cgprt crops: processing and nutrition

CGPRT NO 9

CGPRT Crops

Processing and Nutrition

Avtar K. Kaul

The CGPRT Centre

The CGPRT CentreThe Regional Co-ordination Centre for Research and Development of Coarse Grains, Pulses, Roots and Tuber Crops in the Humid Tropics of Asia and the Pacific (CGPRT Centre) was established in 1981 as a subsidiary body of UN/ESCAP.

ObjectivesIn co-operation with ESCAP member countries, the Centre will initiate and promote research, training and dissemination of information on socio-economic and related aspects of CGPRT crops in Asia and the Pacific. In its activities, the Centre aims to serve the needs of institutions concerned with planning, research, extension and development in relation to CGPRT crop production, marketing and use.

ProgrammesIn pursuit of its objectives, the Centre has thiee interlinked programmes to be carried out in the spirit of TCDC:

1. Research, which entails the preparation and implementation of studies covering production, utilization and trade of CGPRT crops in the countries of Asia and the South Pacific;

2. Training of national research and extension workers;3. Information and documentation which encompasses the collection, processing and dissemination of

relevant information for use by researchers, policy makers, and extension workers.

Other CGPRT Centre publications currently available:CGPRT no. 1 Research Implications of Expanded Production of Selected Upland Crops in Tropical Asia

(Proceedings of a Workshop)

CGPRT no. 2 Future Potential of Cassava in Asia: Research Development Needs (Proceedings of a Workshop)

CGPRT no. 3 The Soybean Commodity System in Indonesia

CGPRT no. 4 Socio-economic Research on Food Legumes and Coarse Grains: Methodological Issues (Proceedings of a Workshop)

CGPRT no. 5 Soybean Development in India by S. Bisaliah

CGPRT no. 6 Coarse Grains and Pulses in Nepal: Role and Prospects by Bed B. Khadka

CGPRT no. 7 Adoption of Soybean in Lupao. Nueva Ecija The Philippinesby Paciencia C. Manuel, Romeo R. Huelgas and Leina H. Espanto

CGPRT no. 8 Agricultural Marketing and Processing in Upland Java: A Perspective From a Sunda Village by Yujiro Hayami, Toshihiko Kawagoe, Yoshinori Morooka and Masdjidin Si regar

Palawija News Quarterly Journal of the CGPRT Centre

This series is published by the CGPRT Centre, Bogor. Editor for the series is J.W. Taco Bottema, Agricultural Economist. For further information, please contact:

HeadPublication Section The CGPRT Centre JI. Merdeka 99 Bogor 16111 Indonesia.

CGPRT Crops Processing and Nutrition

The designations employed and the presentation of material in this publication do not

imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of the Secretariat of the United Nations concerning the legal status of any country, territory, city or area of its authorities, or concerning the delimitation of its frontiers or boundaries.

The opinions expressed in signed articles are those of the authors and do not necessarily represent the opinion of the United Nations.

CGPRT Crops Processing and Nutrition

Avtar K. Kaul

CGPRT Centre Regional Co-ordination Centre for Research and Development of Coarse Grains, Pulses, Roots and Tuber Crops in the Humid Tropics of Asia and the Pacific

CGPRT NO. 9

CGPRT CentreJalan Merdeka 99, Bogor 16111Indonesia© 1987 by The CGPRT Centre.All rights reserved. Published 1987Printed in Indonesia

National Library: Cataloguing in Publication

KAUL, Aviar K.CGPRT Crops: Processing and Nutrition / Avtar K. Kaul.Bogor: CGPRT Centre, 1987.xv, 155 pp.; 24.5 cmBibliography: pp. 151-155ISBN 979-8059-02-6.1. Agricultural food cropsI. Title

633

Kaul, Avtar K.Winrock International HeadquartersRoute 3, Petit Jean Mountain Morrilton, Arkansas 72110-9537U.S.A.

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Table of Contents

Page List of Tables.................................................................................................................................. vii List of Figures ................................................................................................................................ xi Foreword ....................................................................................................................................... xiii Preface ............................................................................................................................................ xiv Acknowledgements ....................................................................................................................... xv

1. Introduction ........................................................................................................................... 1 The region ...........................................................................................................................1 Agriculture .......................................................................................................1 Agriculture, nutrition and food science research ............................................. 2 Production and utilization of CGPRT crops in the ESCAP region ....................... 4

2. Human Nutrition and CGPRT Crops .............................................................................. 13 Nutritive value of CGPRT crops................................................................................. 13 Synergism among coarse grains, pulses and tuber crops........................................ 17 Concluding remarks ....................................................................................................... 19

3. Coarse Grains....................................................................................................................... 25 Coarse grain production ................................................................................................ 25 Characteristics of coarse grains ................................................................................... 27 Sorghum and millets ..................................................................................................... 31 Maize ................................................................................................................................ 34

4. Pulses..................................................................................................................................... 39 Mungbean ........................................................................................................................ 42 Soybean ............................................................................................................................ 46 Winged bean .................................................................................................................... 50 Pulse milling ................................................................................................................... 54 Cooking of dhal and processed dhal products ........................................................... 59 Post-harvest technology ................................................................................................ 60 Research needs ............................................................................................................... 62

5. Roots and Tubers................................................................................................................. 63 Production and consumption ........................................................................................ 63 Cassava ............................................................................................................................. 64 Sweet potato .................................................................................................................... 76 Taro, yams and other root crops .................................................................................. 79

6. Nutritional Disorders Associated with CGPRT Crops ..................................................83 Nutritional deficiencies ..................................................................................................83 Anti-nutritional factors in pulses ................................................................................. 83 Anti-nutritional factors in coarse grains..................................................................... 88

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7. Storage Loss of CGPRT Crops ......................................................................... 91 Types of loss ................................................................................................ 91 Reducing loss ............................................................................................... 91 Social, cultural and economic aspects ............................................................ 92

8. Case Studies on the Utilization of CGPRT Crops ............................................... 97 Consumer preference studies on sorghum....................................................... 97 Post-production systems of legumes: Andhra Padesh, India ................................ 97 Marketing and consumption of taro: Hawaii .................................................. 97 Case studies on food processing..................................................................... 99 Research needs ..............................................................................................109

9. Observations and Recommendations .................................................................111 Observations .................................................................................................111 Recommendations ........................................................................................112

Appendix Basic Statistics on Production of CGPRT Crops in the ESCAP Region .......................117 References ................................................................................................................151

vii

List of Tables

Table Page 1.1 Agricultural and nutritional indicators of some ESCAP regional countries, 1982/1983 ..... 4 1.2 Rain-fed areas in the ESCAP region countries...................................................................... 5 1.3 Contribution of the ESCAP region to world area and production of CGPRT crops ............. 7 1.4 Area and production of CGPRT crops in the ESCAP region, 1982/1983 ............................. 7 1.5 Contribution of CGPRT crops to the total food production in 22 countries of the ESCAP

region, 1983 ........................................................................................................................ 7 1.6 Breakdown of CGPRT crop production, ESCAP region, 1983 ............................................. 8 1.7 Approximate dietary contribution of different CGPRT commodities in developing countries,

1979 to 1981 ....................................................................................................................... 9 1.8 Energy contribution and total production of different food commodities in South and

Southeast Asia .................................................................................................................... 10 1.9 Production of coarse grains, pulses, roots and tubers in the Asia-Pacific region, 1983 and

annual growth rate, 1973 to 1983 ....................................................................................... 11 2.1 Number of persons per day sustained by energy and nutrient values of various crops ....... 17 2.2 Yield and maturation time of various CGPRT crops ........................................................... 17 2.3 Supplementary value of legumes to rice and wheat diets ................................................... 18 2.4 Supplementary value of chickpea and other protein foods to maize-tapioca diets ............. 19

2.5 Weight gain in rats with methionine supplementation of legume proteins .......................... 20 2.6 Ranges in various important food components of sorghum and different species of millets .. ................................................................................................................................................... 21

2.7 Some nutritionally superior genotypes reported in various coarse grains ........................... 22

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2.8 Chemical composition and seed characteristics of whole grain samples of high lysine and normal sorghum lines.................................................................................... 22 2.9 Genetic variability for yield and protein quality in sorghum................................................... 23 3.1 Important coarse grains in ESCAP region countries ............................................................... 25 3.2 Production of selected cereal crops in the countries of the ESCAP region, 1980 ....................................................................................................................................... 26 3.3 Rates of growth of imports and exports of major coarse grains and other feed ingredients in selected ESCAP countries, 1961 to 1976................................................. 28 3.4 Energy and nutrient composition of cereals and millet grains ................................................ 29 3.5 Amino acid content per 16 g of total nitrogen of cereals and millet grains ............................. 30 3.6 The effect of protein supplementation of sorghum on the growth of weaning rates................ 32 3.7 Composition of non-fermented and fermented sorghum meals............................................... 33 3.8 Examples of food products prepared from sorghum and pearl millet...................................... 34 4.1 Food supply: protein per capita per day in ESCAP region countries ...................................... 39 4.2 Energy and nutrients supplied by pulses in selected ESCAP countries .................................. 41 4.3 Pulses in Asia-Pacific region: major production and consuming countries ............................ 42 4.4 Availability of legumes: selected Asian countries, 1973 ......................................................... 42 4.5 Constraints to productivity of grain legumes........................................................................... 43 4.6 Nutrient composition of mungbean and mungbean products .................................................. 45 4.7 Protein efficiency ratio of mungbean and rice mixture supplemented by amino acids ............................................................................................................................ 46 4.8 Utilization of soybean and groundnut supplies ....................................................................... 47 4.9 Soybean area, production and yield, selected Asian countries ................................................ 47 4.10 Nutritional quality of some mungbean and soybean cultivars............................................... 47 4.11 Energy and nutrient composition of different parts of the winged bean................................ 52

ix

4.12 Vitamin content of different parts of the winged bean .......................................................... 52 4.13 Fatty acid composition of seeds of the winged bean, peanut and soybean............................ 52 4.14 Amino acid composition of different parts of the winged bean............................................ 53 4.15 Composition of winged bean compared with other root foods.............................................. 53 4.16 Average yield of dhal, husk, powder and brokens by different processing methods for

pulses...................................................................................................................................... 56 5.1 Some root and tuber crops grown and consumed in the Asia-Pacific region .......................... 64 5.2 Cassava production in Asia, 1979 to 1981 average ................................................................. 65 5.3 Comparison of annual growth rates of harvested area and output of cassava in tropical Asia 65 5.4 Production and export of cassava in principal producing countries of Asia, 1976 to 1982 ................................................................................................................ 66 5.5 Domestic utilization of cassava in principal producing countries of Asia, 1976 to 1982........................................................................................................................... 66 5.6 Imports of cassava pellets to the EEC ..................................................................................... 67 5.7 Nutritive values of selected tuber crops .................................................................................. 71 5.8 Nutritive value of cassava compared with other root crops..................................................... 72 5.9 Food energy and sweet potato availability in selected Asian countries, 1964 to 1966 and 1972 to 1974.............................................................................................. 77 5.10 AVRDC breeding goals for various nutrients in sweet potato ............................................... 77 5.11 Composition of some sweet potato varieties of Indonesia..................................................... 77 5.12 Nutritional composition of sweet potato tips and of five common leafy vegetables ............. 78 5.13 Performance of fattening pigs fed different proportions of corn and sweet potato chips .................................................................................................................. 79 6.1 Summary of the occurrence and mode of action of various anti-nutritional factors found in

pulses...................................................................................................................................... 85

x

7.1 Post-harvest losses of CGPRT crops of various stages of handling ........................................ 93 7.2 Small-scale storage structures for CGPRT crops.................................................................... 94 8.1 Number and percentage of households storing legumes ......................................................... 98 8.2 Association between farm size and quantity of legumes stored .............................................. 98 8.3 Association between family size and quality of legumes stored ............................................. 98 8.4 Forms of storage of legumes ................................................................................................... 99 8.5 Noticeability of insect and rodent damage in legumes ............................................................ 99 8.6 Number and percentage of respondents consuming different legumes ................................... 99 8.7 Frequency of consumption of various legumes according to the farm size of the household ........................................................................................................... 100 8.8 Family size and quantities of various legumes consumed...................................................... 100 8.9 Frequency and size of purchase of poi (taro), Hawaii ............................................................ 100 8.10 Chemical composition of infant foods based on blends of soybean, peanut and buffalo milk ...................................................................................................................................... 105 8.11 High protein food supplements utilizing mungbeans and other indigenous raw materials, Philippines, 1977 .................................................................................... 106 8.12 Protein efficiency ratio of spray-dried infant foods based on soybean and a blend of soybean and groundnut protein isolate .......................................................... 107 8.13 Chemical composition of miltone ........................................................................................ 107 8.14 Amino acid composition of protein in miltone and cows' milk ............................................ 107 8.15 Various steps in the processing of 100 to 150 kg batches of malted mixture ....................... 108 8.16 Viscosity and protein value of weaning foods based on CGPRT crops................................ 108 9.1 Production and marketing - consumption system decision matrix ..........................................114

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List of Figures Figures Page 1.1 Geographic scope of the Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific (ESCAP) .................................................................................................... 3 1.2 Distribution of CGPRT crops in the ESCAP region............................................................. 6 2.1 Malnutrition and undernutrition caused by a number of factors......................................... 14 2.2 Trends in total food production and per capita availability of energy in India, 1950 to 1979 ............................................................................................................ 15 2.3 Contribution of rice, wheat, maize and other sources of energy in the diets of various ESCAP region countries ........................................................................... 16 2.4 Average amino acid production per land unit ..................................................................... 16 2.5 Factors influencing farmers' yields..................................................................................... 20 3.1 Uses of maize ..................................................................................................................... 36 3.2 Wet-milling of maize and principal products ..................................................................... 37 4.1 Soybean: multiple uses....................................................................................................... 48 4.2 Home territory of the winged bean..................................................................................... 51 4.3 Flowchart of improved dhal milling process ..................................................................... 58 5.1 Processing scheme for various root crop products ............................................................. 69 5.2 Simplified flow diagram of alcohol production from cassava............................................ 70 5.3 Processing diagram for cassava and taro chips................................................................... 74 6.1 Incidence of lathyrism and pellagra on the Indian Subcontinent........................................ 88 8.1 Tempe processing steps ..................................................................................................... 102 8.2 Flowchart for the production of infant food based on peanut flour................................... 103 8.3 Flowchart for the production of miltone beverage ............................................................ 104

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xiii

Foreword

In the period 1981 to 1984, it was necessary that the CGPRT Centre identify its functional area — the role and importance of secondary crops in Asia and the Pacific. The study, CGPRT Crops, Processing and Nutrition, is a response to the importance and role of CGPRT Crops for food processing and nutritional value in the region. It covers a wide area of subject-matter including processing and nutritional aspects of coarse grains; pulses, roots and tuber (CGPRT) crops, or secondary crops, in various countries of the region.

This volume brings together a wide range of knowledge regarding secondary crops in the region. Despite the broad scope of issues to be dealt with, Dr. Kaul has managed to treat many subjects in depth. This volume provides the reader with an overview of the issues and problems involved in CGPRT crops utilization, while strong cases are made for more concerted efforts to develop appropriate research and policies.

In view of the recent progress in the production of rice and wheat, the study provides strongly contrasting information regarding the development of CGPRT crops, despite their proven importance for very large segments of rural and urban population in Asia and the Pacific.

I believe that Dr. Kaul's study will contribute to recognition and development of CGPRT crops in the region.

Shiro Okabe Director CGPRT Centre

xiv

Preface

Coarse grains, pulses, roots and tuber (CGPRT) crops contribute significantly to meeting the energy and protein requirements of humans and livestock in the Asia-Pacific region. They are particularly important for low-income producers and consumers living in rain-fed areas. They are also potential export earners for many countries. The little biological information available does, however, point to a considerable potential for increasing production as well as utilization. A study on CGPRT crop processing and nutrition was therefore designed on a regional basis to:

1. Ascertain the nutritional importance of CGPRT crops, for both humans and livestock, in the Asia-Pacific region;

2. Reflect upon the nutritional status of the people in the main area of CGPRT production and to determine whether whatever dietary adequacies, inadequacies and nutritional disorders originate from imbalances or toxic factors associated with these crops;

3. Determine the scope for raising and stabilizing the availability and quality of foodstuffs from the target crops through new genetic, agronomic, or technical programmes;

4. Document existing ways and means of improving the acceptance, market value, shelf life and nutritional value of CGPRT products through appropriate processing;

5. Recommend intervention at both the production and processing levels to enhance the quantity, quality, and acceptance of CGPRT products. This would, in turn, not only improve food availability, but also access to income, which together could improve the nutritional status of populations subsisting on these crops.

This report is intended to introduce rather than to exhaust the above issues. Much of the data, taken from various reports and papers, has not been discussed at length, since it is self-explanatory. Detailed tables on descriptive statistics are provided in the appendix for easy reference. Future activities that fall within ESCAP's mandate are recommended. It is hoped that the limited treatment given to the subject in this review will serve the dual purpose of firstly, pointing out the need and scope for intervention in other nutritional and processing aspects of CGPRT crops, and secondly, to highlight areas of regional co-operation. Research priorities could be determined on the basis of data presented.

From the outset of the study, it was clear that there is a dearth of documented information on the nutritional and processing aspects of CGPRT crops, but this information is not readily available. Because of this, the collection and collation of regional literature became an integral part of this study.

xv

Acknowledgements

I am indebted to the scientists and institutes who have provided numerous reprints and reports from which data in this report have been reproduced. I am particularly grateful to Mr. Sultan Zaman Khan and Mr. Suk Kun Kim, the Head and a Senior Economist respectively of the ESCAP Agricultural Division, who commissioned this study. Dr. Shiro Okabe and his colleagues at the CGPRT Centre, Bogor provided the necessary logistic support for my work.

I would also like to thank Mr. Finto Penheiro and his assistant Mr. Fakhul Islam for processing the manuscript, and Mr. Brojen Das of CIDA, for their help in the preparation of this report.

My daughters, Sudha and Angela, read the manuscript and proofs.

July 1987 Avtar Kaul

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Introduction

Despite the impressive level of agricultural and economic growth enjoyed by many Asia-Pacific countries over the past twenty-five years, a sizeable part of the rural population continues to live in poverty. Many of these people depend on rain-fed agriculture for survival. In these areas, crop production is traditional, cropping intensity is minimal, and resource inputs are scarce. The people remain caught in the trap of poverty, where malnutrition and under nutrition are endemic. The self-perpetuating plight of the absolute poor has tended to cut them off from the economic progress that has taken place in the more prosperous agricultural areas. These people are neither able to contribute to nor benefit from development. The key to reducing poverty in these areas lies in developing agricultural technology and improving the production process specific to the crops grown in these areas. These palawija or secondary crops, which exclude rice and wheat, include coarse grains, pulses, roots and tubers (CGPRT crops).

The region The Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific (ESCAP) region is compose

of 39 member countries and territories spanning an area bounded by Iran, Japan and the Cook Islands. It includes 55 percent of mankind, 30 percent of the world’s land, and covers more than half of the earth's surface (Figure 1.1). Out of the 39 members of ESCAP, seven fall into the least developed category (LDCs), and six are highly developed in terms of the use of improved agricultural technology and the indices of farm productivity. For the remaining countries, low agricultural yields, little capital and technical input availability are common denominators.

The ESCAP region, located between the latitudes of 50°N and 50°S, covers all possible agro-climates and offers suitable agro-ecological conditions for the cultivation t practically all species of economic crops. Similarly, all species of domesticated economic livestock are raised in the region.

Agriculture As in other regions of the world, one of the priorities in the ESCAP region is to supply

adequate food and nourishment to the 2600 million people living in Asia and Oceania. Chronic nutritional deprivation, due to an inadequate energy intake along with a poorly balanced diet, seriously debilitates normal physical and mental development in young children. Such a situation calls for prompt action. Decreasing the regional population growth rate may be the ultimate solution to this problem, but this is a long-term solution and both medium and short-term solutions are urgently needed. Increasing food production and its availability, improving its equity in distribution, increasing purchasing power, minimizing pre- and post-harvest losses, and promoting better storage and a longer shelf life are important short and medium-term solutions.

Introduction 2

Two-thirds of the countries in the region increased agricultural production during the 1983-1984 period. The growth in agricultural production was significant in Burma. The People's Republic of China, India, Indonesia, Malaysia, Singapore, Vietnam, and Fiji. While actual agricultural output went up in many countries, when the population increase over the last decade is taken into account, it is apparent that some countries experienced a real decline in cereal output.

Grain and cereal production reached record levels in the region in 1984. The global output of paddy rice (which is predominantly from Asia), passed 400 million metric tons for the second time. However, the FAO indicated that by 1985, domestic grain production would not meet the needs of the peoples in Bangladesh, India, Pakistan, Sri Lanka, Malaysia, the Philippines and South Korea. Thailand and Burma were forecasted to achieve surpluses. Although local production fluctuations can be alleviated by imports, foreign exchange and the associated capital drain pose constraints, as they further increase foreign debt (Agarwal, personal communication).

Increasing food production would contr ibute to al leviat ing this problem. However, continued research is also necessary in order to minimize post-harvest losses. There is a need to develop more efficient and bigger storage facilities, better means of food preservation, and appropriate processing methods.

Agriculture, nutrition and food science research The region, on the whole, has high calibre scientis ts and a good research

infrastructure in the fields of agriculture, nutrition and food science. There are three international research institutes; the International Rice Research Institute (IRRI) based in the Philippines, the International Institute for Semi-arid Tropics (ICRISAT) based in India , and the Asian Vegetable Research and Development Centre (AVRDC) based in Ta iwan . Pak is tan , Ind ia , Ch ina , Bangladesh , Tha i land , Indonesia , Malaysia , the Phi l ippines , New Zealand, and Austra l ia have wel l -established agricultural universities which conduct research on the agriculture-nutrition interface. There are several national institutes of international standing which conduct research and development in nutrition and food technology. Some of the universities and national institutes, particularly in India, the Philippines, Australia, New Zealand, and Japan, provide scientific and technical training for non-na t iona ls f rom other (ESCAP) member countr ies . The da tabase in most coun t r i e s i s r ea sonab ly good , bu t some o f the sma l l e r coun t r i e s may have difficulties compiling reliable information (Table 1.1).

Research on nutrition and food technology of CGPRT crops is relatively recent. The most significant development was the establishment of the Regional Co-ordination Centre for Research and Development of CGPRT Crops in the Humid Tropics of Asia and the Pacific (CGPRT Centre) by ESCAP in 1981. The Centre's mandate is to promote regional co-operation for research and development of CGPRT crops. This Centre, which is located in Bogor, Indonesia, is open to all members and associate members of ESCAP. Its objectives include: 1) expansion and stablization o f CG P RT c r o p p r o d u c t io n a n d a n i n c r e a s e i n n e t f a r m in c o me th r o u g h a multidisciplinary approach to research, extension, and intrastructural development and 2) improving the nutritional status of rural people by introducing low-cost, protein-r ich coarse grains and pulses into the cropping system and by raising production through the development of multiple cropping, livestock raising, and agro-processing industries. (Okabe, personal communication).

Introduction 3

Introduction 4

Table 1.1 Agricultural and nutritional indicators of some ESCAP region countries, 1982/1983. Total Arable Population Energy Protein Country Land Land as Total % in Caput/day' Caput/day Area % of (thousand) agri- (kcal/day) (g/day) (000 ha) Total culture

Developing Bangladesh 13,391 68.2 93,269 83.1 1877 - 40.6 Bhutan 4,700 2.0 1,355 93.2 2028- - Burma 65,774 15.3 37,065 50.4 2286+ 59.2China 930,496 10.8 1,020.670 58.0 2472+ 65.4 Fiji 1,827 12.9 651 38.7 2628+ - India 297,319 57.0 711,664 61.7 1998 - 48.5 Indonesia 181,135 10.8 153,032 57.3 2295+ 47.3Kampuchea 17,652 17.3 6,984 72.9 1795 - . 41.7 Korea, DPR 12,041 18.7 18,747 44.1 2837+ 83.5 Korea, Rep. 9,819 22.3 39,779 36.2 2996+ 78.1 Lao DPR 23 080 3 8 3 902 72 6 1856 - 49 8Malaysia 32,855 13.2 14,765 45.3 2650+ 59.1 Maldives 30 10.0 163 1781 - 61.5 Mongolia Nepal

156,500 13,680

0.8 17.0

1,764 14,951

46.2 92.3

2711 + 1914-

101.1 45.6

Pakistan 77,872 26.1 92,009 52.4 2300+ 60.2 P.N. Guinea 45,171 0.8 3,330 81.4 2286+ 46.7 Philippines 29,817 33.3 51,866 44.3 2315+ 51.7 W. Samoa 285 42.8 159 2289 + 50.5 Sri Lanka 6,479 33.3 15,424 52.7 2249 - 44.3 Thailand 51,177 35.8 49,200 74.4 2301+ 47.5 Tonga 67 79.1 101 3221 + 66.7 Vietnam 32,536 18.8 56,205 69.3 2029- 49.3

Subtotal ( 1 )

2,003,703

19.0

2,387,055

59.7

51.2

Developed Australia 761,793 5.7 14,830 5.4 3202+ 97.9 Japan 37,103 13.1 118,440 9.6 2883 + 88.4 New Zealand 26,867 1.7 3,158 8.8 3511 + 115.9

Subtotal (2)

825,763 5.9 136.428 9.1

Asia-Pacific

Total (1 + 2) 2,829,461 15.2 2,523,602 57.0 -

Rest of World 10,245,787 7.7 2,067.288 35.2 World 13,075,248 11.0 4,590.890 45.0

Source: FAO 1984.

Production and utilization of CGPRT crops in the ESCAP region The CGPRT group of crops include the following commodities:

1. Coarse Grains: barley, maize, various millets, sorghum, rye, oats and amaranthus.

2. Pulses: chickpea, lentil, peas, pigeonpea, mungbean, black gram, lathyrus, soybean, various minor beans, and groundnut

Introduction 5

3. Roots and Tubers: cassava. sweet potato, taro, yam and other minor tubers.

The distribution of these different crops in shown in Figure 1.2.

To date, CGPRT crops in the ESCAP region have received low priority in terms of production investment and research attention (Okabe 1984). They are generally produced by marginal farmers in rain-fed areas with minimum inputs and attention (Soejono 1984). Given that much of the region (72 percent) is under rain-fed agriculture, the importance of CGPRT cultivation is not to be underestimated.

In terms of global food production. the ESCAP region produces just under 50 percent of the world's pulses, 40 percent of the world's roots and tubers and 21 percent of the world's coarse grains (table 1.3) Within the ESCAP region,over half the area is under coarse grains, and accounts for one-third of the region's total f o o d p r o d u c t i o n ( T a b l e 1 . 4 ) . I n c o n t r a s t . 5 3 p e r c e n t o f t h e r e g i o n ' s f o o d production comes from 10 percent of the land area under area under roots and tubers, while 10 percent of the food produced is pulses, which come from one-third of the region's land mass.

Table 1.2 Rain-fed areas in the ESCAP region countries. Country %, Area Rain-fed

Australia 96 Bangladesh 80Burma 90China 55Democratic Republic of Kampuchea 97Korea, DPR 53Fiji 99India 75Indonesia 71Japan 44Laos. DPR 87Malaysia 91Mongolia 97Nepal 90New Zealand 63Pakistan 29Philippines 86Rep.Korea 47Sri Langka 75Thailand 85Vietnam 73Asia-Pacific 72 Source: ESCAP.

Introduction 6

Figure1.2 Distribution of CGPRT crops in the ESCAP region

Introduction 7

Table 1.3 Contribution of the ESCAP region to world area and production of CGPRT crops. Subgroup % of World Area % of World Production

Coarse grains Pulses Roots and tubers

26.7 50.4 35.0

20.6 47.8 38.9

Source: ESCAP. Table 1.4 Area and production of CGPRT crops in the ESCAP region, 1982/1983.

Subgroup % Area % Production

Coarse grains Pulses Roots and tubers

56.4 33.4 10.2

35.2 11.3 53.5

Source: ESCAP.

The relative importance of CGPRT crops to total food production in 22 ESCAP member countries is given in Table 1.5 and 1.6.

Table 1.3 Contribution of the ESCAP region to world area and production of CGPRT crops.

Proportion of Total food production (%)

Country Coarse grains

Roots, tubers

Pulses CGPRT crops

Other cereals

Vegs, fruits

Afghanistan 20.7 5.1 0.7 26.5 60.2 13.3 Bangladesh 0.2 5.4 0.6 6.2 67.8 26.0 Burma 2.1 1.0 2.7 5.8 72.9 21.3 China 14.7 24.7 1.0 40.4 41.9 17.7 India 7.7 4.3 2.9 14.9 32.1 53.0 Indonesia 4.1 18.8 0.4 23.3 42.0 34.7 Iran 8.4 4.5 1.2 14.1 45.3 40.6 Japan 1.1 15.4 0.3 16.8 37.1 46.1 Kampuchea 2.8 5.0 1.3 9.1 78.2 12.7 Korea,Rep. 5.6 8.3 0.4 14.3 46.4 39.3 Laos,DPR 3.0 11.3 1.6 15.9 74.0 10.1 Malaysia 0.2 12.9 - 13.1 50.1 36.8 Mongolia 15.7 11.3 0.2 27.2 72.8 - Nepal 16.7 8.6 1.1 26.4 63.6 10.0 Pakistan 3.0 1.2 0.9 5.1 32.6 62.3 Philippines 8.4 8.8 0.1 17.3 18.9 63.8 Sri Langka 1.1 22.0 0.7 23.8 59.3 16.9 Thailand 5.7 26.0 0.5 32.2 26.6 41.2 Vietnam 1.8 19.0 0.5 21.3 54.4 24.3 Australia 14.7 1.6 0.6 16.9 36.8 46.3 New Zealand 39.9 13.4 3.5 56.8 18.8 24.4 Papua New Guinea 0.1 48.7 0.1 48.9 - 51.1 Source: ESCAP Committee on Agricultural Development 1983

Regional production trends (1970 to 1980) Coarse Grains. Of the CGPRT crops, coarse grains provide the most energy in South and

Southeast Asia. Maize is the most important coarse grain crop in the region and is suitable for hillside agriculture. It is less drought tolerant than is sorghum or

Introduction 8

millet and hence more suited to areas with greater rainfall. Maize has good prospects as food, feed, and for export. Increased maize production has been most rapid in Thailand while it continues to expand in Indonesia, the Philippines and Malaysia. In China, the area under coarse grains, primarily maize, increased dramatically from 59 percent to 76 percent during the seventies. In India, the area under coarse grains, mainly sorghum and millet, has been declining rapidly. In 1980, maize area and production were 14 and 25 percent, respectively, while that of sorghum and millets were 57 and 68 percent respectively.

Pulses . For the poor , pu lses a re the most imporant source of pro te in in Bangladesh, India, Nepal and Pakistan. For the area as a whole, production declined during the seventies due mainly to a fall in the yield (down 12 percent between 1970 and 1980) and the increas ing t ransfer of product ion to more margina l a reas . Production in Thailand did, however, increase in response to the increased demand for export, and in the Philippines and Indonesia there were modest annual increases. Groundnuts and soybean are the two most important crops classified as pulses.

Although India contains two-thirds of the world's groundnut producing area the yield is low. China is the second largest producer while in some countries, for example the Philippines, it is a new crop.

Soybean yields are lower in the tropics than in the semi-temperate regions; yields are generally low in the ESCAP region. While world production doubled in the seventies, an increase of only 7.2 percent was observed in the ESCAP region. In China (producing 78 percent of the -region's total production), production has decreased in recent years.

Table 1.6 Breakdown of CGPRT crop production, ESCAP region, 1983.

Percentage of CGPRT crop production

Coarse grains

Roots and tubers

Pulses

Afghanistan 78.2 19.0 2.8 Bangladesh 2.5 87.3 10.2 Burma 35.6 17.5 46.9 China 36.4 61.0 2.6 India 51.6 28.7 19.7 Indonesia 17.7 80.7 1.6 Iran 59.6 31.7 8.7 Japan 6.7 91.3 2.0 Kampuchea 30.5 54.8 14.7 Korea, Rep. 39.1 58.2 2.7 Laos 18.7 71.5 9.8 Malaysia 1.6 98.4 - Mongolia 57.7 41.6 0.7 Nepal 63.4 32.5 4.1 Pakistan 59.3 23.1 17.6 Philippines 48.4 51.0 0.6 Sri Lanka 4.5 92.4 3.1 Thailand 17.7 80.7 1.6 Vietnam 8.4 89.1 2.5 Australia 87.0 9.3 3.7 New Zealand 70.4 23.5 6.1 Papua New Guinea 0.2 99.6 0.2

Source: ESCAP Committee on Agricultural Development 1983.

Introduction 9

Root and tuber crops. The three most important root and tuber crops are sweet

potato, cassava, and potato, which account for 61, 22 and 15 percent of the region's root and tuber crops respectively. They produce 66 percent more energy per unit weight at a lower cost than cereals. Thus, these foods play an important role in the diet in many densely populated low income, food-deficient countries. Sweet potato accounts for 65 percent of the total production of the three crops and is an important staple food in China after rice and wheat (Table 1.8). Production is increasing in the Philippines and in Vietnam. Cassava is important in Indonesia and Philippines as a staple food. In Thailand the area under cassava expanded as did production during the seventies, mainly in response to the European Economic Community's increased demand for cassava as an animal foodstuff. The increased demand for sweet potatoes and cassava both as a human and animal food has resulted in an increase in the area under cultivation in the Philippines. It should to be mentioned that taro and yam are the major staples of the Pacific region. The dietary and energy contributions of different CGPRT commodities are given in Tables 1.7 and 1.8.

Table 1.7 Approximate to dietary contribution of different CGPRT commodities in developing countries, 1979 to 1981

Commodity Energy

(% of total intake) (1)

Protein (% of total intake) (2)

Protein corrected by amino acid (3)

(1+3)

0.5

Valuea of

Demand

Maize 7.64 10.38 6.1 6.87 4.1 Sorghum 2.59 2.82 1.9 2.25 1.6 Millet 2.30 2.51 1.8 2.50 1.0 Barley 0.76 0.83 0.6 0.88 1.1

Total Coarse grains 13.29 16.54 10.4 12.50 7.8

Beans 1.10 1.64 1.9 1.96 - Groundnut 1.31 0.98 0.8 1.06 - Pulses 2.01 5.09 3.7 2.85 -

Total 4.42 7.71 6.4 5.87 -

cassava 2.58 0.66 0.5 - 1.54 3.6 Sweet potato 3.94 1.64 2.8 2.82 0.6

Total Roots and tubers 6.52 2.30 3.3 4.36 4.2

Total CGPRT crops 24.23 26.55 20.1 22.73 12.0

Rice 29.31 22.21 25.3 27.31 19.0 Wheat 17.45 20.68 18.2 17.82 7.6

Total Rice and wheat 46.76 42.89 43.5 45.13 26.6

Based on FAO Data Bank and various reports of the ESCAP Secretariat. a % of total value of of agricultural commodities.

