cereal grains : properties, processing and nutritional attributes · 2010. 7. 16. · contents x'...
TRANSCRIPT
-
Cereal Grains
Properties., Processing,and Nutritional Attributes
Sergio O. Serna-SaldivarI.T.E.S.M.
Monterrey, Mexico
TFCHNISCHE
INFORMATIONSB'BLIOTHEK
UNIVERSITATSBIBLIOTHEKHANNOVER
iC\ CRC PressTaylor & Francis GroupBoca Raton London New York
CRC Press is an imprint of the
Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business
-
Contents
Dedication v
Foreword xxv
Preface xxvii
Acknowledgments xxix
The Author xxxi
List ofFigures xxxiii
List of Tables xxxix
Chapter 1 Cereal Grains: The Staff of Life 1
1.1 Introduction 1
1.2 Cereal Production versus Population Growth 4
1.3 General Characteristics 7
1.4 Adaptation and Cytogenetic Origin 9
1.4.1 Maize 9
1.4.2 Rice 12
1.4.3 Wheat 21
1.4.4 Barley 22
1.4.5 Sorghum 22
1.4.6 Rye...; 23
1.4.7 Oats 24
1.4.8 Triticale 24
1.4.9 Millets 24
1.5 General Uses 26
1.5.1 Maize 27
1.5.2 Rice 28
1.5.3 Wheat, Rye, and Triticale 291.5.4 Barley 301.5.5 Oats 31
1.5.6 Sorghum and Millets 321.6 Nutritional Value 33
1.7 Biotechnology 371.8 Future Outlook 38
Self-Evaluation 39
References 40
Chapter 2 Physical Properties, Grading, and Specialty Grains 43
2.1 Introduction ...43
2.2 Physical Properties of Cereal Grains 44
2.3 Grain Quality 44
vii
-
Contents
2.3.1 Moisture 44
2.3.2 Volumetric Weight or Test Weight 49
2.3.3 Foreign Material or Dockage 50
2.3.4 Damaged Kernels 50
2.3.4.1 Insect Damage 50
2.3.4.2 Heat Damage 50
2.3.4.3 Germ Damage 50
2.3.4.4 Germinated or Sprouted Kernels 51
2.3.4.5 Mold-Infested or Weathered Kernels 51
2.3.4.6 Frost Damage 51
2.3.4.7 Shriveled or Shrunken Kernels 51
2.4 Classification and Grading Systems 522.4.1 Maize 52
2.4.2 Rice 52
2.4.3 Wheat 57
2.4.3.1 United States 57
2.4.3.2 Canada 60
2.4.3.3 Australia 61
2.4.4 Barley 61
2.4.5 Sorghum 64
2.4.6 Rye 66
2.4.7 Oats 66
2.5 Specialty Cereals 67
2.5.1 Maize 67
2.5.2 Rice 72
2.5.3 Wheat 74
2.5.4 Barley 752.5.5 Sorghum 76
Self-Evaluation 77
References 78
Chapter 3 Chemical Composition of Cereal Grains 81
3.1 Introduction 81
3.2 Proximate Composition 813.3 Carbohydrates 843.4 Proteins 92
3.5 Lipids 983.6 Minerals and Vitamins 102
Self-Evaluation 106
References 107
Chapter 4 Grain Development, Morphology, and Structure 109
4.1 Introduction 109
4.2 Pollination, Fertilization, and Grain Development 110
-
Contents lx
4.3 Morphology and Structure of the Mature Grain 114
4.3.1 Glumes 115
4.3.2 Pericarp 117
4.3.3 Endosperm 118
4.3.3.1 Testa or Seed Coat 118
4.3.3.2 Aleurone 118
4.3.3.3 Peripheral Endosperm 1214.3.3.4 Vitreous Endosperm 121
4.3.3.5 Floury Endosperm 1224.3.4 Germ 122
4.4 Physiology and Grain Germination 123Self-Evaluation 126
References 127
Chapter 5 Storage of Cereal Grains 129
5.1 Introduction 129
5.2 Grain Deterioration 130
5.2.1 Intrinsic Deterioration 131
5.2.2 Extrinsic Deterioration 132
5.3 Grain Moisture and Hysteresis 132
5.4 Management of Stored Grains 133
5.4.1 Sampling 133
5.4.2 Grading 135
5.4.3 Weighing 136
5.4.4 Unloading 136
