changing churches: resources, themes,...

© Tim Harle & Susanna Wesley Foundation 2018 Page 1 of 32

Changing Churches: Resources, Themes, Questions

Tim Harle

1. Introduction

This review paper has been written at the request of the Susanna Wesley Foundation (SWF)1 to provide some background material for the conversations at the Changing Churches conference in September 2017. I was asked to provide a guide to some of the intellectual questions raised by the conference themes, and point towards relevant academic resources. The paper’s aim is to cover literature on what is generally referred to as change management.

This review seeks to learn from the questions that are being asked, and insights that are emerging, from a number of disciplines, whether referred to as sacred or secular. It picks up a plea made by Professor Gary Hamel from London Business School. In the aftermath of the global financial tsunami of 2008, he wrote:

we need more than engineers and accountants. We must also harness the ideas of artists, philosophers, designers, ecologists, anthropologists, and theologians. (Hamel, 2012, p. 254)

In this spirit of cross-disciplinary enquiry, I preface consideration about the change management literature with some considerations about the ways we, perhaps implicitly, view the world. That soon brings us in to the sphere of the theologians.

2. Changing Churches The multivalent conference title invites a number of questions. We can begin with just two. What do we understand by change? And what do we understand by church? Immediately, we are invited to consider questions of a philosophical and ecclesiological nature.

a. Change

Smith and Graetz (2011) offer a conceptual schema in their Philosophies of Organizational Change; they identify a number of approaches – including rational, systems, cultural and critical – which are relevant to our consideration. For a summary of their consideration, see Graetz and Smith (2010): what they refer to as different philosophies perform a rather similar

1 I am grateful to the Foundation for the support, challenge and stimulation they have offered since the launch of SWF in 2015. In their different ways, Christopher Stephens, Sue Miller, Keith Elford, Liz Pickett and others have encouraged conversations of creative discovery. We may not always agree, but the gracious environment offered by SWF enables us better to frame our questions and understand each other’s responses.



function to the images of organization described by Gareth Morgan (2006). In A Process Theory of Organization (Hernes, 2014), the author draws attention to, inter alia, how the stability vs change agenda can be moved on by replacing stability with continuity. (I am tempted to point to the Benedictine notions of stability and conversion of life (Dollard, Marett-Crosby, & Wright, 2002.) Hernes also contrasts linear and socially constructed time (to which I would add the kairos moment). An author who interacts thoughtfully with the metaphysics of organizational change is Robert Chia (R. Chia, 1999; R. C. H. Chia & Holt, 2009).

What of churches’ attitude to change? One approach may be summed up in an oft-sung stanza from ‘Abide with me’:

Change and decay in all around I see. Oh, thou who changest not, abide with me. HF Lyte (1793-1847)

Change is associated with decay, but the Almighty does not change. The implication of the former, it could be argued, is that decay is in some sense negative. As we shall see when we look at ecological and organic approaches to change, there are more positive ways to view this, but impressions run deep.2

Yet change is at the heart of the Christian gospel, so we turn to investigate some key aspects from biblical and theological traditions. The unchanging nature of God identified by Lyte finds biblical support: ‘Jesus Christ is the same yesterday and today and for ever’ (Hebrews 13.8). Yet a faith of death and resurrection includes such teaching as, ‘unless a grain of wheat fall in the earth and dies, it remains a single grain; but if it dies it bears much fruit’ (John 12.24). Concepts of change range from the decisive − ‘If anyone is in Christ, there is a new creation: everything old has passed away; see, everything has become new!’ (2 Corinthians 5.17) – to the continuous: ‘The one who was seated on the throne said, “See, I am making all things new”’ (Revelation 21.5).

Who is to say which is ultimately more transformative? And note that change is not confined to humanity: ‘When you send forth your spirit, they are created, and you renew the face of the earth’ (Psalm 104.32).

The contrast between different approaches to change was well captured by Gary Hamel, whom we have already encountered, and CK Prahalad in

2 I was recently told of a group of churches whose new tree-like logo was criticised by some on the

grounds that it contained brown leaves, in addition to bright greens and other colours.



their award-winning book, Competing for the Future. The lasting legacy of that text was the ‘core competence of the corporation’, but the preface to the paperback edition includes a challenge which must resonate with our conference topic:

‘Enormous managerial energy… [has] been devoted to turnarounds, rescues, and massive ‘change’ programs, yet isn’t the real goal to avoid a crisis-sized transformation problem by creating a capacity for continuous renewal deep within the company?’ (Hamel & Prahalad, 1996 [1994], p. x)

A capacity for continuous renewal? The language may be of commercial companies, but don’t the churches – the glorious company of the apostles3 – have something to contribute? As a preliminary observation, we can note how ideas of renewal can be applied at a number of levels, including individuals, small groups (classes), congregations, and beyond. This leads us to consider the second word of the conference title.

b. Church

An essay by Martyn Percy, ‘A Theology of Change for the Church’ (Percy, 2000), provides a starting point. Percy prefers familial imagery, the household of faith, to the body: ‘Families work by covenants, not contracts. Mutual trust must be the foundation of change’ (p. 181). He puts forward two particular analogies. The first is the organism, though this is rooted in the Anglican divine Jeremy Taylor (1613-1667) rather than contemporary writings, of which Burns and Stalker (1961) and Rudge (1968) are pioneering exemplars.4 Percy’s second term for the interaction of God and the world is blessing, a concept developed in a ministerial sense by Tomlin (2014) and in a local church setting by Greenwood (2016). James (2012) includes an appendix, ‘Towards a Biblical Theology to [sic] Change’.