Introduction 10

Table 1.8 Energy contribution and total production of different food commodities in South and Southeast Asia.

Country Wheat Rice Barley Maize Millet Sorghum Pulses Sweet potato Cassava

China Energy (% of Cal) 18.41 35.44 0.61 7.71 1.40 1.50 2.08 11.09 0.19 Production (000 mt) 59193 142538 3133 60618 5787 7020 6595 123083 3267

South and Southeast Asia Energy (% of Cal) 5.63 58.25 0.50 5.44 0.27 0.13 0.29 1.38 3.33 Production (000 mt) 1718 119204 1484 13905 657 414 661 8368 34632 India Energy (% of Cal) 18.46 33.23 0.70 3.12 5.19 5.80 1.53 2.26 0.90 Production (000 mt) 34550 74717 2020 6440 9124 1270 2856 1491 5904 Source: FAO 1984.

Based on the country reports presented at a recent meeting on CGPRT Crops in Bangkok, the following were observed.

Bangladesh. Pulses are the most seriously neglected group of crops grown. Indeed, production, yield, and area under pulses are decreasing. Improvement lies in increasing the area under cultivation through the use of inter and multiple cropping. Lathyrus is the most important pulse produced but lentil is preferred. Mungbean, black gram, chickpea, pigeonpea, and pea are also produced. Coarse grains are not produced on a large scale, although maize has good prospects as food, feed, fodder, and for industrial processing. Sweet potato and some yams are important tuber crops.

India. Significant progress has been made in the varietal improvement of sorghum and pearl millet, some pulses, and cassava. However, compared to rice and wheat, investment made on coarse grains, pulses, and tubers has been insignificant in the past. Special national programmes on pulses and coarse grains have been initiated. India is next to China in having a large proportion of its population dependent on CGPRT crops as staple food.

Indonesia. Indonesia grows a large number of pulses, maize, and cassava. Soybean is processed in a sophisticated manner to make products of a high nutritional value, using microbial action. A number of agricultural waste products of CGPRT origin are used to prepare- useful food products. Java is agriculturally the most developed region, producing most of the crops. The demand for both soybean and maize is greater than the supply.

Malaysia. The increased demand for maize and soybean as livestock feed has widened the market, and recently, maize has been imported. Expansion of these crops is still possible, and there is demand for food products of CGPRT origin.

Pakistan. In some parts of the mountainous areas, people depend entirely on maize as a staple. The poultry and livestock industry is also growing fast and is likely to increase the demand for maize and soybean. Soybean is, however, a new crop for Pakistan.

Introduction 11

Laos. Laos suffers from a net deficit of food resources. Upland crops, including maize and soybean, can be expanded in Laos.

Philippines. The Philippines produces a large quantity of maize, accounting for half of the area under cereals, although maize contributes only one-third to cereal production.

Republic of Korea. The area under CGPRT crops (and yields) has been decreasing, largely because of low prices, although demand is increasing. Barley, soybean, and maize are the most important crops.

Vietnam. Lack of high-yielding varieties (HYV), poor storage facilities, and technology gaps in production are some of the key factors responsible for the poor performance of CGPRT crops in Vietnam. There is, however, a demand for these crops.

Sri Lanka. Small holdings, lack of credit, shifting cultivation, and relatively low profits account for the poor performance of CGPRT crops in Sri Lanka. The approach needed is (similar to that in India) to strengthen the production of these crops.

Thailand. Thailand produces maize, soybean, mungbean and cassava on a large scale. All four commodities are largely for the export market. The recently imposed cassava quota by the EEC has brought about the need to increase the domestic demand for CGPRT crops in order to encourage crop diversification.

More detailed discussion on the utilization of CGPRT crops is given in subsequent chapters. For the region as a whole, the production, world contribution, and mean annual growth rates of the three categories of crops are given in Table 1.9. Analysis of future demand and potential production reveals that millets, maize, and cassava are likely to be important sources of energy, and mungbean and soybeans of proteins, in the Asia-Pacific region in the 1990s and beyond.

Table 1.9 Production of coarse grains, pulses, roots and tubers in the Asia-Pacific region, 1983 and annual growth rate, 1973 to 1983.

Commodity Production (m mt) Percent of world

Production

Average annual growth rate 1973-1983

Coarse grains 150.9 22 2.5% Pulses 21.1 48 0.4% Soybean 12.1 15 3.4% Roots and tubers 226.3 40 1.5%

Source: ESCAP.

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Human Nutrition and CGPRT Crops

At the UN World Food Congress held in Rome in November 1974, member nations resolved that by 1984 no child should go to bed hungry, no man should fear for his next day's bread, and no human being's physical and mental potential should be set back by malnutrition. Progress in achieving these goals has been limited, although there is a wealth of information not only on the problems but also on the means of solving them.

In the sixties, most of the ESCAP region countries were deficient in energy. Life expectancy was low, and the child mortality rate high. Large groups of people throughout the region were caught between the overlapping wheels of poverty and malnutrition (Figure 2.1). The situation has changed in the last twenty-five years for some of the developing countries as a result of increased incomes which were, in part, the result of industr ial growth, petroleum export , and other non-agricultural interventions. In other countries, however, the situation has not improved. In India, for example, while there has been a spectacular growth in crop production in the last two decades, the per capita availability of food has not changed appreciably because of the increase in population (Figure 2.2). Furthermore, the poorer segments of population who are below the poverty line continue to go hungry because they lack purchasing power. Those who gain least are the landless labourers, followed by the urban poor and rural poor. Thus agricultural development has yet to achieve the twin goals of national food security and general economic prosperity for both rural and urban people. Comparison of the FAO 1974 recommended daily intakes (RDI) for energy and nutrients, and data available for the LDCs in the region, reveals that there are widespread deficiences in energy and nutrient intake, in particular protein, and vitamins A, B, and C.

Besides the disparity in access to food and income among different groups of people, another cause is the skewed distribution of agricultural resources within countries. Thus non-irrigated rain-fed areas are frequently subject to drought and uncertain weather conditions, and the farmers cannot benefit by growing new HYV of rice and wheat, which require both irrigation and other inputs. The resource-poor farmers of these areas must therefore grow drought-tolerant, quick-maturing and often low-yielding crops. Such crops include coarse grains, some rain-fed pulses, and root and tuber crops.

Nutritive value of CGPRT crops Composition of food depends not only on the food itself, but also on various

environmental factors such as soil and water availability. Irrespective of these differences, the food categories have distinct characteristics: Pulses are rich in proteins, the lysine content is generally high, but they lack the sulphur-containing amino acids (methione and cysteine).

Human Nutrition and CGPRT Crops 14

2. Peanut is a concentrated source of energy. Indeed, the oil content of this legume is the highest of all oilseeds.

3. Most cereals and coarse grains contain about 10 percent protein and less than 5 percent fat and most have a low lysine and tryptophan content.

4. Tuber and root crops are high in starch but they lack other essential nutrients.

5. Roots and tubers have a high water content, necessitating consumption of very large quantities of these foods to meet energy and nutrient requirements.

The relative importance of CGRPT crops in various ESCAP countries in terms of their contribution to energy intake is shown in Figure 2.3.

T h e p o t e n t i a l o f s o m e C G P R T c r o p s t o p r o v i d e t h e m i n i m u m d a i l y requirements of energy and some vitamins is given in Table 2.1. Data for rice are given for comparison. Table 2.2 gives details of the yield and maturation time for these crops. Both tables confirm that root and tuber crops have a remarkably high yielding capacity compared with cereals when production of energy/ha/day is considered. Legumes, on the other hand, are relatively poor energy sources but they are excel lent sources of protein. In contrast to non- legumes and animal products, legumes yield high quantities of essential amino acids except for those containing sulphur (Figure 2.4).


15

Figure 2.2 Trends in total food production and per capita availability of energy in India, 1950 to 1970


Figure 2.3 Contribution of rice, wheat, maize and other sources in the diet of various ESCAP region

countries.

Figure 2.4 Average amino acid production per land unit.


17

Table 2.1 Number of persons per day sustained by energy and nutrient values of various crops.

Crop Energy Calcium Iron Vitamin Thia- Ribo- Ascorbic ( I ha) (calories) A mine flavin acid

Rice 61.3 2.2 33.38 0 18.5 9.3 0 Maize 27.4 1.0 9.7 25.3 42.1 24.2 48.0 Sweet potato 138.3 138.0 405.0 991.9 140.8 106.7 1370.0

Roots 122.4 85.0 105.0 324.0 100.0 40.0 1050.0 Leaves 15.9 53.0 300.0 667.8 40.0 66.7 320.0

Taro 55.4 86.4 178.3 770.8 120.0 61.5 660.0 Coras 45.8 28.8 71.7 0 107.9 24.0 180.0 Leaves 6.3 40.9 65.8 747.4 10.2 33.6 433.3 Potiole 3.3 16.7 40.8 23.4 1.9 3.9 46.7

M ungbean 29.5 17.0 78.8 4.3 60.9 20.3 27.7 Pod 42.0 159.6 150.0 347.7 158.7 168.0 1008.3 Drybean 63.6 18.0 193.4 0.7 129.0 61.5 0

Soy bean (dry) 33.6 41.0 168.8 0 40.6 16.7 trace Soy bean 36.0 87.0 194.0 6 1257.0 614.0 251.0

Source: Villareal 1970.

Table 2.2 Yield and maturation time of various CGPRT crops Crop

Yield (t/ha)

Period (months)

Persons sustained

Cassava Sweet potato Maize Rice

60 55 10 7

11 5 4.5 5

138 110 59 41

Synergism between coarse grains, pulses and tuber crops

The above discussion has indicated that on an individual basis each crop, even if eaten in sufficient quantity to meet energy requirements, lacks one or more nutrients essential for balanced growth and maintenance in humans. While coarse grains, roots and tubers are good sources of energy, their protein content is low and the quality is poorer than in pulses. Pulses in contrast are relatively low in energy. The traditional egetarian diets of Asian countries, which have evolved around the combined use of r i c e , co a r s e g r a in s , p u l s e s an d r o o t an d t u b e r c r o p s h av e ma x i mi s e d t h e complementariness of the CGPRT crops, for example, dhal . Furthermore, the different methods of food preparation including cooking, seasoning, mil l ing, fermentation and other techniques of preservation, have in part evolved so as to improve the utilization and absorption of foods produced by combining pulses with either cereals or root and tuber crops. The enhancement in the food value of combined foods and the supplementary role of pulses in the predominantly cereal foods is evident from some examples depicted Tables 2.3 and 2.4. There are numerous examples available in the literature which confirm the value of nutritional synergism between pulses, cereals and starch-rich tubers.

In vegetarian based diets, rice and wheat in conjunction with other CGPRT crops, complement each other for all the essential amino acids except the sulphur containing amino acids: cysteine and methione. The fortification of such diets with


synthetic methione from which the body can then synthesize cysteine further enhances its food value, as is reflected in the weight gain studies on experimental rats (Table 2.5). Today fortifying livestock rations with methione is a common practice in many countries.

Table 2.3 Supplementary value of legumes to rice and wheat diet.

% Protein content Weight gain/week

(gram) (a) (b) (a) (b)

Rice diet 8.5 8.5 5.7 13.7

Rice diet with: Bengal gram (2.5% extra proteins)

red gram (2.5% extra proteins)

soybean (2.5% extra proteins)

skim milk powder

11.0

11.0

11.0

11.0

11.0

11.0

8.0

7.9

8.0

19.1

19.3

21.6

(2.5% extra proteins)

11.1 11.1 22.2 23.5

Wheat diet 11.3 11.0 9.7 17.6

Wheat diet with: Bengal gram (2.2% extra proteins)

soybean 2.2% extra proteins)

red gram (2.2% extra proteins)

skim milk powder

13.4

13.6

13.3

13.3

13.5

13.0

13.7

16.3

15.3

21.7

22.5

21.8

2.2% extra proteins)

13.6 13.5 23.9 24.0

Source: Daniel, et al. 1965. J. Nutr. Diet 2. 125 (a) Without vitamins and minerals, (b) With addition of vitamins and minerals.


19

Table 2.4 Supplementary value of chickpea and other protein foods to maize-tapioca diets.

Diets % Protein content of diet on

moisture-free basis

Average weekly gain in body weight of rats

(grams) Maize-tapioca 5.08 0.6 Maize-Tapioca with: 27.6% peanut flour 19.40 17.5 29.1% of 3:1 blend of peanut flour and skim milk powder 19.40 18.5 53% chickpea flour 51.1% of 3:1 blend of chickpea flour and skim milk powder

19.80

19.80

17.2

17.8 35.3% Indian Multipurpose Food Supplement (Formula C) 19.80 18.3 38.2%, of protein food containing coconut meal 19.60 19.0 40.6% skim milk powder 19.40 19.1 source: Tasker 1962. Ind. J. Med. Res. 50,468.

Concluding remarks The rapid increase in population in most ESCAP countries has meant that the role of CGPRT crops in providing dietary energy and protein has become and will continue to become increasingly important. Several measures can be taken to ensure an adequate .and balanced diet for these people.

1. Increased production and availability of crop diversity through: 1) expansion into hitherto uncultivated areas, or more intensive crop production, 2) the use of more and bet ter product ion inputs , and 3) the breeding and widespread use of acceptable high yielding varieties. These measures, individually or in combination, can help to fill the yield gap between the physiological potential and farmers' output (Figure 2.5).

2. Correction of nutritional imbalances through breeding for varieties that have higher energy, protein, vitamin or mineral content and for varieties having proteins of better quality. Breeding programmes aimed at improving the quality of coarse grains, pulses and roots and tubers are in progress at several leading international and national institutes. Several varieties have been released that have a high nutritional value (Table 2.6 to 2.9).

3. Removal of antinutritional factors that reduce the absorption and intrinsic value of food. This can be done either by breeding of toxin free varieties or by designing s imple techniques to detoxify the grain or tubers . Examples are la thyrus improvement work in India and Bangladesh (Gowda and Kaul 1982).

4. Increasing the shelf life of food through better storage techniques.

5. Improving the processing technology to find better and diverse uses for crops and crop products.


Table 2.5 Weight gain in rats with methionine supplementation of legume proteins.

Foodstuff % Protein level Weight gain (grams)

Kidney bean, black (Phaseolus vulgaris) 10 0 + 0.3% methionine 10 65.1 Cowpea (Vigna sinensis) 10 6.3 + 0.3% methionine 10 31.5 Lentil (Lens esculenta) 10 2.1 + 0.3% methionine 10 10.5 Chickpea (Cicer arietinus) 10 27.3 + 0.3% methionine 10 60.9 Pigeonpea (Cajanus cajan) 10 4.2 + 0.3% methionine 10 6.3 Lima bean (Phaseolus lunatus) 10 4.0 + 0.1% methionine 10 30.0 Snap bean (Phaseolus vulgaris) 10 -1.0 + 0.1% methionine 10 16.0 Pea (Pisum sativum) 10 3.0 + 0.1% methionine 10 23.0 Black bean (Phaseolus vulgaris) 10 45.0 + 0.2% methionine 10 124.0 Lathyrus pea (Lathyrus sativus) 12 6.0 + 0.6% methionine 12 30.0 Green gram (Phaseolus radiatus) 12 14.4 + 0.6% methionine 12 22.7 Black gram (Phaseolus mungo) 12 20.0 + 0.6% methionine 12 38.2 Source: Verkat Rao 1964.

Figure 2.5 Factors influencing farmers' yields.


21

Table 2.6 Ranges in various important food components of sorghum and different species of millets.

Proximate analyses (%) Sorghum Pearl millet

Common millet

Foxtail millet

Little millet

Finger millet

Japanese barnyard

millet Kodo millet

Protein (Nx5.7) 7.1-14.2 7.8-19.3 9.9-17.0 9.1-14.4 6.8-12.6 3.8-10.9 9.6-10.9 6.6-12.1 Lipid 2.4- 6.5 1.5-6.8 1.9- 4.9 2.5- 6.8 5.3- 6.8 1.0- 4.6 3.0-5.1 3.4- 6.6Carbohydrate 70-90 62-89 61-80 61-72 63-71 74-88 56 73-74 Fibre 1.2-3.5 1.4-7.3 6.3- 9.0 6.3-8.1 5.7- 7.6 3.0- 7.5 13.9 6.2-10.5

Amino acids (mg/g N) Lys 71.212 109-297 89-266 115-157 114-123 160-262 106 188-214Lys amino acid score 21-62 32-87 26-78 33-46 33-36 47-77 31 55-63 Lle/Leu 1.9-5.0 1.6-3.8 2.4-4.3 1.8-3.0 1.6 1.5-2.9 1.4 1.5-3.3

Minerals (mg/100g) Calcium 11-586 30-62 15 34-617 32-598 220-855 25 25-620Phosphorus 167-751 248-950 182 310-1153 233-1102 131-904 285 247-670Iron 0.9-20.0 1.1-38.0 5-9 4-13 28-50 6.4-15 12

Vitamin (mg/100g) Thiamine 0.24-0.54 0.34-0.41 0.04-0.78 0.43 0.19-0.62 0.35 0.15-0.5Niacin 2.9-6.4 1.5-3.9 0.3-2.3 3.7 0.13-2.5 1.84 0.4 -1.0Riboflavin 0.1-0.2 0.2-0.24 0.07-0.38 0.12 0.06-0.16 0.03 0.03-0.07

Source: Hulse 1980.


Table 2.7 Some nutritionally superior genotypes reported in various coarse grains.

Highest

Highest lysine

Crop protein (%) Remarks (%) ( 0 6 9 N)

Maize (Zea mays) Normal 10 Normal 2.3 Inbreds

Up to 24 Illinois selections, only theoretical interest. -

Opaque-2(Op-2) 11 4.0 Superior to normal and F1-2. Floury-2 (Fl-2) 11 3.5 Both mutants have yet to

appear in the commercial varieties.

Barley (Herdeum vulgare) Normal 10 Normal 3.4

Hiproly 19.59 4.1 Both mutants are presently

being backcrossed into Hily 16.84 4.2 commercial varieties. 'Notch' mutant (India) 20.0 4.0 All the three mutants lack

the normal yield potential. Denmark mutants 13-15 3.5

Likely to appear commercially.

Oats (Avena saltiva) Normal 12 Normal 4.1

Garland (USA) 17.2 4.1 Canadian selection 28.5 3.7 Ideal for making protein

Israel (A. sterillis) 15-30 concentrates.

Sorghum (Sorghum vulgare) Normal 10 Normal 1.8

Purdue selections Up to 26 Up to 3.8 Recently two Opaque-like Indian selections Up to 20 Up to 3.0 mutants have been reported.

Pearl Millet (Pennisetum typhoides) Normal 9 Normal 2.0

Indian selections Up to 18 Up to 3.8 Source: Kaul in Pirie 1975.

Table 2.8 Chemical composition and seed characteristics of whole grain sample of high lysine and normal sorghum lines.

High lysine lines

Character

IS 11167 IS 11158 Normal sorghum

Protein composition: Protein % 15.70 17.20 12.70 Lysine, g/100g protein 3.33 3.13 2.05 Lysine, % of sample 0.52 0.54 0.26

Chemical composition: Oil % 5.81 6.61 3.32 Seed characteristics: Percent germ 14.60 16.30 10.10

Seed weight, g/100 seeds 2.78 2.45 2.75

Carbohydrate composition: Sucrose, % of sample 3.08 2.61 1.03 Starch, % of sample 58.90 57.80 60.80

Source: Singh and Axtell 1973. Crop Science 13,535-539.


23

Table 2.9 Genetic variability for yield and protein quality in sorghum.

Mean Range S.No. Attribute

Parents Hybrids Parents Hybrids

FAO Provisional

Protein Pattern

1. Yield (gm/plant) 37.81 58.29 6.91-88.41 1.27-120.44 - 2. Seed size (gm) 2.78 3.17 1.08-3.49 1.79-4.15 - 3. Grain hardness (kg) 8.01 8.95 3.70-10.29 4.75-11.21 -4. Protein percent 14.12 14.51 12.16-18.31 11.63-19.25 -5. Lysine 1.86 1.67 1.51-2.13 1.35-2.29 4.36. Threonine 3.01 2.96 2.74-3.26 2.38-4.27 3.37. Methionine 1.09 1.05 0.62-1.47 0.33-1.63 1.78. Cystine 1.02 0.97 0.90-1.34 0.61-3.28 1.7

(half cystine) 9. Isoleucine 3.85 3.95 3.55-4.08 3.52-5.72 4.3

10. Leucine 14.05 15.08 13.30-14.90 13.82-22.98 4.911. Phenylalanine 5.19 5.36 4.80-5.79 4.90-7.85 2.912. Tyrosine 4.39 4.43 4.23-4.60 3.93-6.73 2.513. Valine 5.05 5.09 4.12-5.58 4.13-6.71 2.8 14. Tryptophan - -15. Total essential amino acids 39.50 40.5516. Leucine/Lysine 7.57 9.0517. Carotene 36.81 30.84 12.83-60.60 8.46-63.97

Source: IARI, Genetics Division.

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3

Coarse Grains

Coarse grains production The important coarse grains and their areas of production are given in Table 3.1. About 40 percent of the world's cereal grains are produced in the ESCAP region of

which over one-fifth are coarse grains (Table 3.2), the remainder being rice and wheat. China and India produce 60 percent and 22 percent, respectively, of the coarse grains.

Forty percent of the coarse grains is maize, of which just under two-thirds is produced and consumed in China alone. India produces 11 percent of the region's maize, Indonesia 6 percent and the Philippines and Thailand, 6 percent each.

Eighteen percent of the remaining coarse grains is sorghum, 18 percent barley and 15 percent millets. China and India produce 43 percent and 51, 70 and 6, 52 and 45 percent of these respective crops each.

Table 3.1 Important coarse grains in ESCAP region countries.

Barley (Hordeum vulgare) DPR Korea, Rep. Korea, Mongolia, Japan, China, India.

Maize (Zea mays) China, India, Thailand. Indonesia, Philippines, Pakistan, Nepal, Afghanistan.

Finger millet (Eleucine coracana) India, China, Sri Lanka, Bangladesh.

Common millet (Panicum miliaceum) India, Sri Lanka, Bangladesh.

Italian millet (Sataria italica) India, Bangladesh, China. Sorghum (Sorghum bicolor) India, China, Papua New Guinea,

Sri Lanka.

Pearl millet (Ennisetum typhoides) India, Bangladesh, Pakistan.

Barnyard millet (Paspalum scrabiculatum) India, China.

Teff (Erugrostis tet) Nepal, China.

Grain Amaranth (Amaranthus particulatus) Nepal.

Little millet (Panicum miliare) India.

Coarse grains are the staple food for millions of people living in the vast rain-fed, semi-arid zone of peninsular India and their fodder is important as animal feed. Sorghum is the main staple and is cultivated on 60 percent of the land although finger

25

Table 3.2 Production of selected cereal crops in the countries of the ESCAP region 1980 (000 mt),

Country Rice

Paddy Wheat All

coarse grainsa

Maize Barley Millets Sorghum Oats Rye Others b

China 141000 56002 85118 36505 18000 11003 11010 1000 1800 5800 India 83000 31564 30316 6400 1616 9500 12800 - - -Indonesia 28860 - 3604 3600 - - - - - -Thailand 17400 - 3504 3150 - - 350 - - -Philippines 7431 - 3117 3117 - - - - - - Pakistan 4800 10757 1703 963 130 330 280 - - -Afghanistan 421 2700 1158 797 321 40 - - - - Iran 1150 5200 1092 57 1000 25 10 - - -Rep. of Korea 6000 92 988 161 811 3 4 - 5 4 Nepal' 2444 440 874 700 24 150 - - - -Vietnam 11000 - 577 540 - - 37 - - -Burma 13000 65 140 80 - 60 - - -Dem. Kampuchea 1200 100 100 - - - - - -Mongolia - 270 98 - 60 - - - - - Bhutan 300 65 80 60 10 5 - - - 5Bhangladesh 20990 1200 52 2 II 1 - - 39 Laos DPR 1000 - 52 52 - - - - - -Sri Lanka 1950 - 45 22 20 3 - -Malaysia 2129 - 13 13 - - - - - Fiji 30 - 6 4 - - 2 - - -P. New Guinea 2 - 6 2 - - - - - -ESCAP Developing

Countries Total 343943 108355 132644 56325 21983 21136 24500 1037 1805 5857

Australia 610 10800 5084 127 2890 22 758 1260 17 10 New Zealand - 325 544 185 295 - 64 I -Japan 12180 620 466 5 410 4 1 20 I - ESCAP Developed

Countries Total 12800 11745 6094 317 3595 26 759 1344 19 10

ESCAP Total 356743 120100 138738 56641 25578 21162 25259 2381 1824 5867

World Total 397864 444833 723781 368813 174916 33948 61870 42588 27186 14459

Source: FAO 1981. 'Arranged in descending order of production within each nutrigeons bOthers include : popcorn. buck wheat. quinoa. canary seed. mixed grains and cereals.

26

Coarse Grains

27

millet and pearl millet are also important. Maize is the staple in Nepal, parts of China and the hilly terrains of northern India, Pakistan and Afghanistan. In Southeast Asia, particularly Thailand and Malaysia, maize is produced for animal feed and export.

The rate of growth in the imports and exports of some of the major coarse grains in ESCAP countries are given in Table 3.3.

Sorghum is more drought tolerant than other cereals and thus in less favourable environmental conditions it yields more energy/ha than other cereals or coarse grains.

The whole grains of a l l cereals have a s imilar chemical const i tu t ion and nutritive value (Table 3.4). All are good sources of energy and all provide protein, some good quality protein. The amino acid composition of grains varies (Table 3.5). Most cereals including coarse grains contain very little lysine, and maize also lacks t ryptophan. Some new var ie t ies of maize (opaque-2 and f loury-2) have grea ter amount of lys ine and t ryptophan than the more t rad i t ional var ie t ies . However, these varieties are relatively low yielding. The oil content of maize germ is higher, hence maize is an important source of edible oil.

In the Asia-Pacific region, coarse grains are the staple food for the poorer sections of the population while in developed countries they are used mainly as animal feed or for industrial purposes.

Characteristics of coarse grains The main characteristics of coarse grains, like those of rice and wheat are:

1. The outer-most layers known as the pericarp and testa are hard and contain much indigestible fibre.

2. Below is the alemone layer which is rich in protein. 3. Inside the alemone layer is the endosperm and germ; the former is rich in starch and

protein and the latter, protein fat and B vitamins. The endosperm is hard and not easily hydrated, therefore, cooking to softness is slow.

4. Coarse grains lack wheat-like gluten and, therefore, cannot be used in baking as

with wheat.

5. Coarse grains have a strong flavour.

6. A finer product can be processed, though milling can be expensive while wet grinding may deplete nutritive value.

Some of the advances made in improving the appearance, fineness and uses of

coarse grains are:

1. Semi-refined flour-milling using improved grinding procedures and application of sieving through which the outer husk can be removed before the endosperm is finely ground.

2. Dry roller milling to remove bran and germ produces fine flour, grits and semolina.

Coarse Grains 28

Table 3.3 Rates of growth of imports and exports of major coarse grains and other feed ingredients in selected ESCAP countries, 1961 to 1976. (%/annum).

Imports Exports

Country

Maize Barley

and oats

Millet and

sorghum

Bran and milling

by- products

Oilseed cakes

and meals Maize

Barley And

sorghum

Millet and

Sorghum

Bran and milling by-

products

Oilseed cake and meals

India -18.5 -15.6b - - 10.5 - - 15.1 2.2 4.5 Indonesia - - - -3.5 - - 27.4 9.2 Japan 8.7 14.0 11.2 -1.2 10.6 - - - - - Peninsular

Malaysia 12.6 7.9 - 9.8 11.5 - - - -9.2 30.1Pakistan -26.9 - - - - - 23.5 3.4Philippines 20.8 9.0 - - 13.5 - - - -5.5 7.1 Rep. of Korea 22.6 8:9 n.a - 12. - - - - -Sri Lanka -4.5 -11.4 - - - - - - 4.0Singapore 16.0 4.5 - 0.5 16.3 - - - - - Thailand - -1.2 - 5.4 27.5 7.0 - 13.3 21.6 4.4

Source: FAO Trade Yearbooks, 1961-1976 a'Growth rate on estimated trend line boats only

Coarse Grains

29

Table 3.4 Energy and nutrient composition of cereals and millet grains.

Protein (%)

Fat (%)

Carbo- hydrates

Fibre (%)

Calcium (mg/100g)

Iron (mg/100g)

Thiamine mg/100g

(VitaminB1 )

Riboflavin mg/100g

(Vitamin B2)

Wheat 12.1 1.7 69.4 1.9 48 11.5 0.49 0.29 Rice 7.2 2.3 75.1 0.7 10 4.5 0.29 0.21Barley 11.5 1.3 69.6 3.9 26 3.0 0.47 0.20 Oatmeal 13.6 7.6 62.8 3.5 50 3.8 0.54 0.12Maize 11.1 3.6 66.2 2.7 10 2.0 0.42 0.17Sorghum 10.4 1.9 72.6 1.6 25 5.8 0.37 0.27 Bajra (Pennisetum

typhodenum) 11.6 5.0 67.5 1.2 42 14.3 0.33 0.16 Ragi (Eleucine

coranana) 7.3 1.3 72.0 3.6 344 17.4 0.42 0.10 Italian millet

(Setaria italica) 12.3 4.3 60.9 8.0 31 12.9 0.59 0.08 Pany Yaragu (Panicum

mitiacum) 12.5 1.1 70.4 2.2 14 11.5 0.20 0.18 Source: Nutritive Value of Indian Foods and the Planning of Satisfactory Diets, Indian Council of Medical Research 1966

Coarse Grains 30

Table 3.5 Amino acid content per 16 g of total nitrogen of cereals and millet grains.

Trypto- phan

Threo-nine

Isoleu-tine

Leucine LysineSulphur containing amino acids

Methio- Cystine Total nine

Phenyl-alanine

Tryosine Valine Argi- nine

Histi-dine

Wheat grain (whole flour) 1.15 2.69 4.05 6.26 2.56 1.42 2.05 3.47 4.61 3.49 4.32 4.46 1.90

Wheat (white flour) 1.12 2.62 4.19 7.02 2.08 1.20 1.82 3.02 5.01 3.12 3.94 4.05 1.82Rice (brown, converted, white) 1.02 3.73 4.46 8.21 3.76 1.71 1.30 3.01 4.78 4.35 6.66 5.49 1.60

Barley 1.17 3.15 3.97 6.48 3.15 1.34 1.87 3.22 4.82 3.39 4.69 4.80 1.74Corn (corn meal) 0.61 3.98 0.62 12.96 2.88 1.86 1.30 3.15 4.54 6.11 5.10 3.52 2.06Sorghum 1.12 3.50 5.44 16.06 2.72 1.73 1.66 3.39 4.98 2.75 5.71 3.79 1.92Pearl millet(Penniscium glaucum ) 2.03 3.75 5.20 14.29 3.14 2.21 1.25 3.46 4.14 5.58 4.29 1.97

Ragi millet 1.28 4.06 5.98 9.33 3.04 4.06 2.82 6.88 3.95 7.12 1.50 1.18Foxtail millet (Setariaitalica) 0.99 3.10 7.60 16.06 2.10 2.8 - - 6.70 - 6.90 3.60 2.10

Little millet (Panicum miliare) 0.61 3.39 6.70 10.90 1.79 2.30 4.80 6.10 4.70 1.90

Source: Carr. M.L. and Walt, G.T. Amino Acid content of foods: in Home Economics Report No. 4 (US Dept Agric., Washington 1957)

3. Pearling is a common manual practice to remove the outer husk and leaves the grain resembling polished rice; mechanized devices are now available. Moist conditioning of grain, followed by milling in a vertical rice polishing cone, removes the husk effectively. In the case of maize, degerming and debranning are achieved simultaneously.

4. Lye peeling of husk with dilute alkali or acid treatment is effective but expensive.

5. Flaking for breakfast purposes is possible with sorghum as with maize.

6. Puffing is widespread in rural areas. Puffed maize (popcorn) is very popular in most Asian countries, where corn in grown.

7. The nutritional value of extruded products such as noodles and macaroni, made from maize, sorghum, and millets could be improved with fortification in mixing. Wheat mixed with coarse grains gives good quality flours and flour products. Fermented and instant ready mixes for Dosa have been prepared out of ragi, sorghum and maize.

Sorghum and millets Sorghum and millets are frequently regarded as poor man's food and there are social prejudices against their use. They are not as palatable as rice or wheat. Grain sorghum is a drought-resistant crop, which gives dependable and stable yields in both monsoon (khan) and winter ( rabi ) seasons. In India, sorghum is consumed in the form of unleavened breads. Sorghum also has potential as a raw material in the food processing industry (fermented and puffed products) and in the baby food industry.

In recent years, sorghum production in India has shown a considerable rise, particularly as a result of the introduction of high yielding hybrid cultivars.

Nutritional quality of sorghum Sorghum is characterised by low levels of lysine, threonine and tryptophan. higher levels of prolamin and leucine; the presence of phenolic compounds and the coarse nature of the grain. The low lysine limits the use of sorghum proteins. The high prolamin content decreases the level of lysine and the high leucine level interferes with the utilization of niacin and predisposes to pellagra. The phenolic compounds, mainly tannins, have a tendency to form an indigestible complex with proteins. During the past 20 years, considerable work has been done in identifying these factors in order to improve grain quality. However, considerable scope still exists for improvement of the nutritional value of sorghum by utilising genetic agronomic and processing technologies.

The nutritional value of sorghum diets can be improved by adding pulses. This results in an enhanced Protein Efficiency Ratio (PER) and a higher biological value (Table 3.6). Indeed it is already a common practice of sorghum consumers to eat pulse dhal with sorghum bread.

