "The last untouchable in Europe" (http:/ / www. independent. co. uk/ news/ world/ europe/

the-last-untouchable-in-europe-878705. html). London: The Independent, United Kingdom. .[137][137] Graham Robb (2007). W. W. Norton. ISBN 0-393-05973-1.[138] Enric Porqueres (Ed. Peter Wade) (2009). Race, Ethnicity and Nation: Perspectives from Kinship and Genetics. pp. 130–131.

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ptr09/ asr_2004. pdf). American Sociological Review 69: 239–264. .[179] Cass R. Sunstein (Aug. 1994). "The Anticaste Principle". Michigan Law Review 92 (8): 2410–2455. JSTOR 1289999.[180] Steven Calabresi (2010). "DOES THE FOURTEENTH AMENDMENT GUARANTEE EQUAL JUSTICE FOR ALL?" (http:/ / www.

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Caste 27

Further reading• Spectres of Agrarian Territory by David Ludden 11 December 2001• "Early Evidence for Caste in South India", p. 467-492 in Dimensions of Social Life: Essays in honor of David G.

Mandelbaum, Edited by Paul Hockings and Mouton de Gruyter, Berlin, New York, Amsterdam, 1987.

External links• Auguste Comte on why and how castes developed across the world - in The Positive Philosophy, Volume 3 (see

page 55 onwards) (http:/ / socserv. mcmaster. ca/ econ/ ugcm/ 3ll3/ comte/ Philosophy3. pdf)• Robert Merton on Caste and The Sociology of Science (http:/ / sciencepolicy. colorado. edu/ students/ envs_5110/

merton_sociology_science. pdf)• Caste, Society and Politics in India from the Eighteenth Century to the Modern Age - Susan Bayly (http:/ / www.

cambridge. org/ gb/ knowledge/ isbn/ item1168367/ ?site_locale=en_GB)• Class In Yemen (http:/ / www. countercurrents. org/ hr-marguerite250404. htm) by Marguerite Abadjian (Archive

of the Baltimore Sun)• Hindu Caste System & Hinduism: Vedic vocations (Hindu castes) were not related to heredity (birth) (http:/ /

web. archive. org/ web/ 20091026134948/ http:/ / geocities. com/ lamberdar/ _caste. html)• International Dalit Solidarity Network: An international advocacy group for Dalits (http:/ / idsn. org/ )

Article Sources and Contributors 28

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File:Casta painting all.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Casta_painting_all.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: AnonMoos, BlackIceNRW, Docu, GateKeeper,Thelmadatter, TriniMuñoz, Ultimate Destiny, UyvsdiFile:GriotFête.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:GriotFête.jpg  License: unknown  Contributors: Jeanniot (grav.)File:NSRW Africa Midgan.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:NSRW_Africa_Midgan.png  License: unknown  Contributors: User:BookofjudeFile:Timbuktu huts.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Timbuktu_huts.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution 2.0  Contributors: upyernoz from haverford, USAFile:Troisordres.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Troisordres.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Anne97432, AnonMoos, Baronnet, Gryffindor,Infrogmation, Jospe, Man vyi, Shakko, Skipjack, W. C. Minor, 2 anonymous editsFile:Romani population average estimate.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Romani_population_average_estimate.png  License: GNU Free Documentation License Contributors: derivative work: Dbachmann (talk) Europe_blank_map.png: wiki-vr 19:56, 26 Mar 2005 (UTC)File:Porajmos.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Porajmos.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Olahus, Ronline, Thuresson, 3 anonymous editsFile:Agote ur pila oloreneko katedralean.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Agote_ur_pila_oloreneko_katedralean.jpg  License: Creative CommonsAttribution-Sharealike 3.0  Contributors: Peyre at en.wikipediaFile:Reeve and Serfs.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Reeve_and_Serfs.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: anonymous (Queen Mary Master)File:Hungarian knights, Illustration for Il costume antico e moderno by Giulio Ferrario 1831 (4).jpg  Source:http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Hungarian_knights,_Illustration_for_Il_costume_antico_e_moderno_by_Giulio_Ferrario_1831_(4).jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors:Luigi Giarrè (died in 18?) and Vincenzo Stanghi (died on 1860)File:Tattarkravallerna 1948 jonkoping.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Tattarkravallerna_1948_jonkoping.jpg  License: GNU Free Documentation License Contributors: Angriffer, Boberger, J 1982, Ö

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