The sociologist, David Martin, concluded a review of the ‘remarkably learned and imaginative book’, Parish (Rumsey, 2017), thus:

Rumsey argues that any understanding of the Church of England, nationally and locally, requires ecclesiastical geography as much as it requires ecclesiastical history. Sociologists of religion, by concentrating on the congregation, omit this crucial dimension.5

A key marker on the self-imposed limited sociological path observed by Martin was Congregation: Stories and Structures (Hopewell, 1987). Hopewell’s ground-breaking study applied insights from cultural anthropology to churches, and has been influential in the congregation 3 The phrase is taken from Te Deum. 4 It is fascinating to see these authors from the 1960s struggle with evolving concepts and language:

the term ’organismic’ is used on occasions. 5 Church Times, 21 July 2017, p21.



being the standard unit for much sociological study of churches (Labanow, 2009). This is especially surprising given that many of the churches studied are far from congregational in their ecclesiology. In a sociological study, McCann (1993) includes a section on levels and units of analysis: drawing parallels with similar questions in industry, the author concludes that, ‘our discussion will, at times, deal with dioceses or circuits or judicatories; at other times, with the entire church in its amplitude and in its separate units, and at still other times, with parishes, congregations, or worshipping communities on their own’ (p. 107f).

My observations over several years suggest there are, sometimes unspoken, conflicts between understandings of God and the church, and local manifestations in ecclesial settings. The Roman Catholic church has struggled between the hierarchy and a bottom-up approach, exemplified by base communities. The changelessness of the church was challenged by Vatican II’s aggiornamento6: this raises an important question for our current consideration. Can transformation occur as a result of many small steps, or only with large ones? Readings of the creation stories can be revealing: is the first creation story in Genesis reduced to a God with a cosmic GANTT chart (Harle, 2012)?7

One aspect of church life that is worthy of further study in our current context is that of different aspects of worship. From the transformative power of the word to the Eucharist, an exploration across disciplinary boundaries between organisational studies and liturgy (with an awareness of social anthropology and psychology) is likely to be fruitful on many sides.

Before concluding this section, we can note that a plea by a critical management scholar for a more interdisciplinary approach to organisation studies − with reference to architecture, art and the built environment (Burrell, 2013) − includes several historic references to churches.

3. Approaching Change Management Making Sense of Change Management (Cameron & Green, 2004) provides a straightforward mid-level introduction. It concentrates on practical points. Managing Change (Burnes, 2009) is a standard textbook, that has

6 Usually translated ‘bringing up to date’ or similar. 7 In a chapter on biblical perspectives on Christian management, Anthony & Estep (2005) write,

‘Genesis records the creation of the universe in such a manner as to leave no doubt that God had a plan. He established the order of events from the smallest details of the atom to the limitless expanse of space. Each of the days of creation is marked with purposeful activity and design. Nothing is left to chance or random accident’ (p14). The contrast with Keller (2003) is striking.



gone through many editions.8 For an authoritative academic text, see Developing Strategies for Change (Darwin, Johnson, & McAuley, 2002). A text, which combines thoughtful theoretical perspective with a series of case studies is Managing Change: Enquiry and Action (Beech & MacIntosh, 2012); in contrast to many texts, the majority of case studies are not anonymised.

There is, or ought to be, a significant overlap between the change management and organization development (OD) literature. Cheung-Judge and Holbeche (2015) offer a good example from the latter field, encompassing both theoretical and practical perspectives. Gallos (2006) offers a rather daunting (1000+ page) reader, but provides an excellent starting point for a range of concepts and authors. Glen Morgan and Spicer (2009), writing from the Critical Management Studies (CMS) school, offer a brief critique of identities, processes, dynamics… and even CMS itself. For a fuller consideration of a CMS perspective, see Managing Change: A Critical Perspective (Hughes, 2010). Writing from this school, Grugulis (2007) challenges a number of taken-for-granted HR approaches, including the significance of L&D, quality management, and initiatives such as Investors in People. Power often features strongly in CMS writings about change (Clegg, 2011). Greenwood and Burgess (2005) offer a thoughtful perspective for churches.

The role of leadership in organizational change is a contested one: Hughes (2016) offers a critical view, while Organizational Change, Leadership and Ethics (Todnem By & Burnes, 2013) provides a useful collection of essays. Anderson and Anderson (2001), Beyond Change Management: Advanced Strategies for Today's Transformational Leaders, provides one of the more interesting engagements, even if it risks a programmatic outcome (including a nine-phase process change model).