31

Coarse Grains 32

Table 3.6 The effect of protein supplementation of sorghum on the growth of weaning rates.

Protein Average Average

Supple- content weight protein Sorghun Protein mentation of diet grain intake Average diet (%) supplement (%) (%) (g/week) (g/week) PER

78.5 10.3 8.4 4.4 1.9 63.5 Chickpea 15.0 12.9 15.8 7.0 2.4 63.5 Pigeonpea 15.0 12.9 15.7 7.8 2.4 73.5 Soyflour 5.0 12.9 16.3 7.2 2.3 68.5 Soyflour 10.0 15.5 18.4 8.4 2.0

Source: Daniel.1968

Sweet sorghum

In India, two other types of sorghum are cultivated on a limited basis. They are characterized by sweet stalks and sweet grains and are referred to as sweet sorghum. The sweet stalk varieties have attracted breeders and industrialists because of their potential as a source of syrup for food processing and medicines, and for alcohol as an energy source to substitute for oil. The sweet sorghum varieties for syrup need the following characteristics: 1) ability to produce high yields of medium to large stalks, 2) strong erect growth, not easily lodged during storms, 3) high percentage of extractable juice, 4) resistance to diseases and pests, 5) relatively short growing period, 6) tolerance to drought, 7) adaptation to a wide range of soil and climatic conditions.

The protein and nutritional quality of sorghum can be improved by natural lactic acid fermentation of sorghum flour (Table 3.7). More studies on the microflora of sorghum and their influence upon the wholesomeness of the fermentation process is needed. Mycotoxins produced in the grain prior to fermentation pose a health problem. In addition to bhakri, other nutritious processed foods such as breakfast foods, snacks and weaning foods can be prepared from fermented and reground sorghum flour. Multiple uses of sorghum and pearl millet (India)

Subramanian and Jambunathan (personal communication) conducted a survey on the traditional methods of sorghum and pearl millet preparation in 171 villages in seven major states in India, where 79 percent of the sorghum and millet production takes place, and make the following observations on their use and storage: 1. Sorghum, predominantly white in colour, is preferred;

2. Grain is stored and consumed by farmers up to one year after the harvest;

3. Depending on needs and local habits, grain is processed in different ways from place to

place;

4. Dry milling into grits is common;

5. Grits (called rawa or nuchu) are made by husking and grinding the sorghum;

6. Wet-milling of whole grains is also practiced;

Coarse Grains

33

Table 3.7 Composition of non-fermented and fermented sorghum meals.

Constituents Non- fermented

Fermented Significance between meals

Proximate analysis (%) Crude protein 10.2 14.48 NS Crude fibre 2.45 2.35 NS Crude fat 3.13 3.20 NS Ash 1.56 1.40 NS Carbohydrates 82.84 82.57 NS

Available amino acids (mg/gN) Lysine 23.40 59.38 P< 0.001 Leucine 27.50 59.38 P< 0.001 Isoleucine 38.67 81.62 P< 0.001 Methionine 15.98 33.35 P< 0.001 %, R.N.V. 70.00 83.72 P< 0.001

Protein digestibility (%) With papain 1.42 8.33 P< 0.005 Without papain 1.36 8.21 P< 0.005

Carbohydrate availability (%) Reducing sugars 0.19 0.42 P< 0.001 Starch (with takadiastase ) 16.70 31.82 P< 0.001 Starch (without takadiastase ) 1.36 8.21 P< 0.001

Vitamins (mcg/g) Niacin 37.90 41.30 P< 0.001 Thiamine 20.20 47.10 P< 0.001 Riboflavin 0.90 1.30 P< 0.005 With papain 1.42 8.33 P< 0.005

Source: Karanas and Fields 1981. aMeans of four replications.

7. Wet-mi l led (12-hour soaked in water or but te rmi lk) ba t te r , a long wi th

blackgram, is fermented for 12 to 72 h in the southern states; 8. Flour making with traditional or mechanical grinders is very common;

9. Fermentation of whole grains, which is better, is sometimes practiced;

10. Popping and roasting of sorghum is practiced in some villages;

11. In Madya Pradesh, papads are made out of wet-milled sorghum;

12. Flour, grits or batter are used to produce seven basic types of preparations;

13. Roti or bread, is the most common of all preparations;

14. Grits are used to make porridges; pulses often complement this preparation;

15. Steamed, fried and extruded snack products are often made.

Coarse Grains 34

Given the range of foods prepared from sorghum and millets (Table 3.8), plant breeders and food technologists have an important task in improving the nutritional quality and use of these grains as food stuffs.

Table 3.8 Examples of food products prepared from sorghum

Bread Porridge Gruel Cooked Steamed Fried Others(snacks)

Roti Muddhae Kuzh Anna 17 (1 Idly Dosa Avilakki Bhakri Kanya Ganji Guguru Savagi Kurdigi Halwa Thalipith Pulugam Rabaldi Sogari Pundkle Paped Phuli Gurchandia Dhalia Sanja Thuli D o k 1 a Ponganua Kohuri

Examples of food products prepared from pearl millet. Bread Porridge Gruel Cooked Steamed Fried Others(snacks)

Roti Sanakati Kuzh Ghugri Idly Dosa Mayu Rotla Kichadi Rabadi Upm Kudumu Puda Sukhadi Debra Kali Rob Anna-koot Gutta Gore Chicki Thepla Lapsi Ghense Kolab Dokla Dokla Ladwa

Source: Subramanian and Jambunathan 1980.

Maize Maize in general, is more resistant to drought than either rice or wheat, yields per

hectare are good, the crop is free of bird predation, and matures relatively quick. Burma and Laos have significantly increased their area and production of maize,

though total areas involved are small. In most Southeast Asian countries, maize is becoming an important feed crop for

poultry and swine. I ts role as a staple energy source is fall ing in many of the traditional maize eating populations. Maize faces several agronomic, marketing, demand, post-harvest and consumer acceptance constraints in many South Asian countries (Prabowo and Saragih 1984).

Nutritive quality of maize The nutrient composition of maize differs from that of other cereals in a number of

important respects. The principal protein in maize is zein, which lacks lysine and tryptophan.

A major breakthrough in the improvement of protein quality in maize became possible when Opaque-2 and Floury-2 mutants, having high lysine and high tryptophan content, were discovered in the USA. The genes for the high protein value in Opaque-2 have been incorporated into Opaque-2 composite varieties in India but, because of the relatively low yielding characteristics of the new varieties, high lysine types have not become as popular as expected although feeding experiments with rats indicated that the biological value is high.

Coarse Grains

35

Yellow maize contains a mixture of carotenoids including carothene, cryptoxanthin and B-zeacarotene which have provitamin A activity, while maize, in contrast, has very little provitamin A activity.

The nicotinic acid in maize is bound and without processing is unavailable, thus predisposing maize eating people to pellagra.

Maize grain is considered deficient in mineral and vitamin content. Yellow grain contains 490 IU of Vitamin A activity per 100 g, while white maize has no Vitamin A activity. Genetic improvement of Vitamin A and B content in maize is possible. Multiple uses of maize

Maize has a multiplicity of uses which are shown in Figure 3.1. The most recent development is the production of high fructose corn syrup using enzymates which convert dextrose to fructose. The different steps in the wet-milling process of maize, as opposed to dry-milling for flour, and some end products are shown in Figure 3.2.

Eighty-five percent of maize produced in the region is consumed directly as human food while the fodder silage and stovers contribute to livestock nourishment. Breeding for high productivity of both grain and fodder has not received much attention. It is unfortunate that emphasis has always been on grain improvement alone given that farmers also grow maize for fodder and fuel purposes. It is generally believed that varieties of maize superior in grain quality are also suitable for fodder purposes since high yielding maize plants are more robust and the biomass content of the ears is high. The digestibility of the ear, leaf and stalk are 86, 61 and 48 percent, respectively. By maximizing the yield of the ear component in the plant, overall forage value can be increased.

The broad objectives in a forage maize-breeding programme should be to maximize dry-matter yield and dry-matter content: to improve feed quality and to breed for resistance to lodging. The relative importance of these objectives would vary depending on the country and environmental conditions.

Figure 3.1 Uses of maize.

36

Figure 3.2 Wet-milling of maize and principal products.

37

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4

Pulses The availability and intake of protein, especially animal protein, is low in most of

the developing countries of the ESCAP region. (Table 4.1) Cereals including coarse grains would provide an adequate amount of dietary protein if enough was eaten to meet the energy requirements. Some of the amino acids making up cereal proteins cannot be synthesized by the human body. These are known as essential amino acids some of which are available in limited quantities in cereal proteins.

Table 4.1 Food supply: protein per capita per day in ESCAP region countries.

Grand Total Vegetable Products Animal Products

Country 1969-71 1978-80 1969-71 1978-80 1969-71 1978-80

Developing Countries Bangladesh 43.9 40.6 37.5 35.3 6.5 5.3 Bhuta - - - - - - Burma 55.9 59.2 48.0 51.2 8.0 8.0 China 55.7 65.4 46.6 53.5 9.1 11.9 Dem. Kampuchea 51.4 41.7 43.1 35.6 8.2 6.2 Korea, DPR 71.9 83.5 60.3 67.1 11.6 16.3 Fiji 51.1 68.0 34.2 42.1 17.0 25.9 India 49.5 48.5 44.8 43.9 4.8 4.7 Indonesia 40.9 47.3 36.0 41.9 4.8 5.4 Lao, DPR 56.3 49.8 46.9 41.2 9.4 8.7 Malaysia 51.4 59.1 34.5 35.4 16.9 23.8 Maldives 58.2 61.5 34.1 36.1 24.1 25.4 Mongolia 95.2 101.1 30.2 37.6 65.0 63.5 Nepal 49.4 45.6 42.4 39.0 7.0 6.7 Pakistan 58.4 60.2 44.3 46.1 14.0 14.1 Papua N. Guinea 45.1 46.7 29.6 30.9 15.5 15.7 Philippines 47.7 51.7 29.4 33.2 18.3 18.5 Rep. of Korea 66.1 78.0 57.2 61.5 9.0 16.5 W. Samoa 48.5 50.5 26.6 27.7 21.9 22.8 Sri Lanka 46.1 44.3 37.9 37.6 8.2 6.7 Thailand 47.5 47.5 35.9 35.4 11.6 12.0 Tonga 42.1 66.7 31.1 40.0 10.9 26.8 Vanuatu 63.3 65.1 30.8 33.3 32.5 31.8 Vietnam 52.7 49.3 40.7 37.4 11.9 11.9 Developed Countries Australia 101.1 97.9 34.2 33.0 66.7 64.9 Japan 82.4 88.4 45.6 43.3 36.7 45.1 New Zealand 112.4 115.9 34.0 35.3 78.4 80.6

Source: RAPA 1984 a Food supply figures do no t necessa ry reflect food consumption.

Pulses, unlike cereals, are good sources of lysine. Thus cereals and pulses complement each other to give a more balanced diet and indeed in the Asia-Pacific region, these two foodstuffs have been historically the major components in the diet. The complementary role of pulses is clear from the improvement in the nutritive value

39

Pulses 40

of cereals brought about by replacement of 10 to 15 percent energy of cereals by food legumes. Pulses contribute more to protein intake in the human diet than do animal and fish products together. Pulses are also important sources of energy (Table 4.2). The rapidly expanding population and increased demand for staple food has meant that cereals, because of their greater productivity/hectare (and hence energy supply) are grown on the more fertile lands, and pulses in the more marginal areas. From the nutritional point of view, this trend is disappointing. Research is necessary to improve the yields of pulse crops, and to breed for types that respond to higher inputs. Pulses are an important food for young children whose protein and energy requirements are proportionally higher than in all other groups together, with large amounts of bulky cereal or root and tuber staples necessary to meet their minimum daily energy intake. A good strategy would be to grow high-energy crops, namely cereals, roots and tubers, along with pulses. Besides meeting the protein needs of the farmers, the pulse crop will serve two other roles. It will provide fodder for cattle and add nitrogen (and other organic matter) to the soil. Kim (1981) has listed 7 major attributes of pulses emphasizing their place in the ESCAP region's cropping patterns.

1. Qualitative importance in vegetarian diet, 2. Raw material for industrial animal feed,

3. Practicality in the storage and transport of proteins,

4. Multiple edible forms,

5. Simplicity in preparation,

6. Importance in Asian cropping systems,

7. Adaptability to low input conditions.

Grain legume crops grown in the Asia-Pacific region are given in Table 4.3. The availability of legumes is listed in Table 4.4. India alone produces 56 percent of the ESCAP region's total pulses. Pulses' yields have remained low; their production is either stagnant or dropping. Neither HYV nor improved technology have been developed for pulses in most Countries. In the Indian subcontinent, the land once planted to pulses now produces wheat during the winter months and rice and maize in the summer months. The low market demand for pulses is a major constraint to productivity as identified by the Asian Productivity Organization survey (Table 4.5).

Production could be stimulated by incentives such as increasing the farm gate price. Other alternatives are: 1) increasing the yield of pulses through genetic manipulation, 2) developing appropriate low input high production technology, 3) reducing post-harvest losses, 4) diversifying consumer uses and 5) encouraging research on high potential legumes such as soybean.

Pulses 41

Table 4.2 Energy and nutrients supplied by pulses in selected ESCAP countries.

Country Nutrient Grand Totala Total (plant sources)

Pulses Subtotal

Grand Totala Total (plant sources)

Pulses Subtotal

1972-1974 1975-1977

Bangladesh Calories (cal) 1,949 1,973 29 1,945 1,880 25 Proteins (g) 43.2 36.6 1.8 42.4 36.6 1.5 Fats (g) 13.8 9.3 0.29 14.6 10.7 0.2

India Calories (cal) 1,967 1,861 134 1,951 1,851 148 Proteins (g) ' 48.5 43.2 7.9 48.4 43.2 8.3 Fats (g) 29.0 21.6 1.2 29.4 22.4 1.3

Indonesia Calories (cal) 2,031 1,982 16 2,115 2,067 17 Proteins (g) 42.0 36.6 1.0 43.7 38.6 1.1 Fats (g) 26.5 23.7 0.1 29.9 27.1 0.1

Korea, Rep. of Calories (cal) 2,749 2,596 8 2,683 2,510 12 Proteins (g) 72.0 58.9 0.5 73.1 58.6 0.8 Fats (g) 24.1 14.0 - 26.5 15.1 -

Malaysia (Peninsular) Calories (cal) 2,539 2,305 30 2,594 2,314 Proteins (g) 45.1 36.6 18 55.4 35.4 1.0 Fats (g) 47.2 30.0 0.1 45.9 30.0 -

Nepal Calories (cal) 2,019 1,878 39 2,069 1,931 31 Proteins (g) 49.7 42.2 2.2 49.5 42.5 1.8

Fats (g) 27.2 17.3 0.5 27.3 17.5 0.4 Pakistan

Calories (cal) 2,128 1,922 76 2,225 1,974 72 Proteins (g) 57.2 44.6 4.3 62.0 46.4 4.0 Fats (g) 33.3 20.2 0.9 41.4 21.9 0.9

Papua New Guinea Calories (cal) 2,221 1,981 52 2,248 2,019 52

Proteins (g) 477 29.5 3.4 45.9 29.8 3.3 Fats (g) 35.4 18.2 0.3 37.6 20.5 0.3

Philippines Calories (cal) 2,957 1,744 6.0 2,156 1,922 9

Proteins (g) 45.5 28.6 0.4 59.5 31.6 0.6 Fats (g) 29.9 15.4 - 33.8 18.4 -

Sri Lanka Calories (cal) 2,075 1,991 39 2,044 1,969 9 Proteins (g) 40.9 34.3 2.4 41.2 34.6 0.6

Fats (g) 44.4 39.6 0.2 45.4 41.3 - Thailand

Calories (cal) 2,302 2,141 20 2,189 2,054 9 Proteins (g) 49.5 36.3 1.2 46.1 34.0 1.6 Fats (g) 26.4 15.5 0.1 22.9 14.3 -

Source: FAO Provisional Food Balance Sheet, Year average 1972/74 Rome 1976 FAO Food Balance Sheets; Year average 1975-1977, aIncludes plant and animal sources.

Pulses 42

Table 4.3 Pulses in Asia-Pacific region: major producing and consuming countries.

Crops Major Producers and Consumers

Pigeonpea (Cajanus cajan) India, Bangladesh. Chickpea (Citer arietinum) India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Nepal,

Afghanistan, Iran. Lentil (Lens culinaris) India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Nepal.,

Iran. Mungbean (Vigna radiata) India, Thailand, Burma, Sri Lanka,

Indonesia, Philippines, China. Black gram (Vigna munga) India, Pakistan, Sri Lanka.Pea (Pisum sativum) Iran, Pakistan, India, Bangladesh. Cowpea (Vigna catjang) India, Bangladesh, Philippines, China. Lathyrus (Lathyrus sativus) India, Bangladesh, Nepal.Groundnut (Rchis hypogeae) India, China, Indonesia.Soybean (Blycine max) China, Thailand, Philippines,

Indonesia, India, Korea. Drybean (Vigna vulgaris) Japan.Winged bean (Psophocarpus

tetragonolobis) Papua New Guinea, Thailand.

Table 4.4 Availability of legumes: selected Asian countries, 1973.a

Country Dry beans

Broad beans

Dry peas

Chick pea

Pigeon peas

Cow peas

Soy bean

Ground nuts Others Total

India Indonesia Malaysia Philippines Thailand Sri Lanka Vietnam Kampuchea Laos South Korea

8. - -

0.6 - -

2.3 7.6

- 1.

- -

- 0.9 - - - - -

3.8 - - - -

5.9 - - -

0.1

20.4 - - - -

2.9 - - - -

8.2 - - - - - - - - -

- - -

- 0.5 - - - -

7.6 7.6 5.5 0.5 1.5

- 1.0 0.6

- 13.7

10.6 10.6

1.0 1.1 3.9 1.0 1.5 3.9 0.7 0.4

11.6 11.6

8.9 2.6 6.6

11.1 4.2

- 10.8

0.4

50.4 29.8 15.4

4.8 12.9 21.4

8.9 12.1 11.5 16.1

a g/cap./day

Mungbean

Out of some 43 million mt of pulses (not including nearly 100 mt of soybean and groundnut) produced annually in the world, mungbean produced in the Asian region accounts for only 1.1 mt. This represents only 5 percent of the ESCAP region's total pulses production. Mungbean is cultivated on 2.8 million ha in the whole South Asian region (9 percent of the area under all pulses). India accounts for 80 percent of area and about 76 percent of the region's produce. In spite of the relatively small area under mungbean, it has been singled out for discussion since it is one pulse crop that is likely to become extremely important in the future because:

1. Mungbean is a short-duration crop, taking only 55 to 80 days to mature.

2. It is a warm climate pulse crop suitable for large areas in the Southeast Asian region.

Table 4.5 Constraints to productivity of grain legumes.

Country

Small subsis- tance

holding

Rain-fed cultiva-

tion

Lack of HYV

seed

Lack of HYV techno-

logy

Lack of extension

Pests/ diseases

Poor market demand

Poor post- harvest storage facility

Lack of

credit

Lack of

input

Competitionfrom

cereals

Lack of

Policy a

Bangladesh x x x x x x

India x x x x x x x

Nepal x x x x x x

Pakistan x x x

Sri Lanka x x x x x

Indonesia x x x x x

Philippines x x x x x

Thailand • x x

Japan x x x x

Source: Based on Asian Productivity Council's Survey 1981. a . a Price fluctuations, no procurement policy.

43

3. I t has the ab i l i ty to adapt to a wide range of thermo- and photosensi t ive conditions as its centre of origin is in the Asian regions.

4 . The protein production of mungbean, measured on the basis of yields/h/day is high. In the Philippines, for example, it exceeds rice.

5 . Mungbean is accepted and consumed throughout the region.

6 . Protein quantity and quality based on the other nutritional and non-nutritional factors is high (Table 4.6).

7 . Mungbean fits into varied cropping patterns as an intercrop with other cereal and cash crops.

8 . High quality noodles and baby, foods have been produced using mungbean as the primary ingredient.

Compared to other pulses, mungbean proteins have a better nutritive value. The protein content varies between 20 to 30 percent, depending on variety and environmental conditions. Like other foods legumes, mungbean grain lacks the sulfur containing amino acids, cysteine and methionine. Supplementation with these amino acids improves the Protein Efficiency Ratio (PER) of mungbean (Table 4.7). Black gram has slightly higher methionine content than mungbean, but its digestibility is comparatively lower. Intercrosses have been made between the two species to select high methionine hybrids. Bes ides having pro te ins of h igh qual i ty , mungbean products have o ther essential nutr ients . Mungbean or bean sprouts, used in Chinese and Japanese cooking, contain high amounts of Vitamin C. Production of sprouts for vegetable markets could be a good small-scale income earning opportunity in urban areas and would help improve the nutritional status of the population at the same time. The forms in which mungbean is eaten in different countries varies considerably. In each country, unique techniques have evolved but the underlying principle is always the complementation of the staple food with the legume crop. Recent developments include the preparation of baby foods and pre-cooked or instant products. The food technology institutes in Thailand, Philippines and India have done considerable work in these areas. Improvements in the breeding of mungbean could achieve a reduced cooking time, which could in turn cut down fuel expenses. Furthermore, diversification of uses through the transfer of traditional technology from one country to another or through development of products such as baby foods, noodles or instant pre-cooked mixtures would enhance the value of the mungbean crop. This crop is likely to expand in area under cultivation and demand.

44

Table 4.6 Nutrient composition of mungbean and mungbean products.

Pro- tein Fat Ash

Fibre N-free ext.

Minerals (mg %) Vitamins (mg %)Mungbean products Cal

Mois ture ( % )

(g) Ca Mg P Fe Na K Aa B1 B2 Nia. CIndia Seeds, raw 334 10.4 24.0 1.3 3.5 4.1 56.7 124 171 326 7.3 28 843 157 0.47 0.39 2.10 0Dhal 348 10.1 24.5 1.2 3.5 0.8 59.9 75 189 405 8.5 27.2 1150 82 0.72 0.15 2.40 0

Philippines Seeds, raw 356 6.1 24.4 1.0 3.9 4.3 64.6 125 340 5.7 6 1141 130 0.66 0.22 2.40 10Seeds, boiled 150 60.0 11.0 0.3 1.6 1.3 27.1 209 2.6 40 0.14 0.06 0.60 2

USA Seeds, raw 340 10.7 24.2 1.3 60.3 118 340 7.7 6.2 1030 81 0.38 0.21 2.60 Sprouts 35.3 88.8 3.8 0.2 6.6 19 63.8 1.3 4.8 223 19 0.13 0.13 0.76 19Sprouts, boiled 28 91.0 3.2 0.24 5.2 16.8 48 0.88 4 156 24 0.09 0.10 0.72 6

Source: AVRDC; First International Mungbean Symposium. a I.U.

45

Table 4.7 Protein efficiency ratio of mungbean and rice mixture supplemented by amino acids.

Protein distribution (%) Amino acid added Average wt. gain

(g) PER

Mungbean 25 + Rice 75 0.2% Lys 41 1.64 Mungbean 25 + Rice 75 0.05% Met 45 1.83 Mungbean 25 + Rice 75 0.2% Lys + 0.05% Met 61 2.36 Mungbean 25 + Rice 75 0.2% Lys + 0.5% Met + 0.05% Thr 85 2.59 Mungbean 25 + Rice 75 None 44 1.67 Casein None 66 2.22 Source: AVRDC 1976. Protein level: 10%: with Long-Even strain 28 days old rats; experimental period: 4 weeks.

Soybean

Soybean produces more protein than any other crop per unit area. In terms of global protein supply, it follows wheat, maize and rice. Most of the world's soybean crop is processed by solvent extraction, to yield edible oil (Table 4.8) and most of the remaining meal is used as an animal feed. Only a small percentage of the meal is processed directly for human consumption. A large number of other products can be prepared (Figure 4.1). The ESCAP region accounts for more than 80 percent of the soybean consumed by man. China and Japan are the main consumers. World production of soybean has increased from 26 mt in 1967 to 78 mt in 1983. In the same period, China's production has increased modestly from 7 mt to 10 mt. Japan is the largest importer of soybean in the Asia-Pacific region and increased its imports from 2 mt in 1966 to 4.5 mt in 1978 (Table 4.9). Fifty per cent of the US production, of over 40 mt, is imported into the region in the form of seed, meal and oil. The dependence of world livestock feed on the US supply is evident from the fact that in 1973 prices quadrupled due to crop failures elsewhere and the general shortage of feed protein. The role of soybean as a source of edible oil and as a protein has been much emphasized in the developing countries of the ESCAP region. Selection of the appropriate variety of soybean is important (Table 4.10).

Soybean seeds vary in colour, shape, size and composition. These attributes are important in determining the acceptance and end use. In India, where soybean is a new crop, black soybeans have proved popular in Madhya Pradesh. Production of black soybeans increased from a few hundred tons in 1964 to 1.2 mt in 1984. Most are processed for oil; meal is exported.

There is a trade-off between oil and protein in breeding the soybean. Thus for every percent of additional protein there is a loss of 0.5 percent oil. Soybean proteins are of high nutritive value containing the highest content of amino acid lysine of all legumes. Soyflour ranks just below animal protein (egg, milk, meat and fish) in terms of its amino acid profile. Methionine supplementation and heat treatment improve the nutritional value of soybean.

46

Pulses 47

Table 4.8 Utilization of soybean and groundnut supplies. Unit: Percenta

India Pakistan Sri Lanka Indonesia Thailand Japan Item

(1977) (1977) (1978) (1976) (1978) (1978)

Soybean . Oil Extraction 75 92 - - 83 78 Human consumption 5 - 90 87 12 22

Groundnut Oil extraction 84 - - 8 26 - Human consumption 4 90 99 77 65 -

Source: APO. a Total disappearance, including seeds, feeds and wastes equals 100 percent for most countries listed.

Table 4.9 Soybean area, production and yield, selected Asian countries.

Yield

Quantity Exported

Quantity Imported Country Area

('000 ha) Production ('000 mt) (kg/ha) ('000 mt)

India 330 300 909 567.0 Indonesia 755 600 79 - 176.6 Iran 70 150 2,14 - 250.9 Japan 100 200 2,00 - 4,131.9 Korea, Rep. of 260 351 1,35 - 428.0 Nepal 19 12 65 - - Philippines 9 7 77 - 9.0 Sri Lanka 1 1 1,00 - - Thailand 160 125 783 9.2 - USA 28,428 60,851 2,141 20,904.5 - China(PRC) 14,430 13,350 925 150.0 1,663.9 Brazil 8,000 10,700 1,338 638.5 -

World Total 54,330 94,171 1,643 25,271.0 25,189.4

Table 4.10 Nutritional quality of some mungbean and soybean cultivars.

Crop Apparent Variety

True Digesti-

bility

Biological Digesti- bility

Net protein value

Utilization

Mungbean M 0304 71.9a 81.9a 80.7 66.1a PHLV 18 65.4a 73.3a 81.5 59.7a

Soybean AGS-2 76.56 . 84.6a 76.3 64.5a Shih-Shih 73.4ab 81.2a 84.2 68.4a

Casein 91.9c 99.9b 91.1 91.06

LSD 5% 10.64 12.10 NS 16.02 Source: AVRDC. 1976. Protein level: 10% with long-evens strain 12-week old rats; experimental period: Protein free diet: 11 days Test diet: 7 Days; Data followed by the same number not significantly different.

Pulses 48

Figure 4.1 Soybean: multiple uses.

Pulses 49

Traditional non-fermented preparations The traditionally processed and principal non-fermented soybean foods include:

Soybean vegetable and toasted seeds Soybean milk and cheese Tofu (Soybean curd) Yuba Kinako Soybean sprouts and Numerous snack foods produced from the above.

Varieties suitable as a green vegetable (bold-seeded types) are available in rural markets of China. These are frozen, canned or dehydrated.

Soybean milk, made from grinding beans which have been soaked in 1 part to 10 parts of water, gives a 50 percent extraction rate for protein and fat fortifying the methione vitamins, minerals, sugar and oil, and gives a milk comparable to cows' milk. However, the beany flavour limits its acceptability in new markets if these is no chemical treatment. Soybean can be made into cheese or spray dried into a dry milk powder.

Tofu, soybean curd, is the most important of all non-fermented soya foods. It is prepared by precipitating the milk with calcium sulphate. Yields of up to 5.5 kg of tofu at 88 percent water are achieved from 1.8 kg of soybean. Dry tofu contains 55 protein and 28 percent oil.

Yuba is a film of protein and fat formed in boiling soybean-milk. It is highly nutritious, served raw or dried. It is also used in soups or fried in fat for table use.

Kinako is a full-fat soybean flour, sometimes containing the seed coats. It is prepared from roasted beans. In India, flour granules and roasted nuts are a common snack also becoming popular in the non-traditional soybean producing countries like Bangladesh.

Sprouts , i f proper ly prepared, do not have the beany f lavour f requent ly associated with soybean foods. Sprouts are produced by germinating seeds in dark and aseptic conditions to avoid fungal growth. The beans are allowed to sprout over 4 to 5 days and reach 5 cm in length. Sprouts are used in many different preparations.

Breakfast foods, infant foods, beverages, cookies, candies, snack foods, and dietary foods for weight watchers and lactose intolerant individuals are also prepared from soymeal.

Traditional fermented foods Miso

Shoya and Tempe Natto and hamanatta Tofu (soy fermented cheese)

Tao-tjo Kochu chang Ketjap

Ontjom and various yogurt like products.

Pulses 50

Miso and shoya are produced by fermenting beans, using Aspergillus, two parts wi th r ice and one par t wheat . The product , a sauce , i s used wor ldwide as a condiment. Miso is a nutritionally important soup base since it provides amino acids as well as flavouring.

Tempe is produced in Indonesia by fermenting soybeans with Rhizopus. In the traditional method, the beans are soaked in water overnight, the seed coat removed by 'hand and the decoated beans boiled in water for 30 minutes, drained and spread on a cloth for surface drying. The beans are mixed with small pieces of tempe previously prepared and allowed to ferment at room temperature for a day, after which, the beans are bound together by a white mycelium to form a cake. The cake is cut into slices, dipped into a salt solution and fried in coconut oil. Alternatively it may be baked or added to soup.

Recent research has attempted to increase the shelf life of tempe. Natto is produced by fermenting soybeans with Bacillus natto and incubating it for

24 hours. Natto is eaten with rice seasoned with soy sauce. In recent years a sophisticated technology has been developed to remove the bean

flavour from soy products. It involves the use of enzymes, heat, and deep frying. Some of the treatments, however, may induce damage to some essential amino acids.

Composite flours are made by mixing wheat flour with soybean (for protein) and cassava or maize (for starch).

Soybean protein concentrate

During the past 40 years much attention has been given to the defractionation of protein following the defeating of soybean meal with hexane. The purpose is to produce proteins in a nearly pure form. Proteins can be manipulated in many ways and be added to foods to impart particular functional, nutritional and textural characteristics. Alternatively they can be used as the basic building block for synthesizing comple-tely new foods.

The basic economic principle underlying the commercial. development of a synthetic meat protein product is that the conversion rate for plant seed protein to animal protein is very low. Only 10 to 20 percent of the plant protein fed to animals is returned as edible animal protein. When plant seed protein material is used directly in food processing, nearly 100 percent is returned as edible protein in various forms. It is, therefore, a question of comparing the relative efficiency and cost of the industrial conversion of protein compared with the costs of animal conversion. In recent years, developments in the industry have made industrial conversion profitable.

Winged bean

The winged bean, a nat ive crop of t ropical Asia , unl ike soybean, grows over the entire South, Southeast and Asia-Pacific region (Figure 4.2). Its pods, leaves, flowers, seeds and tubers are all edible. Yields of up to 35 tons of fresh pods, 5 tons of ripe seed and 11 tons of tubers per hectare have been harvested under experimental conditions.

The energy, nutrient and vitamin content of the various parts of winged bean are given in Table 4.11 and 4:12.

Pulses 51

Figure 4.2 Home territory of the winged bean.

Pulses 52

Table 4.11 Energy and nutrient composition of different parts of the winged bean.

Flowers Leaves Immature Pods

Unripe Seeds

Ripe Seeds

Tubers

(g/100g)

Water 84.2-87.5 64.2-85.0 76.0-93.0 35.8-88.1 8.7-24.7 54.9-65.2Energy

(kcal) 0.17(ay.) 0.20(ay.) 0.19(ay.) 0.10-0.71 1.61-1.89 0.63(ay.)Protein 2.8-5.6 5.0-7.6 1.9-4.3 4.6-10.7 29.8-39.0 3.0-15.0Fat 0.5-0.9 0.5-2.5 0.1-3.4 0.7-10.4 15.0-20.4 0.4-1.1Carbohydrate

(total) 3.0-8.4 3.0-8.5 1.1-7.9 5.6-42.1 23.9-42.0 27.2-30.5Fibre 3.0-4.2 0.9-3.1 1.0-2.5 3.7-16.1 1.6-17.0Ash 0.8 1.0-2.9 0.4-1.9 1.0 3.3-4.9 0.9-1.7Notes: Values expressed as g per 100 g fresh weight show the ranges. bmJ = megajoyles, 4.18 mJ 1,000 (dietary) kilocalories. Table 4.12 Vitamin content of different parts of the winged bean.

Leaves Immature Pods Ripe Seeds

Vitamin A IU 5,240-20,800 300-900 - Thiamin (mg/100g) 3.6a 0.06-0.24 0.08-1.7 Ribaflavin (mg/100g) 2.6a 0.08-1.12 0.2-0.5 Pyridoxin 1.0a 2.0a 0.1-0.25 Niacin (mg/100g) 15.0a 0.5-1.2 3.1-4.6 Folic acid (ug/100g) 67a 25.6-63.5 Ascorbic acid (mg/100g) 14.5-128 20-37 Trace Tocopherols (mg/100g) 3.5 0.5 22.8

``Value on dry weight basis. All the remaining values are expressed on fresh weight basis.

The fatty acid composition of winged bean oil compared with peanut and soybean is given in Table 4.13. The nutritive value of proteins is compared in Table 4.14. The compositions of some root foods of Pacific region are compared with the winged bean root in Table 4.15. The high protein content of winged bean roots is noteworthy.

Table 4.13 Fatty acid composition of seeds of the winged bean, peanut, and soybean.

