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OVERVIEW

7.0 Introduction

7.1 What is Implementation?

7.2 Curriculum Implementation

as a Change Process

7.3 Types of Curriculum

Change

7.4 Resistance to Change

7.5 Case Study: Indonesia

7.6 Individual Involved in

Curriculum Implementation

7.6.1. Teachers

7.6.2 Students

7.6.3 Principals

7.6.4 Parents

7.7 Case Study: England

7.8 Implementing Curriculum in

the Classroom

Readings

Discussion Questions

LEARNING OUTCOMES

When you complete this module will be able to:

Explain what is curriculum implementation

Describe Lewin‟s change model

Differentiate between the types of curriculum change

Explain why people resist change

Suggest ways of overcoming resistance to change

List the role and responsibilities of individuals involved in the

implementation of a curriculum

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“Homework Must Be More Fun and Meaningful’

In Module 5 we discussed what was

involved in curriculum planning and in Module

6 we looked at different techniques of designing

the curriculum focusing on some curriculum

design models. The next stage in the curriculum

development process according to Tyler, Taba

and Alexander & Saylor is the implementation

of the curriculum plan. The final destination of

any curriculum (whether it be a school, college,

university or training organisation) is the

classroom involving students, teachers,

administrators and the community. Implementing the curriculum is the most crucial and

7.0 Introduction

The Education Ministry is to

regulate homework assignment of school

pupils to make it more interesting.

Homework is clearly one key area in

which things can and should improve in

the interest of all concerned. Homework

should have more quality than quantity.

It needs a finer focus with less bulk, and

in the process become more interesting

to give students an added incentive to

studying harder. Young people have

energy, imagination and a natural

curiosity that can help them to learn if

properly chanelled. Otherwise

homework can become a hindrance to

the learning process.

Teachers should be guided to

learning rather than be fountains of

infinite knowledge. They should present

material in intellectually stimulating

ways, without spoon-feeding. Pupils

need to know that learning is part of

their own life experience, not something

separate and removed from it. Teachers

should therefore avoid dishing out

homework mechanically as routine

chores, which would make studies

boring and brain-deadening.

Homework that is interesting to

pupils would not only make their

learning more meaningful and

productive, but also facilitate teaching.

When school children are better

motivated in their studies, teachers also

find their task easier. Students learn

better and faster when their innate

inquisitiveness is fired with more

participatory observation and enquiry of

the world about them. Good teachers can

make this vital difference.

Pupils must constantly be

encouraged to do more than answer set

questions, as it is essential to think their

way to unrehearsed answers. True

learning is more than ‘spotting exam

questions’. It is more important for

pupils to experience a sense of

achievement in all aspects of study,

which would give them a feel of their

own development and growth. A more

enlightened approach to learning such as

this may also apply to regular class work

besides homework.

[source: adapted from The Sunday Star, 13 February, 2005]

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sometimes the most difficult phase of the curriculum development process. Those

responsible for implementing a curriculum often hear comments and concerns such as:

o Teachers are already overloaded – how are they going to implement the new

ideas.

o Parents and education officers are only interested in a high pass rate in

examinations – how are schools to incorporate suggested changes.

These are real concerns and made worse when persons implementing the curriculum are

not clear what is expected of them. How often have we heard people say, „the plan was

good but implementation was poor‟. On the other hand, if a curriculum plan is not

implemented and remains on the shelf then all efforts in planning will be a sheer waste. A

curriculum must be delivered and that means it must be implemented in the classroom if

it is to make an impact on student learning. Good plans reaching the classroom are not

properly implemented because of a lack of planning and preparation. In some curriculum

development projects, implementation is not been given due consideration; not realising

that innovations need careful planning and monitoring. We hear of teachers not being

properly trained and are required to implement changes in the classroom within a short

period of time.

Implementation is an interaction between those who have created the programme and

those who are charged to deliver it. According to Ornstein and Hunkins, 1998;

o implementation requires educators to shift from the current programme which

they are familiar with to the new or modified programme.

o implementation involves changes in the knowledge, actions and attitudes of

people

o implementation can be seen as a process of professional development and growth

involving ongoing interactions, feedback and assistance.

o implementation is a process of clarification whereby individuals and groups come

to understand and practice a change in attitudes and behaviours; often involving

using new resources.

o implementation involves change which requires effort and will produce a certain

amount of anxiety and to minimize these, it is useful to organise implementation

into manageable events and to set achievable goals.

7.1 What is Curriculum Implementation?

ACTIVITY 7.1 Read the newspaper report at the beginning of the chapter and answer the

following questions

1. What are some suggestions proposed for making homework fun and

meaningful?

2. Do you agree with the statement that teachers should not ‘spoon-feed’

but rather be guides to learning? Why?

3. Give other suggestions for making homework meaningful and fun.

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o implementation requires a supportive atmosphere in which there is trust and open

communication between administrators, teachers educators, and where risk-taking

is encouraged.