4. Mainstream perspectives One of the most widely cited authors over the past generation is John Kotter, especially through his book, Leading Change (Kotter, 1996). This accompanied a Harvard Business Review (HBR) article, ‘Leading Change; Why Transformation Efforts Fail’ (Kotter, 1995), which became the HBR’s best-selling article of the 1990s. In the decades since his article and book were published, Kotter has not felt much pressure to update his advice.9 8 An interesting project would be to explore what the cover images of the various editions since

1992 say about the prevailing approach to change. They range from the mechanistic (junctions in railway lines) to the biological (ripening fruit, a chameleon).

9 Although he did venture into fable territory with Our Iceberg is Melting (Kotter & Rathgeber, 2006). This genre has been popularised by Patrick Lencioni (Lencioni, 2002, 2006). We might



Typical figures for the proportion of failed organizational change initiatives remain stubbornly around two-thirds to three-quarters,10 although Mark Hughes has challenged the validity of the oft-cited figure of 70% (Hughes, 2011), arguing that it is repeated, rather than researched.

Kotter prescribed an eight-stage process, from Establishing a Sense of Urgency to Anchoring New Approaches in Culture. I will use Kotter’s framework to discuss a number of key issues and criticisms in the field of organisational change, but first, we can explore some more general considerations of such processes.

• Do they promote a linear view of time? N-stage processes tend to suggest that each stage will follow the previous one, either sequentially or with some overlap. In doing this, they are implicitly encouraging a chronos view of time, rather than one that is alert to the kairos moment. Legge (2009) provides a thoughtful consideration of time, from the Organisation Theory Network at Warwick Business School.

• Does change fit neatly into stages?11 It is not unusual for writers on change to refer to the classic Kübler-Ross grief process (Kübler-Ross, 1969). Just as grief counsellors would not expect a client to move smoothly through the phases – typically denial, anger, depression, bargaining, acceptance – so organizational change is unlikely to proceed smoothly. Should we, instead, seek to ensure that all the phases are encountered at some stage, and that the organisation (and/or people within it) do not ignore a particular phase or get stuck in one?

• Do they encourage a leader-centric view of human agency? While not denying the significance of leadership (which may or may not equate to those deemed leaders in an organisation), approaches such as that of Kotter and Jim Collins (Collins, 2001) run the risk of focusing too much on the person of the leader. I have elsewhere drawn attention to Cisco’s struggles to move from a culture of ‘Make it happen’ to ‘Let it happen’ (Harle, 2013, p. 11).

note, inter alia, the popularity of parables as a teaching method in the gospels, and the role of storytelling in organizational change.

10 For example, in 2013, both McKinsey (https://www.slideshare.net/aipmm/70-26633757) and Gallup (http://www.gallup.com/businessjournal/162707/change-initiatives-fail-don.aspx) quoted a 70% failure rate.

11 Kotter’s website (www.kotterinternational.com) illustrates the eight steps around a clock face. Does this reflect a less linear view of the stages?



We can now move on to explore some questions surrounding mainstream approaches, based on Kotter’s eight steps.

1. Establishing12 a sense of urgency. The extreme form of this approach is the burning platform, identified by Conner (1998) in the wake of the Piper Alpha disaster. One of the most worrying comments I ever heard was from a management consultant brought in to oversee a change programme. Their initial diagnosis of the situation was summarised as, “There isn’t a burning platform. We need to create one”. Contrast this with the idea of exploration from a secure base, discussed below in the section on attachment theory.

2. Creating the guiding coalition. My only comment here would be on who is invited to join. It should not be limited to senior staff: the two best examples of corporate transformation I have seen (one in the private sector, one in the public sector) both involved a handful of key people from first line supervisors through middle managers to a board member.

3. Developing a vision and strategy. It is notable that this is the third, not first step. How often in churches, as elsewhere, does the vision emanate from a single leader who arrives with a vision? Note that the often-mistranslated Proverbs 29.18 provides a good example of the contemporary relevance of ancient wisdom: a better translation would be ‘without a vision, the people lose constraint’ (or, as I like to paraphrase it, ‘run around and do their own thing’).

4. Communicating the change vision. Yes, but how? The gospels include several examples of powerful, and misunderstood, communication. One of the most relevant is found in Matthew 25. In answer to the question, ‘when was it that we saw you sick or in prison and visited you?’, the king answered, ‘Truly I tell you, just as you did it to one of the least of these who are members of my family, you did it to me’ (vv39f).

5. Empowering employees for broad-based action. Another example where the approach may be more important than the result. Note that the language of ‘empowerment’ is challenged by CMS scholars as power is not something that can be handed out.

6. Generating short-term wins. Again, there is nothing remarkable here, although we might ask why we wait until stage 6. Note a) the

12 I must confess that, in preparing this paper, I have only noticed for the very first time that Kotter

uses gerunds (-ings), rather than establish, create, develop…



relevance of considerations of time and b) how complexity theories challenge notions of both the short- and long-term and causality.