5.4.5 Grain Cleaning 137
5.4.6 Grain Drying 138
5.5 Storage 139
5.5.1 Types of Storage Facilities 139
5.5.1.1 Piling Grain on the Ground 139
5.5.1.2 Underground Storage 140
5.5.1.3 Grain Elevators 140
5.5.1.4 Controlled Atmosphere Storage 140
5.6 Grain Rotation or Turning 142
5.7 Aeration or Ventilation 142
5.8 Explosion in Grain Storage Facilities 143
5.9 Chemical and Physical Changes Incurred During GrainDeterioration 144
5.9.1 Dry Matter Losses 144
5.9.2 Changes in Carbohydrates 1455.9.3 Changes in Nitrogenous Compounds 1455.9.4 Changes in Lipids 145
Self-Evaluation 146
References 147
-
x Contents
Chapter 6 Grain Storage Pests 149
6.1 Introduction 149
6.2 Insects 149
6.2.1 Prevention 159
6.2.2 Control 159
6.2.2.1 Chemical Control 159
6.2.2.2 Controlled Atmospheres and Cold
Storage 161
6.2.2.3 Irradiation and Sonication 162
6.2.2.4 Biological Control 162
6.3 Molds 162
6.3.1 Mycotoxins 166
6.4 Rodents 170
6.4.1 Biology 171
6.4.2 Control 172
Self-Evaluation 174
References 174
Chapter 7 Dry-Milling Operations 177
7.1 Introduction 177
7.2 Traditional Milling 178
7.3 Grain Cleaning 179
7.3.1 Air Aspirators 179
7.3.2 Sieves or Size Separators 179
7.3.3 Gravity Separators 182
7.3.4 Disc Separators 183
7.3.5 Color Sorters 183
7.4 Maize Dry Milling 183
7.4.1 Whole-Meal Milling Processes 183
7.4.2 Tempering-Degerming Milling Process 185
7.4.2.1 Cleaning 185
7.4.2.2 Tempering and Degerming 185
7.4.2.3 Drying and Sizing 186
7.4.2.4 Dry-Milled Fractions and Coproducts.... 189
7.4.3 Production of Precooked Arepa Flour; 189
7.5 Rice Milling 1937.5.1 Drying 1937.5.2 Cleaning 1947.5.3 Dehulling 1957.5.4 Decortication/Polishing 1957.5.5 Sizing/Classification 1977.5.6 Dry-Milled Fractions and Coproducts 2007.5.7 Parboiling 200
7.6 Wheat Milling 201
-
Contents x'
7.6.1 Cleaning 201
7.6.2 Tempering 202
7.6.3 Roll Milling and Classification 203
7.6.4 Post-Milling Treatments 207
7.6.5 Types of Flours and Coproducts 208
7.7 Milling of Durum Wheat, Rye, and Triticale 211
7.8 Milling of Oats 212
7.8.1 Cleaning 212
7.8.2 Thermal Treatments 212
7.8.3 Dehulling 212
7.8.4 Milling and Flaking 213
7.9 Milling of Sorghum and Millets 216
7.9.1 Cleaning 217
7.9.2 Decortication 218
7.9.3 Milling and Classification 219
7.9.4 Dry-Milled Fractions 219
Self-Evaluation 220
References 222
Chapter 8 Wet-Milling Operations 225
8.1 Introduction 225
8.2 Maize Wet Milling 226
8.2.1 Cleaning 226
8.2.2 Steeping 226
8.2.3 Grinding and Fractionation 227
8.2.4 Starches and Coproducts 230
8.3 Rice Wet Milling 230
8.3.1 Steeping in Sodium Hydroxide 230
8.3.2 Grinding and Fractionation 231
8.3.3 Drying 232
8.4 Wheat Wet Milling 232
8.4.1 The Martin Process 233
8.4.2 The Fesca Process 233
8.4.3 The Alfa Laval Raiso System 234
8.4.4 The Acid (S02) Process 234
8.4.5 Products and Coproducts 234
8.5 Sorghum Wet Milling 234
8.6 Properties of Starches 235
Self-Evaluation 237
References 237
Chapter 9 Milling of Maize into Lime-Cooked Products 239
9.1 Introduction 239
9.2 Key Ingredients for Nixtamalization 241
-
(jj Contents
