Challenges to Effective Policing

Criminal Justice IUnit 5

Mr. Concannon Smith

Police Investigations

Mr. Concannon Smith

Aggressive Investigation Strategies

Detectives spend much of their time investigating common crimes (not the pop-culture TV crimes)

Many crimes are solved by the quality of information collected by patrol officers initially on the scene

Detectives can implement more aggressive strategies Going undercover is considered to be a

dangerous and controversial activity Confidential informants (“CI” for short)

may provide access to information about criminal activities

Clearance Rates Clearance rates refer to the

proportion of cases in which an arrest has been made and a suspect prosecuted.

Clearance is the ultimate goal of law enforcement

When cases are not cleared they may become “cold”

More than eighty percent of large-city police departments have cold case squads

Guess what the clearance rate is for

murder in this country?

Graphing Data Use the UCR Table 26: “Percent of Offenses

Cleared” to create a graph that compares two regions for a particular crime.

You decide what graph would BEST convey the comparison

Line

Bar graph

On a separate sheet, explain why you chose the type of graph that you chose and why it is better than the other choices to represent the data.

Did you learn anything about the regions you looked at?

Are Too Many Police Officers White?

Mr. Concannon Smith

Patrol Officers Patrol officers are

considered lowest rung (2/3 of officers) but also most valuable members of the agency

The purpose of patrol

1. Deter crime by maintaining a visible police presence

2. Maintain public order and a sense of security

3. Provide twenty-four-hour-a-day services that are not crime related

Patrol Activities1. Preventive patrol through

maintenance of police presence within the community (40 percent of patrol time)

2. Responding to calls for service (25 percent of patrol time)

3. Administrative service, including paperwork (almost 20 percent of patrol time)

4. Officer-initiated activities, such as contacts with citizens and speaking with pedestrians(15 percent of patrol time)

Sean Collier (died April 18th 2013)Age 27

Recruitment Issues Recruiting members of minority groups and women

Historically, the typical American police officer was a white male

Only within the last thirty years has the issue of minorities and women on the police force been addressed

1964 Civil Rights Act guaranteed minorities and women equal access to jobs in law enforcement

1972 Equal Employment Opportunity Act set stage for affirmative action in hiring and promotion

Many departments have begun to realize the benefits of a culturally diverse police force, including improved community relations

Women have historically faced greater barriers to hiring than minorities, mostly due to physical fitness tests that discriminate against women

San Diego…Problems with Testing?

1. What is the argument of the article about San Diego? (how can you tell what the argument is?)

2. Pull a quote that supports your claim for the argument of the article. Explain why you think this quote reveals the argument of the source.

3. How does the article on racially biased testing relate to the subject of the article on San Diego? Explain…

Interrogations and Confessions

Mr. Concannon Smith

Interrogations: what to know Interrogations can either be “good” or “bad” (same as a

search) We are talking about constitutionality (admissible/inadmissible)

You must be “Mirandized” before being interrogated while in custody

The 5th amendment protects against coerced confessions (under the self incrimination clause). Protection against police procedures

Police CANNOT use physical force to bring about a confession

Police CAN use psychological tricks to “get at the truth.” Examples include

the “friend ratted on you already” trick

stretch the bounds of evidence collected at the scene

The question today is what makes for a BAD interrogation?

A Bad InterrogationMr. Concannon Smith

Forensic Investigations:

Benefits &ChallengesMr. Concannon Smith

Forensic Investigations & DNA

1. Forensics is the practice of using science and technology to investigate crimes

2. Forensics can be used to determine key elements of a crime, such as the time and cause of death, and the identities of the crime victim and offender

3. Many police departments operate or are affiliated with crime laboratories

4. Crime Scene forensics The first law enforcement agent on the scene of a crime has the

important task of protecting trace evidence

Trace evidence can be very small, and even invisible to the naked eye

Shell cases and spent bullet cartridges are collected at a crime scene and preserved for ballistic examination

A key form of trace evidence that has been collected at crime scenes for many years is the human fingerprint

The DNA Revolution

DNA is the genetic code for every living organism

DNA has supplanted fingerprinting as the most important piece of forensic evidence

No two people, except for identical twins, have the same DNA

A match can exclude a suspect, or identify one conclusively at the odds of 30 billion to 1.