7. Consolidating gains and producing more change. Another straightforward point. We might note cybernetic principles of reinforcement.

8. Anchoring new approaches in the culture. The placing here is perhaps the most worrying of all Kotter’s stages. It risks seeing culture as something that can be bolted on at the end of a process of change. I consider organisational culture at some length below.

To summarise, this review of Kotter is illustrative of linear approaches. Whatever its shortcomings as a prescriptive template, it is noticeable how helpful the framework has been as a diagnostic or planning tool.13

5. Systems thinking Complexity and ecological approaches are particular representatives of systems thinking, although the term too often imports unnecessary mechanistic images. Tsoukas and Chia (2002) provide a thoughtful underpinning in process terms, while Senge, Scharmer, Jaworski, and Flowers (2005) offer an extended conversation. In a welcome change to a focus on individual leaders, Keith Elford (2013) has applied a systems approach to change in the Church of England. Kegan and Lahey (2009) provide a good example of combining individual and organizational perspectives, in this case on immunity to change.

There has been a growing reawakening of interest in recent years in the principles of cybernetics. Examples include Ashby’s Law of Requisite Variety and the importance of both feedback and feedforward: Hoverstadt (2008) offers a general approach to organisations and systems, while Granfield (1973) concentrates on a more specific case in the context of the Roman Catholic Church.

Various authors and groups have developed holistic frameworks, which seek to embrace different aspects of our humanity. Theory U (Scharmer, 2016) and the Map of Meaning (Lips-Wiersma & Morris, 2011) may be cited as examples.

13 My Sarum College colleague, Keith Lamdin, has highlighted the usefulness of Kotter’s framework

as a diagnostic or planning tool (e.g. How well are we progressing in this aspect of change? Where should we focus our energy?). Preliminary results from using this approach with clergy have been encouraging. Alison A. Myers (2016, p. 21) has independently made a similar suggestion.



6. Complexity approaches For those of us who wonder whether change management is an oxymoron, authors using a complexity theory frame have much to contribute. One of the earlier books in this field, Facilitating Organization Change: Lessons from Complexity Science (Olson & Eoyang, 2001) is still one of the best: Glenda Eoyang has more recently contributed a chapter to the Sage Handbook of Complexity and Management (Eoyang, 2011).

Complexity sciences raise fundamental questions, for example about agency: my own modest contribution asked whether people should become used to being comfortably out of control (Harle, 2011). An early conference in 1993 was co-sponsored by the Vatican Observatory: papers were subsequently published as Chaos and Complexity: Scientific Perspectives on Divine Action (Russell, Murphy, & Peacocke, 1997), while Richardson and Wildman (1996) include contributions on chaos theory and divine action. Gregersen (2003), Niekerk and Buhl (2004), Ledger and Pickard (2004), and Lineweaver, Davies, and Ruse (2013) offer more recent collections. Two key figures are Stuart Kauffman, e.g. Kauffman (2008), and John Holland, e.g. Holland (1998). Bird (2003) offers a personal perspective.

Bedau and Humphreys (2008) brings together a number of papers on emergence. For our current consideration, the relationship between emergence and transformation is a key issue: emergence is often indicated by the whole demonstrating more than the sum of its parts. Cilliers (1998) was one of the first authors to address postmodernism, while Mitchell (2009) calls for ‘integrative pluralism’ across physical, life and social sciences.

Returning to theological questions, Face of the Deep: A Theology of Becoming (Keller, 2003) is outstanding, especially on creation from chaos. I was well into developing my own limited contribution (Harle, 2012) before I discovered Keller had beaten me to it! O'Murchu (2004) provides a lively read, while the Christology of Brewin (2004) is far more widely relevant than its subtitle suggests. Also relevant to our concerns is Theological Foundations for Collaborative Ministry (Pickard, 2009), which builds on complexity thinking, along with the social Trinity.14 Philip Clayton illustrates the (re)discovery of process philosophy and theology; for a recent example, see Clayton (2016).

14 We could devote an entire section to the role of Trinitarian understandings in theology and

ecclesiology, and hence approaches to change in churches. See, for example, Greenwood (1994) and Fiddes (2000).



A helpful introduction, combining theory and practice from her experience at the Open University is Elizabeth McMillan’s Complexity, Management and the Dynamics of Change: Challenges for Practice (McMillan, 2008). Ralph Stacey and his colleagues at the University of Hertfordshire have produced a number of helpful texts. For issues around organizational change, Patricia Shaw’s work on conversations deserves special mention, see Changing Conversations in Organizations: A Complexity Approach to Change (Shaw, 2002). She and Stacey edited one of a number of collections of work of Hertfordshire students (Shaw & Stacey, 2006). On questions of agency, The Paradox of Control in Organizations (Streatfield, 2001) offers a practice-based consideration.