9.2.1 Maize Kernels 241
9.2.2 Lime 242
9.2.3 Water 242
9.2.4 Preservatives and Acidulants 243
9.2.5 Gums or Hydrocolloids and Emulsifiers 2439.2.6 Enrichment with Vitamins and Minerals 244
9.3 Industrial Production of Fresh Masa and Tortillas 244
9.3.1 Lime-Cooking and Steeping 244
9.3.2 Nixtamal Washing 248
9.3.3 Stone Grinding 248
9.3.4 Tortilla Forming and Baking 249
9.3.5 Cooling and Packaging 250
9.4 Industrial Production of Dry Masa Flour 250
9.4.1 Lime Cooking 2509.4.2 Nixtamal Washing and Grinding 250
9.4.3 Drying 251
9.4.4 Classification and Flour Formulation 251
9.4.5 Additives and Enrichment 251
9.4.6 Types of Dry Masa Flours 251
9.4.7 Reconstitution or Hydration of Dry Masa Flour 2549.4.8 Alternative Processing Technologies for Dry
Masa Flours 254
Self-Evaluation 254
References 255
Chapter 10 Manufacturing of Bakery Products 259
10.1 Introduction 259
10.2 Uses of Whole Wheat 259
10.3 Yeast-Leavened Products 261
10.3.1 Ingredient Functionality 26210.3.1.1 Flour 262
10.3.1.2 Water 263
10.3.1.3 Yeast 263
10.3.1.4 Sweeteners 265
10.3.1.5 Salt 265
10.3.1.6 Shortening/Lard 26610.3.1.7 Diastatic Malt 266
10.3.1.8 Dried Milk 266
10.3.1.9 Vital Gluten 266
10.3.1.10 Dough Conditioners/Emulsifiers 26710.3.1.11 Oxidizing Agents 267
10.3.1.12 Gums or Hydrocolloids 268
10.3.1.13 Preservatives or Antimold Agents 26810.3.1.14 Yeast Food 268
10.3.1.15 Enzymes 269
-
Contents X,M
10.3.2 Dough Mixing 26910.3.3 Dough Dividing and Rounding 27010.3.4 Fermentation 270
10.3.5 Degassing/Punching and Molding 27110.3.6 Baking 27110.3.7 Cooling and Slicing 27210.3.8 Packaging 272
10.4 Types of Breads 27310.4.1 Chinese Steamed Bread 273
10.4.2 French Bread and Baguettes 273
10.4.3 Bagels 276
10.4.4 Flat or Arabic Breads 276
10.4.5 Soft Pretzels 277
10.4.6 Pan Bread 278
10.4.6.1 Straight-Dough System 27910.4.6.2 Sponge-Dough System 28010.4.6.3 Liquid Fermentation Process 280
10.4.7 Hamburger and Hot Dog Buns 281
10.4.8 Whole, Variety, and Multigrain Breads 282
10.4.9 Sour Breads 284
10.4.10 Sweet Breads 285
10.4.10.1 Croissants 285
10.4.10.2 Danish Pastries 287
10.4.10.3 Sweet Rolls 287
10.4.10.4 Yeast-Leavened Donuts 287
10.4.11 Production of Pizza Dough Bases 288
10.5 Frozen Doughs 289
10.6 Staling 290
10.7 Chemically Leavened Products 291
10.7.1 Ingredients 291
10.7.1.1 Soft and Chlorinated Flours 292
10.7.1.2 Chemical Leavening Agents and
Baking Powder 29210.7.1.3 Egg Products 293
10.7.2 Cookie Manufacturing Processes 29410.7.2.1 Rotary Mold 29410.7.2.2 Sheeting and Forming 29810.7.2.3 Extruding and Depositing 30110.7.2.4 Wire-Cut 301
10.7.2.5 Wafers 301
10.7.2.6 Baking and Cooling 30210.7.2.7 Packaging 303
10.7.3 Production of Cakes and Related Products 303
10.7.3.1 Low- and High-Ratio Cakes 30410.7.3.2 Sponge-Angel Cakes 30410.7.3.3 Hotcakes and Crepes 306
-
kIv Contents
10.7.3.4 Muffins and Biscuits 306
10.7.3.5 Chemically Leavened Donuts 30610.7.4 Wheat-Flour Tortillas 308
10.8 Crackers/Saltines 311
10.9 Batters and Breading 313
10.10 Pastas and Oriental Noodles 315