DNA in Action The use of DNA often increases the chance that a crime

will be solved

A “COLD HIT” occurs when law enforcement finds a suspect out of nowhere by comparing DNA at a crime scene to information stored in a database

The National Combined DNA Index System (CODIS) is the largest and most important DNA database in the U.S.

CODIS is maintained by the FBI and stores the DNA profiles of offenders who have been convicted of various crimes

Rise of Fingerprinting

What are fingerprints?

Friction ridge skin pattern Found on fingers, palms, toes, soles of feet. Composed of ridges (hills) and furrows (valleys) Black = Ridges

White = Valleys

Fingerprints

What are fingerprints?

Develop in early embryonic development. Pattern based on genetics, detail somewhat random Identical twins do not have identical fingerprints

Fingerprints

How are fingerprints analyzed?

Categorized by pattern and minutiae

Fingerprints

How are fingerprints analyzed?

Patterns

Arch Loop Whorl

Fingerprints

How are fingerprints analyzed?

Minutiae

Dot

Bifurcation

Island

Ridge Ending

Fingerprints

Computer software compares the location of these minutiae.

Fingerprints

Modern Fingerprint Analysis

Computer system stores patterns and minutiae of prints

AFIS: automated fingerprint identification system

Fingerprints

Forensic Science Lab Activity

T. Trimpe 2006 http://sciencespot.net/

Warning: Some material in this presentation and related videos may be too graphic for some people.

BPA= Bloodstain Pattern Analysis

What can you tell from analysis of a blood spatter?1. Type and velocity of weapon2. Number of blows3. Handedness of assailant (right or left-handed)4. Position and movements of the victim and assailant5. Which wounds were inflicted first6. Type of injuries7. How long ago the crime was committed8. Whether death was immediate or delayed

Light SourceInvestigators will first examine the crime scene to look for areas that may contain blood. They may use a high-intensity light or UV lights to help them find traces of bloodBlood Reagent TestsThese tests, referred to as presumptive tests, are used to detect blood based upon the properties of hemoglobinExamples:1. Phenolphthalein is a chemical that is usually referred to

as the Kastle-Meyer test and produces a pink color when it reacts with hemoglobin.

2. HemaStix is a strip that has been coated with tetramethylbenzidine (TMB) and will produce a green or blue-green color

Finding Blood

Spatter: Bloodstains created from the application of force to the area where the blood originated.

Origin/Source: The place from where the blood spatter came from or originated.

Angle of Impact: The angle at which a blood droplet strikes a surface.

Parent Drop

Spines

Satellite Spatters• Parent Drop: The droplet from which a satellite spatter originates.

• Satellite Spatters: Small drops of blood that break of from the parent spatter when the blood droplet hits a surface.

• Spines: The pointed edges of a stain that radiate out from the spatter; can help determine direction

BPA Terms

• Passive Bloodstains• Patterns created from the force of gravity

• Drop, series of drops, flow patterns, blood pools, etc.

• Projected Bloodstains• Patterns that occur when a force is applied to the

source of the blood• Includes low, medium, or high impact spatters, cast-

off, arterial spurting, expiratory blood blown out of the nose, mouth, or wound.

• Transfer or Contact Bloodstains• These patterns are created when a wet, bloody object

comes in contact with a target surface; may be used to identify an object or body part.

• A wipe pattern is created from an object moving through a bloodstain, while a swipe pattern is created from an object leaving a bloodstain.

Types of Patterns

Passive Stains

Passive Stain

Projected Stain

Projected Stain

Contact/Transfer Stain

Blood Spatter Labs• You will be creating sample drop patterns using single drops and multiple drops. We will also investigate the effect of motion and the angle of impact on blood spatter.