Fatty Acid Winged Bean Peanut Soybean

14: 0 Myristic 0.1-0.4 0.1-0.5 0.1-0.3 16: 0 Palmitic 7.4-9.8 7.3-12.9 6.8-11.5 16: 1 Palmitoleic 0.1-0.8 0.9-2.4 0.1-1.0 18: 0 Stearic 2.8-6.9 2.6-6.3 1.4-5.5 18: 2 Linoleic 27.2-31.3 16.8-38.2 49.8-6.0 18: 3 Linolenic 1.0-2.0 1.5 2-10 20: 0 Arachidic 1.3-2.2 0.6-2.4 0.3-4.0 20: 1 Gadoleic 2.5-4.0 1.1-1.4 0.6 22: 0 Behenic 6.1-15.9 1.8-3.5 0.1-0.3 22: 1 Erucic 0-0.8 - - 24: 0 Lignoceric 1.0-3.4 0.8-1.5 - Solidifying point,°C 8-15 0-3 -7--12 Iodine value 82-95 81-106 125-138 % Unsaponifiable matter 2.4-2.9 0.4-1.0 0.7-1.6 Saponification value 176 188-196 188-196 % Free fatty acids 0.5 2.7 0.9 a Value as percentage whole oil.

Pulses 53

Table 4.14 Amino acid composition of different parts of the winged bean.

Amino Acid Leaves Immature Pods

Seeds Tubers

Isoleucine 238-356 156-266 242-350 171 Leucine 450-713 282-430 453-564 229 Lysine 162-500 219-416 413-600Methionine 75-163 56-63 38-87 48 Cysteine 73-162 14 Total S-cont. 161-187 272 114-193 62 Phenylalanine 294-463 181-213 214-419 106 Tyrosine 238-456 119-125 195-431 72 Total aromatic 585-710 527 409-850 178 Threonine 247-300 175-231 256-300Tryptophan 58-131 59 47-69 150 Valine 300-402 188-319 242-344Arginine 400-469Histidine 169-183 "Value expressed as mg, per g N. Table 4.15 Composition of winged bean compared with other root foods (100g edible portion).

Winged bean Cassava Sweet

potatoes Taro Yam

Moisture (%) 56.5 65.5 70.7 75.4 71.8 Calories 150 135 115 94 108 Fat (g) 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.1 Crude Protein (g) 10.9 1.0 1.2 2.2 2.0 Carbohydrate (g) 30.5 32.4 27.1 21.0 25.1 Fibre (g) 1.0 0.8 0.8 0.5 Ash (g) 0.9 0.7 1.0 1.0

Trypsin and chymotrypain inhibitors are heat liable and can be eliminated using moist heat (1300°C/10 min). Soaking the seed for 10 hours followed by boiling for 30 minutes has the same effect. Much work is in progress on the toxins and detoxification methods for the winged bean.

Since winged bean is not grown on a large-scale as yet , i t s pos t harves t technology has not been worked out. However, the tuber is reported to store better than cassava, and the grain can be handled like soybean. Fresh green pods can be used as vegetables, as in South India.

Commercial processing of winged bean is just beginning. Laboratory efforts to produce flour from seeds have been successful. Winged bean cake, after extraction of the oil, is suitable for cattle feed. A weaning food, based on winged bean and maize, has a nutritive value equivalent to milk. In Thailand, a gruel made of winged bean meal, rice and banana is fed to refugees from Cambodia. Given that the chemical composition of winged bean is similar to soybean, attempts are being made to produce similar food products. In Indonesia, tempe and tofu are made commercially from winged bean. In Thailand, winged bean milk has been produced successfully. A number of snacks have been made from tubers. Pickled pods and sprouts are also made. The greatest scope for the winged bean appears to be as an animal feed and fodder. In India, Korea and Sri Lanka, green silage has been made experimentally. In Thailand and Malaysia, ground seeds have been tried as poultry and livestock feed.

Pulses 54

Experimental feed pellets have been made in Thailand using 20 percent winged bean and 80 percent cassava. The- pod residue after seeds are threshed has 10 percent protein, and has been successfully tried as an animal feed. Pod residue has been used as a medium to grow straw mushrooms (Voluariella).

Winged bean oil, like other crops with a high fat content, has a high content of polyunsaturated fatty acids and is highly acceptable for human use. The residue can be detoxified of trypsin inhibitors and haemaglutinins through heating before being fed to cattle.

Pulse used in milling 1

Dhal (dehusked split pulse) is the major form in which pulses are consumed in India, Nepal, Pakistan, Bangladesh and Sri Lanka. Indeed, over 75 percent of the total pulses produced in the Indian subcontinent are converted to dhal.

Conversion of pulses to dhal is usually a laborious, time-consuming process involving a considerable amount of loss. The milling of Bengal gram, lentil, peas, mungbean and so forth is comparatively easier than that of pigeon pea and black gram. The methods generally followed consist broadly of two steps; 1) loosening of the husk by wet or dry methods and 2) removal of the husk and splitting into two cotyledons using suitable machines. The methods and machinery adopted for different operations on a commercial scale are usually a large-scale adaptation of the traditional household techniques.

Machinery used in milling

Various types of machines are used in the milling of pulses. Hand operated mortar and pestle (chakkis) made from stone and wood are more commonly used in the domestic cottage industry methods. These have undergone many changes over the years and today both vertical and horizontal stones or emery coated shellers driven by power are in use. In central India, the dhal produced by shellers are then polished by a cone polisher similar to that used in rice milling. More recently, rubber roller machines, which minimize scouring, have been introduced to polish split dhal.

Other auxiliary units in a dhal mill include elevators, cleaning sieves (oscillating and rotary type), aspirators, dhal separating and grading sieves and oiling and watering machines

Methods for cottage-scale milling

As in the household methods, the milling process involves two major steps; dehusking and splitting. These can be achieved either in separate operations or in a single operation. Since the husk is attached tightly to the cotyledons in most of the pulses, loosening of the husk is essential for appropriate dehusking. This is achieved in the small-scale processes by 1) prolonged sun drying until the husk is loosened, 2) application of water spray to the pulses followed by drying, 3) application of oil to the pulses followed by sun drying and 4) a combination of several of the above steps. A wet method of processing is particularly popular in the dehusking of pigeonpea in

1 This section 1s based on studies conducted at CFTRI, Myasore, India.

Pulses 55

South India. The grain is soaked in water for 3 to 4 hours and then coated with a paste of red earth and dried in the sun for 2 to 4 days until the skin is loosened. The material is sieved and then dehusked through hand operated chakkis made of stone or wood. Dehusking and splitting take place simultaneously, and some 15 to 25 percent of the pulse endosperm is lost in the process.

Commercial methods of milling There are about 800 commercial dhal mills in the different pulses producing states Df India. These are engaged in the milling of different pulses and catering to the all India market. The general principles of dehusking and splitting in the large mills are the same as those in the cottage scale methods except that many of the operations, particularly those involving dehusking and splitting are mechanized. The drying operation, however, is manual and large drying yards are maintained to suit the capacity of each mill. Since the drying operations are completely dependent upon hot dry weather, milling and the mills are usually closed for work during the rainy season.

In general the larger, bold grained varieties of pulses are easier to mill than the small ones. The former dehusk more easily and mild drying treatments are sufficient. The latter varieties require more oil application, longer sun drying and going through the drying and milling cycle several times. Varieties grown in the hot dry regions of North India are easier to dehusk than those grown in the south. The freshly harvested -crops, particularly from the winter season, are more difficult to mill and require more scouring for dehusking.

Consumer preferences and quality Consumers in Madras and Bihar States prefer a deep yellow colour for Bengal

gram and tur dhal. Special colouring additives (sometimes even non-permitted dyes) are dissolved in water and coated on to the dhal. Such colouration also masks residual patches of husk on the dhal. A special oil application is made to meet the colour requirements of the consumers in Maharashtra and Gujarat. Dehusked whole grains, instead of split pulses, are preferred in Gujarat and Bengal. Certain varieties of black gram are more suitable for making idli, dosa or sweet dishes like jahangir. Different varieties of pigeonpea, each with a distinct flavour, fetch better prices in some regions.

Dhal obtained from bold grained varieties, free from husk and graded by size, are classified as 'A' grade dhals in the market. Dhal prepared from smaller grained varieties having a shrunken, shriveled or scoured surface fetch lower prices. The dhal produced during the first stage through the rolling machines is considered to be of a better quality than dhal produced during the subsequent dehusking steps.

The yield of dhal and other mil l ing products and by-products in a typical commercial mill is given in Table 4.16. The yield of dhal from the bigger bold grained varieties of pulses is about 5 percent higher. The refractions in the raw pulse of the market constitute about 2 to 5 percent. The final product from most mills contains about 5 percent or more moisture than the initial raw pulse. The actual husk content of pulses constitutes 11 to 14 percent of the grain's height. The theoretical yield of dehusked dhal should, therefore, be 86 to 89 percent. Actual yield in commercial

Pulses 56

establishments are 10 to 20 percent less than the theoretical figures. This is because of the large scouring (powder and brokens) and husk losses during repeated passes through the roller or sheller machines.

By-products

The by-products of pulse milling, that is, husk, powder and small brokens, are usually sold as cattle feed. The powder obtained from rollers is more nutritious and hence fetches a better price. The husk aspirated after shelling, which forms about 10 percent of the grain, fetches a lower price. A number of feed mixes for cattle and poultry, based on these by-products, are available in the market.

Efficiency of processing methods and machines

The khaki (vertical or horizontal) used for dehusking or splitting, causes high breakage (15 to 20 percent–non-parallel surfaces). Absence of grading of grains aggravates this risk, and causes non-uniform splitting. Breakage is abnormally high, particularly in the case of small grained varieties. This machine is more suitable for wet-processed grains.

Table 4.16 Average yield of dhal, husk, powder and brokens by different processing methods for pulses.

Head dhal Powder Husk Brokens Pulses/Process

% Bengal gram big 75 10 8 7

small 72 13 9 6 Pigeonpea big 75 11 8 5

small 68 14 9 8 wet method 75 3 14 7

Black gram 71 13 8 7 Stone powder method 74 7 8 10

Mungbean 65 17 4 13 Stone powder mehod 74 10 4 11 Oil water method 74 10 7 8

Lentil 76 12 6 5 Source: Averaged from various sources (CFTRI, Mysore).

Main constraints of the milling industry

The difficulties and limitations of present day dhal processing are many. The methods, apart from being laborious, time-consuming and wasteful, give low yields. The main difficulties can be listed as follows.

1. Complete dependence on climatic conditions which exposes the millers to the vagaries of nature. This seriously limits the milling schedules.

2. The present methods are not very effective, and do not adequately loosen husks, which are firmly attached, to affect a fair loosening of husk.

3. The machinery is not efficient causing powdering and breakage. This is due to poor designs and non-specific use.

Pulses 57

4. Non-availability of pulse varieties with good milling characteristics.

5. The amount of oil and water added to the grains for conditioning is arbitrary. Often, excessive use of water leads to spurious figures of yield and poor keeping quality of the products.

6. The problem of dust and consequent health hazards to the workers deserves attention. Many of the big dhal mills are housed in improvised sheds or buildings with little ventilation. The workers do not have any protection from the thick clouds of dust. Absence of dust-proof machinery, closed conveying methods and aspiration vents aggravate this. Adequately ventilated buildings, with exhaust fans and modern methods of handling the material, will go a long way to solve these problems.

7. Pest control techniques are generally neglected in the packing and storing of both the raw materials and finished products. Since the milled products leave the factory within a few days, this aspect is not generally considered important by the millers. The control of pests (insects) in the raw materials is, however, of paramount importance as the infested grains are either powdered or completely broken during milling. (The soap stone powder usually added to black gram dhals, incidentally, also acts as an insect expellant).

The dhal milling industry in India is a vital industry, ranking third is importance after the rice milling and flour milling industries. It has a large capital investment. The methods and machinery adopted for the processing and milling can be improved. More than three quarters (about 10 million metric tons) of the total pulses produced in the country are processed into dhal. Efforts are necessary to minimize the wasteage by improved processing techniques and machinery.

Improved methods in milling

Research to simplify and develop suitable techniques and the machinery for milling pulses at the Central Food Technological Research Institute, Mysore, India, has proven fruitful. A new and simple process gives a higher yield of dhal than that obtained by more conventional methods. In the new methods (Figure 4.3), the husk is loosened through various conditioning stages in units designed for this purpose. The method is independent of climatic conditions, and can be carried out throughout the year. The seasonal, regional and varietal variations in the raw material known to interfere in conventional milling practice can be eliminated. If the pulse is properly conditioned the husk is completely removed in an improved pulse dehusking unit.

The product is obtained as dehusked split dhal or pearled grains depending on the nature of the grains. Unsplit grains can be split further if desired in a spliter unit after suitable conditioning. If this method can, be adopted at the national level, it is expected to save about 1 million metric tons of dhal which at present is lost as powder and brokens.

Pulses 58

Figure 4.3 Flowchart of improved dhal milling process. Source: GFTR.

Pulses 59

Cooking of dhal and processed dhal products

Cooking of pulses into a soft consistency is a problem in the making of dishes like dhal, sambar, stews, pastes and so forth. The cooking time for pulses varies from 30 minutes to 1 hour depending on the variety. The basic reasons for the long time needed in the cooking of the pulses are not fully understood yet. The calcium and magnesium content of pulses along with the phytic acid and pectin content have been implicated as factors affecting the cooking quality. While cell walls burst with progressive cooking of cereals, there is only a separation of cells during the cooking of dhals.

The addition of alkaline salts, sodium bicarbonate, trisodium phosphate, sodium citrate or hexametaphosphate help to reduce cooking time. These salts probably counteract the deleterious effect of the divalent calcium and magnesium ions. The proportion of the alkaline salts to be added to facilitate cooking needs to be controlled in the household or in the finishing stage of dhal making at the factory. The use of high cooking temperatures, as in pressure cooking, is however a more effective method in reducing the cocking time and improving the texture of cooked dhal.

Flaking, by pressing between flaking rolls, reduces the thickness of pulse, thus helping to reduce cooking time. However, flaked dhal may develop off flavours and sliminess during cooking.

Immature pulses in the green state take a shorter time to cook than the mature dry pulses or beans. Germination does not reduce cooking time or improve the texture of the cooked product. Vitamin C is, however, released during the germination process. Pre-soaking of pulses or dhals in water prior to cooking is known to reduce cooking time in a few cases, while the reverse has been found to be the case for others.

Quick cooking dhal

Pre-cooked and dehydrated dhal has been developed for use by defence forces and for fast food purposes. The method of cooking and dehydration of the product has been standardized. Rehydration of the processed product has been facilitated by the use of proteolytic enzymes. Recipes for soups have also been standardized. Instant mixes for the South Indian style dhal-based rasam and sambar have also been developed making use of the flaking principle for reducing the cooking time.

Parched and puffed products

Pulses are toasted in many households to improve flavour, modify texture and to help in dry or set grinding. Parched or toasted pulses are frequently used in various food preparations. The puffing of pulses is also practiced to bring about a light and porous texture in the dhal. Peas and Bengal gram are best suited to such puffing preparations. Completely mechanized and automatic puffing machines have recently been set up. However, the effects of different processing conditions for optimal puffing have yet to be standardized.

Pulses 60

Deep-fried pulse products A variety of deep fried savory and sweet dishes are traditionally prepared from pulses or

mixtures of pulses and cereals. Either dry ground flours, wet ground doughs or batters are used for the deep fried preparations. The eating quality of the deep-fried products is dependent on the proportion of cereal to pulse, the proportion of particles of different mesh sizes, the amount of water used for making dough and the frying conditions. Bengal gram, black gram and peas are used to a greater extent than other pulses.

The relatively high proportion of either extractives (about 3 to 5 percent) or lecithin in these pulses may be responsible for their greater popularity in making deep fried products. Black gram also has a mucilaginous property, which helps in giving the required quantity of adhesiveness in making dough. Instant mixes for several of the deep fried crispy products (chakkli, muchorai, vadai, jangeer, jelebi etc.) have been developed and are being marketed. The marketing of papads, particularly, provides foreign exchange for India and Sri Lanka. Standard conditions in the mechanization process are receiving attention.

Fermented products • Idli and dosa based on a cereal and pulses mixture are the most popular fermented

products, in India. Rice, sorghum and wheat are used as the cereal components while black gram is the legume best suited to these preparations. The mucilaginous property in the black gram makes it highly suitable for holding the fermentation gases which import a spongy porous texture to the idli or the dosa. Both fermentable and chemically leavened ready mixes, have been developed and are popular commercial products.

Weaning foods

Legumes, particularly Bengal gram and mungbean, are used to make weaning and other nutritious foods high in protein. Particular mention can be made of the well-known Multipurpose Food (groundnut and Bengal gram), Bal Amul (chickpea, mungbean, soya, wheat and rice), Lubina (chickpea, wheat) and Malt Food (sorghum malt, chickpea, mungbean and groundnut flour).

Post-harvest technology

Pulses undergo sizeable quantitative and qualitative losses after harvest during threshing, transport, processing and storage. The maximum losses take place in storage at rural level. In India, Pakistan, Nepal, Sri Lanka and Bangladesh, the losses have been estimated to be 9.5 percent (7.5 percent in the storage, 1 percent in processing and 0.5 percent each during threshing and transport). Moisture, microbes. insects, rodents and birds are the main causes of losses.

Insect infestation

The pulse beetle, Callosobruchus chinensis, is the major pest affecting dry beans and pulses. All pulses are attacked by this beetle even in the field if the pods are not harvested when they are green. The pulse beetles lay their eggs on pods al any time while the pulses are drying out in the field, the eggs give rise to larvae,

Pulses 61

which feed on the beans and infest the pods. When the harvested pods are further dried and stored, the larvae transform themselves to pupae and subsequently to adults. These adults move about and lay their eggs on the pulses in storage giving rise to several generations of the beetle which survive in the stored stocks. Because they are clean, dehusked pulses are free from infestation and remain so if stored separately from whole pulses. The degree of damage and size of the infestation population, vary according to the granular size of the pulses.

The life of a bruchid adult is short in contrast to the life of other pests affecting stored products. Depending on the climatic conditions, they live for a maximum period of 2 weeks. After mating they oviposit on the pulses which are easi ly accessible, normally on materials other than pulses. This strange behaviour is attributed to their inabili ty to retain eggs beyond a particular period. So once oviposition has taken place, further growth and life depend upon the ability of the larvae to breed on the substrata and food material available. The newly hatched l a r v a e e n t e r t h e se e d b y ch ew in g a t i n y h o l e i n th e g ra in co a t , t he en t i r e development of each larva takes place inside the grain. After a period of active growth of 2 to 3 weeks larvae pupate near the seed coat so that it is easy for the adult to emerge. It has been observed that under optimum conditions, (23 to 26°C and 75 percent R.H.) the development from egg to adult takes place in a period of 21 to 28 days. In parts of India, where the winter is severe there can be a delay in the completion of such a life cycle.

Infestation under warehouse conditions Gunny bags in which pulses are stored are important in beetle transmission

since hessian bags allow adults easy infiltration. Atwill and DW bags are comparatively resistant to bruchus infiltration. B-twill falls in between these two extremes.

Infestation of pulses stored in silos and bins In bulk storage, the deterioration of Bengal gram proceeds at a faster

rate compared to green gram. In general, there is a relationship between the grain size, intergranular space and the spread of infestation through the bulk. The depth of infestation in pulses stored in bulk increases with the size of the grain and the resulting intergranular space. There is always a rise in the degree of infestation in pulses bigger than 6 mesh, having average intergranular space of .074 ml. The beetle can not penetrate very far in smaller materials which have an intergranular space lower thar 0.065 ml (grains having mesh size more than 7).

Factors such as crowding, moisture and mould growth can become limiting factors in terms of survival of future generations of the insect, finally culminating ir autosterilization. Since the Callosobruchus chinensis eventually grows bigger than the intergranular space, it is possible to restrict its movement by a physical barrier. Thus. materials like ragi (finger millet), sand and fine clay are used to create barriers Results of large-scale trials have indicated that a protective barrier using smaller particles to fill up the intergranular space is an effective method of controlling this insect.

Research needs Pulses a re a 'poor man 's mea t ' . They a re a t the same t ime va luab le

fo r conserving soil fertility and organic matter. Yet they remain the 'ugly duckling of agricultural research' (Borlaug). In order to assist the marginal and poor farmers of Asian countries to retain pulses in their cropping patterns, and to protect their own and the soil's nutrition, several research measures are necessary:

1. Improved yields. The gap between the yields at research stations and in the farmers' fields is too wide.

2. Improve nutritive value of pulses by removing or reducing the antinutritional factors and increasing the starch and protein content.

3. Enhance the acceptability by improving the cooking quality and by reducing cooking time.

4. Open more options in the cropping systems to incorporate pulses more widely in cropping patterns.

5. Increase facilities for the production and dissemination of HYV seed.

6. Determine research gaps at the production and utilization levels in various countries and explore the possibilities for co-operative research and the exchange of knowledge and materials.

Regional co-operation can be initiated through the CGPRT Centre at Bogor. Cooperation can be initiated in 1) germplasm exchange, 2) building up a common wide genetic pool by selection and hybridization, 3) producing generations of valuable crosses more than once a year under diverse environmental conditions and 4) conducting basic research on important issues such as seasonal suitability.

Pulses crops can be grouped into four classes on the basis of their seasonal suitability:

1. Winter season of subtropics - chickpea, lentil, pea,

2. Summer upland conditions - mungbean, black gram,

3. Production in both summer and winter - mungbean, short duration pigeonpea, groundnut and soybean,

4. Long duration year round production - winged bean, pigeonpea.

Research on the four above mentioned categories needs to be initiated in a multidisciplinary way.

New areas can be opened for soybean and winged bean, both for consumption at the farm level as well as for small- and' large-scale processing. The versatility of these crops is not fully realized, but with a high degree of management and investment high returns can be realized.

Mungbean is a short duration, high quality pulses crop which enjoys wide adaptability and consumer acceptance in the region. Every effort should be made to develop an intra-regional network for the improvement and expansion of this crop. For various reasons AVRDC has not been able to perform this role as yet.

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5

Roots And Tubers

Production and consumption A large number of root and tuber crops are produced and consumed in the Asia-Pacific

region (Table 5.1). The three main crops are cassava (tapioca), sweet potato and Irish potato. The regional annual growth in root and tuber production fell from 1.5 percent during 1973 to 1979 to less than 1 percent during 1980 to 1983. There are marked differences between the different countries in terms of the economic importance, end uses, yield and policy attitudes towards root and tuber crops. Within the ESCAP region, root and tuber crops are particularly important in the Pacific Islands, where they are the staple food.

Sweet potato accounts for over 60 percent of the root and tuber production. It ranks third as a food source of energy in China and first in Papua New Guinea.

Cassava is an important food crop in Indonesia, the Philippines and the west coast of India (Kerala). It is also used almost exclusively as an animal feed in these countries, while Thailand produces this crop almost exclusively for export as feed. During the late 1970s, more than 50 percent of region's cassava was produced in Thailand, most of it destined for Europe.

Irish potato is an important food crop although it is not a staple in any part of the region. Production takes place mainly in India, Pakistan, Bangladesh and Nepal. Production is increasing at more than 7 percent per annum.

Other tubers, widely grown but of less economic and nutritional significance are yam, various species of taro, Colocasia and banana rhizomes.

Root and tuber crops have several important characteristics, which make them suitable as human food and animal feed and as industrial raw materials-. These are:

1. adaptability to a wide range of agro-ecological conditions, particularly in less fertile, marginal and rain-fed areas,

2. wide range of end uses; suitable for fresh consumption or processing (canning, freezing, flour etc.),

3. low susceptibility to disease and pests,

4. yields are relatively high with comparable inputs to cereals.

Root and tuber crops have, however, certain characteristics, which make their handling difficult. The most important are that 1) the moisture content is high and, therefore, the crops are bulky; 2) the protein content is low; and 3) because of the high moisture content, the keeping quality is poor. As a result, these crops have tended to be neglected by researchers, policy planners and commercial farmers. Given the need to increase food production throughout the area, root and tuber crops are likely to play an important role, particularly in the upland areas, there is a need for research on these crops (Soejono 1985).

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Roots and Tubers

64

Table 5.1 Some root and tuber crops grown and consumed in the Asia-Pacific region.

Tapioca (cassava) Manihot esculantaSweet potato Ipomea batatas

Potato Solanum tuberosum

Yams Dioscorea esculenta (L) - Taro D. rotundata D. cayenensis D. alata-khomealu D. glabra-churkia D. hamiltonii-chumbia D. spinosa-murum sanga D. pentaphylla-Bokwa D. anguiera-song D. versicolor - wild yam

Aroids Alocacia macrorrhiza Amorophallus companulatus - Elephant Yam Colocasia esculenta var. antiquorum C. antiquorum-Kachu C. esculenta var esculenta Cyrotsperma chamissonis Tacca lentopetaloides - Arrowroot Xanthosoma Sagittifolius

Miscellaneous Musa paradissicum - Banana Rhizome Melothoria heterophylla - Budhia Canana edulis - Edible Canna Melumbium nelembo - lotus root Typhonium trilobatum - ordinary yam Nymphea nouchali - water lily

Cassava

Thailand, Indonesia, India, the Philippines and Malaysia are the principal producers of cassava in the ESCAP region. Together they account for 80 percent of the produce (Table 5.2). The annual rate of growth in the area under cultivation and production are given in Table 5.3. There are significant differences in the end uses. In India, for example, cassava is used primarily as a human food while in Thailand and Malaysia it is essentially produced for export. In Indonesia and the Philippines, cassava is a dual purpose crop.

Roots and Tubers 65

Table 5.2 Cassava production in Asia, 1979 to 1981 average.

Country Area (m/ha)

Yield (t/ha)

Production (mt)

Thailand 1.00 14.4 14.54 Indonesia 1.42 9.6 13.67 India 0.35 16.7 5.90 Vietnam 0.46 7.3 3.38 China 0.24 13.0 3.06 Philippines 0.20 11.5 2.28 Sri Lanka 0.06 9.5 0.52 Malaysia 0.04 10.1 0.37 Total 3.80 11.6 43.97 Africa 7.32 6.4 46.44 South America 2.55 11.7 29.90 Central America 0.15 6.0 0.90

Source: FAO Production Year Book. 1981. Table 5.3 Comparison of annual growth rates of harvested area and output of cassava in tropical Asia.

Cassava 1979/80 Country

Area (percent)

Output (percent)

1. Bangladesh - - 2. Burma 7.4 6.0 3. India 0.5 1.44. Indochinaa 18.9 20.85. Indonesia -0.4 2.26. Malaysia 6.7 4.97. Pacific Islandsb 1.6 1.68. Philippines 11.7 23.49. Sri Lanka -4.0 3.6

10. Thailand 18.0 18.9 Total 5.6 8.2

Source: Sarma and Paulino 1984. aKampuchea, Laos and Vietnam bFiji and Papua New Guinea

Roots and Tubers

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The recently imposed trade barriers by ,the EEC have reduced the level of cassava trade in Thailand (Table 5.4 and 5.5).

Table 5.4 Production and export of cassava in principal producing countries of Asia, (1976 to 1982).

Production Export

Country Year I Year V Year I Year V (Year I and V) (100%) (100%)

(1000 T fresh tuber equivalents)

Thailand 13,554 17,788 9,451 14,025 (1977 and 1982) (73%) (79%) Indonesia 12,191 13,301 801 1,036 (1976 and 1981) (7%) (8%) India (Kerala States) 3,189 4,097 - - (1977 and 1981) Philippines 761 948 - - (1976 and 1980) Malaysia 575 392 160 35 (1976 and 1980) . (28%) (9%) Source: Soejono 1984.

Table 5.5 Domestic utilization of cassava in principal producing countries of Asia, 1976 to 1982.

Domestic utilization

Year I Year V Year I Year V Year I Year V Year I Year V

Thailand 788 1,039 16 35 2,800 2,689 (1977 and 1982) (6%) (6%) (0.1%) (0.0%) (21%) (15%)

Indonesia 5,865 9,686 3,308 740 - 245 2,217 1,594 (1976 and 1981) (48%) (73%) (27%) (6%) (2%) (18%) (12%)

India (Kerala States) 2,595 3,113 246 492 - - 348 492 (1977 and 1981) (81%) (76%) (8%) (11%) (11%) (12%)

Philippines 407 434 107 112 161 312 86 90 (1976 and 1980) (53%) (46%) (14%) (12%) (21%) (33%) (11%) (97%)

Malaysia - 226 230 43 24 146 83 (1976 and 1980) - - (39%) (64%) (7%) (6%) (25%) (21%)

Source: Soejono 1984. Although cassava production increased, particularly during the years 1973 to

1983, this was largely due to an increase in the area under cultivation rather than increased yield. Measures have been suggested to increase and stabil ize both production and productivity, namely to:

1. Remove the input constraints,

2. Research optimum use of inputs and stress tolerance

Roots and Tubers 67

3. Research post-harvest preservation,

4. Research end-product uses, such as flour, modified starch, alcohol, single-cell

protein, high fructose sweetener and other novel products,

5. Determine consumer preferences,

6. Research the international starch and livestock feed markets, 7. Explore intra-regional export to Japan, Korea and Taiwan. Cassava's multiple uses

Around twenty per cent of cassava produced in the region is utilized as cattle

feed and as a raw material for starch based industries, pharmaceuticals, paper-based industries, adhesives and the food industry: 1. Cattle feed. Cassava has a higher dry matter content than other green feeds. Up to 35

million calories can be harvested per acre (compared to 10 to 12 m from grain crops). At present 40 percent of the European annual feed requirements depends on good quality cassava chips and pellets imported from Asia, mainly Thailand (Table 5.6).

2. In India, a mixed (pelleted) cattle feed containing rice bran, groundnut cake,

mineral sal ts and cassava f lour has been produced. The pellets contain 15 percent protein and 12 percent moisture content. Another cattle feed preparation uses Rhizopus and Aspergillus on gelatinized cassava flour to raise the low protein content of flour to 10 percent.

3. Cassava flour and starch extraction products from cassava starch, free of protein,

fat, fibre and mucilage are used in the confectionary and breakfast food industries. Cassava starch is also used to make reconstituted foods, for example, semolina and sago. It is also used as a thickener, binder, filler or stabilizer in the food industry. Treatment of starch with 1 percent orthophosphoric acid reduces its stickiness and

Table 5.6 Imports of cassava pellets to the EEC.a Destination 1975 1976 1977 1978 1979 1980 1981 1982

The Netherlands 1,233 1,514 2,027 2,765 1,433 1,492 3,486 4,829 Germany Federal Republic 484 666 961 1,509 1,512 1,354 1,600 2,055 Belgium 449 680 733 1,026 954 822 1,073 1,357 France 146 174 201 713 570 365 681 604 Total 2,312 3,034 3,922 6,013 5,469 5,033 6,840 8,845

Principal Exporting Countries Thailand 1,974 2,678 3,647 5,493 4,422 4,146 5,682 7,361 Indonesia 313 172 109 216 697 378 418 234 Source: National Trade Statistics. a1000 metric tons.

Roots and Tubers

68

off-flavour and induces cross linkages in the starch molecules. Similarly, ester derivatives, (acelytated or propionylated) are used in the instant food manufacture based on pregelatized starch such as cocoa powder, caramel and vanilla (Figure 5.1). 4. Textile industry. Steam pressure and chemical treatment giving ester derivatives

improves the viscosity and stability of cassava starch. Thus cassava starch, like corn starch, is used to size and strengthen yarn.

5. Paper industry. Through oxidation, the viscosity of cassava starch is reduced to render it suitable for paperboard manufacture.

6. Adhesives. Controlled heating with orthophosphoric acid and urea turns cassava starch into a high quality adhesive which is used in the paper, foundry and gum industries.

7. High-fructose sugar. Liquid glucose and dextrose monohydrates are produced from cassava starch for use in the pharmaceutical and food industries.

8. Alcohol. Through a conventional saccharification, fermentation and distillation process, high quality alcohol can be produced from cassava (Figure 5.2).

Cassava by-products include the leaves (a good quality fodder containing 16 percent protein) stems, pith and the post-starch extraction baggase. All these products are valuable sources of cellulose and have a number of uses (Nabisan et al. 1984)

Storage of cassava

Cassava perishes rapidly and this limits its use as a raw material in industrial processing. Biochemical, microbial and insect damage renders the root useless within 3 to 6 days of harvest. Where cassava is a traditional subsistence food the tubers are not harvested before they are needed. The propagation of cassava is through stems, thus the tubers have not acquired a natural defense mechanism against microbial or insect damage.

The tuber contains all the cellular and intercellular enzymes such as cellulases, amylases and pectinases needed to convert cellulose, starch and pectin into free sugars. These enzymic reactions cause loss in weight, changes in the organoleptic properties and the conversion of valuable starches to sugars and ultimately alcohol.

The common incidence of vascular streaking of harvested cassava is associated with the conversion of polyphenols into quinones through the action of enzymes, polyphenol exidases and peroxidases. Vascular streaking is a varietal character which can be checked through the inhibition of oxidases and peroxidases with ascorbic acid (4 x 10 m) gluthione (5 x 10 m) and KCN (5 x 10 m) treatment of tubers. The post-harvest deterioration by Rhyzopus oryzae is thought to be repressed by linamirin, the cyaonogenic glycoside which blocks the release of rhoda nese by the fungus Rhyzopus oryzae. Good aeration of tubers by storage in sawdust, river sand and soil-sand mixtures has delayed enzymic deterioration for up to one month. Similarly, washing chips in 0.5 percent Sodium hypochloride for 2 to 3 minutes before drying at 70°C and 85 percent RH for 3 to 4 days is practised in India. No harmful bacteria, such as salmonella and shigella have been noticed in such chips (Balagopalan and Padmaja 1984).

Roots and Tubers 69

Figure 5.1 Processing scheme for various root crop products.

Figure 5.2 Simplified flow diagram of alcohol production from cassava.

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Nutritive value of cassava and other tuber crops The nutritional value of different root and tuber crops is given in Tables 5.7 and

5.8. A large proportion of roots and tubers is moisture (60 to 90 percent). They are

characterized as being low in protein, minerals and vitamins. Because of their bulk, large quantities of roots and tubers must be consumed in

order to meet daily energy requirements and it is likely that for this reason root-tuber based diets in many areas have been traditionally complemented with beans or other protein rich foods. Where roots and tubers are the staple, nutritional deficiencies occur. Cassava contains 23 to 30 percent starch although this varies with the variety and age of the plant.