10.10.1 Pastas from Semolina 316
10.10.1.1 Laminated Pasta 316
10.10.1.2 Extruded Pasta 318
10.10.1.3 Pasta Drying 318
10.10.1.4 Fresh and Precooked Pastas 319
10.10.2 Oriental Noodles 319
10.10.2.1 WheatNoodles 319
10.10.2.2 Rice Noodles 320
Self-Evaluation 322
References 324
Chapter 11 Manufacturing of Breakfast Cereals 329
11.1 Introduction 329
11.2 Classification of Breakfast Cereals 331
11.3 Traditional Flaked Products 331
11.3.1 Rolled or Flaked Oats 331
11.3.2 Traditional Processes for Corn, Wheat, and Rice
Flakes 333
11.3.2.1 Corn Flakes 333
11.3.2.2 Rice Flakes 334
11.3.2.3 Wheat Flakes 335
11.4 Compressed Flake Biscuits 335
11.5 Oven-Puffed Cereals 335
11.6 Gun-Puffing of Whole Grains and Milled Fractions 337
11.7 Shredded Wheat 338
11.8 Baked Cereals 340
11.9 Granolas 340
11.10 Muesli Products 341
11.11 Extruded Products 342
11.11.1 Extrusion Forming of Breakfast Cereals 345
11.11.1.1 Direct Expansion 345
11.11.1.2 Half-Products or Pellets 346
11.11.1.3 Extruded Flakes 349
11.11.1.4 Extruded Shredded Cereals 350
11.12 Enrichment and Fortification 352
11.13 Packaging 352
Self-Evaluation 353
References 353
-
Contents xv
Chapter 12 Manufacturing of Cereal-Based Snacks 355
12.1 Introduction 355
12.2 Classification of Snacks 355
12.3 Popcorn 357
12.3.1 Breeding and Quality 357
12.3.2 Post-Harvest Management 358
12.3.3 Popping Methods 359
12.3.3.1 Wet Popping 360
12.3.3.2 Dry Popping 360
12.3.3.3 Microwave Popping 362
12.4 Alkaline-Cooked Maize Products 363
12.4.1 Raw Materials 363
12.4.1.1 Oil 364
12.4.1.2 Salt and Flavorings 364
12.4.1.3 Antioxidants and Chelating Agents 36412.4.2 Production of Corn Nuts 365
12.4.3 Production of Corn and Tortilla Chips 36612.4.3.1 Lime Cooking and Steeping 36612.4.3.2 Draining/Washing 367
12.4.3.3 Grinding 36712.4.3.4 Production of Dry Masa Flour for
Snacks 368
12.4.4 Production of Extruded Corn Chips 36812.4.5 Production of Tortilla Chips 370
12.4.5.1 Kneading-Mixing and Sheeting-Forming 371
12.4.5.2 Baking 371
12.4.5.3 Cooling-Equilibration 371
12.4.5.4 Frying 372
12.4.5.5 Seasoning 373
12.4.5.6 Low-Fat Tortilla Chips 37312.5 Extruded Snacks 374
12.5.1 High-Shear Extruded Products 37412.5.1.1 Production of Direct-Expanded Baked
Products 375
12.5.1.2 Production of Fried Expanded Products. 37712.5.1.3 Extruded Whole Grains 378
12.5.2 Extrusion of Pellets or Half-Products 379
12.5.2.1 Production of Third-Generation Snacks. 379
12.5.3 Coextrusion 382
12.6 Wheat-Based Snacks 382
12.6.1 Production of Crispbreads 38312.6.2 Production of Hard Pretzels 385
12.7 Packaging 388Self-Evaluation 389
-
xvi Contents
References 390
Chapter 13 Industrial Production of Modified Starches and Syrups 395
13.1 Introduction 395
13.2 Native Starches 395
13.3 Modified Starches 396
13.3.1 Physically Modified Starches 396
13.3.2 Chemically Modified Starches 397
13.3.2.1 Acid-Treated Starches 397
13.3.2.2 Oxidized/Bleached Starches 400
13.3.2.3 Cross-Bonded Starches 401
13.3.2.4 Derivatized and Substituted Starches 401
13.4 Resistant Starches 402
13.4.1 Type 1 402