It is now generally recognised that a mix of approaches involving complexity and the more traditional will often be needed in any given situation (Uhl-Bien & Marion, 2009). The cynefin framework (Snowden & Boone, 2007) provides a useful framework for deciding the best approach, describing a range of situations including complicated, complex and chaotic. For a review article on complexity approaches, see Burnes (2005), while MacIntosh, MacLean, Stacey, and Griffin (2006) combines the best of a reader – with outstanding writers from the academic community (Robert Chia, Haridimos Tsouskas) to the creative consulting world (Richard T. Pascale, Meg Wheatley) – with conversations among the editors.

7. Psychological approaches In addition to Bridges’ work mentioned below, a number of authors write from different disciplinary backgrounds. Cummings, Bridgman, and Brown (2016) attempt to rehabilitate Kurt Lewin’s early model, while Haslam, Reicher, and Platow (2011) use social identity theory. I have selected three perspectives to explore briefly below; recent insights from neuroscience may be mentioned as an area worth taking into consideration.

a. Transitions and Liminality15

William Bridges has developed the idea of a ‘neutral zone’ in times of change: an intermediate state between a period of ending, losing and letting go, and a period of new beginnings. Bridges uses the term ‘transition’ and emphasises its importance in relation to change in general: ‘Without a transition, a change is just a rearrangement of the furniture’ (Bridges, 2004, p. xii). He adds how, after his book was originally published, ‘there were hundreds of thousands of people out there who

15 The following two sections are explored more fully in the chapter ‘Approaching Transitions’

(Harle, 2013).



were trying to make sense out of transition, but far fewer who wanted to be in the business of facilitating death and rebirth’ (ibid).

Anthropologists observe a similar notion: that of liminal space or time, which can be observed at many levels from individual to group and beyond. The Hebrew and Christian scriptures offer plenty of examples that can be viewed in this way. The wilderness wanderings of Exodus can be seen as a liminal period between slavery in Egypt and freedom in the Promised Land. Jesus’ life includes significant periods of liminality: from the temptations in the wilderness, which preceded his public ministry to the Garden of Gethsemane ‘on the night before he died’.16 Alan Roxburgh writes for congregations, but his observations can also be applied to the individual: ‘the liminal group is in an unstructured state. Old rules no longer apply; they simply will not work. Because of this fact, liminality becomes a place of undefined potential. Something new can be discovered’ (Roxburgh, 1997, p. 32). We must note that different people will treat a liminal state as anything from a time of high excitement and potential to one of terror and alone-ness.

b. Attachment Theory

The work of John Bowlby (1907-1990) and Mary Ainsworth (1913-1999) has traditionally focused on observations of the interaction between children and parents and carers. A key concept for our current consideration is that of the secure base: for example, Kohlrieser, Goldsworthy, and Coombe (2012) apply the secure base to relationships between leaders and followers (although they, worryingly, only consider positive examples). Robertson (2005) introduces the concept of ‘matter’ attachment: a non-personal object of attachment.

Even small changes in churches – changing a hymn book or form of service – can produce considerable anxiety. Understanding this in terms of different forms of attachment can be helpful. More complex considerations arise for church ministers: is their relationship with congregants or parishioners one of people attachment (i.e. to the person who is the minister) or matter attachment (i.e. to the role of minister)?

Securely attached individuals can begin to explore. In churches, it is important for ministers to recognise different secure bases, both within themselves and those with whom they work. Amy Edmondson’s work observing teams in hospitals and elsewhere has identified a concept with striking similarities to the secure base: the zone of psychological safety, in 16 The Stature of Waiting (Vanstone, 1982) provides a deeply thoughtful perspective on this,

challenging traditional notions of both agency and time.



which questions and concerns can be raised, and learning developed (Edmondson, 2012, pp. 115-148). Consistency from the team leader is crucial for these to develop.

Explorations by psychologists and theologians are asking what we can learn from seeing God as a secure base (R. Beck, 2006; Granqvist & Kirkpatrick, 2008; Kirkpatrick, 2005). A recent Heythrop Masters thesis (Novillo, 2016) studied the Catholic mass as a secure base for fostering healthy attachment to God.

c. The psychodynamic tradition

Gould, Stapley, and Stein (2001) offer a wide-ranging collection, linking group relations, psychoanalytic and open systems perspectives. In addition to work on individuals and their relationships, workers grounded in the Tavistock tradion17 have applied insights to organisations. Transforming Experience in Organisations (Long, 2016) offers a recent collection, reflecting the tradition of the Grubb Institute.18 Working Below the Surface: The Emotional Life of Contemporary Organizations (Huffington, Armstrong, Halton, Hoyle, & Pooley, 2004) includes a section on Change and Creativity (pp. 83-122). Case studies of church organisations are represented by, e.g. Miller (1993) on a Church of England diocese and Carr (2001) on a parish church. Building on the work of Wilfred Bion (1897-1979) on groups, I have noted a growing interest in the concept of ‘not knowing’ and ‘negative capability’, e.g. French (2001). This latter phrase originated in the work of the Romantic poet John Keats (1795-1821),

8. Organizational Culture One perspective that is not always given sufficient attention when discussing change management is that of culture. Pettigrew (1979) offered a pioneering analysis, using an anthropological approach to study an organization over time. Leading Cultural Change (McCalman & Potter, 2015) offers a more recent view, combining a historical perspective on theory with practical case studies.