The starch content of tubers increases with age. Cassava starch contains 20 percent amylose and 80 percent amylopectin making it more digestible than rice starch.

The protein content of cassava tubers varies between 0.7 and 1 percent. Its biological value is around 50 percent, methionine being the limiting amino acid. Half of the nitrogen in cassava tubers is non-protein nitrogen, often accounted for in the cyanogens and cyanoglucosides (linamarin and lotausralin).

Table 5.7 Nutritive values of selected tuber crops (per 100 g tuber).

Constituents Potato Cassava Sweet Potato Colocasia

Amorpho- phallus Dioscorea Coleus

Moisture (g) 74.7 59.4 68.5 73.1 78.7 79.6 87.4 Protein (g) 1.6 0.7 1.2 3.0 1.2 1.3 0.3 Fat (g) 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.2 Minerals (g) 0.6 1.0 1.0 1.7 0.8 0.8 0.7 Fibre (g) 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 0.8 0.1 - Carbohydrate (g) 22.6 38.1 28.2 21.1 18.4 18.1 11.4 Calcium (mg) 10 50 46 40 50 16 153 Phosphorus (mg) 40 40 50 140 34 31 13 Iron (mg) 6.7 0.9 0.8 1.7. 0.6 0.5 0.6 Vitamin-A (mg) 24 - 6 24 260 93 Thiamine (mg) 0.1 0.05 0.08 0.09 0.0 - 0.04 Riboflavin (mg) 0.01 0.1 0.04 0.03 0.0 - 0.05 Niacin (mg) 1.2 0.3 0.7 0.4 0.7 - 0.4 Vitamin-C (mg) 17 23 24 - - - Energy (kilocal) 97 157 120 97 79 74 49 Source: Nutritive value of Indian foods, National Institute of Nutrition

Indian Council of Medical Research, Hyderabad, India. Gopalan C.B.N., Rama Sastri and C. Balasubramanian,eds. 1977.

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Table 5.8 Nutritive value of cassava compared with other root crops (100 gram-edible portion EP).

Protein Fat Carbo- hydrate

Fibre Ca Fe B-caro

tenc Thia- mine

Ribo- Flavin

Niacin Ascorbic Acid Food and

Description E.P. (%)

Mois- ture (%)

Food energy (Cal)

(g) (mg) equiv. (mg)

Cassava tuber 74 63 146 0.6 0.2 35.3 1.6 30 1.1 10 0.06 0.02 0.6 50Tuber boiled 71 71.8 110 0.6 0.1 26.6 0.9 16 0.4 Tr 0.04 0.02 0.6 34Tuber leaves 34 79.4 66 7.1 1.4 10.5 2.6 175 2.6 14440 0.19 0.32 1.9 145Tuber flour 100 9.5 363 1.1 0.7 87.8 1.9 84 1.0 0 0.02 0.03 0.6 0Sweet potato 88 65.5 135 1.1 0.4 31.8 0.7 55 0.7 540 0.10 0.04 0.6 35Sweet yellow boiled 86 68.1 126 1.0 0.6 29.4 0.6 66 0.8 615 0.09 0.04 0.6 31Sweet white 89 73.5 104 0.7 0.5 24.3 0.9 152 1.1 25 0.13 0.04 0.7 48Sweet white boiled 86 68.8 126 0.7 1.4 27.9 0.8 138 1.2 10 0.11 0.03 0.4 39Sweet leaves 50 85.1 47 3.3 0.8 9.1 2.2 137 4.6 3195 0.10 0.13 0.8 28Sweet boiled leaves 73 93.1 26 2.8 1.8 1.1 2.2 145 4.0 3215 0.08 0.13 0.9 19

77 71.0 112 2.3 0.2 25.7 0.7 39 0.9 30 0.17 0.04 1.2 9Taro boiled 69 70.7 113 2.1 0.1 26.3 0.9 51 1.0 10 0.11 0.02 1.4 8Taro leaves 55 81.3 61 4.3 1.8 10.0 3.3 257 4.0 7515 0.09 0.29 1.7 112Taro petioles 84 93.7 19 0.3 0.2 4.6 0.7 57 1.3 185 0.01 0.02 0.2 10Taro boiled leaves 0 88 40 3.6 1.1 6.1 1.6 181 1.0 10055 0.06 0.21 1.1 54Taro boiled potiles 0 96.2 12 0.3 0.1 2.8 0.6 63 0.8 160 0.01 0.02 0.2 3Yam 83 74.9 96 1.7 0.2 22.2 0.7 19 0.7 0 0.09 0.02 0.5 6Yam boiled 74 80.4 75 1.0 0.2 17.6 0.7 14 0.5 0 0.07 0.02 0.4 6Source: Food Composition Table, FNRC/NSDB, Manila 1980.

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Thailand's cassava trade Asian production of cassava more than doubled in the 1970s, putting the continent on an equal footing with Africa, the dominant producer region. Much of the upsurge in Asia has been due to the dramatic increase in production in Thailand, where annual growth averaged 19 percent during the 1970s. Cassava cultivation provides a livelihood for over 8 million people, or 20 percent of the Thai population. The cassava starch industry was developed after World War II and by 1966 and 1974, 146,000 mt were exported to US and 151,000 mt to Japan respectively. The quality of the flour has improved as the demand from the livestock industry has grown. Initially livestock feed was made from starch waste, but later pellets and chips were developed (Figure 5.3). An agro-industrial infrastructure consisting of chipping yards, pellet factories, dockside warehouses and extensive modern loading facilities has been created and a national market network has now been established. Before the EEC market created the demand, cassava was produced in the southern Rayong area. As demand grew, production spread northward where soils are lighter in structure. Once pelleting was introduced, the area under cultivation increased dramatically from 0.475 million ha in 1974/1975 to 1.3 million ha in 1980/1981. Production grew from 8 mt of fresh roots to nearly 18 mt. Average yield, however, decreased from 16.8 mt/ha to 14.2 mt/ha in the same period. This was mainly due to poor soil conditions in the northern area. Cassava has been one of the five top foreign exchange earners in the last decade. This has been possible because EEC's common agricultural policy, which maintains internal grain prices at an artificially high level, makes it economically attractive to use alternative protein and energy feed ingredients (i.e cereal substitutes) including cassava and corn gluten feed.

Rotterdam, the principal port of entry, handles 85 percent of imports which are distributed to Germany, the Netherlands and Belgium, the principal consumers. The price of cassava-soybean feed mix at isoprotein levels is 20 percent less than maize. These least cost mixes are based on the unit cost and nutritional value of the various feed ingredients. Analysis shows that the demand for cassava is robust over a range of prices, at 76 percent of maize price the demand for 1985 is likely to be 4.9 mt, and at 72 percent cost, 7.3 mt. The EEC has assured Thailand of maximum import quantities up to 5 mt in 1982, 5.5 mt in 1983 and 1984, and 4.5 mt in 1985 and 1986. This agreement does not work favourably for Thailand's production and trade of cassava. Meanwhile, alternative markets have not been found, but production levels have been maintained. The government is reluctant to destabilize the farm gate price as this may cause the local market to collapse and result in serious economic, social and political problems. The government is , with aid from the EEC, looking at crops for diversification in cassava growing areas.

Nutrition and consumption oriented breeding goals for cassava The following plant breeding goals have been identified for cassava as a source of food.

1. More energy per unit area and time. Breeding of varieties that mature in less time and produce high yields of high quality starch could be considered as a primary

73

Figure 5.3 Processing diagram for cassava and taro chips.

74

goal. However, early maturation is a characteristic usually negatively correlated with yield. A large number of germplasm lines need to be screened to select a physiological type that would synthesize a higher quantity of starch in less time. Such photosynthetically efficient plants have been found in other tuber crops, e.g., potato. There is also evidence that the foliage of some cassava varieties are high in starch. This starch can be genetically transferred to roots and tubers through appropriate breeding methods. A breakthrough in breeding for early maturing HYV cassava lines can be expected.

2. High protein types. The need to breed for high protein tubers is no longer considered a major objective since researchers recognize that it is rare for a community to depend on cassava as a staple: there is always some other protein food to complement the cassava. There is little evidence that high protein cassava types can be found in the germplasm. Also, the protein and starch are likely to be negatively correlated. Thirdly, the high nitrogen content is usually associated with high HCN content, which may lead to increased risk of toxicity. Finally, high protein types depend on high fertilization. Therefore protein improvement of cassava should receive low priority in the breeding programmes.

3. Selection of low HCN varieties. Since goiterogenesis is possible where cassava is a staple, a breeding programme aimed at reducing the HCN content through selection, mutation or crossing is important. Complete removal of the toxic factor is neither genetically possible nor desirable, since the HCN content is controlled by a number of recessive genes and it is thought to play a protective role against insect attack during growth. Increasing the acceptability. This breeding goal is largely concerned with keeping quality. The perishability of cassava tubers under ordinary storage conditions discourages storage for future consumption as a human food. Even if HYV varieties are produced, the storeable protein applies and the urban market is unlikely to gain. One solution is to process the tubers into flour, starch, rice granules and so forth. These processes will depend upon the technology available and perhaps be too costly for the urban poor.

4. Breeding for disease free and insect resistant types. This breeding goal depends on acceptability and yield.

Some inferences drawn from various reports on cassava utilization 1 The real challenge to increasing cassava production and utilization may not be the

development of technology per se, but rather the organization of technology to allow the many small producers to integrate their operations at various levels. Coordination of production, processing, and marketing is likely to be easier on a relatively small scale. Transportation costs will be reduced and any occasional undersupply will be less damaging, economically. More jobs can be created.

2 The use of dry cassava products could secure a stable supply to the processing plants. The use of tubers, which are dried prior to processing, needs to be studied from both technical and marketing perspectives.

3 Intra-regional markets need to be explored to sustain cassava production. Domestic demand in the cassava producing countries could be increased.

75

Roots and Tubers

76

4 A cube appears to be a more efficient shape for rapid drying of chips; the quality of cubes is

more acceptable than that of long chips. 5 Marketing policy and pricing issues are more important considerations than technological

development in most countries. 6 Existing quality standards are less than ideal and these are rarely enforced. 7 Delays in extraction lead to serious losses in starch content through degradation of starch to

sugars although there are varieties which differ in fibre content and keeping quality. Waste water from cassava starch extraction is a pollutant for which a use, or technology for disposal needs to be found.

8 The tops of cassava plant can be used as they contain up to 10 percent

starch. 9 The use of cassava starch can be diversified to a great extent. 10 The scope for cassava alcohol production in many ESCAP region countries is good,

particularly since cassava, unlike sugar-cane, can be grown on less productive soils. 11 Cassava flour, when mixed appropriately, can produce good bread. However, the HCN

content needs regulating. 12 Mechanical harvesting is needed for large-scale operations. 13 To make cassava a viable crop, the production and processing should be integrated into a

strategy that is compatible with that of small-scale producers. Sweet potato

Considering its yield potential, its ability to adapt to adverse conditions and capacity to give high yields of nutrients/ha/day, sweet potato is one of the most underrated crops in the world. Among the root and tuber crops, it is second in importance to the Irish potato, cassava being the third. In Asia, it occupies over 13 million ha, representing 92 percent of world's area under sweet potato. Yields are lower than those of potato because it is grown under relatively low input conditions, and less than cassava since the latter is slower maturing. Sweet potato becomes a food staple in many countries during times of war, calamity or famine. As a staple, it is known only in Papua New Guinea, the Orchid Island of Taiwan and in certain parts of the Philippines. In China, 10 to 12 percent of national energy needs are met by consumption of sweet potato, but it is not consumed as a staple in any specific area. The availability of sweet potato as a source of energy is given in Table 5.9. The differences between farmers' yields and potential yields is enormous. A 600 percent increase in yield is possible in the Philippines and 400 percent in India (Villarea 1982). Some of the breeding goals set for sweet potato improvement at AVRDC are given in Table 5.10. A number of biophysical and socio-economic factors are responsible for low yield in sweet potato. The genetic and agronomic potential exist to achieve the goals set in -Table 5.10. Various measures are required to break the yield barriers under different

Roots and Tubers 77

conditions. Simultaneously, the demand has to be increased and the uses diversified. Table 5.11 compares the nutrient composition of some Indonesian varieties of sweet potato. Comparing this table with Table 5.10 suggests that there is scope for increasing the protein content of all sweet potatoes. Table 5.9 Food energy and sweet potato availability in selected Asian countries, 1964 to 1966 and 1972 to1974.

1964 to 1966 1972 to 1974

Country Energy cal/cap/day

Sweet Potato kg/cap/year

Energy cal/cap/day

Sweet Potato kg/cap/year

China 2379 68.9 - 2278 + 80.2 India 1964 2.1 1967 +3.0 Indonesia 1760 25.4 + 2301 -17.1 Rep. of Korea 2329 76.1 + 2749 - Malaysia 2200 3.7 + 2539 -1.0 Pakistan 1995 3.7 + 2128 - 2.0 Philippines 1911 20.4 + 1957 -5.1 Thailand 2226 16.2 + 2302 - 7.2

Source: FAO. Sign + /- indicates increase or decrease over 10 year period.

Table 5.10 AV RDC breeding goals for various nutrients in sweet potato.

Sweet Potato Type Nutrient

Staple Dessert Feed Industry

Dry matter (%) 25-35 - 25-35 25-35 Sugar (% dry wt) 3-5 20 3-5 3-5 Starch (% fresh wt) 20 - 20 20 Protein (% dry weight) 5-8 - 5-8 3 Beta Carotene (mg/100g fresh wt) 1 10-15 1 0

Table 5.11 Composition of some sweet potato varieties of Indonesia. Porto

Rico Loma Jarak Bainum Paris Papaya

Tanjung Kulit

Kuntul

Moisture % 68.5 60.2 69.2 65.4 67.7 72.4 75.0 65.6 Dry matter% 31.5 39.3 30.8 34.6 32.3 27.6 25.0 34.6 Protein % 0.7 0.8 0.6 0.7 0.6 0.6 0.6 0.6 Ash % 1.1 0.9 0.8 1.4 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.1 Fat % 0.4 - - 0.4 - 0.9 - 0.8 Fibre % - 0.8 1.0 0.7 1.0 0.9 0.9 0.4 Unknown matter 28.3 36.7 28.0 31.4 29.1 24.3 21.9 31.5 Flour % 30.1 39.3 26.1 31.7 26.6 26.6 19.5 33.2

Source: Hardjo 1952.

Roots and Tubers

78

Nutritive value of sweet potato

Sweet potato contains approximately 20 percent starch and 5 percent simple sugars. It is considered a high energy food. It provides 20 to 30 mg/100 g vitamin C, and in yellow flesh varieties up to 8000 I.V./100 g of carotene. It is a good source of thiamin (Vitamin B), present in adequate quantities if the sweet potato is eaten as a staple. The protein content is low (1 to 2 percent) and provides only 4 to 6 percent of total energy. The leucine and methione amino acids are limiting.

In the Asia-Pacific region, sweet potato is eaten as a staple in Papua New Guinea , where 3 to 5 kg of tuber may be consumed/caput /day. In the Ind ian subcontinent, it is eaten as a vegetable, and in several Asian countries it is considered a luxury food.

Sweet potato tips are an excellent vegetable, superior to many other leafy vegetables (Table 5.12). Of special significance is the high Vitamin B2 content which Asian foods generally lack. Some of the causes of poor acceptance of sweet potato are the psychological association of its role as a staple food during war or famine and the nonavailability throughout the year due to seasonal production and poor keeping quality.

Table 5.12 Nutritional composition of sweet potato tips and of five common leafy vegetables.

Minerals Vitamins A B Ascorbic

(mg/100g) IV/ mg/ Acid Vegetable Mois-

ture

Pro- tein

(%)

Fibre

100g 100g C Sweet potato tips 86.1 2.7 2.0 74 4 5580 0.35 41 Water convolvulus 91.8 2.3 0.9 94 1 4200 0.20 43 Spinach 92.3 2.3 0.8 70 2 10500 0.18 60 Amaranth 87.8 1.8 1.3 300 6 1800 0.23 17 Head lettuce 96.3 0.9 0.3 14 0.2 4300 0.03 6 Cabbage 92.1 1.7 0.9 64 0.7 75 0.05 62 Source: Eheart, J.F. and P.H. Massey, Jr. 1962 ; Factors affecting the oxalate content of spinach, Agric. Food Chem. 10:325-327.

Sweet potato in Papua New Guinea

Sweet potato is an important cash and staple crop in Papua New Guinea. The roots are the staple for people in the highlands (1200 to 2700 m) who eat them boiled or baked. Sixty to 90 percent of their energy intake is from sweet potato. Sweet potato, along with taro and cassava, are beginning to displace the more traditional foods: yams and bananas. Production of sweet potatoes in both the subsistence and commercial sectors, at altitudes lower than 1200 m, is likely to increase.

Uses of sweet potato

In most of the developing countries, sweet potato is consumed fresh upon harvest in boiled form. It can be consumed in baked, steamed, fried or candied form, in the form of chips, puree, or canned in syrup. Flour from sun-dried sweet potato is used

Roots and Tubers 79

as a substitute for wheat flour in some preparations. Sun-dried chips in fried form are sold in Indonesia. Tender leaves are eaten as a vegetable. In the USA, canned, frozen or dehydrated forms are available. It is used there for such foods as souffles and baby foods. In Japan, 50 percent of the produce is used to make starch for textiles, paper, cosmetics, adhesives, glucose syrup, and in the food manufacturing industries. Residue is used for animal feed. Attempts have been made to produce betacarotene pectin, protein enriched pulp and feed yeast from sweet potato (Winrano 1982).

Sweet potato starch can be converted to industrial alcohol, lactic acid, acetone, butanol. Vinegar starch is still in a developmental stage. There are several drawbacks and side effects to this approach, the most important being lost of valuable foods to less productive uses and the possibility of pollution due to processing.

Sweet potato as animal feed

Raw sweet potato and sweet potato chips are successfully used in pig rations in Taiwan and Korea, mostly through substitution of 20 to 30 percent corn in a grain-based feed. Gains in body weight have been significant. (Table 5.13).

Encouraging results have been obtained from feeding cattle fresh or sun-dried sweet potato vines. Up to 70 kg of fresh roughage is consumed by a cow of 400 to 500 kg body weight. Increased proportion of fresh sweet potato vines produced more milk with no effect on the animal's health or the milk. (Veh 1978).

Table 5.13 Performance of fatterning pigs fed different proportions of corn and sweet potato chips.

Treatment corn

% in diets sweet potato

chips, % in diet

Daily gain (kg)

Feed gain

(kg/kg)

65 - 83 0 0.53 3.93 0 56 - 72 0.37 4.79

30 - 39 30 - 39 0.48 3.83 63 - 81 0 0.65 3.38 45 - 58 15 - 20 0.66 3.37 29 - 37 29 - 37 0.62 3.54 14 - 18 42 - 54 0.58 3.74

0 54 - 68 0.56 3.81 72 - 84 0 0.60 3.08 35 - 41 35 - 41 0.48 3.84

0 69 - 81 0.44 4.08 69 - 75 0 0.69 2.95

0 63 - 68 0.60 3.37 33 - 36 33 - 36 0.66 3.13 72 - 84 0 0.56 3.14 35 - 41 35 - 41 0.49 3.71

0 69 - 81 0.48 3.80

Taro, yams and other root crops Taro and yam are versatile crops, which can be grown under water conditions, varying

from continually flowing to stagnant water. They `usually have a long but flexible growing season, this being advantageous from a food security and storage point of view. A steady supply of these crops can be achieved by production and

Roots and Tubers

80

market scheduling. The steady labour requirement of this crop has social implications which may far exceed its economic importance. Similarly, the development of a simple processing technology will open new avenues so that poor farmers may reach largely untapped markets.

Very little data on the consumption and quality of taro and yam and processed products is available. The following information on the utilization, processing and storage of these crops needs to be collected. 1. Characteristics of the physical, chemical, biochemical, and organoleptic quality of root

crops and their products,Toxic factors, 2. Nutritional value in relation to processing, 3. Effect of post-harvest handling and storage on quality and possible damage to the

finished product, 4. Information on processing techniques and equipment, 5. Information on sources of equipment and know-how,

To help develop viable small-scale processing facilities, the following problems need to be addressed:

Acceptance. Year round availability of raw material.

Availability and cost of equipment. Losses, material and overhead. Packaging, material, safety. Development of quality criteria. Purchasing power of target consumers.

Transportation and marketing. Study of alternate uses for human and animal consumption. By-products and their use. National policy and encouragement. The following research needs are visualized: 1. Physical characterization of starch properties mechanical, rheological and

gelatinization. 2. Toxic factors-acridity in taro, biochemical and genetic studies. 3. Effects of processing on nutritive value, including plant breeding research. 4. Consumer demand and marketing studies. 5. Processing economics.

Taro Taro, a native crop of South Asia, is grown throughout the tropics and subtropics for its

edible corms. It has become a major source of staple food on many Pacific Islands and is also a major food resource in Southeast and Far East Asia. In Indonesia, the Philippines and West Samoa, taro has developed into a commercial crop, while in the rest of the region it is produced as a subsistence staple food. The

Roots and Tubers 81

exact area under cultivation is difficult to determine, but it is cultivated in all the Pacific islands.

In Vanuatu, Xanthosoma sagittiforium taro is more popular, and in Tonga, Wallis and Fortuna islands Alocasia macrorrhiza (Sera, Babal), a giant taro is the most common and widespread species. Arrowroot (Tacca lentopetaloides) is widely grown in the Tokelan Islands, Nieue, Tuvalu, Gilbert Islands and the atolls of the Marshalls (makmok).

For consumption, the tuber is first ground and then washed with salt water. The starch is collected on a canvas base, sun-dried and eaten with coconut and palm juices.

In contrast to grains, fresh taro cannot be dried easily and there are problems with transportation, processing and utilization due to its high water content, low bulk density and high t issue matter density. In order to reach a broader market, the development of small scale processing technology for taro becomes important. Simultaneously, increasing attention should be given to studying production processing economics, existing and potential marketing structures and the demand for processed taro products. The importance of ethnic and social preference must not be ignored. Some basic constraints are the lack of storage technology, the lack of technology for .processing at producer's level, and the lack of organized marketing structures

Taro starch, because of its small particle size, is superior to the starches of corn, cassava and potato. Therefore, it is most suitable for making biodegradable plastics with polystyrene, polyethylene, nylon and polyvinyl. The smaller particle size means tha t there i s a la rger sur face a rea dur ing microbia l degrada t ion of products incorporating taro starch.

When heat is used to destroy the acridity of taro, the starch gelatinizes which causes drying difficulties. A more effective method is to remove toxicants by settling. Stable forms of taro products, such as noodles and rice, can be formed by adding 10 to 20 percent soyflour. Long-term storage results in pigment (anthocyanin) degradation. Taro flour, when mixed with soybean flour processed into pre-cooked rice or noodles, gives a product with a relatively short cooking time and with an energy value of 3.8 to 4 kcal/g, which is compatible to that of cereals.

In Fiji, taro processing into chips is a new small scale industry. Several local varieties are grown by small or commercial cultivators. Average yield is 9 mt/ha and total annual production may be 20,000 tons. Only a small part (350 to 400 mt) is used for processing into chips.

In West Samoa, in 1985, taro was second in importance in the country's export commodities. Exports are directed to the expatriate West Samoans, living in New Zealand and on the US West Coast. Some advance has been made in top washing and vacuum packing techniques, which are well worth studying.

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6

Nutritional Disorders Associated with CGPRT Crops

Nutritional deficiencies Populations subsisting on CGPRT crops are generally poor, because the rain-fed areas,

in which these crops grow, provide limited opportunity for agro-based or other industries. The purchasing power of those with low incomes is thus restricted. The marginal farmers, and the landless in particular, are affected, and it is therefore not surprising that there is under- and malnutrition in rural areas. In this chapter, the nutritional disorders associated with the CGPRT crops are discussed first in terms of specific nutrient deficiencies, then regarding inherent, toxicants transmitted through handling. Nutritional disorders can be divided into three basic categories.

1. Deficiency diseases The major deficiency diseases are: protein-energy

anaemia xerophthalmia, keratomalasia, night blindness rickets

goitre beri-beri(Thiamine deficiency) pellagra (Niacin deficiency) ariboflavinosis

2. Food toxicants (inherent) Lathyrism Flatulence and other factors Cyanates

3. Food toxicants through handling

Mycotoxins bacterial contaminant.

Anti-nutritional factors in pulses Plant proteins are often associated with compounds that can be toxic or harmful

to the human and animal body. These substances can: 1) cause impaired and reduced growth or produce acute and lethal effects, 2) reduce the availability of otherwise good proteins in the diet, or 3) cause diseases originating from the natural balance between the essential amino acids. The near absence of any toxic substances in the major cereals explains the popularity of these crops as the basic staple for the bulk of the world's population. There are practically no reports of anti-nutritional factors in the cereal crops, except for the excessive amounts of some polysaccharides and tannins

83

Nutritional Disorder associated with CGPRT Crops 84

in some minor cereals and millets, which can reduce the availability of protein in the food. Anti-nutritional factors are largely confined to legumes and the oil bearing crops. Some of these toxins, universally present in various legumes, are heat liable and these do not pose a health risk if the food is cooked properly. For such legumes the genetic correction and removal of these substances is not as crucial as that of other substances, which are not destroyed by heat. The toxins present in oilseed meal will become important once these crops are accepted as a potential source of protein.

Liener (1966) classified toxic substances present in pulses into three main categories on the basis of their biochemical makeup:

1. Protein or amino acid derivatives Trypsin inhibitors Lectins or haemagglutinins Lathyrism

2. Glycosides Goiterogens Cyanogens Saponins I soflavone glycosides

3. Miscellaneous Favism Metal-binding factors Anti-vitamin factors Po lyphenol s

Table 6.1 summarizes some of these toxic substances. Soybean contains almost all the anti-nutritional factors, but this does not imply that it is more harmful than other beans, it only indicates that soybean has been more thoroughly investigated. There is a need to develop suitable mass screening techniques and to systematically screen available germplasm collections for toxic substances. A great deal more also has to be learned about the fundamental properties and modes of action of the toxins. A better understanding of the biosynthesis of these substances and knowledge about their evolutionary significance will help in developing efficient screening techniques and in formulating breeding strategies. If these substances are governed by simple genetic mechanisms and if natural or induced genetic variability is available, it should be possible to remove these factors from the cultivated varieties.

Trypsin inhibitor

This anti-nutrit ional factor is perhaps the best studied of all and works by inactivating trypsin, a digestive enzyme, thus reducing the digestibility of proteins. Trypsin inhibitors are present in a large number of legume species although human trypsin has been found to be only weakly inhibited by the soybean inhibitors. It has been postulated that trypsin inhibitors might play a role in insect defense during storage. The inactiveness of the trypsin inhibitor by heat has been questioned.


Table 6.1 Summary of the occurrence and mode of action of various anti-nutritional factors found in pulses.

Name Present Mode of action and other remarks

Source

I. Protein of amino acid derivatives

1. Trypsin inhibitors Soybean, peanut,

navy bean, lima bean, chickpea and other legumes.

Causes pancreative hypertrophy

Kuntiz (1946)

2. Haemagglutinis (a) SBH (b) Ricin (c) Concan-

avalin A

Navy bean, lentil, garden peas,soybean, castor bean, jack bean.

Haemagglutinis combine with mucosal cells lining the inten- stinal wall and thereby interfere with the absorption of essential nutrients.

Liener (1962) Palanschand Liener (1955)Takahashi, et al. (1962) Summer, et al. (1936)

3. Osteolathyro- gens Lathyrus odoratus,

L. pusillus, L. latifolius, L. sylvestris

Affects bone and connective tissue (osteolathyrisa)

Depuy and Lee 1(954) McKay, et al. (1954)

4. Neurolathyro- gens Lathyrus latifolius,

L. sylvestris, L. sativa L. sativus, L. cicera,

L. clymenum

Damages central nervous system causing tremors, convulsions, rigidity and finally death (neurolathyrisa)

Nagarajan (1972)

H. Glyosides

1. Goiterogens Peanuts, oilseed proteins, i.e. mustard seed, rape seed

Causes enlargement of thyroid gland. Phenolic metabolites formed from the glycoside present in seeds are iodinated; this deprives the thyroid of available iodine.

Pattom, et al. (1939) Sharpless, et al. (1939) Srinivasan, et al. (1975)

2. Cyanogens Phaseolus lunatus, sorghum, cassava, linseed meal (in lesser quantify in Vigna sinesis, Pisua sativa, Phaseolus vulgaris and Cicer arietinum)

Respiratory poisons Montgomery (1964)

.

3. Saponins Soybean, peanut Haemolytic activity.

Interferes with digestion. Inhibiting proteolytic activities of trypsin and

chymotripsin.

Potter .and Kummerow (1954) Dieckert, et al. (1955) Willner, et al. (1964) Ishaaya and Birk (1965)


Table 6.1 (continued)

Name Present Mode of action and other remarks

Source

4. Isoflavin glycosides

Soybean Possess estrogenic activity; cause of decrease in weight gain of entire body and also of kidney and spleen; an increase in iron content of liver and spleen, elevated levels of zinc in liver and bones and increased deposition of calcium, phosphorus and manganese in the bones.

Magee (1963)

III. Miscellaneous

1. Favism Vacia faba, V. satia

Inhibits growth, induces haemoglobinuria indicative of haemolytic anaemia.

McPhee (1965) Schulze (1981)

2. Phytate Soybean Interferes with the Odell and Savage (1960) Kidney bean Peas

availability of Zn, Mn, Cu and Fe.

Fitch, et al. (1964)

3. Anti-vitamin factors

Soybean, kidney bean, linseed

Cause rickets in turkey poults and muscular dystrophy, depresses growth of chicks vitamin requirements are greatly increased.

Carlson, et al. (1964) Hintz and Hoque (1964) Kratzer and Hoque 1964; (1947-1948)

4. Alkaloids Various Legumes Interfere with digestion.

Golovchenko, et al. (1970)

Trypsin inhibition of many legumes comprise between 30 and 40 percent cysteme. Thus, if one can remove toxic effects, the trypsin inhibition could contribute significantly to the sulphur amino acids in the diet.

Lectins or Haemagglutins

Lectins or haemagglutins agglutinate and break down red blood cells. The reaction in humans is acute gastro enteritis. This factor is heat liable and destroyed in cooking. The beans should be bred for low haemagglutinating activity.

Lathyrism

Lathyrism is a disease of the nervous system and is characterized by specific paralysis of the lower limbs. It is invariably associated with the consumption of L. sativus. Neurolathyrism, commonly referred to as lathyrism, is a major problem in parts of Bangladesh and India, where L. sativus is a hardy, edible plant which grows


during drought periods (Figure 6.1). Because it is cheap and easy to grow, lathyrus peas are often used to adulterate other pulses.

Considerable information on epidemiological, clinical and experimental aspects of lathyrism has been collected in India. The active neurotoxin principle in L. sativus was identified as B-N-Oxyalyl-L-X-B-amino propionic acid (ODAP), which is present to a level of about 2 percent in the cotyledons of seeds. Simple household scale methods have been evolved for the removal of toxins and on a commercial scale parboiling is being researched. Another approach is to remove the gene(s) controlling toxin production. These low toxin lines have been selected from germplasm collections along with induced mutants.

ODAP is thought to act by antagonizing the Pantothence Acid (Vitamin B-6) mediated pathways of methionine and cysteine conversions.

The amount of ODAP can be quantitatively estimated from chromatographic and electrophoretic techniques. A method involving reaction between the alcohol extract of seed meal and the (fluorescent) dye O-phthal aldehyde (OPT) in alkaline conditions has been developed. This method is the most suitable for large scale screening of germplasm and breeding material. Several germplasm lines available at BARI (Bangladesh) have been screened using this method. The material showed wide variation for ODAP content from 450 mg to 1400 mg/100 g sample. Eight low toxin lines have been selected and are being multiplied for large scale tests.

Goiterogenic substance

The goiterogenic activity from plant foods is generally associated with thioglycoside or glucosinolates which, when hydrolyzed by the enzyme myrosinase, give isothiocyanates which in certain conditions (insufficient iodine intake) results in goitre, characterized by an enlarged thryoid gland.

Cyanogenetic agents

Some leguminoseae and gramineae contain glycosides from which HCN is released after hydrolysis. Lethal quantities of HCN result in death. The lima bean (Phaseolus. lunatus ) contains the highest concentration of cyanogen (linasin) of all the food legumes. Large doses of cyanide cause death by inhibiting cell respiration but small doses are changed upon ingestion into thiocyanate, a .goitrogen.

Saponins

These bitter tasting, foam producing glycosides exhibit varying degrees of haemolytic action. They occur in soybeans, peanuts and other legumes.

flatulence factors These factors, present in many legumes, influence their acceptability by consumers. Not

much is known about their nature, and there are no specific techniques available to screen the legumes for these factors.


Figure 6.1 Incidence of lathyrism and pellagra on the Indian subcontinent.

Favism

This is a disease associated with the consumption of broad beans (Vicia faba) and is characterized by haemolytic anaemia, haemoglobinuria and jaundice.

Anti-nutritional factors in coarse grains

Pellagra and Leucine/Isoleucine balance in maize

The association of pellagra with a maize diet is attributed to the low tryptophan content of maize and to the poor availability of its nicotinic acid. Pellagra is also encountered among communities where the staple is jowar (Sorghum vulgare). Since the available tryptophan and nicotinic acid levels of rice and sorghum are similar, and


pellagra has not been reported in rice eating populations, the abnormally high levels of leucine in sorghum may be associated with pellagra through interference with the utilization of nicotinic acid.

At the National Institute of Nutrition in India, an extensive survey of the sorghum germplasm collection indicated that it is possible to select genotypes with a favourable isoleucine/leucine balance. When opaque-2 maize was supplemented with leucine, the diet produced symptoms of pellagra. An Opaque-2 diet by itself did not induce such symptoms.

Tannins in sorghum

Polyphenolic compounds, also known as tannins, occur in tests of grains and legumes. The principal tannin of sorghum is a leucoanthocyainidin in which the brown and red grains are especially rich. Tannins are reported to offer certain agronomic advantages such as bird resistance during early grain development and pest resistance during storage, more research is necessary on this. However, tannins reduce protein solubility and digestibility. The removal of tannins by suitable methods is therefore important. Attempts have been made to remove or inactivate them by chemical treatments. Alkali extraction from high tannin sorghum improves in vitro protein digestibility. Tannins suppress the amount of low quality protein available, further aggravating the nutrition problems of sorghum consumers. The genetic improvement of sorghum with high lysine lines may be associated with a high tannin content, which will require new technologies to remove or inactivate tannins before consumption.