13.4.2 Type II 402
13.4.3 Type III 403
13.4.4 Type IV 403
13.5 Production of Syrups 403
13.5.1 Acid Hydrolysis or Conversion 404
13.5.2 Enzyme Conversion 405
13.5.2.1 a-Amylase 405
13.5.2.2 P-Amylase 40513.5.2.3 Pullulanase or Debranching Enzyme 406
13.5.2.4 Amyloglucosidase 406
13.5.2.5 Cyclodextrin Glycosil Transferase
(CGTase) 406
13.5.2.6 Glucose Isomerase 406
13.5.3 Syrups 407
13.5.3.1 Low-DE Syrups (Maltodextrins) 407
13.5.3.2 Maltose Syrups 407
13.5.3.3 Glucose Syrups 409
13.5.3.4 High-Fructose Corn Syrups (HFCS) 410
13.5.4 Refining and Evaporation 412
Self-Evaluation 413
References 415
Chapter 14 Production of Malts, Beers, Alcohol Spirits, and Fuel Ethanol 417
14.1 Introduction 417
14.2 Malting Grains 419
14.2.1 Barley 419
14.2.2 Sorghum and Other Related Cereals 419
14.2.3 Wheat and Other Related Cereals 421
14.3 Making 422
14.3.1 Malting Systems 423
-
Contents xvii
14.3.2 Steeping 42414.3.3 Germination 424
14.3.4 Kilning 42614.3.5 Classes of Malts 429
14.4 Production of European Beers 429
14.4.1 Ingredients 429
14.4.1.1 Brewing Adjuncts 42914.4.1.2 Hops 433
14.4.1.3 Yeast 435
14.4.1.4 Water 435
14.4.2 Brewing Operations 43514.4.2.1 Mashing 43514.4.2.2 Lautering 438
14.4.2.3 Addition of Hops 43814.4.2.4 Fermentation 439
14.4.2.5 Carbonation, Clarification, and
Pasteurization 440
14.4.3 Classes of Beers 441
14.5 Opaque Beer Production 44314.6 Production of Sake 445
14.7 Production of Cereal-Based Alcoholic Spirits 447
14.7.1 Whiskey 44714.7.1.1 Malting, Kilning, and Mashing 447
14.7.1.2 Fermentation 450
14.7.1.3 Distillation and Aging 451
14.7.2 Vodka 452
14.7.2.1 Malting 452
14.7.2.2 Mashing 452
14.7.2.3 Fermentation 452
14.7.2.4 Distillation and Rectification 453
14.7.3 Shochu 453
14.8 Production of Fuel Ethanol from Cereals 453
14.8.1 Grinding 456
14.8.2 Gelatinization 456
14.8.3 Liquefaction 45614.8.4 Simultaneous Saccharification-Fermentation 456
14.8.5 Distillation and Ethanol Purification 457
14.8.6 Spent Grains 45814.8.7 Production of Bioethanol from Cereals Other
Than Maize 458
Self-Evaluation 459
References 460
Chapter IS Quality Control of Cereal Grains and Their Products 463
15.1 Introduction 463
-
xviii Contents
15.2 Quality of Whole Grains 463
15.2.1 Moisture 463
15.2.2 Dockage or Foreign Material 466
15.2.3 Thousand Kernel Weight 470
15.2.4 Density 470
15.2.5 Flotation Test 470
15.2.6 Grain Hardness 471
15.2.7 Stress Cracks 471
15.2.8 Breakage Susceptibility 471
15.2.9 Germ Viability 47115.2.10 Genetically Modified Grains 472
15.3 Quality Control of Dry- and Wet-Milled Products 472
15.3.1 Laboratory Dry Milling 47315.3.1.1 Maize 473
15.3.1.2 Rice 473
15.3.1.3 Wheat 473
15.3.1.4 Sorghum 477
15.3.2 Laboratory Wet Milling 480
15.3.3 Chemical Composition of Milled Products 481
15.3.4 Color 481
15.4 Starch Characterization, Quality, and Functionality 48215.4.1 Chemical and Physical Properties 482
15.4.2 Viscoamylograph 486
15.4.3 Differential Scanning Calorimetry (Thermal
Properties) 486
15.5 Functionality Tests for Wheat Flours, Seminolas, and