The term ‘culture’ has a number of, sometimes overlapping, meanings:

• It may refer to the zeitgeist – postmodern, post-postmodern – with its social, philosophical and political implications. This has important questions, for example, addressing the role of the individual (Sennett, 2012) and the place of rational argument.

17 Now represented by www.tavistockandportman.nhs.uk and elsewhere. 18 www.grubbinstitute.org.uk. The Grubb’s legacy is now curated by the Crossfields Institute (www.crossfieldsinstitute.com).



• It may refer to national culture. The classic studies here are those of Hofstede (Hofstede & Hofstede, 2005). The work has been criticised because Hofstede père’s initial multinational study concentrated on IBM staff; however, the much more wide-ranging GLOBE study (House, Hanges, Javidan, Dorfman, & Gupta, 2004) identified some similar dimensions.

• It may refer to organisational culture. Trompenaars and Prud'Homme (2004) offer a useful mid-level consideration, while Schein (2010) remains a standard, if rather dated, text. The three levels of culture identified by Schein – artefacts, espoused values, and underlying assumptions – are readily applicable in church settings (observable on a continuum between social and cultural anthropology, and liturgy). This is a fruitful area for research. Stapley (2001) applies a psychodynamic approach at an organisational level, using Winnicott’s concept of the ‘holding environment’.

Of course, in our hyper-connected world19, traditional demarcation between national and organisational cultures breaks down as brands and social media change the playing field. It is this overlap of cultures that Erin Meyer (2014) addresses: Meyer is based at INSEAD (‘one of the rare places where everyone is a cultural minority’, p. 15).

The literature on organisational culture and churches is not extensive. Burkett (1999) applies sociological and anthropological disciplines to the congregation. More recently, Brown (2016) uses the gospel image of leaven to explore the power of culture in a church setting.

I referred above to the overlap between organisational culture and expressions of church, e.g. in liturgy, as being a fruitful one for research. I believe there is another aspect worthy of investigation: the applicability of frameworks, whose origins are in researching national cultures, to churches. Although detailed language is slightly different, both Hofstede and the GLOBE study, include dimensions which resonate with observations in church settings. Consider three:

• Power-distance. This refers to the relation between (to use less-than-neutral language) superiors and subordinates, and the acceptance or not of unequal power distribution. As an example, Meyer (2014, p. 128f) refers to Catholic and Protestant histories in relation to power-distance countries.

19 Am I alone in thinking that the ‘six degrees of separation’ hypothesis seems so 20th century?



• Uncertainty avoidance. This describes the extent to which people are willing – happy, even – to live with ambiguity, or they prefer definite answers. The application to churches, from doctrinal positions to moral codes, appears clear.

• Individual-collectivism. This relates to the relative position of individuals and collective groups, such as families and tribes. Once again, there seems to be a direct application to churches with their different ecclesiologies, missiologies, and liturgies.20

9. Some other approaches a. Ecological Perspectives

I was first introduced to this field by the Dutch management ecologist, Peter Robertson (2005), and subsequently wrote an introductory article of my own (Harle, 2007). The best book in the field is now David Hurst’s New Ecology of Leadership (Hurst, 2012): note that both he and Robertson are also heavily influenced by a complexity worldview. Rowland and Higgs (2008) is also worth noting.

An important concept for the change agenda, first popularised in the management discourse by Handy (1994, pp. 49-64), is the sigmoid, or s-curve. Such curves typically mirror the seasons in terms of growth and decay, but can be applied across organisations and time. Both Robertson and Hurst use the idea; the former draws attention to the often-chaotic period between s-curves, using the vivid metaphor of a salmon leap for using the power of turbulence to move against the flow.

It is also worth noting how change management approaches have been weaved in to the broader sustainability agenda (Doppelt, 2003; Dunphy, Griffiths, & Benn, 2007).

b. Appreciative Inquiry

There is now a range of literature on AI, e.g. Cooperrider and Whitney (2005). Lewis, Passmore, and Cantore (2008) apply the approach explicitly to the change management agenda.

Banaga (1998) offered a relatively early perspective on AI from a Roman Catholic setting, arguing for the congruence of the AI framework with the Christian scriptures (examples concentrate on the NT). AI approaches can now be find in a range of church settings, e.g. Paddock (2003) in the

20 This section on applying Hofstede to churches has been considerable helped by one of the

Leadership MA students at Sarum College, who used the ideas in an assignment for the module, Understanding Organizations.



Roman Catholic church, Orr (2009) for the Church of Scotland, Voyle (2015) on transitional ministry. For a wide-ranging, ecumenical, approach, building on some of the above developments, see Appreciating Church (Thomas, 2017).21

c. Family Systems Theory

Family Systems Theory is based on the work of Murray Bowen (1913-90). He argued that individuals should not be understood in isolation, but as part of a family, which formed an emotional unit. A number of authors have applied this concept to the congregation: one of the best was the New York Rabbi Edwin Friedman in Generation to Generation: Family Process in Church and Synagogue (Friedman, 2011 [1985]). Family systems theory is also used in practical guides published by the Alban Institute (Steinke, 1993, 1996): note, in the context of our introductory observation on ecclesiology and units of study, that these works focus on congregations.