Cyanogens in cassava

A considerable amount of the nitrogen in cassava is in the form of cyanogens and the cyanoglucosides linamarin and lotaustralin. These cyanoglucosides can produce up to 40 to 250 mg CN/gram of fresh weight. The enzyme linamerase converts the glycosides to the toxic factor free HCN, while the enzyme rhodanese converts the HCN to the less toxic thiocyanate for elimination.

The cyanogen content of cassava varies with the age of the plant, location, variety, climate, cultural practice and fertilization (higher nitrogen content in soil increases the HCN content). It probably functions as a defence against insects and as a source of nitrogen reserve.

Boiling, sun-drying, steaming and frying, commonly used methods of preparation, detoxify cassava chips. Smaller s ized chips are detoxif ied more quickly and thoroughly.

Continued consumption of non-detoxified cassava ultimately causes poisoning leading to thyroid disorders, goitre, skin lesions, mucous damage and cretinism. Although common among African communities where cassava is a staple, these health problems are not serious in Asian countries. However chronic pancreatic diabetes among cassava consumers has been reported in India, Indonesia and Sri Lanka. The absence of the essential sulphur containing amino acid methionine in cassava tubers may explain some of the metabolic disorders in populations where cassava is the staple and where there is limited access to animal protein.

90 Nutritional Disorders Associated with CGPRT Crops

Aflatoxins

Disease outbreaks traced to food toxins of fungal origin induced by contamination of staple foods where the moisture levels exceed 15 percent occur throughout the ESCAP region. In such situations Aspergillus, Penincillium, Fusarius and Claviceps invade grains, during the pre- or post-harvest stages, and produce secondary toxic metabolites: aflatoxins by Aspergillus lavus and A. parasiticus, tricothecene toxins by Fusarium incarnatum and clavine alkaloids by Claviceps fusiformis. Among these, aflatoxins are the most important since they affect humans as well as livestock and poultry. Even if the level of aflatoxin contamination is low, there is some health hazard since large quantities are consumed.

EnteroergotismDuring the current decade, the problem of ergot contamination in bajra or pearl

millet has assumed serious proportions in India. The high yielding varieties of bajra of the hybrid series are shown to be susceptible to ergot forming fungi identified as Claviceps fusiformis. Consumption of bajra contaminated with ergot leads to enteroergotism characterized by nausea, vomiting, giddiness and somnolence. Several sporadic outbreaks of this disease have been reported from different parts of the country. An investigation into the outbreaks of ergotism in the Sikar and Jaipur districts of Rajasthan revealed that clinical manifestations were present when the level of contamination of ergoty grains in bajra exceeded 1.5 per cent (w/w). Since symptoms are usually observed within a few hours after the consumption of the ergoty bajra, villagers appear to be aware of the problem and generally resort to removal of the contaminated sclerotic.

The clinical manifestations of ergot toxicity in humans as seen in India are different from those of classical ergotism due to ergot of rye and wheat described in Europe, which are characterized by convulsions and gangrene. A comparative study of ergot of rye and wheat on the one hand and bajra on the other, indicated that the chemical nature of alkaloids and their biological effects were different. The ergot of rye and wheat have been shown to contain ergotoxin-ergotamine (argometrine group of alkaloids) which yield amino acid residue on hydrolysis, while ergot of bajra contained alkaloids of the clavine group consisting mainly of agroclavine and traces of elymoclavine, chanoclavine, penniclavine and setoclavine. These chemical differences were reflected in their biological activity. Based on these studies, it has been suggested that the conditions of vascular ergotism and enteroergotism should be clearly differentiated.

7

Storage Losses of CGPRT Crops

One vital but neglected step toward ensuring food sufficiency is to reduce losses that occur between harvest and consumption. There are studies that indicate that postharvest losses or major food commodities in the Asia-Pacific region are large. It is, however, difficult to estimate post-harvest losses with precision; the losses are both quantitative and qualitative and occur throughout the system from harvesting to consumption (Table 7.1). Not all losses occur in all commodities at all stages, thus the percentages given in Table 7.1 should not be added together. The recent mounting concern at storage losses has resulted in increased research to avoid losses on both large and small-scale storage facilities. Figures given for storage losses are, because of the nature of the data collection, over-estimates.

Types of lossesIn the hot and humid countries of the Asia-Pacific region, food grains as well as

tuber crops, are subject to quantitative and qualitative losses which occur where there is: fungal damage (mycotoxins): insect damage (uric acid formation), and enzymatic degradation (rancidity). In tubers, complete fermentation can occur within a few days; starch is converted to putrid products and alcohol or acids. The qualitative losses pose a dormant threat to human health if the by-products are ingested. Losses can be categorized as follows:

1. Physical: due to moisture, heat, mechanical damage, breakage etc.;

2. Biochemical: due to enzymatic degradation of proteins, fats or starches;

3. Pesticidal: Insects, rodents, birds;

4. Microbial: due to fungi and bacteria leading to visible and invisible losses which can be direct or indirect;

5. Physiological: sprouting, germination, etc., leading to secondary losses.

Quality and safety are two considerations for the world food commodity trade. Shiploads of peanuts have often been sent back from Europe to India because of the presence of aflatoxins.

Reducing lossesThe following methods of treatment of grain and tuber crops have evolved over

time to improve shelf life:

Sun-dryingHeating

91

Storage Losses of CGPRT Crops 92

Low temperature Fumigation Chemical treatment

Controlled fermentation Canning

Irradiation

Except for sun-drying and some traditional methods of controlled fermentation, none of the above techniques are applicable at the household level. Similarly, only those storage techniques which are cheap and possible with local, inexpensive materials should be recommended for rural application. Much technology has already been developed, both within and outside the region, on storage bins and containers. Some small-scale storage containers designed in India are listed in Table 7.2. Processing techniques to reduce food losses in one culture are often unknown in another. Storage techniques practised in different countries, should be documented for possible adoption in areas where they appear applicable. Storage methods that are not energy intensive and are environmentally safe for both humans and livestock need to be designed.

Irradiation techniques have been suggested for bulk handling and export of grain commodities. Some of the advantages mentioned are:

Cost effectiveness, Simultaneous treatment for insects and micro-organisms, Organoleptic properties unaffected,

Energy saving, Versatility of product application.

This technique is still in an early stage and needs general public support and government investment before it can be recommended for wider use.

Social, cultural and economic aspects

Food losses are related as much to social factors as to physical and biological causes. Cultural attitudes and practices form the critical, inescapable backdrop for post -harves t operat ion and loss reduct ion act iv i t ies . The t echniques of food conservation are frequently dictated more by traditional beliefs than by immediate utility. The roles of men and women are defined by the particular ways in which food is handled or stored after harvest. Techniques and information must be culturally and socially acceptable if they are to be useful. Visible incentives should be demonstrated. There are simple cost effective improvements that can reduce serious losses at the farm level. There are many indirect benefits that can be derived from investment in postharvest preservation. This is true especially in the traditional farm sector of poor Asian countries, where the bulk of the population produces and consumes a large proportion of the food crops locally. Little of the produce enters the market sector. Here food preservation could mean security against lean years and better nutrition, and possibly the inflow of other goods into the rural market from outside. Direct, as well as indirect, government measures are necessary to improve food preservation at rural and national levels.


Table 7.1 Post-harvest losses of CGPRT crops at various stages of handling.

Stage Coarse Grains Pulses Roots and Tubers Remarks

Harvesting Birds, Rodents, Fungi and Mechanical 1 %

Birds, Rodents, Insects, Mechanical, and Fungi 2%

Mechanical Insects, 2-4%

Losses vary from location to location

Threshing and Cleaning

Mechanical, Rodents Storage, Weather

Mechanical, Rodents, Storage, Fungi, Weather I%

Microbial, Weather 5-25%

In the case of root and tuber crops, losses up to 25% are not uncommon

Storage At farmers' level At community level At national level

Fungi and Insects 2-5% 1-2% 1-2%

Fungi and Insects 3-5% 1-2% 2.3%

Fungi and Bacteria 0-5%

At farmers level storage losses can be minimal to very high depending on the sophistication of methods and storage containers used.

Processing At farmers' level At community level At factory level

Milling, Cleaning, Feed Milling, and mixing Multiply Maize processing 1-2%

Milling, Cleaning, Oil extraction, soy sauce making 1-5%

Fermentation Chip making Tape making, Sugar and Alcoholmaking Flakes, Starch, Pellets, Chips 1-4%

Transportation Rural level Within the country International

- <1% 1-2%

- 1-2% 1-2%

1-10% 5-10% -

Losses will depend on the ease of communica- ation and quality of containers

Cooking Fresh

Bread Gruel making

Dhal making (leaching)

2-5%

Highly cultural and location specific

Processed Fermentation, grits, etc

Washing

Tape

Factory handled

Breakfast foods, Feed mixes 1.5%

Tempe, etc. Biscuits 1-2%

Chips, Candy 2-3%

Digestion Human

Palatability, Absorption

Antinutritional Factors, Flatulence

Antinutritional Factors

Associated with general hygiene

Livestock - 5-10%

10-20%

Antinutritional Factors HCN 10-25%

Absorption Losses due to internal parasites

?

?

Associated with general health condition

Note: Percentages refer to estimated losses at each step.


Table 7.2 Small-scale storage structures for CGPRT crops. SI. N o .

Type

Units, accessories and operational requirements

Functional and economic limits

1 . Concrete bin Hopper bottom and manual filling, fumigation required, curing required before filling.

Up to 10 metric tons, outdoor, thermal conductivity within limits, life unlimited.

2. Plywood bin 1PRI-CFTRI type rodent proof fumigation required fiat bottom, manual filling.

Up to 2 metric tons, l o w t h e r m a l conductivity, indoor and outdoor type, multipurposes, portable, life limited.

3. Galvanized iron/ Hopper bottom or flat, manual Up to 10 metric tons, high thermal

Ms bin filling, fumigation diffiaik, aeration required.

conductivity, outdoor portable.

4. Prefab aluminium bin

To be installed on plinth, manual filling, fumigation retention difficult, aeration required.

Up to 15 metric tons, portable, many joints, cumbersome, high thermal conductivity, outdoor.

5. Dehydro bin CFTRI design metal structure, grain fluctuations. Condensed moisture not allowed to drip inside, drained out. Grain dries progressively during storage, no aeration required.

Up to 10 metric tons, outdoor, high thermal, conductivity, utilized for better storage, life unlimited.

Fumigable rodent proof, most suitable for tropical climate.

6. Ferrocement bin SERG-CFTRI standard ammo- nent, manual filling, fumigation tight, curing requited, light can be installed above ground level or underground.

Up to 3 metric tons, portable, Low thermal conductivity, outdoor. .

7. Prefab RCC standard component bin

CBRI and ACC portable standard component, heavy, fumigable, curing required, manual filling.

Up to 2 metric tons, medium thermal conductivity, outdoor.

8. Unitized clay ring bin

CBRI-CFTR1 short distance portable fumigable, moisture proof, village artisan ran fabricate, curing required.

Up to 3 metric tons, indoor, very conductivity, outdoor, life short.

9. Pusa bin Polyethylene sandwich between clay walls, in situ fabrication, fumignant retention not known, can be hermetic, curing time long.

Up to 3 metric tons, indoor, very low thermal conductivity, fumigation desirable.

10. Underground pit Improved type with water proofing prevents moisture, isothermal and hermetic.

Up to 5 metric tons, indoor, Life difficult to unload, cost low.


Table 7.2 Small-scale storage structures for CGPRT crops. (continued)

SI. No.

Type Units, accessories and operational requirements

Functional and economic limits ,

11. Hapur thekko IGSI structure, flexible, non-airtight, on bamboo frame, mechanically rodent proof fumigation not satisfactory.

Up to 2 metric tons, indoor, Life 3-5 low thermal conductivity, temporary.

12. IHMW-HDPE CFTRI-FCI-Polyene industries fabricated flexible bin, no frame required, fumigable, rodent-proof, chemical repellent, movable and folding, scratch resistant surface hard.

Up to 2 metric tons very low indoor and outdoor, Life 3-5 years, highly portable.

13 Glass-Natural fibre Balloon-like storage, insect proof, rat proof, fumigable.

Outdoor, low thermal conductivity, portable

14 Glass fibre Balloon-like storage, light, portable, gas proof, flexible, insect proof, rodent resistant.

Optimum size under investigation, outdoor, low thermal conductivity.

15 Foam glass CGCRI-Industry-CFTRI insect proof, rodent proof, fumigable portable, hermetic. ductivity,

Optimum size under investigation, very low thermal con- outdoor, very light.

16 Natural fiber-PVC ISRO-CFTRI, rigid structure, fumigable.

Outdoor, low thermal conductivity, optimum size, being standardized.

Source: Majumder 1982. IPTRI: Indian Plywood Research Institute CFTRI: Central Food Technological Research Institute SERC: Structural Engineering Research Centre CURT: Central Building Research Institute ACC: Assoc Cement Company IGSI: Indian Grain Storage Institute ICI: Food Corporation of India CGCRI: Central Glass and Ceramic Research Institute ISRO: Indian Space Research Organization

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8

Case Studies on the Utilization of CGPRT Crops

Consumer preference studies on sorghumThe International Crop Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics (ICRISAT)

has conducted studies on consumption patterns and quality preferences among rural consumers in seven Indian states, where 80 percent of the sorghum in India' is produced and consumed as a staple. In these states §orghum consumers derive more than 50 percent protein and energy and 20 percent fat from the sorghum itself. It is eaten in the form of roti or ghakri (Subramanian, Bapat and Jambunathan, ICRISAT undated). Two important findings were:

1. The claim that large quantities of HYV sorghum had to be eaten, in comparison to LYV, to meet satiety was found to be unjustified.

2. Half of the consumers could not tell the difference between local and hybrid sorghum flour when the grain was provided to make roti.In another study conducted by ICRISAT (Bapna and von Oppen 1980) the market

price of sorghum was associated with characteristics such as colour, seed size, absence of moulds and some preferred cryptic characteristics. Price-quality relationships were found to be consistent and statistically significant for samples collected over three years in Hyderabad. Detailed studies are in progress at ICRISAT to find consumer preference by region, season, and urban versus rural consumers (80 percent of sorghum produced in India docs not appear in the formal market channels). In villages, labour is frequently paid in the form of grains. The study includes market sample analysis and consumer panel tests. The results obtained so far indicate that:

1. There arc insignificant differences in regional preferences,2. Small farmers and labourers arc more successful than large farmers in assessing

sorghum quality as reflected by the market price,3. Respondent could predict grain quality with equal efficiency when flour rather

than grain was given for assessment,4. Cooking and subjective judgements play a part in quality preferences.

These studies arc helpful in understanding consumer preferences, and in assisting plant breeders in their selection and development of high yielding varieties.

Post-production systems of legumes: Andhra Pradesh, IndiaA detailed survey of the post-production system of legumes in Andhra Pradesh,

India, has been carried out. This study was part of a programme on womens1 role in combating malnutrition. Information on six pulses, namely pigeonpea, black gram, mungbean, chickpea, cowpea and horse gram, was collected from 2160 households. Data on primary processing, recovery rates, culinary characteristics, socio-cultural

97

Case Studies on the Utilization of CGPRT Crops 98

aspects of pulse consumption and losses due to insect infestation in storage were collected. The survey is of interest since the area under consideration is in the heart of the semi-arid rain-fed region of India. In this state, only 0.11 percent of pulses are irrigated (0.03 percent pigeonpea, 0.05 percent mungbean, 0.41 percent black gram, 0.33 percent chickpea and 0.06 percent horse gram). Of the total of 332,538 mt of pulses produced in Andhra Pradesh in 1977/1978, 9 percent were pigeonpea, 41 percent mungbean, 15 percent black gram, 6 percent chickpea and 26 percent horse gram. Tables 8.7 and 8.8 give observations on the consumption of legumes.

Similar studies need to be conducted in different countries of the ESCAP region which produce and consume CGPRT crops. Such data can be of great value to researchers and policy planners.

Table 8.1 Number and percentage of households storing legumes.

Foods Number Percentage

Pigeonpea 1024 52 Mungbean 815 41 Black gram 153 8 Chickpea 153 8 Cowpea 467 24 Horse gram 251 13

Table 8.2 Association between farm size and quantity of legumes stored. (average per farmer in kg).

Foods Small farmer

Medium farmer

Larger farmer

Average

Pigeonpea 47 72 107 72 Mungbean 35 41 58 43 Black gram 44 51 47 48 Chickpea 27 45 66 51 Cowpea 14 17 31 20 Horse gram 50 63 82 66

Table 8.3 Association between family size and quantity of legumes stored (average per family in kg).

Family Size Foods

1-3 4-6 7-9 10-12 13-15 Above 15

Pigeopnea 48 66 77 87 93 92 Mungbean 37 40 42 63 60 60 Black gram 21 45 52 69 69 46 Chickpea 31 35 56 71 92 71 Cowpea 18 19 20 22 19 40 Horse gram 61 58 70 77 101 92

99 Case Studies on the Utilization of CGPRT Crops

Table 8.4 Forms of storage of legumes (percentage of households storing).

Forms of storage Pigeonpea Mungbean Black gram Chickpea Overall

Whole 40 61 79 5 51 Dhal 35 10 3 14 22 Whole and dhal 25 29 18 35 27

Table 8.5 Noticeability of insect and rodent damage in legumes (percentage of households).

Foods Insect damage Rodent damage

Pigeonpea 92 80 Mungbean 97 81 Black gram 88 73 Chickpea . 95 88 Cowpea 96 81 Horse gram 91 84

Table 8.6 Number and percentage of respondents consuming different legumes.

Legumes Number Percent

Pigeonpea 1739 88 Mungbean 1340 68 Black gram 824 42 Chickpea 1666 85 Cowpea 615 31 Horse gram 226 11

Marketing and consumption of taro: Hawaii An elaborate study of the marketing of steamed and powdered poi, or taro,

(Colocasia esculenta) was conducted in 1977 in Hawaii, where it is the main staple in the traditional diet (Begley, Spielmann and Vieth 1979). Detailed questionnaires were designed to find .the frequency of use, quantities purchased, occasion of usage, other foods consumed with poi, persons in the household consuming poi, brand preferences, preferences in the degree of freshness and taro's position in relation to other staples. The frequency and size of purchase of poi are summarized in Table 8.9. It is concluded that the Hawaiian native population prefers to eat taro as a staple but would like to see changes in the form in which it is processed and presented in the market.

Case studies on food processing Traditionally, consumers of coarse grains, pulses and root and tuber crops have sot

only developed appropriate consumption habits of available food, but they have also evolved processing techniques that make the diet balanced, more palatable, and easy to digest. These processing methods, which have evolved over time, can be broadly classified into two categories,namely the non-fermented and the fermented.


Table 8.7 Frequency of consumption of various legumes according to the farm size of the household (percentage of consumers).

Frequency of consumption

Small farmer

Medium farmer

Large farmer

Overall

Pigeonpea Daily 17 41 65 37 Weekly 70 54 33 56 Monthly 10 3 1 5 Occasionally 3 2 1 2

Mungbean Daily 2 3 2 3 Weekly 62 56 67 59 Monthly 22 26 22 24 Occasionally 14 15 9 14

Black gram Daily 0 I I 1 Weekly 17 16 28 18 Monthly 42

. 44 52 44

Occasionally 41 39 19 37 Chickpea

Daily 6 8 2 6 Weekly 30 21 32 25

Monthly 22 28 38 28 Occasionally 42 43 28 41

Cowpea Daily 2 2 1 1 Weekly 29 29 23 28 Monthly 37 32 49 38 Occasionally 32 37 27 33

Horse gram Daily 0 2 2 1 Weekly 28 23 15 22 Monthly 37 42 51 43 Occasionally 35 33 32 34

Table 8.8 Family size and quantities of various legumes consumed (quantity in kg).

Family size Foods Consumption

1-3 4-6 Above 6 (g/serving) Pigeonpea 0.15 0.19 0.27 0.03 Mungbean 0.33 0.36 0.52 0.06Black gram 0.44 0.62 0.79 0.10Chickpea 0.52 0.62 0.83 0.11

All foods 0.35 0.43 0.58 0.08

Table 8.9 Frequency and size of purchase of poi (taro), Hawaii.

Answer No. of Buyers Percentage

Less than 1 packet a week 196 28.4 (Large or small)

1 packet a week 211 30.5(Large or small)

2 or more packets a week 284 41.1 Total 691 100.0


Consumers of coarse grains, namely millets, sorghum and pulses such as chickpea, lentil and pigeonpea, living in India, Pakistan and Nepal make flour for unleavened bread and dhal. The combination of dhal soup and coarse grain bread complement each other nutritionally as well as taste-wise. Consumers of soybean and cassava in east Asian countries, on the other hand, have evolved sophisticated fermentation techniques that increase the digestibility and availability of proteins from these foods and improve the organoleptic properties of the food mix at the same time. Examples are various sauces prepared from fermented soybean, namely, miso, shoyu, kacang, tempe, and taupe out of cassava. Various fungi, particularly Aspergillus and Rhizopus, are used to induce proteolytic activity. In South India, semi-fermented mixes of rice -and black gram have been developed to achieve the same basic end result, namely, increasing the availability of proteins, carbohydrates and vitamins in the diet. The sprouting of mungbeans, an important source of Vitamin C, has evolved in the Chinese culture.

Tempe The various processing steps involved in the preparation of tempe, an Indonesia

soybean product, are given in Figure 8.1. Tempe kedele uses Rhizopus olicosporus mould as the inoculum. The mould develops very rapidly forming a thick mat through the cotyledons of soybean. The harvested product is cooked as a fried item. Javanese people eat up to 120 g of tempe everyday. Some 75,000 metric tons of tempe are produced annually by small units, using more than 5 percent of the soybean consumed in Indonesia. The key merits of tempe are as follows:

I. Cooking energy is saved since it is a fast food (tempe is considered the first fast food in the world, Winarno 1982),

2. Proteins and lipids are hydrolysed into more readily available forms of amino and fatty acids.

3. Non-digestible carbohydrates, such as stachiose, are reduced.

4. Riboflavin is increased two-fold.

5. Niacin is increased seven-fold.

6. Vitamin B12, which is normally available only in animal sources of food, is synthesized in tempe by Klebesiella bacteria.

7. Tempe has a PER of 2.4 (Casein, 2.5) BV 58.7 (meat, 80) NPU 56 (meat, 65) and a digestibility coefficient of 86.1. These figures demonstrate the high food value of tempe.

Malted baby foods

In India, 59 percent of all children in the 1 to 5 year age group are classified as moderately or severely malnourished by WHO standards. For this reason, several attempts have been made to produce and market low priced baby and other cereals (Parpia 1972). These spray or roller dried products (Figure 8.2) and liquid formulations


Figure 8.1 Tempe processing steps.

such as miltone beverage (Figure 8.3) are popular and nutritionally comparable to full fat milk. The chemical composition of some baby foods and that of full fat milk powder is given in Table 8.10. Some mungbean based weaning foods from the Philippines are listed in Table 8.11. Tables 8.12 to 8.14 offer results on other infant formula researches.

Baby foods are invariably too expensive for the economically deprived classes and although they may use them, they are, more often than not, prepared incorrectly. These products are pre-cooked, roller dried mixtures of cereals and/or legume flours which are bulky when made up with hot or cold water, hence the amount consumed is large because of the nature of the food. Emphasis is, therefore, placed on weaning foods with low bulk but high energy density.

The traditional technology of malting, (Table 8.15), still used in the rural comunities of Karantaka, India, which reduces bulk and increases energy density was adopted by the Central Food Technological Research Institute. Mysore maize (Zea mays), jowar (Sorghum vulgara), bajra (Pennisetum typhoides), ragi (Eleucine coracana) navane (Setaria italica) and mungbean (Vigna radiata), were used for the

The viscosity and protein value of weaning foods produced are compared in Table 8.16. A mixture of ragi and mungbean was found to be most suitable. Field tests

Cleaning of Soybean

Hydration (acid fermentation)

Dehulling

Partial cooking

Draining, Cooling

Placing Cotyledons in Fermentation Containers

I n o c u l a t i o n R h i z o p u s m o l d

I n c u b a t io n u n t i l f u l l y c o v e r ed w i th mo l d

H a r v e s t i n g & S e l l i n g

Cooking for Consumption


Figure 8.2 Flowchart for the production of infant food based on peanut flour.

conducted on children in rural areas have been encouraging, and the technique developed cost effective. At the village level, a 75 kg batch process will require less than US$ 100 capital investment. Malting has proved to be a key to cost effectiveness as well as to the food value in the simple technique developed at CFTRI (Brandtzaeg 1982). The two case studies discussed have some similarities and some differences. Both methods are based on enzymic hydrolysis, one catalysed through the microbial system (Rhizopus and Aspergillus in tempe) and the other through enzymes activated in the germination process. The production of tempe and tape is highly sophisticated, yet traditional microbiological processes are being used. Small village level processing units are involved and the products are acceptable. The malting processes used by Indian food technologists are based on traditional know-how which, when improved, will lead to a product of wide acceptance. It is anticipated that other coarse grains and pulses can be made into baby food using the malting technique.

Traditional microbiological techniques, which are highly developed in the Southeast Asian countries, could be introduced through co-operative research ventures into other parts of Asia, particularly the Indian subcontinent. Energy saving aspects of microbiological food processing are important for the future.


Figure 8.3 Flowchart for the production of miltone beverage.


Table 8.10 Chemical composition infant foods based on blends of soybean, peanut and buffalo milk (values per 100 g).

Nutrients Peanut protein isolate & skin milk powder

Peanut flour& skin milk

powder

Soybean, “am” peanut protein isolate & skin milk powder

Coconut,honey,peanut protein

isolate

Soybean bean

full fat milk powder

Moisture (g) 2.8 2.7 2.9 2.1 2.7 2.0 Protein (NG.25) 26.2 26.1 26.8 26.5 26.4 26.4 Fat (g) 18.4 18.2 17.8 18.2. 18.2 27.5 Ash (g) 5.3 4.8 5.7 6.2 5.5 5.9 Carbohydrates (g) 47.3 48.2 46.8 47.0 47.2 38.2 Calcium (g) 0.95 0.94 0.92 0.59 0.95 0.91 Phosphorus (g) 0.73 0.60 0.82 0.73 0.75 0.71 Iron (mg - 5.2 5.8 - 6.0 0.5 Thiamine (mg) 0.9 0.6 0.9 0.8 0.9 0.29 Riboflavin (mg) 1.5 1.0 1.4 1.5 1.5 1.46 Niacin (mg) 6.0 6.0 5.7 6.2 6.0 0.7 Vitamin A (I.U.) 1500 1500 1450 1500 1480 1130 Vitamin D (I.U.) 400 400 380 - 390 - Vitamin C (mg) 30.0 29 - 30 -


Table 8.11 High protein food supplements utilizing mungbeans and other indigenous raw materials; Philippines, 1977.

Category Form Basic ingredients Protein (%)

Calories (per 100 g)

Weaning food Porridge Mungbeans, "am" (boiled rice 4.4 105 broth), sugar Mungbeans, rice, milk, sugar 4.4 111

Dry mix Mungbean flour, coconut flour, 25.0 364 skim milk powder (MCH)

Mungbean flour, rice flour 24.0 383 coconut flour, fish protein concentrate (MRCF)

Mungbean grits, ground rice, 12.0 388 skim milk powder, oil (Nutri-Pak)

Rice flour, mungbean flour, full 22.8 422 fat soy flour

Drum-dried Coconut protein isolate, mungbean 22.0 398 flakes flour, skim milk powder

Mungbean flour, rice flour, fish 25.0 370 protein concentrate, coconut skim milk

Mungbean flour, coconut protein, 25.0 370 isolate, rice flour, fish protein concentrate

Deep-fried Mungbean flour, coconut flour, 17.0 484 crunchies corn meal

Cookies Mungbean flour, cowpea flour, 7.2 290 rice flour, wheat flour

Breakfast bun Mungbean flour, bread flour 12.0 295 "pan de sal" (30:70)

Noodles Dry Mungbean flour, rice flour 17.5 362 (50:50)

Wheat flour, coconut flour, 22.0 368 mungbean flour


Table 8.12 Protein efficiency ratio of spray-dried infant foods based on soybean and a blend of soybean and groundnut protein isolate (10% level protein in 4 week experimental diet).

PER PER correcteda

Series I Infant food based on soybean. 2.47 2.48 Infant food + dl-methionine 2.92 2.93 Skim milk powder 2.99 3.00

Series II Infant food based on soybean + groundnut protein isolates 2.34 2.19 Infant food + dl-methionine 2.85 2.68 Skim milk powder 3.19 3.00

Source: S.R. Shurpalekar et al J. Sci. Fd. Agric. 1965, 16:90; Technol., 1964, 18; 108aCorrected taking PER of skim milk powder as 3.00

Table 8.13 Chemical composition of miltone (g/100 g).

Total solids 11.5 Fat 2.0SNF (Solids-not-fat) 9.5Proteins 4.0Lactose 2.5Glucose & Maltidextrine 2.5

*Data from CFTRI, Mysore.

Table 8.14 Amino acid composition of protein in miltone and cows' milk (g/69 N).

Amino acid Milton Cow's milk

Lysine 5.8 7.94 Methionine 1.9 2.30Total S. amino acids 3.3Phenylalanine 4.7 4.94Leucine 8.2 10.02Isoleucine 4.6 6.51Valine 5.6 7.01Arginine 8.5 3.73Threonine 4.0 4.70Tryptophan 1.2 1.44

Source: M.L. Orr & B.K. Watt, Amino Acid Content of Foods, Home Econ. Res. Rep. Ser. No. 4, U.S. Dep. Agric., Washington D.C.1957.


Table 8.15 Various steps in the processing of 100-150 kg batches of malted mixture.

Mungbean Ragi

Step Equipment Time/hr Losses Time/hr Losses

Steeping Buckets- 16 16 (soaking) 5-6 kg

in each Germination Jute bags- 24 5-8% 48 8-10%

10 kg in each

Drying (sun)

Outside during yard

12 6-7

Remove vegetative portion and husk

Plate mill- maximum clearance

1/2 per 25 kg

18-20% 1/2 5-8%

Toasting Frying pan Firewood

• 3 per 25 kg

4

Grinding Plate mill 1% 1 2-3% Sieving 50-55 mesh

sieve size: 2' x 4'

1 per 25 kg

5% 2 18-20% as husk

Source: 'Ph.D. Thesis (unpublished) Dr. Maleshi. Notes: Total processing losses 30-35%; Yield of malt 70%; Yield of dehusked malted flour 65%; The calculated losses arc based on raw moisture content (12%); The moisture content of toasted green gram is 6.3%.

Table 8.16 Viscosity and protein value of weaning foods based on CGPRT crops.

Hot-Paste Viscosity a of 15% Slurry (cP)

Protein Weaning Food Content PER

(%) Plain with added malt

Malted weaning foodsb

ragi 12.1 2.43 60 - sorghum 14.6 - 900 - maize 15.1 - 450 - pearl millet 15.5 - 60 - wheat 15.6 - 60 -

Chanapatiesc wheat 15.4 2.69 6,000 96 sorghum 13.2 2.60 3,800 108 maize 12.5 2.71 2,000 42

Flakes rice (70) + soya (30) 17.5 2.82 rice + green gram + puffed Bengal gramc 13.2 2.70

1,700

3,200

42

80 Puffed

bajra + green gram + puffed Bengal gram` 16.9 2.72 1,800 56

Vermicelli sorghum + green gram + puffed Bengal gram 13.0 2.64

4,200 100

..;)urce: J. Food Nutr. Bull 4 (4) 59. cP = centipoise, cgs unti of viscosity. b

Malted cereal and green gram in a ratio of 70-30. `Central, green gram, and puffed Bengal gram in a proportion of 70:20:10.


Research needs

Detailed and well-designed socio-economic marketing consumption and quality surveys are essential to understand consumers' preferences for a commodity, or product thereof, in different countries of the region where CGPRT crops are produced and consumed. Different countries and different areas within a country have varying criteria for selection of varieties depending on the end uses. Mungbean for dhal requires a set of physiochemical properties quite different from those required for sprouts, noodles or other end uses. Plant breeders, food technologists, exporters, millers and marketing personnel need to be aware of the varying set of quality criteria applicable under different conditions. Similarly, it is necessary to know the genetic, environmental, processing and handling variables that can influence the quality of end products and thereby the market value of raw material or products.

While nutritional quality characters should always remain the least controversial and most preferred of all criteria, consumers' acceptance has an overriding influence on qual i ty, par t icular ly i f the products are to be marketed through a chain of processors and manufacturers. In the rural markets, the colour, size, taste and other cryptic factors appear more important than the nutritional value. Researchers can therefore benefit greatly from socio-economic and consumption surveys conducted to provide the necessary information.

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9

Observations and Recommendations

ObservationsVarious aspects related to the production, processing, storing, marketing,

utilization and nutrition of CGPRT crops in the ESCAP region were studied from which the following generalizations can be made:

1. The region contains some of the world’s poorest ^ountries where the GNP is less than USS 250 per capita/annum, population growth rates are high and food intake inadequate.

2. Access to food is limited and the diet of the poor is unbalanced. Both protein and energy malnutrition and specific nutrient deficiencies are prevalent throughout the region.

3. International and national crop improvement programmes have, until recently, placed more emphasis on crop production than on crop utilization, storage, processing and marketing.

4. Nutritional upgrading of plants through breeding has often been carried out’ in isolation, ignoring factors such as acceptability and marketing prospects.

5. Little research has been carried out on the social and economic aspects related to nutrition. This includes income and expenditure patterns, decision making patterns, nutrition knowledge and the attitudes and aspirations of both urban and rural people.

6. The interaction between agricultural research, food policy and nutrition has only recently begun to be consolidated.

7. The issue of complementary food is often ignored in crop commodity research: cereals and legumes have been improved on their individual merits or drawbacks, and their traditional complementary role in providing balanced diets has been ignored.

8. Food intake is determined by food availability and cost, preparation time, palatability, bulk, anti-nutritional factors and digestibility. These factors have not always received a due and balanced consideration in research.