Yeast 488
15.5.1 Wheat Flour Properties 488
15.5.1.1 Pelshenke and Sedimentation Tests 488
15.5.1.2 Gluten Content 490
15.5.2 Wheat Dough Rheological Properties 490
15.5.2.1 Farinograph 492
15.5.2.2 Extensigraph 492
15.5.2.3 Mixograph 493.15.5.2.4 Alveograph 49415.5.2.5 Mixolab 495
15.5.3 Yeast Fermentation Tests 496
15.5.3.1 Fermentograph 497
15.5.3.2 Maturograph 497
15.5.3.3 Rheofermentometer 499
15.5.3.4 Gasograph 499
15.5.3.5 Pressurometer 500
15.6 Functionality Tests for Wheat-Based Products 500
15.6.1 Breads 500
15.6.2 Cookies 505
15.6.3 Crackers 505
-
Contents x'x
15.6.4 Cakes 508
15.6.5 Wheat Flour Tortillas 508
15.6.6 Pasta and Oriental Noodles 508
15.6.6.1 Pasta 508
15.6.6.2 Oriental Noodles 509
15.7 Functionality Tests for Rice 509
15.8 Functionality Tests for Lime-Cooked Products 510
15.9 Functionality Tests for Breakfast Cereals 515
15.10 Functionality Tests for Snacks 516
15.10.1 Popcorn 516
15.10.2 Hard Pretzels 517
15.10.3 Extruded Snacks 517
15.10.4 Lime-Cooked Snacks 521
15.11 Functionality Tests for Cereal-Based Syrups and
Sweeteners 522
15.12 Functionality Tests for Malt, Beer, and Distilled
Alcoholic Spirits 522
15.12.1 Ingredients '. 522
15.12.1.1 Malt 523
15.12.1.2 Adjuncts 523
15.12.1.3 Hops 524
15.12.1.4 Enzymes 524
15.12.2 Intermediate and Finished Products 524
15.12.2.1 Wort 524
15.12.2.2 Beer 525
15.12.2.3 Alcoholic Spirits and Fuel Ethanol 526
15.13 Nutritional Quality Control of Foods and Feedstuffs 527
Self-Evaluation 528
References 529
Chapter 16 Production of Cereal-Based Traditional Foods 535
16.1 Introduction 535
16.2 Whole Grains 535
16.2.1 Pounded Wheat 535
16.2.2 Popcorn 536
16.2.3 Rice Analogs 536
16.3 Traditional Foods from Milled Fractions 537
16.3.1 Bulgur 537
16.3.2 Frekeh 537
16.3.3 Couscous 538
16.3.4 Others 538
16.4 Gruels and Porridges 540
16.4.1 Nonfermented Gruels 540
16.4.1.1 To 540
16.4.1.2 Pinole 540
-
xx Contents
16.4.2 Fermented Sour Gruels and Porridges 54016.4.2.1 Ogi 540
16.4.2.2 UjiandBogobe 541
16.4.2.3 Mahewu or Magou 54116.4.2.4 Kenkey 541
'
16.4.2.5 Sauces 542
16.4,2.6 Miso 542
16.5 Flat Breads 542
16.5.1 Roti or Chapati 542
16.5.2 Arepas 54416.6 Fermented Sour Breads 545
16.6.1 IdliandDosai 546
16.6.2 Anarshe 547
16.6.3 Puto 548
16.6.4 Ambali 548
16.6.5 Injera 54816.6.6 Kisra 549
16.6.7 Appa 55016.7 Yeast-Leavened Wheat Breads 550
16.7.1 Central Asian Breads 550
16.7.2 Arabic Flat Breads 551
16.7.3 French 551
16.7.4 Croissants 551
16.7.5 Bagels 551
16.7.6 Steamed-Chinese Bread 552
16.8 Nixtamalized Maize Products 552
16.8. L Atole 552
16.8.2 Tortillas 555
16.8.3 Tamales 557
16.8.4 Pozol 557
16.9 Fermented Porridges and Beers 55716.9.1 Chicha 558
16.9.2 Tesguino 55916.9.3 Opaque Beers 56016.9.4 Sake 560
Self-Evaluation 562
References 563
Chapter 17 Role of Cereals in Human Nutrition and Health 565
17.1 Introduction 565
17.2 World Malnutrition 567
17.2.1 Marasmus and Kwashiorkor 567
17.2.2 Vitamin Deficiencies 569
17.2.2.1 Vitamin A 569
17.2.2.2 B-Vitamins 570
-
Contents xxi
17.2.3 Mineral Deficiencies 571