• This can be messy! Be very careful to keep the blood on the paper and not on yourself, the table, or floor.

• Hold you hand as steady as possible when making the drops. Brace your wrist against the meter stick to help you.

• Get your materials from your teacher – paper, black marker, meter stick, goggles, and a bottle of blood.

If you make a mess, clean it up immediately!

Lab 1: Single Droplets

25 50

Single Drops

75 100

Single Drops

• Label two pieces of paper as shown below.

1. Hold the dropper bottle upside down so that the end of it is 25 cm from the paper. GENTLY squeeze the bottle so that ONE drop of blood is released and lands in the correct location on your paper. It should NOT hit the meter-stick.

2. Repeat TWO more times at this height for a total of three drops.

3. Continue making drops of blood on your paper, but put the drop in a different area of the paper and change the height each time.

4. When you are done, analyze your results and answer the questions on your worksheet.

Make a mistake? Use a paper towel to wipe it off your paper!

Keep your drops in the correct area of the paper.

Lab 2: Multiple Droplets• Label 4 separate pieces of paper as shown below.

1. To do the lab, hold the dropper so that the end of it is 25 cm from the paper. GENTLY squeeze the bottle so that ONE drop of blood is released and lands in the correct location on your paper. The drop should NOT hit the meter-stick.

2. Without moving your hand, release ONE more drop onto the first drop at that height. If you make a mistake, wipe it off with a paper towel and try it again.

3. Continue making drops of blood on your paper so you have three sets for each height.

4. When you are done, analyze your results and answer the questions on your worksheet. Clean up your area and put away your materials before you leave class.

Multiple Drops

25 50 75 100

Keep your drops in the correct area of the paper.

Lab 3: Motion Droplets• During this lab, you will see how motion affects the size and shape of the droplets and spines. You will need a long piece of paper (2-3 meters in length) and tape to secure it to the floor.

1. To do the lab, you will need to hold the dropper bottle upside down so that your hand is out and away from your body (waist level), but is still over the paper.

2. Start off walking at a SLOW WALKING RATE from one end to the other and GENTLY squeeze the bottle as you walk so that blood is released ONE DROP at a time. Be sure that all the drops land on your paper strip.

3. Repeat this procedure using a NORMAL WALKING RATE and a FAST WALKING RATE.

Walking Direction

• When you are done, analyze your results and answer the questions on your worksheet. Clean up your area and put away your materials before you leave class.

Miss the paper? Use a paper towel to wipe it off the floor!

• You will be creating sample drop patterns created by droplets landing at different angles from the same height.

1. Label five pieces of copy paper with your names and then indicate the angle for each droplet - 15o, 30o, 45o, 60o, or 75o.

2. Place the first piece of paper on the clip board and align the clipboard with the 15o line. Hold the bottle of blood at a height of 50 centimeters from the top of the table.

3. GENTLY squeeze the bottle so that ONE drop of blood is released and lands on the paper. Repeat two more times at this angle.

4. Continue testing by dropping blood from a height of 50 centimeters at each of the other angles.

Lab 4: Angle of Impact

• When you are done, answer the questions on your worksheet. Clean up your area and put away your materials before you leave class.

Angle

Guide

Clipboard & Paper

Height of50 cm

Which of the three blood droplets shown would have been created by a wound in the lower part of the leg? Explain.

If you find a trail of blood with droplets that are round and close together, what could this mean?

If you have a blood droplet as shown at left, what does it tell you? Explain.

Justice BackloggedMr. Concannon Smith

What is the Backlog? Every two minutes, someone is sexually assaulted in

the United States.

With sexual assault, the body is a part of the crime scene.

When reported, a doctor or nurse will photograph, swab and conduct an exhaustive examination of the victim’s entire body for DNA evidence left behind by the attacker (often invasive) Process takes four to six hours to complete.

That evidence is collected and preserved in a sexual assault evidence kit, commonly referred to as a rape kit.

Thousands of kits remain untested, sitting in evidence

Why the Backlog Exists1. Lack of resources: it costs between $500 and

$1,500 to test one rape kit.