9. The effect of poor storage conditions and the resulting losses in the nutritive value of CGPRT crops has not been fully recognized. Estimates of quantitative and qualitative losses are unreliable.

10. . There is a dearth of information on traditional food processing methods.

11. Seasonal and regional dietary inadequacies have not been adequately studied.

Ill

Observations and Recommendations 112

12. Nutritional goals have yet to be properly incorporated into farming systems

research. 13. The interface between agricultural research, food technology and nutrition is weak

in most countries and in some non-existent.

Recommendations CGPRT crops have an important role to play in bridging the food gap in many developing countries in the Asia-Pacific region. The CGPRT Centre in Bogor can play a vital role in helping to improve the production and processing technology of these crops. The services that it can render in the first phase fall into four broad categories of documentation, research, training and policy. 1. The CGPRT Centre at Bogor should be strengthened to provide dependable

documentation services to member countries on nutrition and food science, agriculture, food processing and food economics.

2. Upgrading of vitamins and minerals in crops and their preservation during

processing and cooking should be given a major area of research. 3. More attention should be given to assessing losses due to mycotoxins, and methods

of reducing them. 4. The CGPRT Centre should serve as a regional contact point between the national

and international institutes involved with any nutritional and processing research on these crops.

5. The following studies should be commissioned by the ESCAP/CGPRT Centre:

a) identification of CGPRT crop production constraints; b) monitoring the nutritional status of populations where CGPRT crops are

the staple food; c) regional surveys on:

i) the utilization of CGPRT crops as; - raw material in industry (starch, sugar, pharmaceuticals,

dependable plastics etc.) - animal feed (production, trade, storage, processing, nutrition

etc.) - infant foods

ii) storage, methods of preservation, consumtion pattern and marketing of CGPRT crops

iii) cooking losses of CGPRT crops

iv) feasibility of novel products such as exhuded soybean proteins, alcohol from starchy crops, artificial rice from cassava starch, peached rice from coarse grain


6. The CGPRT Centre should organize workshops and training courses on the economic implications of CGPRT crops. These courses should be designed to show the diversity of CGPRT crop uses and how to reduce losses. Considerable know-how already exists in the region and this should be exploited.

7. Consideration should be given by ESCAP to strengthening the expertise of the

CGPRT Centre in nutrition and processing through:

a) the appointment of appropriate specialists to the staff; b) the use of consultants for specific subject areas c) establishing a small advisory committee on nutritional and utilization

aspects of the mandated crops. 8. Crop diversification in the ESCAP region.

Most major crops in the ESCAP region have been established over thousands of

years. Likewise, the processing, marketing and consumption practices for different crops have evolved in response to production; for example, soybean in the Indian subcontinent and cassava in Thailand.

Without a proper understanding of the relationship between production, marketing and consumption the likely success of a new crop is difficult to ascertain. For this reason a conceptual production-marketing-consumption matrix identifying 44 important components is proposed (Table 9.1). The failure to identify or understand even one of the components could result in failure. The same matrix can also be used to obtain information on established crops. Some of the more critical items are:

1. Land and other production resources must be available. The acceptance and

success of a new crop is likely to be greater if it can be cultivated on uncultivated land or if it can fit into the present cropping pattern without reducing the land available for the other crops currently grown.

2. The availability of seed or cuttings at an uninflated market price is critical to a

new crop programme. 3. Strong interdisciplinary research backup and the establishment of a researchextension-

development lobby for a specific product or crop is necessary. 4. Special processing machinery and technology, if required, must be readily

available. For example, because of the bulkiness and rapid deterioration of cassava, processing centres must be in close proximity to the production sites. Harvesting and processing must be in balance. The disposal of by-products or wastes must not be ignored

5. Market research is essential even if the commodity is well-known.

All the components listed in Table 9.1 must be co-ordinated and the entire system

should remain in that condition. In Bangladesh, the maize programme has not been successful because the production, marketing and consumption sub-systems have never been operational at the same time.


Table 9.1 Production and Marketing - consumption system decision matrix.

Physically Economically Institutionally Possible Feasible Permissible

-Production Subsystem-

Land and water resources ________________________________________________________________________ Production financing ____________________________________________________________________________ Pest Control ___________________________________________________________________________________ Seed availability _______________________________________________________________________________ Fertilizer needs_________________________________________________________________________________ Input procurements _____________________________________________________________________________ Farmer's risk taking _____________________________________________________________________________ Farm machinery needs___________________________________________________________________________ Farm energy requirements _______________________________________________________________________ Input information _______________________________________________________________________________ Government services and regulations ______________________________________________________________ Agricultural research programmes _________________________________________________________________ Agricultural information progammes_______________________________________________________________ Crop organizations______________________________________________________________________________ Farm labour needs ______________________________________________________________________________ Market information for farmers ___________________________________________________________________

-Marketing Subsystem-

Procurement: Procurement resources_________________________________________________________________________ Dependable supply____________________________________________________________________________ Procurement financing Government services and regulations_____________________________________________________________ Market intelligence ___________________________________________________________________________ Transport and storage _________________________________________________________________________

Processing: Shelf life and storage __________________________________________________________________________ Processing resources __________________________________________________________________________ Processing equipment Commodity institutions Processing energy ____________________________________________________________________________ Procurement research__________________________________________________________________________ Processing information programs ________________________________________________________________ Processing by-products Managerial ability ____________________________________________________________________________

Distribution: Distribution resources Distribution financing Product market information Product transportation__ _______________________________________________________________________ Market research and development Government services and regulations_____________________________________________________________


Table 9.1 (continued). -Consumption Subsystem-

Market penetration_______________________________________________________________________________ Market size _____________________________________________________________________________________ Consumer awareness Product versatility _______________________________________________________________________________ Place in the nutrition _____________________________________________________________________________ Consumer acceptability___________________________________________________________________________ Ease of cooking/consumption______________________________________________________________________

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AppendixBasic Statistics on Production

of CGPRT Crops in the ESCAP Region

117

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CountryTotal

land area1971 1981 1971 1981

Developing CountriesBangladesh 13391 9095 9138 67.9% 68.2%Bhutan 4700 77 94 1.6% 2.0%Burma• 65744 10435 10040 15.9% 15.3%China 936241 104750 100900 11.2% 10.8%Dem. Kampuchea 17652 3046 3046 17.3% 17.3%DPR, Korea 2041 2050 2255 17.0% 18.7%Fiji 1827 225 236 12.3% 12.9%India 297319 164440 169430 55.3% 57.0%Indonesia 181157 18100 19550 10.0% 10.8%Laos 23080 842 885 3.6% 3.8%Malaysia 32855 4000 4335 12.2% 13.2%Maldives 30 3 3 10.0% 10.0%Mongolia 156500 775 1212 0.5% 0.8%Nepal 13680 1980 2330 14.5% 17.0%Pakistan 77872 19279 20331 24.8% 26.1%Papua New Guinea 45171 348 369 0.8% 0.8%Philippines 29817 9605 9940 32.2% 33.3%Rep. of Korea 9819 2271 2188 23.1% 22.3%Samoa. W. 285 115 122 40.4% 42.8%Sri Lanka 6474 1979 2156 30.6% 33.3%Thailand 51177 13939 18300 27.2% 35.8%Tonga 67 53 53 79.1% 79.1%Vanuatu 1476 94 95 6.4% 6.4%Vietnam 32536 5195 6115 16.0% 18.8%

Subtotal 2007341 372696 383123 18.6% 19.1%Developed CountriesAustralia 761793 44752 43300 5.9% 5.7%Japan 37103 5389 4853 14.5% 13.1%New Zealand 26867 464 452 1.7% 1.7%

Subtotal 825653 50605 48605 6.1% 5.9%

Asia-Pacific Total 2833104 423301 431728 14.9% 15.2%

Rest of World 10559073 1039409 1036871 7.8% 7.7%World 13392177 1462710 1468599 10.9% 11.0%

Table 1 Arable land and permanent crops (unit: 1000 ha).

Arable land andpermanent crops area

Arable land & permanent cropsarea as a % of total land

11

Country1971 1981 1971 1981 1970 1981

Developing CountriesBangladesh 9089 9138 58644 75690 0.155 0.121Bhutan 76 94 986 1236 0.077 0.076Burma 10423 10040 16529 18469 0.631 0.544China 102233 100900 568097 593553 .180 .170Dem. Kampuchea 3075 3046 5423 5016 0.567 0.607DPR, Korea 2017 2255 7598 8234 0.265 0.274Fiji 225 236 247 252 0.911 0.937India 164690 169430 383104 436002 .430 0.389Indonesia 18047 19550 80977 87388 0.223 0.224Laos 842 885 2334 2789 0.361 0.317Malaysia 3950 4335 5920 6638 0.667 0.653Maldives 3 3 - - - -Mongolia 744 1212 772 816 0.964 1.485Nepal 1935 2330 10717 13510 0.181 0.172Pakistan 19282 20331 38668 47350 0.499 0.429Papua New Guinea 346 369 2079 2653 0.166 0.139Philippines 9557 9940 19877 22758 0.481 0.437Rep. of Korea 2293 2188 16281 14606 0.141 .150Samoa, W. 114 122 - - - -Sri Lanka 1979 2156 6898 7999 0.287 .270Thailand 13749 18300 29152 36024 0.472 0.508Tonga 53 53 - - -Vanuatu 93 9 - - - -Vietnam 5048 6115 32963 38453 0.153 0.159 Subtotal 369863 383123 1287266 1419436 0.287 .270Developed CountriesAustralia 41595 43300 1014 819 41.021 52.869Japan 5467 4853 20173 11962 0.27 0.406New Zealand 521 452 333 283 1.565 1.597 Subtotal 47583 48605 21520 12604 2.211 3.721Asia-Pacific Total 417446 431728 1308786 1432500 0.319 0.301Rest of World 995995 1036871 594014 623260 1.677 1.664

World 1413441 1468599 1902800 2055760 0.743 0.714

Arable land and permanent crops (A) (100 ha)

Agricultural(B) (unit: 1000)

Ratio of A to B (unit: ha/caput)

Table 2 Arable land and agricultural population.

Table 3 Arable land and irrigation (unit: 1000 ha).

Country1971 1981 1971 1981 1970 1981

Developing CountriesBangladesh 9095 9138 1047 1680 11.5% 18.4%Bhutan 77 9 - - -Burma 10435 10040 890 1056 8.5% 10.5%China 104750 100900 41000 45074 39.1% 44.7%Dem. Kampuchea 3046 3046 89 89 2.9% 2.9%DPR, Korea 2050 2255 500 1050 24% 47%Fiji 225 236 I 1 4.0% 4.0%India 164440 169430 31100 40000 18.9% 23.6%Indonesia 18100 19550 4490 5430 24.8% 27.8%Laos 842 885 19 116 2.3% 13.1%Malaysia 4000 4335 256 380 0.064 0.088Maldives 3 3 - - -Mongolia 775 1212 12 35 1.5% 2.9%Nepal 1980 2330 117 230 0.059 0.099Pakistan 19279 20331 12986 14320 67.4% 70.4%Papua New Guinea 348 369 - - - -Philippines 9605 9940 1200 1340 12.5% 13.5%Rep. of Korea 2271 2188 868 1160 0.382 0.53Samoa, W. 115 122 - - - -Sri Lanka 1979 2156 439 525 0.222 24.4%.Thailand 13939 18300 2106 2660 0.151 0.145Tonga 53 53 - - - -Vanuatu 94 95 - - -Vietnam 5195 6115 980 1650 18.9% 27.0%

Subtotal 372696 383123 98100 116796 26.3% 30.5%Developed CountriesAustralia 44752 43300 1470 1655 3.3% 3.8%Japan 5389 4853 2626 3200 48.7% 65.9%New Zealand 464 452 120 168 0.259 37.2%

Subtotal 50605 48605 4216 5023 8.3% 10.3%Asia-Pacific Total 423301 431728 102316 121819 24.2% 28.2%Rest of World 1039409 1036871 216838 217883 0.209 0.21World 1462710 1468599 212622 212860 0.145 0.145

permanent crops (A) Area % of B to A Irriagted land (B)Arable land and

Table 4 Coarse grains: area harvested (unit: IMO ha).

Country 1973 1980 1981 1982 19831973-83 1980-83

Developing CountriesBangladesh 97 75 75 71 7 -3.7% -2.6%Bhutan 67 28 30 29 29 -11.0% 0.7%Burma 379 297 319 306 381 -0.9% 7.3%China 34759 31377 30448 29347 31756 -1.4% 0.0%Dem. Kampuchea 63 99 95 30 35 -2.4% -34.8%DPR. Korea 1668 1244 1250 1268 1268 -2.5% 0.7%Fiji 2 3 3 3 3 5.3% 0.0%India 46040 41744 42521 40223 41491 -0.8% -0.7%Indonesia 3648 2751 2968 2073 3209 -0.8% 1.0%Laos 15 28 31 32 32 8.2% 4.4%Malaysia 6 7 7 8 8 -1.3% 5.5%Maldives - - - - - - -Mongolia 113 147 130 97 103 -0.2% -12.7%Nepal 606 596 596 576 604 -0.3% 0.1%Pakistan 2120 1728 1957 1919 1990 -0.2% 4.1%Papua New Guinea 1 1 2 2 2 7.2% 23.1%Philippines 2763 3239 3361 3157 3400 1.1% 0.8%Rep. of Korea 761 385 405 377 367 -8.8% -2.1%Samoa, W. - - - - - - -Sri Lanka 63 44 47 50 50 -5.9% 4.6%Thailand 1136 1574 1736 1547 1958 4.4% 5.5%Tonga - - - - ---Vanuatu - - - - - -Vietnam 252 276 418 409 411 4.6% 12.4%

Subtotal 94560 85643 86399 81524 87167 -0.9% -0.1%Developed Countries

Australia 3898 4162 4947 4580 6189 3.9% 11.8%Japan 137 156 153 153 151 2.8% -1.0%New Zealand 102 105 97 133 117 -0.4% 6.6%

Subtotal 4137 4423 5197 4866 6457 3.8% 11.3%Asia-Pacific Total 98697 90066 91596 86390 93624 -0.7% 0.6%Rest of World 245142 252593 261749 258845 2510130 0.2% -0.4%World 343839 342659 353345 345235 343754 0.2% -0.4%

Average annual growth rate

Table 5 Coarse grains: production (unit: 1000 metric tons).

Country 1973 1980 1981 1982 19831973-83 1980-83

Developing CountriesBangladesh 68 54 53 49 51 -3.2% -2.5%Bhutan 67 27 27 29 29 -11.5% 2.9%Burma 128 202 246 291 420 11.7% 26.7%China 62036 82198 79842 82474 90153 3.3% 3.1%Dem. Kampuchea 73 100 98 46 60 -0.9% -20.5%DPR. Korea 2717 3380 3435 3430 3430 2.7% 0.4%Fiji 5 6 7 7 7 3.2% 4.7%India 28837 28349 31388 27929 31662 0.7% 2.2%Indonesia 3840 4000 4517 3212 4006 2.4% -3.3%Laos 27 28 33 35 39 2.8% 1.1%Malaysia 16 8 8 9 9 -9.9% 4.8%Maldives - - - - -Mongolia 116 51 44 103 150 -1.0% -50.5%Nepal 980 888 896 863 902 -1.3% 0.1%Pakistan 1606 1532 1609 1658 1690 1.0% 3.3%Papua New Guinea 2 3 3 3 3 9.8% 0.0%Philippines 2289 3110 3290 3126 3385 3.3% 2.1%Rep. of Korea 1546 984 1025 900 934 -6.1% -2.8%Samoa, W. - - - - - - -Sri Lanka 43 38 38 38 40 -3.3% 1.6%Thailand 2481 3239 3726 3243 3883 3.9% 4.1%Tonga - - - - -Vanuatu - - - - - - -Vietnam 314 455 495 477 462 5.1% 0.1%

Subtotal 107192 128652 130780 127922 141315 2.5% 2.6%Developed Countries

Australia 4703 4909 6613 4297 8618 3.3% 13.4%Japan 307 420 413 420 408 4.8% -0.7%New Zealand 421 447 469 679 584 3.2% 12.4%

Subtotal 5431 5/776 7495 5396 9610 3.5% 12.7%Asia-Pacific Total 112623 14428 138275 133318 150925 2.5% 3.2%Rest of World 550554 586749 649698 664045 539913 1.4% -2.3%World 663177 721177 787973 797363 690838 1.6% -1.2%


Table 6 Coarse grains yield (unit: kg/ha)

Country 1973 1980 1981 1982 19831973-83 1980-83

Developing CountriesBangladesh 704 718 708 700 730 0.6% 0.4%Bhutan 1000 964 900 1000 1000 -6.0% 2.2%Burma 339 681 771 952 1102 12.7% 18.0%China 1785 2620 2622 2810 2839 4.8% 3.1%Dem. Kampuchea 1161 1010 1032 1540 1714 1.6% 22.0%DPR. Korea 1629 2717 2748 2705 2705 5.3% -3.0%Fiji 2114 2400 2545 2545 2590 1.9% 2.3%India 626 679 738 694 763 1.6% 2.9%Indonesia 1053 1454 1522 1549 1248 3.2% -4.3%Laos 1763 1000 1060 1100 1200 -5.1% 6.0%Malaysia 2400 1143 1143 1125 1125 -8.1% -6.0%Maldives 953 850 767 776 783 -0.021 -0.023Mongolia 1028 347 341 1057 1456 -8.0% 72.2%Nepal 1619 1490 1504 1497 1493 -1.0% 0.0%Pakistan 758 887 822 864 849 1.3% -8.0%Papua New Guinea 2370 2300 1350 1400 1474 -8.0% -12.2%Philippines 828 960 979 990 996 2.1% 1.2%Rep. of Korea 2031 2554 2529 2388 2547 3.0% -7.0%Samoa, W. - - - - - -Sri Lanka 682 872 807 768 800 2.9% -3.0%Thailand 2184 2057 2146 2096 1983 -5.0% -1.3%Tonga - - - - - - -Vanuatu - - - - - - -Vietnam 1243 1650 1184 1166 1124 0.5% -11.0%

Average 1134 1502 1514 1569 1621 3.4% 2.7%Developed Countries

Australia 1206 1180 1337 938 1392 -0.6% 1.4%Japan . 2250 2697 2754 2764 2710 1.9% 0.3%New Zealand 4134 4272 4817 5092 4988 3.6% 5.3%

Average 1313 1306 1442 1109 1488 -3.0% 1.3%Asia-Pacific Average 1141 1493 1510 1543 1612 3.3% 2.6%Rest of World 2246 2323 2482 2565 2159 1.1% -1.9%World 1929 2105 2230 2310 2010 1.6% -1.0%


Table 7 Maize: area harvested (unit 1000 ha).

Country 1973 1980 1981 1982 19831973-83 1980-83

Developing CountriesBangladesh 3 2 2 2 2 -3.3% 0.0%Bhutan 51 11 11 11 11 -19.1% .0.0%Burma 175 100 144 141 196 -0.5% 22.1%China 16585 20367 19442 18529 19900 1.3% -1.2%Dem. Kampuchea 63 99 95 30 35 -2.4% -34.8%DPR. Korea 860 380 380 400 400 -6.7% 2.1%Fiji 2 2 22 2 0.0% 0.0%India 6015 6005 5935 5693 6000 -2.0% -4.0%Indonesia 3433 2735 2955 2064 3200 -2.0% 1.1%Laos 15 28 31 32 32 8.2% 4.4%Malaysia 6 7 7 8 8 -8.0% 5.5%Maldives - - - - - - -Mongolia - - - - - - -Nepal 453 450 450 430 460 -0.2% 0.2%Pakistan 633 769 740 790 780 2.8% 1.1%Papua New Guine - I 1 I 0.0% 0.0%Philippines 2763 3239 3361 3157 3400 1.1% 0.8%Rep. of Korea 36 35 33 28 28 -1.5% -8.0%Samoa, W. - - - - - -Sri Lanka 29 19 24 27 27 -4.1% 12.4%Thailand 1050 1335 1465 1306 1688 3.8% 6.1%Tonga - - - - - -Vanuatu - - - - - - -Vietnam 240 246 388 379 380 4.1% 13.7%

Subtotal 32412 35830 35466 33030 36550 0.8% -0.1%Developed Countries

Australia 59 54 56 61 59 1.5% 3.6%Japan 6 2 1 1 1 -18.1% -18.8%New Zealand . 13 19 17 24 22 3.3% 8.2%

Subtotal 78 75 74 86 82 1.0% 4.3%Asia-Pacific Total 32490 35905 35540 33116 36632 0.8% -0.1%Rest of World 84617 91245 95323 93034 86365 0.4% -1.9%World 117107 127150 130863 126150 122997 0.5% -1.4%


Table 8 Maize: production (unit 1000 metric tons).

Country 1973 1980 1981 1982 19831973-83 1980-83

Developing CountriesBangladesh 2 1 1 1 I -9.0% 0.0%Bhutan 52 12 12 13 13 -18.0% 3.3%Burma 79 127 166 206 301 13.8% 32.4%China 38714 62715 59301 60413 64135 4.9% 0.9%Dem. Kampuchea 73 100 98 46 60 -0.9% -20.5%DPR. Korea 1840 2200 2500 2270 2270 3.0% 0.0%Fiji 4 4 4 4 4 0.0% 0.0%India 5804 6957 6897 6274 7300 1.5% 0.5%Indonesia 3690 3991 4509 3207 4000 2.8% -3.3%Laos 27 28 33 35 39 2.8% 11.1%Malaysia 16 8 8 9 9 -9.9% 4.8%Maldives - - - - - - -Mongolia - - - - - - -Nepal 814 743 752 718 768 -1.1% 0.5%Pakistan 768 970 931 1005 1000 3.2% 1.7%Papua New Guinea - 2 1 1 1 0.0% -18.8%Philippines 2289 3110 3290 3126 3385 3.3% 2.1%Rep. of Korea 54 154 145 117 101 10.4% -13.8%Samoa, W. - - - - - -Sri Lanka 21 23 24 24 25 0.1% 2.5%Thailand 2339 2998 3449 3002 3552 3.8% 3.8%Tonga - - - - - - -Vanuatu - - - - - - -Vietnam 301 418 460 437 420 4.5% -4.0%


Australia 139 151 173 212 95 1.9% -11.2%Japan 17 4 3 2 2 -20.5% -22.0%New Zealand 118 156 152 214 176 4.6% 7.3%

Subtotal 274 311 328 428 273 2.8% -1.2%Asia-Pacific Total 57161 84872 82909 81336 87657 4.2% 0.8%Rest of World 264281 312064 369121 369744 256446 2.4% -5.7%World 321442 396936 452030 451080 344103 2.8% -4.2%


Table 9 Maize: yield (unit: kg/ha).

Country 1973 1980 1981 1982 19831973-83 1980-83

Developed CountriesBangladesh 874 715 729 628 625 -3.8% -5.4%Bhutan 1026 1111 1111 1111 1111 0.9% 0.0%Burma 452 1266 1151 1466 1537 14.3% 0.6%China 2334 3079 3050 3260 3223 3.6% 2.1%Dem. Kampuchea 1161 1010 1032 1540 1714 1.6% 22.0%DPR. Korea 2140 5789 5921 5675 5675 10.0% -1.0%Fiji 2000 2000 2000 2000 2000 0.0% 0.0%India 965 1159 1162 1102 1217 1.6% 0.9%Indonesia 1075 1459 1526 1553 1250 3.0% -4.4%Laos 1763 1000 1060 1100 1200 -5.1% 6.0%Malaysia 2400 1143 1143 1125 1125 -8.1% -0.6%Maldives 1000 1000 1000 1000 1000 0.018 0Mongolia - - - - - -Nepal 1795 1651 1670 1670 1669 1.0% 0.3%Pakistan 1214 1262 1258 1273 1282 0.4% 0.6%Papua New Guinea 429 2426 1200 1300 1405 7.0% -14.4%Philippines 828 960 979 990 996 2.1% 1.2%Rep. of Korea 1493 4362 4383 4119 3659 12.1% -5.7%Samoa, W. - - - - - - -Sri Lanka 708 1166 980 896 926 4.4% -7.5%Thailand 2228 2245 2354 2299 2104 0.0% -2.2%Tonga - - - - - - -Vanuatu - - - - - - -Vietnam 1252 1701 1186 1153 1105 0.4% -12.4%


Australia 2346 2791 3112 3475 1622 0.5% -14.1%Japan 2833 1989 2250 2030 1923 -3.4% -2.0%New Zealand 9139 8076 8830 8964 8000 1.0% -1.0%

Average 3513 4147 4432 4977 3329 1.7% -5.3%Asia-Pacific Average 1759 2364 2333 2456 2393 3.4% 0.9%Rest of World 3123 3420 3872 3974 2969 ' 2.0% -3.9%World 2745 3122 3454 3576 2798 2.3% -2.9%


Table 10 Other coarse grains: area harvested (unit: 1000 ha).

Country 1973 1980 1981 1982 19831973-83 1980-83

Developed CountriesBangladesh 94 73 73 69 68 -3.7% -2.7%Bhutan 16 17 19 18 18 1.3% 1.2%Burma 204 197 175 165 185 -1.3% -2.4%China 18174 11010 11006 10818 11856 -4.9% 2.1%Dem. Kampuchea - - - - - - -DPR. Korea 808 864 870 868 868 0.5% 0.1%Fiji 1 1 1 1 0.0% 0.0%India 40025 35739 36586 34530 35491 -1.0% -0.8%Indonesia 215 16 13 9 9 -26.1% -18.9%Laos - - - . - -Malaysia - - - - - - -Maldives - - - - - - -Mongolia 113 147 130 97 103 -0.2% -12.7%Nepal 153 146 146 146 144 -0.6% -4.0%Pakistan 1487 959 1217 1129 1210 -1.9% 6.4%Papua New Guinea 1 - 1 1 1 0.2% 0.0%Philippines - - - - -Rep. of Korea 725 350 367 349 339 -9.3% -1.5%Samoa, W. - - - - -Sri Lanka 34 25 23 23 23 -7.6% -2.5%Thailand 86 239 271 241 270 9.3% 2.5%Tonga - - - -Vanuatu - - - - - - -Vietnam 12 30 30 30 31 13.0% 1.0%

Subtotal 62148 49813 50928 48494 50617 -2.1% 0.0%Developed Countries

Australia 3780 4108 4891 4519 6130 4.0% 11.9%Japan 131 154 152 152 150 3.3% -8.0%New Zealand 89 86 80 109 95 -1.0% 6.3%

Subtotal 4000 4348 5123 4780 6375 3.9% 11.4%Asia-Pacific Total 66148 54161 56051 53274 56992 -1.6% 1.0%Rest of World 160584 161348 166431 165811 163765 0.1% 0.4%World 226732 215509 222482 219085 220757 -0.3% 0.6%


Table 11 Other coarse grains: production (unit: 1000 metric tons).

Country 1973 1980 1981 1982 19831973-83 1980-83

Developing CountriesBangladesh 66 53 52 48 50 -3.0% -2.5%Bhutan 15 15 15 16 16 -0.1% 2.6%Burma 49 75 80 85 119 7.9% 15.6%China 23322 19483 20541 22061 26018 -0.2% 9.8%Dem. Kampuchea - - - -DPR. Korea 877 1180 935 1160 1160 2.2% 1.7%Fiji 1 2 3 3 3 10.6% 12.9%India 23033 21392 24491 21655 24362 0.5% 2.7%Indonesia 150 9 8 5 6 -28.9% -15.5%Lao - - - -Malaysia - - - - - - -Maldives - - - - - - -Mongolia 116 51 44 103 150 -1.0% 50.5%Nepal 166 145 144 145 134 -2.1% -2.3%Pakistan 838 562 678 653 690 -1.6% 6.0%Papua New Guinea 2 1 2 2 2 3.2% 23.1%Philippines - - -Rep. of Korea 1492 830 880 783 833Samoa, W. - - - -Sri Lanka 22 15 14 14 15 -7.3% 0.0%Thailand 142 241 277 241 331 5.5% 8.5%Tonga - - -Vanuatu - - - - - - -Vietnam 3 37 35 40 42 16.2% 5.3%


Australia 4564 4758 6440 4085 8523 3.3% 13.8%Japan 290 416 410 418 406 5.4% -0.5%New Zealand 303 291 317 465 408 2.7% 15.0%

Subtotal 5157 5465 7167 4968 9337 3.5% 13.2%Asia-Pacific Total 55462 49556 55366 51982 63268 0.4% 6.9%Rest of World 286273 274685 280577 294301 283467 0.2% 1.4%World 341735 324241 335943 346283 346735 0.2% 2.3%


Table 12 Other coarse grains: yield (unit: kg/ha).

Country 1973 1980 1981 1982 19831973-83 1980-83

Developing CountriesBangladesh 700 718 708 702 732 0.7% 0.5%Bhutan 919 872 781 925 925 -1.0% 3.5%Burma 242 382 458 515 642 9.3% 18.2%China 1284 1770 1866 2039 2194 4.9% 7.6%Dem. Kampuchea - - - - -DPR. Korea 1085 1366 1130 1336 1336 1.8% 1.0%Fiji 2738 4000 3997 3997 4269 3.6% 2.0%India 575 598 669 627 686 1.5% 3.5%Indonesia 700 577 614 584 604 -2.6% 0.9%Laos - - - - - - -Malaysia - - - - - - -Maldives 953 - - - -0.038 -Mongolia - - - - - - -Nepal 1093 994 990 989 931 -1.6% -2.0%Pakistan 564 586 557 578 570 0.3% -0.5%Papua New Guinea 2370 2084 1440 1456 1511 -0.6% -9.1%Philippines - - - - - -Rep. of Korea 2058 2372 2364 2247 2456 2.1% 0.5%Samoa, W. - - - - - -Sri Lanka 659 629 620 617 652 0.5% 1.0%Thailand 1648 1007 1022 998 1226 -3.5% 5.8%Tonga - - - - - - -Vanuatu - - - - - -Vietnam 1066 1233 1158 1330 1357 2.9% 4.4%


Australia 1188 1159 1317 904 1390 -0.6% 1.7%Japan 2223 2706 2710 2759 2715 2.0% 0.3%New Zealand 3407 3411 3955 4248 4291 3.8% 7.9%

Average 1289 1257 1399 1039 1465 -0.4% 1.6%Asia-Pacific Average 838 915 988 976 1110 2.0% 5.8%Rest of World 1783 1702 1686 1775 1731 0.0% 1.0%World 1507 1505 1510 1581 1571 0.5% 1.8%


Table 13 Pulses: area harvested (unit: 1000 ha).

Country 1973 1980 1981 1982 19831973-83 1980-83

Developing CountriesBangladesh 311 333 325 304 306 0.3% -3.2%Bhutan 5 6 6 6 6 2.5% 0.0%Burma 611 461 608 645 662 0.1% 12.1%China 6231 5462 5363 4860 4878 -2.1% -4.3%Dem. Kampuchea 30 28 33 37 38 1.7% 10.9%DPR. Korea 360 330 333 330 330 -0.7% -0.1%Fiji 2 3 3 3 3 5.3% 0.0%India 22051 22910 22197 23801 23029 0.2% 0.9%Indonesia 554 627 622 627 634 1.2% 0.4%Laos 9 10 10 10 10 1.4% 0.0%Malaysia - - - - . -. - -Maldives - - - - - - -Mongolia - 1 1 1 -18.0% 0.0%Nepal 129 147 151 155 160 2.0% 2.8%Pakistan 1472 1553 1265 1320 1366 -1.2% -3.4%Papua New Guinea 2 3 3 3 3 3.4% 0.0%Philippines 45 73 76 65 62 3.5% -6.3%Rep. of Korea 54 58 63 62 61 0.7% 1.4%Samoa, W. - - - - - - -Sri Lanka 15 36 40 46 46 11.0% 9.1%Thailand 292 525 620 542 543 9.8% -0.3%Tonga - - - - - -Vanuatu - - - - - - -Vietnam 185 176 179 180 185 -0.2% 1.8%


Australia 79 167 189 265 381 12.1% 32.5%Japan 158 84 83 97 102 -5.4% 7.7%New Zealand 21 24 17 20 20 -0.3% -3.8%

Subtotal 258 275 289 382 503 4.0% 23.2%Asia-Pacific Total 32620 33016 32187 33383 32826 -0.1% 0.2%Rest of World 30382 39816 31702 32365 31715 0.4% 2.1%World 63002 62832 63889 65748 64541 0.2% 1.1%


Table 14 Pulses: production (unit: 1000 metric tons).

Country 1973 1980 1981 1982 19831973-83 1980-83

Developing CountriesBangladesh 224 222 215 207 211 -0.7% -1.9%Bhutan 2 3 3 3 3 5.3% 0.0%Burma 269 271 343 438 552 5.9% 26.9%China 6332 6752 6451 5756 6045 -0.2% -4.4%Dem. Kampuchea 18 17 23 26 29 4.4% 18.8%DPR. Korea 215 280 280 260 260 2.1% -2.9%Fiji 1 2 2 2 2 5.8% 0.0%India 10824 9167 10819 11179 11971 0.4% 8.2%Indonesia 277 313 311 313 316 1.1% 0.4%Laos 13 17 18 20 21 5.2% 7.7%Malaysia - - - - - - -Maldives - - - - - - -Mongolia - 1 1 1 -12.1% 0.0%Nepal 50 61 63 65 67 2.8% 3.2%Pakistan 758 510 531 500 709 -3.8% 9.7%Papua New Guinea 1 2 2 2 2 9.2% 0.0%Philippines 26 52 56 46 45 5.2% -6.1%Rep. of Korea 34 52 61 64 63 4.8% 6.4%Samoa, W. - - - - - - -Sri Lanka 10 23 26 28 29 13.0% 8.0%Thailand 251 341 389 352 353 6.8% 0.0%Tonga - - - - -Vanuatu - - - - - - -Vietnam 85 120 125 133 137 5.4% 4.7%


Australia 33 140 171 262 355 18.8% 38.0%Japan 235 95 93 157 98 -7.5% 6.4%New Zealand 60 69 54 60 60 1.5% -3.1%

Subtotal 328 304 318 479 513 3.1% 21.9%Asia-Pacific Total 19720 18509 20037 19874 21149 0.4% 4.0%Rest of World 22607 21955 22284 24096 22513 0.0% 1.5%World 42327 40464 42321 43970 43662 0.2% 2.7%


Table 15 Pulses: yield (unit: kg/ha).