17.2.3.1 Iron (Anemia) 571
17.2.3.2 Zinc (Dwarfism and Hypogonadism) 57217.2.3.3 Iodine (Cretinism) 573
17.3 Improvement of the Nutritional Value of Cereal throughPlant Breeding and Biotechnology 573
17.4 Nutrient Composition of Cereals and Nutritional
Requirements 574
17.4.1 Starch and Soluble Carbohydrates 574
17.4.2 Dietary Fiber 574
17.4.3 Lipids 575
17.4.4 Energy Requirements 57617.4.5 Protein 578
17.4.6 Essential Amino Acid Requirements 579
17.4.7 Minerals 580
17.4.8 Vitamins 582
17.5 Effect of Processing on Nutritional Value 58417.5.1 Milling 585
17.5.2 Cooking and pH 58517.5.3 Malting or Sprouting 58617.5.4 Fermentation 586
17.6 Effect of Environmental Conditions and Packagi ng on
Nutrient Stability 587
17.7 Nutritional Labeling 58817.8 Nutritional Value of Cereal-Based Foods 589
17.8.1 Fermented Bakery Products 58917.8.2 Chemical-Leavened Bakery Products 591
17.8.2.1 Cookies 591
17.8.2.2 Cakes and Related Products 594
17.8.3 Maize and Wheat Flour Tortillas 594
17.8.4 Crackers 597
17.8.5 Pasta Products and Oriental Noodles 597
17.8.6 Breakfast Cereals 597
17.8.7 Snacks 600
17.8.8 Beer and Distilled Alcoholic Beverages 604
17.9 Resistant and Slowly Digestible Starch 60417.10 Nutraceutical Properties 606
17.10.1 Phenolic Compounds 609
17.10.2 Lipids, Phospholipids, and Inositol 61217.10.3 Phytosterols 613
17.10.4 Carotenoids and Xanthophylls 61417.10.5 Tocopherols 61517.10.6 Policosanols 616
17.11 Antinutritional Factors 616
17.11.1 Phytates 61617.11.2 Tannins 617
-
xxii Contents
17.11.3 Cyanogenic Glycosides 61717.11.4 Goitrogens 618
17.12 Gluten Intolerance 618
Self-Evaluation 619
References 622
Chapter 18 Cereals as Feedstuff's for Animal Nutrition 629
18.1 Introduction 629
18.2 Monogastrics 63018.2.1 Poultry 630
18.2.1.1 Digestive System and Digestion 63018.2.1.2 Nutrient Requirements 633
18.2.2 Swine 634
18.2.2.1 Digestive System and Digestion 63518.2.2.2 Nutrient Requirements 636
18.2.3 Equines 636
18.2.3.1 Digestive System and Digestion 63718.2.3.2 Nutrient Requirements 638
18.3 Ruminants 638
18.3.1 Digestive System and Digestion 640
18.3.1.1 Protein Digestion and Utilization 641
18.3.1.2 Carbohydrate Digestion and EnergyUtilization 641
18.3.2 Nutrient Requirements of Ruminants 64218.3.2.1 Beef Cattle 642
18.3.2.2 Dairy Cattle 64518.4 Cereal Grains and Coproducis as Feedstuffs 648
18.4.1 Nutritional Value of Whole Cereal Grains 648
18.4.2 Factors Affecting Starch Digestibility 65518.4.3 Cereal By-Products 655
18.5 Enhancement of the Nutritional Value of Cereals through
Processing 65818.5.1 Reconstituted and High-Moisture Grains 658
18.5.2 Milling or Mechanical Disruption 65918.5.2.1 Dehulling and Decortication 65918.5.2.2 Milling 659
18.5.3 Thermal Treatments 660
18.5.3.1 Extrusion 660
18.5.3.2 Pelleting 661
18.5.3.3 Crumbling or Crushed Pellets 662
18.5.3.4 Micronization 662
18.5.3.5 Popping 662
18.5.3.6 Toasting 663
18.5.3.7 Steam-Flaking 663
18.5.3.8 Puffing 664
-
Contents xxiii
Self-Evaluation 664
References 665
Glossary 669
Index 707