Crime lab resources: the demand for DNA testing has grown dramatically.

In addition to rape kit evidence, crime labs receive DNA samples from thousands of other cases

Police resources. Many kits never make it to a crime lab in the first place and instead spend years—even decades—sitting untested in police storage facilities.

These agencies further lack resources and staffing to investigate and follow up on leads resulting from rape kit testing.

Why the Backlog Exists2. Detective Discretion: In the majority of jurisdictions, the

decision whether to send a rape kit for testing rests solely within the discretion of the officer assigned to the case

3. Prioritization Problem: Law enforcement agencies often fail to dedicate the time and resources that other crimes receive to sexual assault cases. Victim blaming more than any other crime.

4. Case Progress Problem: Due to a lack of understanding about how trauma can affect a survivor of rape, officers often misinterpret survivors’ reactions and choices in the immediate aftermath of the assault as being “uncooperative” or “not credible.”

5. Identity of the Perp.: Many jurisdictions only test kits in cases where the assailant is unknown in order to attempt to identify a suspect through DNA evidence. If all= link unsolved crimes to a serial offender

UPDATE 2015: Houston, TX

VP Biden backs $41 million fund to reduce rape-kit testing backlog…

“Us v. Them” MentalityPolice Subculture

Mr. Concannon Smith

Police Subculture Values and perceptions shared by members of a police department,

which are shaped by unique existence of the police officer

Mistrust of the media and civilians has been identified as one of the hallmarks of a police subculture

The core values of police subculture

Socialization of a rookie police officer begins on the first day of the job through learning of values and rules of police work

1. Attending a police academy

2. Working with a senior officer

3. Making an initial felony arrest

4. Using force to make an arrest for the first time

5. Using or witnessing deadly force for the first time

6. Witnessing major traumatic events for the first time

The “Blue Curtain”

A “blue wall of silence” separates police from the civilians they protect.

Cynicism cynicism |ˈsinəˌsizəm|

an inclination to believe that people are motivated purely by self-interest; skepticism: public cynicism about politics. an inclination to question whether something

will happen or whether it is worthwhile; pessimism: cynicism about the future.

( Cynicism )a school of ancient Greek philosophers, the Cynics.

Police Cynicism Characterized by rejection of the ideals of truth and justice

Cynical police officers lose respect for the law and instead adhere to the values of the police subculture which can lead to increases in police misconduct, corruption, and brutality

Exacerbated by feelings of helplessness

Dangers and StressDanger

There is no such thing as a routine traffic stop

Police officers face threats of physical harm daily

Police work ranks among the ten most dangerous jobs in the U.S.

Stress Measurable stressful

Research has found that police work can lead to: high blood pressure, heart problems, post-traumatic stress disorder, and even suicide

Social isolation associated with police work can lead to high rates of divorce

Authority and the Use of

ForceMr. Concannon Smith

Symbols of Police Authority

1. Uniform

2. Badge

3. Tool kit:

Nightstick

Firearm

Bracelets

Pepper spray

Etc.

“Misuse” of Force In general, use of force by law enforcement personnel is very rare

Police officers are often justified in using force to protect themselves or other citizens

1.4%

98.6%

Average Use of Force (all people who came in contact

with police 2010)Force Used or Threat-ened No Force Used

74%

26%

Excessive Force?

Felt Exessive Force Was Used Against Them

No Complaint

Types of ForceNon-lethal Force

Regulated by the concept of “reasonable” force

When a “reasonable person” deems that force was necessary

How do you think the media influences this?

Lethal Force

Force that an objective police officer realizes will place the subject in direct threat of serious injury

May result in death

SCOTUS DecisionsTenn. v. Garner (1985)

set limits for the use of deadly force that can be applied to a fleeing felon

Graham v. Conner (1989)

expanded the argument for a reasonable use of deadly force “as needed”

Tennessee v. Garner

Graham v. Connor

Training for the “Real Thing”

Mr. Concannon Smith

VirTra: Virtual Training

Pros Cons