Country 1973 1980 1981 1982 19831973-83 1980-83

Developing CountriesBangladesh 718 669 662 681 691 -0.9% 1.3%Bhutan 385 431 437 443 443 1.5% 1.0%Burma 440 589 565 679 833 5.8% 13.0%China 1016 1236 1203 1184 1239 2.0% -0.1%Dem. Kampuchea 600 607 697 697 763 2.7% 7.1%DPR. Korea 597 848 841 788 788 2.8% -2.8%Fiji 867 880 863 868 868 -0.1% -0.4%India 491 400 487 470 512 0.2% 7.3%Indonesia 500 499 500 499 499 0.0% 0.0%Laos 1477 1700 1800 2000 2100 3.7% 7.7%Malaysia - - - - - - -Maldives 600 600 600 600 600 0 0Mongolia 558 333 417 500 550 -1.3% 18.4%Nepal 386 415 417 419 419 0.8% 0.3%Pakistan 515 328 420 379 519 -2.7% 13.6%Papua New Guinea 500 500 500 500 500 0.0% 0.0%Philippines 588 717 734 700 726 1.5% -1.0%Rep. of Korea 627 906 967 1032 1029 4.1% 4.6%Samoa, W. - - - - - -Sri Lanka 672 642 645 624 626 1.7% -1.1%Thailand 862 650 627 649 650 -2.8% 0.3%Tonga - - - - - - -Vanuatu - - - - - - -Vietnam 459 679 698 723 741 5.5% 3.0%


Australia 425 835 904 989 930 5.9% 4.2%Japan 1491 1131 1121 1614 957 -2.2% -1.4%New Zealand 2793 2859 3230 3000 3000 2.1% 0.7%

Average 1271 1105 1100 1254 1020 -0.9% -1.1%Asia-Pacific Average 605 561 623 595 644 0.5% 3.8%Rest of World 744 736 703 745 710 -0.4% -0.5%World 672 644 662 669 676 0.0% 1.6%


Table 16 Soybean: area harvested (unit 1000 ha).

Country 1973 1980 1981 1982 19831973-83 1980-83

Developing CountriesBangladesh - - - - - - -Bhutan - - - - - - -Burma 20 22 24 27 27 3.0% 7.6%China 7436 7246 8030 8414 7917 1.4% 3.2%Dem. Kampuchea 4 1 1 1 1 -16.7% 0.0%DPR. Korea 410 300 300 310 310 -3.6% 1.3%Fiji - - - - -India 32 560 622 768 750 33.1% 11.5%Indonesia 744 732 811 606 730 -0.3% -3.0%Laos 4 5 6 6 6 5.2% 5.6%Malaysia - - - - -Maldives - - - - - - -Mongolia - - - - -Nepal - - - - - - -Pakistan 3 4 3 • 4 4 10.2% 2.9%Papua New Guinea - - - - -Philippines 1 10 10 11 11 17.2% 3.9%Rep. of Korea 282 207 188 202 183 -5.1% -2.9%Samoa. W. - - - - -Sri Lanka - 1 1 2 2 7.0% 32.0%Thailand 104 105 125 124 128 1.6% 6.0%Tonga - - - - -Vanuatu - - - - - - -Vietnam 45 49 80 100 100 10.7% 26.7%


Australia 28 57 40 41 46 3.8% -6.0%Japan 88 142 149 147 143 7.0% 1.0%New Zealand - - - - -

Subtotal 116 199 189 188 189 6.1% -1.6%Asia-Pacific Total 9201 9437 10390 10763 10358 1.8% 3.2%Rest of World 28151 41088 40185 41604 38704 4.6% -1.4%World 37352 1 50575 52367 49062 4.0% -0.5%


Table 17 Soybeans: production (unit: 1000 metric tons),

Country 1973 1980 1981 1982 19831973-83 1980-83

Developing CountriesBangladesh - - - - - - -Bhutan - - - - - - -Burma 15 15 16 19 21 4.1% 12.5%China 7361 7966 9341 9042 9770 3.0% 6.0%Dem. Kampuchea 4 1 1 1 1 -16.7% 0.0%DPR. Korea 250 340 350 360 360 3.8% 2.0%Fiji - - - -India 18 450 500 491 730 36.3% 15.4%Indonesia 541 653 687 514 590 1.0% -5.8%Laos 4 3 4 4 5 1.0% 16.6%Malaysia - - - -Maldives - - - - - - -Mongolia - - - - - -Nepal - - - - - - -Pakistan 1 1 1 2 2 8.4% 32.0%Papua New Guinea - - - - -Philippines 1 9 10 11 12 2100.0%Rep. of Korea 246 216 257 257 233 -2.3% 2.3%Samoa, W. - - - - - -Sri Lanka 1 1 2 2 7.0% 32.0%Thailand 104 100 132 113 126 1.2% 5.5%Tonga - - - - -Vanuat -�- - - - - -Vietnam 25 32 56 100 107 18.2% 52.2%


Australia 38 82 73 77 38 2.3% -20.2%Japan 118 174 212 226 217 7.7% 7.5%New Zealand - - -

Subtotal 156 256 285 303 255 6.4% 0.5%Asia-Pacific Total 8726 10043 11641 11219 12214 3.4% 5.7%Rest of World 49465 70760 76909 81998 66352 5.5% -1.3%World 58191 80803 88550 93217 78566 5.2% -0.3%


Table 18 Soybeans: yield (unit: kg/ha).

Country 1973 1980 1981 1982 19831973-83 1980-83

Developing CountriesBangladesh - - - - - - -Bhutan - - - - - - -Burma 758 695 691 702 763 0.8% 3.0%China 990 1100 1163 1075 1234 1.6% 2.7%Dem. Kampuchea 1000 1000 1222 1063 1000 0.8% -1.4%DPR. Korea 610 133 1167 1161 1161 7.6% 0.7%Fiji - - - -India 563 804 833 639 973 2.5% 3.1%Indonesia 727 892 847 847 808 1.2% -2.9%Laos 987 690 700 762 792 -4.0% 5.1%Malaysia 1429 1579 1600 1600 1600 1.5% 0.4%Maldives - - - -Mongolia - - - - - - -Nepal - - - - - - -Pakistan 436 378 424 416 419 -0.9% 2.9%Papua New Guinea - - - -Philippines 1083 981 966 1051 1091 2.5% 4.1%Rep. of Korea 789 1148 1273 1273 1274 2.9% 3.2%Samoa, W. - - - --Sri Lanka 1446 1000 1000 1000 1000 -1.5% 0.0%Thailand 1002 950 1052 1124 984 0.3% 1.7%Tonga - - - -Vanuatu - - - - - - -Vietnam 556 654 700 1000 1070 6.7% 20.1%


Australia 1357 1450 1584 1902 831 -1.6% -13.8%Japan 1337 1223 1423 1538 1515 0.7% 7.5%New Zealand - - - - -

Average 1345 1286 1508 1612 1349 0.3% 2.1%Asia-Pacific Average 948 1064 1120 1042 1179 1.6% 2.4%Rest of World 1757 1722 1914 1971 1714 0.9% 0.2%World 1558 1599 1751 1780 1601 1.2% 0.2%


Table 19 Groundnut (in shell): area harvested (unit: 1000 ha).

Country 1973 1980 1981 1982 19831973-83 1980-83

Developing CountriesBangladesh 21 24 22 23 23 1.4% -0.8%Bhutan - - - - - - -Burma 638 56 490 575 623 -2.3% 11.6%China 1832 2390 2521 2465 2429 3.6% 0.3%Dem. Kampuchea 13 5 5 5 6 -11.2% 5.6%DPR. Korea - - - - -Fiji 1 4 4 4 5 17.1% 6.9%India 7024 6801 7448 7345 7500 0.5% 2.8%Indonesia 416 506 519 467 475 1.6% -2.9%Laos 3 11 11 12 12 20.4% 3.5%Malaysia 6 6 6 6 6 -1.1% 0.0%Maldives - - - - -Mongolia - - - - - - -Nepal - - - - - - -Pakistan 38 47 60 69 69 5.5% 13.8%Papua New Guinea 2 1 1 1 1 -5.5% 0.0%Philippines 33 55 39 56 55 2.6% 3.7%Rep. of Korea 5 12 10 10 11 6.4% -2.6%Samoa, W. - - - - -Sri Lanka 8 12 14 15 15 6.2% 71.0%Thailand 115 100 117 118 130 0.4% 8.3%Tonga - - - - -Vanuatu - - - - - - -Vietnam 78 108 100 130 140 5.8% 11.0%


Australia 29 32 27 33 37 2.8% 6.6%Japan 48 33 32 30 30 -4.5% -3.4%New Zealand - - - - -

Subtotal 77 65 59 63 67 -1.3% 1.6%Asia-Pacific Total 10310 10603 11426 11364 11567 1.1% 2.6%Rest of World . 8253 7688 7892 7496 7398 -1.3% -1.7%World 18563 18291 19318 18860 18965 0.1% 0.8%


Table 20 Groundnut (in shell): production (unit: 1000 metric tons).

Country 1973 1980 1981 1982 19831973-83 1980-83

Developing CountriesBangladesh 28 24 23 26 27 -1.1% 4.9%Bhutan - - - - - -Burma 412 343 439 568 691 2.9% 26.6%China 2078 3686 3908 3999 4036 8.8% 3.0%Dem. Kampuchea 14 3 4 5 6 -13.3% 25.9%DPR. Korea - - -Fiji 1 4 4 4 5 17.1% 6.9%India 5932 5020 7239 5553 7300 1.3% 9.0%Indonesia 483 793 842 724 760 4.8% -2.7%Laos 3 8 9 9 10 16.5% 6.9%Malaysia 24 21 21 21 21 -1.1% 0.0%Maldives - - - - -Mongolia - - - - - - -Nepal - - - - - - -Pakistan 54 57 72 84 84 3.3% 14.1%Papua New Guinea 1 1 1 1 1 -2.5% 0.0%Philippines 18 50 30 49 50 18.0% 5.0%Rep. of Korea 5 18 13 12 13 9.9% -10.0%Samoa, W. - - - - - -Sri Lanka 19 7 7 6 8 -9.5% 2.5%Thailand 147 129 147 145 157 5.9%Tong -�- 2 2 - 0.414 0.414Vanuat -�- 2 2 - 0 0Vietnam 80 98 80 85 87 1.0% -2.9%

Subtotal 9299 10265 12843 11295 13256 . 3.6% 6.6%Developed Countries

Australia 38 39 43 58 26 2.4% -8.8%Japan 97 55 61 47 51 -5.9% -4.8%New Zealand - - - - - - -

Subtotal 135 94 104 105 77 -2.9% -5.7%Asia-Pacific Total 9434 10359 12947 11400 13333 3.5% 6.5%Rest of World 7181 6568 8175 7403 6459 -1.4% -1.5%World 16615 16927 21122 18803 19792 1.5% 3.6%


Table 21 Groundnut (in shell): yield (unit: kg/ha).

Country 1973 1980 1981 1982 19831973-83 1980-83

Developing CountriesBangladesh 1349 1010 1050 1149 1152 -2.3% 5.0%Bhutan - - - - - - -Burma 645 752 896 989 1109 5.3% 13.5%China 1134 1542 1550 1623 1662 5.0% 2.7%Dem. Kampuchea 1077 600 760 903 917 -3.5% 15.5%DPR. Korea - - - - - -Fiji 909 976 976 977 984 0.7% 0.3%India 845 736 972 756 973 0.8% 6.0%Indonesia 1161 1566 1623 1551 1600 3.1% 0.2%Laos 968 740 766 800 797 -3.0% 2.7%Malaysia 3789 3500 3500 3500 3508 0.0% 0.1%Maldives - - - - - - -Mongolia - - - - - - -Nepal - - - - - - -Pakistan 1416 1234 1208 1214 1217 -2.0% -0.4%Papua New Guinea 650 750 750 727 731 0.5% -1.1%Philippines 548 908 764 862 909 4.9% 1.2%Rep. of Korea 1142 1501 1617 1200 1182 3.2% -9.7%Samoa, W. - - - - - . -Sri Lanka 2297 590 520 381 514 -14.9% -7.0%Thailand 1277 1291 1249 1237 1204 -0.7% -2.2%Tonga 667 1077 1106 1133 - 0.175 0.026Vanuatu 547 970 1012 1051 - 0.222 0.041Vietnam 1026 908 696 654 621 -4.8% -11.3%


Australia 1321 1230 1590 1726 703 -0.5% 14.8%Japan 2029 1651 1927 1543 1717 -1.4% -1.0%New Zealand - - - - - -

Average 1753 1446 1763 1667 1149 -1.6% -7.2%Asia-Pacific Average 915 977 1133 1003 1153 2.5% 3.8%Rest of World 870 854 1036 988 873 -0.1% 0.2%World 895 925 1094 997 1044 1.4% 2.7%


Table 22 Roots and tubers: area harvested (unit: 1000 ha).

Country 1973 1980 1981 1982 19831973-83 1980-83

Developing CountriesBangladesh 143 169 170 174 174 2.0% 1.1%Bhutan 6 3 3 3 3 -9.0% 0.0%Burma 17 19 23 24 25 4.5% 9.0%China 11786 10561 10026 9662 9609 -2.0% -3.2%Dem. Kampuchea 6 28 27 13 14 12.0% -24.5%DPR. Korea 205 153 159 160 160 -1.6% 1.4%Fiji 15 15 16 16 16 0.7% 2.0%India 1073 1244 1261 1296 1287 1.7% 1.3%Indonesia 2092 1763 1737 1632 1758 -1.8% -0.7%Laos 6 12 12 13 13 11.2% 3.3%Malaysia 43 55 58 58 58 2.9% 1.6%Maldives 1 I 1 2 2 0.058 0.32Mongolia 3 7 5 8 8 8.7% 9.1%Nepal 63 65 62 72 79 1.2% 7.6%Pakistan 40 61 57 47 53 3.2% -6.0%Papua New Guinea 143 162 164 166 168 1.6% 1.2%Philippines 288 491 484 486 475 5.3% -0.9%Rep. of Korea 138 93 92 81 73 -6.5% -8.2%Samoa, W. 3 - - - - -Sri Lanka 146 70 78 82 85 -10.7% 6.5%Thailand 468 1053 1089 1540 1340 11.6% 11.3%Tonga 8 - - - - -Vanuatu 1 - - - - - -Vietnam 390 964 897 905 917 11.4% -1.4%


Australia 37 37 36 36 38 0.4% 0.8%Japan 270 234 233 236 242 -1.0% 1.1%New Zealand 9 8 8 9 9 -5.0% 4.8%

Subtotal 316 279 277 281 289 -0.8% 1.2%Asia-Pacific Total 17400 17268 16698 16721 16606 -3.0% -1.2%Rest of World 30748 30398 30452 31419 30917 0.0% 0.8%World 48148 47666 47150 48140 47523 -1.0% 0.1%


Table 23 Roots and tubers: production (unit: 1000 metric tons).

Country 1973 1980 1981 1982 19831973-83 1980-83

Developing CountriesBangladesh 1450 1708 1703 1787 1801 2.3% 2.1%Bhutan 37 18 19 20 20 -9.2% 3.7%Burma 113 166 204 186 206 9.3% 5.7%China 139053 149483 136152 139703 151004 0.3% 0.6%Dem. Kampuchea 50 170 164 84 108 8.4% -18.4%DPR. Korea 1350 1920 1940 1900 1900 3.7% -0.5%Fiji 140 147 148 149 150 0.7% 0.7%India 12904 15485 16969 16900 16778 2.8% 2.4%Indonesia 15039 16285 16153 15085 16420 0.3% -0.4%Laos 57 130 134 142 153 13.5% 5.6%Malaysia 495 505 538 553 555 1.1% 3.2%Maldives 6 7 7 8 8 0.031 0.055Mongolia 35 38 40 75 55 7.0% 19.0%Nepal 354 350 347 402 457 1.2% 9.9%Pakistan 381 612 558 496 578 4.1% -2.9%Papua New Guinea 981 1100 1119 1133 1149 1.5% 1.4%Philippines 1383 3508 3479 3253 3587 10.1% 0.0%Rep. of Korea 2140 1552 1666 1385 1485 -4.9% -3.1%Samoa, W. 15 -. - - -Sri Lanka 733 678 751 802 810 -1.3% 6.2%Thailand 5998 14156 18100 21363 17364 12.3% 8.1%Tonga 100 - - - - -Vanuatu 11 - - - - - -Vietnam 2429 6510 5965 4748 4900 10.1% -10.2%


Australia 724 861 870 923 831 2.8% -5.0%Japan 5650 5416 5162 5781 5735 0.4% 2.9%New Zealand 279 229 219 229 230 -1.3% 0.6%

Subtotal 6653 6506 6251 6933 6796 0.6% 2.4%Asia-Pacific Total 191907 221034 212407 217107 226284 1.5% 0.9%Rest of World 374782 309568 339055 340037 330392 -0.9% 2.0%World 566689 530602 551462 557144 556676 0.0% 1.6%


Table 24 Roots and tubers: yield (unit: kg/ha).

Country 1973 1980 1981 1982 19831973-83 1980-83

Developing CountriesBangladesh 10122 10119 10017 10275 10348 0.3% 0.9%Bhutan 6670 6740 6760 6776 6776 0.2% 0.2%Burma 6644 8697 8738 7734 8254 4.6% -2.8%China 11798 14155 13580 14459 15716 2.4% 3.8%Dem. Kampuchea 8423 6182 5985 6539 7826 -2.9% 8.3%DPR. Korea 6585 12549 12201 11875 11875 5.3% -1.9%Fiji 9461 9496 9506 9503 9511 0.1% 0.0%India 12029 12445 13453 13044 13041 1.1% 1.1%Indonesia 7188 9237 9299 9245 9340 2.1% 0.3%Laos 9500 11111 11167 11360 11769 2.1% 1.9%Malaysia 11474 9215 9292 9551 9568 -1.7% 1.4%Maldives 5062 5144 5140 5181 5171 0.001 0.002Mongolia 10382 5122 8470 10013 6875 -0.6% 11.1%Nepal 5650 5430 5576 5580 5821 0.0% 2.1%Pakistan 9462 9976 9881 10649 10931 0.9% 3.6%Papua New Guinea 6867 6790 6819 6817 6820 -1.0% 0.1%Philippines 4800 7147 7193 6691 7556 4.6% 1.0%Rep. of Korea 15465 16737 18207 17081 20385 1.7% 5.4%Samoa, W. 4264 - - - - - -Sri Lanka 5038 9703 9611 9833 9496 10.5% -4.0%Thailand 12807 13438 16614 13870 12956 0.7% -2.9%Tonga 12169 - - - -Vanuatu 11522 - - - - - -Vietnam 6228 6753 6650 1 5344 -1.1% -9.0%


Australia 19616 23285 24125 25394 21675 2.4% -1.6%Japan 20905 23147 22134 24494 23738 1.5% 1.8%New Zealand 29413 27556 26404 26496 26455 -0.1% -1.2%

Average 21054 23319 22567 24673 23516 1.5% 1.2%Asia-Pacific Average 11029 12800 12721 12984 13627 1.8% 2.1%Rest of World 12189 10184 11134 10823 10686 -9.0% 1.2%World 11770 11132 11696 11573 11714 1.0% 0.1%


Table 25 Cassava: area harvested (unit: 1000 ha).

Country 1973 1980 1981 1982 19831973-83 1980-83

Developing CountriesBangladesh - - - - - - -Bhutan - - - - - - -Burma 4 3 5 5 6 9.2% 23.1%China 191 243 245 249 252 3.2% 1.3%Dem. Kampuchea 3 25 25 10 10 17.1% -30.7%DPR. Korea - - - - - -Fiji 7 8 8 8 8 0.6% 0.0%India 363 352 321 310 322 -1.9% -3.0%Indonesia 1429 1412 1395 1303 1400 -5.0% -0.9%Laos 2 5 5 5 5 14.8% 0.0%Malaysia 21 32 35 35 35 4.6% 2.7%Maldives - - - - -Mongolia - - - - - - -Nepal - - - - - - -Pakistan - - - - - -Papua New Guinea 8 9 9 9 9 1.6% 0.0%Philippines 95 204 211 224 210 9.6% 1.5%Rep. of Korea - - - - - - -Samoa, W. - - - - - -Sri Lanka 115 51 56 59 62 -11.6% 6.6%Thailand 432 1015 1050 1500 1300 12.2% 11.6%Tonga 3 2 2 2 2 -0.033 0Vanuatu - - - - - -Vietnam 150 439 475 480 485 15.0% 3.1%


Australia - - - - - - -Japan - - - - - - -New Zealand - - - - - - -

Subtotal - - - - - - -Asia-Pacific Total 2823 3800 3842 4199 4106 3.9% 3.3%Rest of World 9005 9974 10160 11084 10773 1.9% 3.2%World 11828 13774 14002 15283 14879 2.4% 3.2%


Table 26 Cassava: production (unit: 1000 metric tons).

Country 1973 1980 1981 1982 19831973-83 1980-83

Developing CountriesBangladesh - - - - - - -Bhutan - - - - - - -Burma 39 28 48 50 51 10.5% 20.2% •China 2328 3485 4159 3718 3900 6.4% 2.3%Dem. Kampuchea 23 150 145 61 75 13.1% -25.5%DPR. Korea - - - - - -Fiji 89 94 94 95 96 0.7% 0.7%India 6371 5845 5868 5292 5110 -2.2% -4.9%Indonesia 11185 13726 13673 12673 13770 1.4% -0.7%Laos 23 68 70 72 74 15.3% 2.9%Malaysia 327 330 360 375 375 0.9% 4.3%Maldives - - - - - -Mongolia - - - - - - -Nepal - - - - - - -Pakistan - - - - - - -Papua New Guinea 80 94 96 98 100 2.3% 2.1%Philippines 480 2277 2255 1987 2300 17.5% -1.0%Rep. of Korea - - - - - -Samoa, W. - - - - - - -Sri Lanka 616 499 526 573 570 -2.9% 5.0%Thailand 5668 13809 17744 21000 17000 12.8%Tonga 25 13 14 14 14 -0.041 0.022Vanuatu - - - - - - -• Vietnam 1100 3290 3165 2665 2700 11.9% -7.4%


Australia - - - - - -Japan - - - - - - -New Zealand - - - - -

Subtotal - - - - - - -Asia-Pacific Total 28354 43708 48217 48673 46135 5.4% 1.7%Rest of World 72125 76866 _ 79053 81954 77018 0.9% 0.4%World 100479 120574 127270 130627 123153 2.4% 0.9%


Table 27 Cassava: yield (unit: kg/ha).

Country 1973 1980 1981 1982 19831973-83 1980-83

Developing CountriesBangladesh - - - - - - -Bhutan - - - - - - -Burma 11003 8997 9283 9259 9182 -0.5% 0.6%China 12211 14341 16977 14933 15476 3.1% 1.0%Dem. Kampuchea 9160 6000 5800 6058 7500 -4.2% 7.4%DPR. Korea - - - - - - -Fiji 12192 12000 12013 12013 12013 ,1% 0.0%India 17542 16611 18292 17 5870 -0.2% -2.0%Indonesia 7828 9718 9801 972 9836 1.9% 0.3%Laos 15333 15111 15217 15000 14800 -0.3% -0.8%Malaysia 15328 10313 10286 10714 10714 -3.5% 1.6%Maldives 4667 1000 4000 4000 4000 -0.036 0.516Mongolia - - - - - -Nepal - - - - - - -Pakistan - - - - - - -Papua New Guinea 10526 10682 10667 10652 10652 0.0% -0.1%Philippines 5053 11153 10669 8871 10952 7.2% -2.4%Rep. of Korea - - - - - - -Samoa, W. - 10667 10667 11567 11567 -0.06 0.033Sri Lanka 5342 9788 9375 9685 9194 9.8% -1.5%Thailand 13120 13605 16899 14000 1-3077 0.5% -3.0%Tonga 9615 6413 6667 6687 6687 -0.025 0.013Vanuatu - - - - - -Vietnam 7333 7496 6663 5552 5567 -2.6% -10.2%

Average 10044 11502 12550 11592 11236 1.5% -1.5%Developed Countries

Australia - - - - - - -Japan - - - - - - -New Zealand - - - - - - -

Average - - - - - - -Asia-Pacific Average 10044 11502 12550 11592 11236 1.5% -1.5%Rest of World 8009 7707 7781 7394 7149 -0.9% -2.7%World 8495 8754 9089 8547 8277 0.0% -2.3%


Table 28 Sweet potatoes: area harvested (unit: 1000 ha).

Country 1973 1980 1981 1982 19831973-83 1980-83

Developing CountriesBangladesh 64 72 68 66 66 0.5% -2.9%Bhutan - - - - - -Burma 4 4 4 4 4 0.0% 0.0%China 10211 5912 5574 5304 5245 -4.6% -4.0%Dem. Kampuchea 3 2 2 2 3 -2.5% 12.9%DPR. Korea 40 28 29 30 30 -1.5% 2.4%Fiji I 1 1 1 1 0.0%. 0.0%India 205 207 209 223 215 0.6% 1.8%Indonesia 379 276 265 244 270 -3.3% -1.5%Laos 2 3 3 3 3 7.7% 0.0%Malaysia 4 4 4 4 4 2.4% 0.0%Maldives - - - - - - -Mongolia - - - - - - -Nepal - - - - - - -Pakistan 1 1 1 1 1 0.0% 0.0%Papua New Guinea 87 98 99 100 101 1.4% 1.0%Philippines 160 236 221 209 210 2.2% -4.0%Rep. of Korea 97 55 50 45 42 -8.3% -8.7%Samoa, W. - - - - -Sri Lanka 27 14 17 16 17 -10.4% 5.4%Thailand 35 38 39 40 40 1.1% 1.8%Tonga 6 - - - -Vanuatu - - - - - - -Vietnam 230 443 350 380 382 7.2% -3.6%


Australia - - - - - - -Japan 76 65 65 66 66 -0.9% 0.6%New Zealand -1 1 1 1 0 0.0%

Subtotal 76 66 66 67 67 -0.8% 0.6%Asia-Pacific Total 11632 7460 7002 6739 6701 3.7% 3.5%Rest of World 1097 1172 1171 1193 1213 0.7% 0.2%World 12729 8632 8173 7932 7914 -3.2% -2.9%


Table 29 Sweet potatoes: production (unit: 1000 metric tons)

Country 1973 1980 1981 1982 19831973-83 1980-83

Developing CountriesBangladesh 691 791 704 692 690 0.3% • -4.2%Bhutan - - - - - - -Burma 19 16 16 16 16 -2.5% 0.0%China 122704 96205 85684 89641 95700 -2.4% 0.3%Dem. Kampuchea 20 15 14 17 25 -1.4% 18.8%DPR. Korea 300 374 380 380 380 2.3% 0.5%Fiji 7 8 9 9 9 2.8% 3.6%India 2082 1313 1502 1696 1560 -1.8% 6.6%Indonesia 2387 2079 2034 1897 2120 -2.3% -0.1%Laos 16 28 29 30 35 11.7% 7.3%Malaysia 72 65 68 68 69 1.2% 1.8%Maldives - - - - - - -Mongolia - - - - - - -Nepal - - - - - - -Pakistan 13 12 12 20 20 2.8% 22.7%Papua New Guinea 388 440 450 455 461 1.6% 1.5%Philippines 748 1048 1010 1038 1050 2.7% 0.3%Rep. of Korea 1669 1103 1109 843 1012 -6.5% -5.2%Samoa, W. - - - - - -Sri Lanka 91 127 159 153 160 1.4% 6.8%Thai,land 319 340 348 355 355 0.7% 1.5%Tonga 7 - - - - -Vanuatu - - - - - - -Vietnam 1179 2358 2100 1665 1700 6.7% -11.4%


Australia 3 4 4 4 4 4.9% 0.0%Japan 1613 1317 1458 1384 1400 -0.7% 1.3%New Zealand 8 16 10 15 16 8.4% 4.1%

Subtotal 1624 1337 1472 1403 1420 -0.6% 1.3%Asia-Pacific Total 134405 107659 97100 100378 106782 -2.2% 0.1%Rest of World 7862 7477 7616 7968 8060 -0.1% 2.7%World 142267 115136 104716 ' 108346 114842 -2.1% 0.3%


Table 30 Sweet potatoes: yield (unit: kg/ha).

Country 1973 1980 1981 1982 19831973-83 1980-83

Developing CountriesBangladesh 10853 10936 10373 10443 10455 -0.3% -1.3%Bhutan - - - - -Burma 5314 4154 4100 4100 4000 -3.4% -1.1%China 12017 16272 15371 16902 18246 2.3% 4.5%Dem. Kampuchea- 8120 8333 7778 8556 8333 -0.2% 1.0%DPR. Korea 7500 13357 13103 12667 12667 3.8% -1.9%Fiji 10000 10000 10000 10000 10000 0.0% 0.0%India 10156 6337 7203 7616 7263 -2.4% 4.8%Indonesia 6303 7530 7667 7778 7852 1.0% 1.4%Laos 8000 9655 9667 9677 10606 2.5% 2.9%Malaysia 18740 17105 17436 17436 17436. -0.1% .6%Maldives 5400 3500 5400 3571 3529 -0.04 -0.038Mongolia - - - - -Nepal - - - - - - -Pakistan 13000 14612 14141 14679 14815 0.9% 0.8%Papua New Guinea 4460 4490 4545 4550 4553 0.2% 0.4%Philippines 4678 4442 4574 4956 5000 0.5% 4.4%Rep. of Korea 17274 20049 22142 18884 24004 1.9% 3.9%Samoa, W. - - - - - - -Sri Lanka 3390 8904 9514 9374 9524 13.1% 1.9%Thailand 9114 8995 8992 8987 8987 -0.3% 0.0%Tonga 1333 - - - - -Vanuatu - - - - - - -Vietnam 5126 5324 6000 4382 4450 -0.5% -8.2%

• Average 11490 14379 13787 14834 15882 1.6% 3.8%Developed Countries

Australia 10628 11772 11818 12121 11515 1.2% -0.4%Japan 21142 20324 22431 21065 21309 0.3% 0.8%New Zealand 16980 22655 15467 15000 15121 -0.3% -11.7%

Average 21368 20258 22303 20940 21194 0.2% 0.7%Asia-Pacific Average 11555 14432 13867 14895 15935 1.6% 3.8%Rest of World 7167 6380 6504 6679 6645 -0.8% 1.5%World 11176 13339 12812 13659 14512 1.2% 3.2%


Table 31 Course grains import and export (unit: 1000 metric tons).

Country

Import Export Trade

Mean 1970-72

Mean 1980-82

Mean 1970-72

Mean 1980-82

Mean 1970-72

Mean 1980-82

Developing CountriesBangladesh - 8.3 - - - -8.3Bhutan - .5 - - - -.5Burma - - 12.5 10.7 12.5 10.7China 1408.0 5056.3 19.5 116.3 -1388.5 -4940.0Dem. Kampuchea - - 21.0 - 21.0 -DPR. Korea 10.0 - .4 - -9.6 -Fiji - 11.3 - .1 - -11.2India 15.7 16.0 2.5 5.0 -13.2 -11.0.Indonesia 24.3 45.7 183.8 18.8 159.5 -26.8Laos - - - - - -Malaysia 245.7 491.0 1.5 - -244.2 -491.0Maldives - - - - - -Mongolia - - - - - -Nepal - - 3.5 .8 3.5 .8Pakistan 3.0 9.0 7.4 51.3 4.4 42.3Papua New Guinea - 10.Philippines 86.3 285.3 - - -86.3 -285.3Rep. of Korea 434.0 3692.3 2.4 - -431.6 -3692.3Samoa W. - 1.3 - - - -1.3Sri Lanka 5.0 3.0 - .9 -5.0 -2.1Thailand 3.2 1.2 1759.0 2807.3 1755.8 2806.1Tonga - - - - - -Vanuatu - - - - - -Vietnam 99.7 5.0 - 26.0 -99.7 21.0

Subtotal 2334.9 9636.3 2013.5 3037.3 -321.4 -6599.0Developed Country

Australia .5 6.0 2131.8 3136.7 2131.3 3130.7Japan 10666.0 18691.7 .4 - -10665.6 -18691.7New Zealand 14.0 5.3 3.6 74.0 -10.4 68.7

Subtotal 10680.6 18703.0 2135.8 3210.7 -8544.8 -15492.3Asia-Pacific Total 13015.5 28339.3 4149.3 6248.0 -8866.2 -22091.4Rest of World 40569.2 80524.7 49282.2 104345.4 8713.0 23820.7World 53584.7 108864.0 53431.5 110593.3 -153.2 1729.3

Table 32 Food supply: (unit: calories/caput/day).

Country Requirements SupplyaSupply as % of

Requirement

1969-71 1978-80 1969-71 1978-80

Developing CountriesBangladesh 2310Bhutan 2160Burma 2160China 2360Dem. Kampuchea 2220DPR. Korea 2350Fiji 2280India 2210Indonesia 2160Laos 2220Malaysia 2230Maldives 2210Mongolia 2430Nepal 2220Pakistan 2310Papua New Guinea 2280Philippines 2260Rep. of Korea 2350Samoa W. 2280Sri Lanka 2220Thailand 2220Tonga 2280Vanuatu 2280Vietnam 2160

Developed CountriesAustraliaJapanNew Zealand

266023402640

2025 1877 87.7% 81.3%2065 2028 95.6% 93.9%2193 2286 101.5% 105.8%2125 2472 90.0% 104.7%2228 1795 100.4% 80.9%2458 2972 104.6% 126.5%2436 2885 106.8% 126.5%1999 1998 90.5% 90.4%1972 2296 91.3% 106.3%2111 1856 95.1% 83.6%2504 2650 112.3% 118.8%1779 1781 80.5% 80.6%2395 2711 98.6% 111.6%2034 1914 91.6% 86.2%2195 2300 95.0% 99.6%2187 2287 95.9% 100.3%1977 2315 86.7% 101.5%2585 2926 110.0% 124.5%2131 2289 93.5% 100.4%2321 2251 104.5% 101.4%2255 2301 101.6% 103.6%2561 3221 112.3% 141.3%2446 2477 107.3% 108.6%2172 2029 100.6% 93.9%

3308 3202 124.4% 120.4%2741 2883 117.1% 123.2%3537 3511 134.0% 133.0%

aFood supply figures do not necessarily reflect food consumption.

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