Even though large sums of money are spent on implementing new curriculum, several of

these efforts have failed. According to Sarason (1990), the main reason for the failure is

the lack of understanding of the culture of the school by both experts outside the school

system and educators in the system. Successful implementation of curriculum requires

understanding the power relationships, the traditions, the roles and responsibilities of

individuals in the school system. Implementors (whether they be teachers, principals,

district education officers) should be well-versed with the contents of the curriculum.

They must be clear of the purpose, the nature, and the real and potential benefits of the

innovation.

As stated by Fullan and Pomfret (1977); “effective implementation of innovations

requires time, personal interaction and contacts, in-service training and other forms of

people-based support” (p.391). Curriculum implementation requires winning people over

and it takes time. Teachers need to feel appreciated and their efforts recognised. Some

may argue that they should be given financial rewards but there is evidence to suggest

that external motivation contributes minimally to the venture. Individuals contribute their

best talents when they are internally motivated and derive a good feeling from being

involved.

Implementation is the carrying out of something or the practical application of a

method, procedure or desired purpose. Loucks and Lieberman (1983) define curriculum

implementation as the trying out of a new practice and what it looks like when actually

used in a school system. For example, a curriculum plan in enhancing technology

integration across the curriculum is introduced and you would want to know whether

what was intended in the plan is actually being done in the classroom. Your aim for

developing a curriculum is to make a difference to learners. Simply, put, curriculum

implementation is bringing about change and hopefully improvement.

How do you bring about change? In other words, how do you ensure that the

curriculum brings about the desired changes. Before you can bring about change, you

need to know what is change. You may say what‟s the big deal? We all know what is

change! You know how your job has changed. You know how government policy

changes. But what is change in relation to curriculum? Basically, change is doing

something differently. Change results from new knowledge. However, the presence of

new knowledge is not sufficient for change. People generally are reluctant to change

because they are comfortable with what they are currently doing. So, to change, they

must recognise the need for change. People are more likely to recognise the need for

change if they understand change and how it works. Don‟t you agree?

Kurt Lewin (1951), considered to be the father of social psychology suggested a

model explaining change (see Figure 7.1). According to him, all persons are faced with

two competing forces:

Driving Forces: These are forces that that are driving or pushing you to do something

and change in a particular direction. They tend to initiate a change and keep it going. In

the workplace, pressure from your boss, financial incentives and competition for

promotion may be examples of driving forces.

7.2 Curriculum Implementation as a Change Process

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Restraining Forces: These are forces restraining or preventing you from doing

something and changing. In the workplace, apathy, hostility, obsolete equipment may be

examples of restraining forces.

Equilibrium: When these two forces (driving and restraining) are equal, the status quo is

maintained. In other words, there is no effort towards change and so you do the same

thing you did before.

For example, in the school setting, the principal who is autocratic and constantly

pressures his or her staff which may bring about change in the short run. In other words,

the driving forces have overpowered the restraining forces and when this happens,

change is initiated. As long as the driving forces are more powerful than the restraining

forces, change will continue. The methods used by the principal may lead to increased

hostility and antagonism and manifest themselves in teachers refusing to cooperate and

reluctant to do more than is required. In other words, the restraining forces have got

stronger and change slows down.

Lewin emphasised that to bring about change, it is better to reduce the power of

the restraining forces rather than increase the driving forces. This has been termed as

unfreezing whereby the power of the restraining forces are decreased to stimulate the

driving forces. For example, the principal could instead encourage more discussion and

group problem solving in an attempt to eliminate hostility and apathy. If there is fear

among teachers that they would not have the know-how to implement change it is best

that they be trained before implementing the new ideas.

EQUILIBRIUM

Driving Forces Restraining Forces

a) Government intervention a) Fear of the unknown

b) Society‟s values b) Threats to power

c) Technological changes c) Obsolete

knowledge/skills d) Traditional values

d) Knowledge explosion e) Limited resources

e) Administrative processes e) Limited resources

Figure 7.1 Force Field Model (Kurt Lewin, 1951)

SELF-TEST 7.1 1. What does curriculum implementation involve?

2. How does Kurt Lewin‟s model explain curriculum change?

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If you are responsible for implementing curriculum, it is important that you

understand the nature of change. Understanding the change process can be a challenging

and exciting process. If you do not comprehend the complexities of change you are likely

to introduce ideas and actions that may result in confusion and tension within the school

or district. Curriculum change is a complex and difficult process and requires careful

planning, adequate time, funding, support and opportunities for teacher involvement.

McNeil (1990) categorised curriculum change as follows:

Substitution: One element may be substituted for another already present. For

example, the substituting of a new textbook for an old one.

Alteration: This occurs when a change is introduced into existing material in the

hope that it will appear minor and thus be readily adopted. For example,

introducing new content such as road safety in the primary school curriculum; use

of new materials such as the graphing calculator in mathematics teaching.

Perturbations: These are changes that are disruptive but teachers adjust to them

within a fairly short time. For example, the assistant principal changes the

timetable or schedule to allow for longer teaching time.