Family systems theory is a contributor to current developments around transitional or interim ministry, although Rob Voyle warns that, ‘Continually referring to the congregation only as a family or seeing the congregation exclusively through the lens of a “family system”… will ensure that the family remains small’ (Voyle, 2015, p. 142).

d. Conflict

From an ecological and psychological point of view, an element of disturbance is important for the health of a living system. It is therefore important to see the potential in conflict – hence the preference for the term ‘transforming’ rather than ‘resolving’ conflict (Lederach, 2014; McKay, 2008).22 Avis (1992) offers a classic application in church settings, informed by sociological, psychological, and other insights, while Boyd-MacMillan and Savage (2008) focus on senior Anglicans of different theological persuasions; again this study is informed by psychological disciplines.

e. Behavioural Economics

One of the surprise best sellers of the past decade has been Nudge (Thaler & Sunstein, 2008). It spawned an industry, not least in political circles with the establishment of the Behavioural Insights Team (better known as the ‘Nudge Unit’) in 10 Downing Street (Halpern, 2015). The approach raises some significant ethical questions, especially when nudging (for example, defaults in opt in/out questions) are being set by government agencies. I

21 http://www.methodist.org.uk/news-and-events/news-releases/appreciating-church-book-launch 22 McKay’s chapter was submitted with the title ‘Transforming Conflict’.



am not yet aware of a sustained application or critique of nudging in church circles, although Paul Vallely (2016) identifies Pope Francis as a nudger in his article, ‘Not a Judge or a Fudge, but a Nudge’.

10. Change in Churches Rick James has developed a number of helpful resources around the ‘space for grace’ concept, based on his work with the Swedish Mission Council (James, 2012). Better Change in Church (Street & Cuthbert, 2015) is a recent UK-based work, marred by self-publishing of what sometimes reads like an extended PowerPoint presentation. I have offered a chapter on sustaining a process of change (Harle, 2008), while Impey (2010) offers a practical example of learning in an English congregation. For a thoughtful theological reflection on structural change in Methodism, see B. E. Beck (2000).

From a North American base, Aquachurch 2.0 (Sweet, 2008 [1999]) exemplifies engaging with contemporary culture, harnessing biblical and post-modern understandings to describe the shift from Gutenberg to Google culture. The missional work of Alan Hirsch is worth exploring, especially his use of the APEST23 framework from Ephesians 4 to critique churches’ stasis around pastors and teachers (Hirsch & Catchim, 2012). Authors such as Hirsch and members of the Emergent Village network (see below) tend to be critical of inherited denominations; in contrast, Alan Roxburgh writes predominantly for historic denominations, e.g. Roxburgh (2010).

David R Sawyer notes an example of an implicit model found in the relatively recent approach of transitional, or interim, ministry. Referring to Kurt Lewin’s classic unfreeze-change-refreeze model, he writes how, ‘Much of what has been taught in classes preparing pastors for transitional ministry is based on organizational development (OD) theory from the 1940s’ (Sawyer, 2015, p. 21). Another example of an implicit model – in this case a Newtonian one – is found in a book, which has been influential among Methodists on both sides of the Atlantic: ‘The advantage of using a lever is that we can move things that otherwise we could never budge’ (Schnase, 2014, p. 37).

Without being exhaustive, I have looked at four different groups of relevant publications from either side of the Atlantic, covering both inherited and newer approaches to church.

23 Apostles, Prophets, Evangelists, Shepherds (= Pastors), Teachers.



a. Alban Institute24

G. R. Rendle (1998) provides a practical approach to change in the congregation (note the focus). More recently, Rendle (2014) has used insights ranging from Deming’s work on quality systems to Grameen Bank. The latter book, is highly relevant to today’s debates about measurement and numbers in churches. Earlier relevant example include Saarinen (1998) on congregational lifecycles and Steinke’s work, described above under Family Systems Theory. The Alban Institute has also supported work on transitional, or interim, ministry (Bendroth, 2015; Nicholson, 1998).

b. Emergent Village

In the latter part of the first decade of this century, some of the most interesting and creative missiological thinking came out of the Emergent Village network. For our current consideration, relevant examples of their writing include Thy Kingdom Connected: What the Church Can Learn from Facebook, the Internet, and Other Networks (Friesen, 2009), Intuitive Leadership: Embracing a Paradigm of Narrative, Metaphor and Chaos (Keel, 2007), and Organic Community: Creating a Place Where People Naturally Connect (J. R. Myers, 2007).

Friesen examines the pastor’s role as a network ecologist, and draws parallels between Arie de Geus (1997) Living Company and the life of churches. Keel is pedestrian on the question of narrative, but (in common with many Emergent Village authors), makes good use of complexity theory.

c. Grove Books25

The short booklets produced by Cambridge-based Grove include a number addressing changing churches in their Pastoral and Leadership series. Leading Change in the Church (Snow, 2009) was written by the current Bishop of Leicester. Snow acknowledges a debt to systems thinking, especially Attwood, Pedler, Pritchard, and Wilkinson (2003), and is good on such questions as the need for learning, and the contribution of authors like Meg Wheatley. Managing Change (A. Myers, 2016) provides a practical summary of Bridges, Conner and Kotter. A recent addition, The Power of Story to Change a Church (Roberts, 2017) draws attention to an important strand in the management literature from authors, including Yiannis Gabriel on storytelling in organisations (e.g. Gabriel (2000)) and Karl Weick on

24 www.alban.org. The Alban Institute closed, after four decades of operation, in 2014. Its legacy

continues at Duke Divinity School, while Rowman and Littlefield acquired the rights to its publications.

25 www.grovebooks.co.uk



sense-making (e.g. Weick (2001)).26 Roberts also draws attention to the Natural Church Development process.27

Rooms and Keifert (2014) describe the Partnership for Missional Church process.28 Griffiths (2012) provides an autobiographical account of two churches merging. Valler (2014) addresses the increasingly widespread use of measurement: it can usefully be read alongside Doing the Math of Mission (G. Rendle, 2014) from the Alban Institute.

d. Modem29

Modem is a network (sometimes described as a ‘think tank’) promoting conversations between churches and the business community around questions of leadership, management and ministry. They have published a number of books over the past two decades, and change features in them. Their first book, Management and Ministry (Nelson, 1996), included contributions on churches as places of learning, and on quality management.

Modem’s second book (Nelson, 1999) includes several exploratory chapters that are relevant to our current consideration. Malcolm Grundy (1999) addressed the challenge of change, referring back to pioneering authors such as Peter Drucker and Peter Rudge, and acknowledging such popular contemporaries as Peters & Waterman, and Steven Covey. Elizabeth Welch (1999) explores questions of vision from the perspective of free church polity, while Bernard Kilroy (1999) provides an early application of complexity thinking in a Roman Catholic context. But perhaps the two most interesting chapters for this review are Christopher Burkett (1999) on Organizational Culture in Congregations and Bruce Reed (1999), founder of the Grubb Institute, on Organizational Transformation.

Modem’s third book (Adair & Nelson, 2004) reflected an increased focus on leadership. Elizabeth Welch (2004) returns to the question of vision, while an intriguingly entitled chapter (Price, 2004), ‘The One Who Builds the Path Cannot Make It Straight’ interacts with the work of Avery Dulles (1987) on models of the church. The fourth book (Nelson, 2008) was the most practical to date; relevant chapters include Tony McCaffry (2008) on vision (now in the hands of a Roman Catholic, reflecting Modem’s ecumenical aspirations), Jennifer Tann (2008) on change agents, and my own contribution on sustaining a process of change (Harle, 2008).

26 See also Leading by Story: Rethinking Church Leadership (Roberts & Sims, 2017). 27 www.ncd-international.org 28 www.churchinnovations.org 29 www.modemuk.org. I served as a Trustee of Modem from 2011 to 2016.



Through its networks, Modem has also published a number of reports over the years. Of particular relevance here is the two-volume work, Metanoia (Todd, Simmonds, Forshaw, & Speirs, 2009), which offers deep theological engagement and interaction with Deming’s quality approach.

11. Learning from Other Sectors In an interdisciplinary review such as this, we can also look beyond the churches for learning about change. As an example, Peck (2004) offers a wide-ranging collection from healthcare, including systems, psychodynamic, cultural, complexity and narrative approaches. The principles are relevant beyond their immediate area of application. Similar comments apply to Ballatt and Campling (2011) on reforming the culture of healthcare. Other examples which may be mentioned include Shaw and Stacey (2006) on organizational change in the theatre, and West-Burnham (2009) in education. Ludema and Fry (2008) offer a case study of using an Appreciative Inquiry approach in a transport setting; they argue that AI involves more than simply being positive.

12. Summary

This review has been necessarily brief and selective. We have seen how the conversation on change and churches can be informed by critical consideration of contributions across a range of disciplines and practices. Neither uncritical acceptance of prevailing business school norms, nor wholesale rejection of such ideas for churches, will suffice. Organisational scholars, management consultants, theologians, and church ministers have much to discuss, and to learn from each other.

******** Tim Harle lives at the interface of business and faith. He has worked at senior levels in a FTSE100 company, a family-owned SME, and in Whitehall. Based at Sarum College’s Centre for Leadership Learning, he is Programme Leader for the MA in Christian Approaches to Leadership. A former Lay Canon of Bristol Cathedral, Tim is a Licensed Lay Minister (Reader) in the Church of

England. His interests cover organisational insights from ecosystems and complexity sciences to attachment theory. His publications include Embracing Chaos (Grove, 2011), ‘Approaching Transitions’ in Moving on in Ministry (CHP, 2013) and ‘Great to Good Enough: Reconnecting Leadership to the Ordinary’ in Leadership Matters (Routledge, 2017).



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