Restructuring: These are changes that lead to a modification of the whole school

system. For example, the introduction of an integrated curriculum requiring team

teaching, or involving the local community in deciding what is to be taught.

Value Orientation: These are shifts in the fundamental value orientations of

school personnel. For example, if the new teachers who join the school place

more emphasis on personal growth of students than academic performance, then

the value orientations or fundamental philosophies of the school changes.

It should be realised that a particular curriculum change may not exactly fit

according to the five categories given. But, the categories are general enough to help you

plan change and arrange resources to bring about the change. However, you should be

aware that change is not synonymous with improvement and you might decide that

change should not be undertaken.

7.3 Types of Curriculum Change

SELF-TEST 7.2 1. What are the five types of curriculum change listed by

McNeil. Give examples of each category other than those

given in the text.

2. Identify other types of curriculum change which you have

come across but do not fit into those given.

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As mentioned earlier, bringing about change is not an easy task. There are many

barriers to the successful implementation of a curriculum. If you are given the job of

implementing a curriculum, whether it be in the school system, college, university or

training centre, you will encounter people resisting change. Keep things as they are!

Many people think that it is easier to keep things as they are. We often hear people say,

“If it is not broken, why fix it”. People are happy with the current situation in their

institution and feel that the change suggested will not meet the objectives of the school,

college or training centre. The status quo tends to be maintained when the persons

introducing change are themselves not clear as to the intent and what is required of the

new programme. To make matters worse, the implementation of the programme is poorly

planned.

Teachers who are to implement the curriculum frequently view change as

meaning more work. In addition to their already overloaded schedule, there is no extra

financial reward for the extra work they have to put in. Also, they view new curriculum

programmes will require them to learn new teaching skills and competencies which will

mean attending courses and seminars. It has also been found that teachers or practitioners

tend to reject pedagogical strategies or teaching methods that are different from what they

are currently using. They are reluctant to change or modify their current instructional

strategies and understandings of classroom practice.

Let us examine in more detail why people resist change. By knowing why people

resist change, it may be possible to plan more effective strategies to overcome resistance

and improve receptivity to change. Persons charged with the task of curriculum

implementation must understand how people react to change and how to encourage them

to be receptive to change. The following are the main reasons why people resist change

(Harvey, 1990; Woldring, 1999; Lippitt, 1966).

I. People resist because they do not understand – they simply do not follow what is

being introduced. They do not understand where they are going. They are not clear

as to what is required of them.

Overcome:

The key is „communication‟. You have to explain to them “Why”. You have to

answer the Why, What, When, How and Where questions. Remember, the

effectiveness of communication is not the „message sent‟ but of the „message

received‟

II. People resist because of lack of ownership – Individuals will not accept change if

they consider it coming from outside or imposed on them. Unfortunately, most

curriculum reform efforts are initiated from the outside which may be at the

national, state or district level.

Overcome:

You have to convince teachers that even though it comes from the outside, their

view and opinions have been considered at the planning and design stages of

curriculum development. Involve teachers in exploring the relevance of the new

curriculum and give them the freedom to explore the new skills needed for

utilising or implementing the curriculum. This will get them to feel that they are

an important part of the curriculum implementation process.

7.4 Resistance to Change

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III. People resist if they do not have the competencies to cope with the changes – It

is natural for persons to resist if they do not have the knowledge and skills to cope

with the changes. Nobody wants to be told that they are incompetent. There is the

likelihood that the implementation of the new curriculum has been rushed or due to

budgetary constraints, the training period has been greatly reduced and teachers are

not adequately equipped.

Overcome: Adequate time and resources have to be set aside for the training

of teachers involved in implementing the new curriculum.

IV. People resist if there is a lack of incentives or benefits – If teachers are

unconvinced that the new programme will make things better for students (in terms

of learning) or themselves (such as greater recognition, respect or reward), they are

likely to resist the suggested change.

Overcome: Make sure that teachers who are actively involved in curriculum

change are rewarded. The reward need not necessarily be financial, but their

efforts need to be given due recognition.

V. People resist if they do not have the time to engage with the change – Teachers

find it difficult having to juggle between bringing about change handling their

current responsibilities. Focusing their energy on change activities, may run the risk

of neglecting their current responsibilities.

Overcome: Lighten their workload so they can participate in the change. Re-

prioritise their work. Do not expect people to have the energy to change when this

means failing on the tasks for which they are held responsible.

In 1994, the Indonesian government introduced curriculum reform which

consisted of a national curriculum (80%) and flexibility given to the provinces in

adjusting the curriculum to local needs. The Local Content Curriculum (LCC) was aimed

at the local situation and context while the national curriculum focused on national

development. The Curriculum Development Centre (CDC) transferred 20% of its

authority to each provincial level (LCC).

Teachers, principals and supervisors were given autonomy to redesign the

curriculum to more closely match students‟ needs and interests. However, in reality not

all teachers took advantage of the opportunity. Teachers have not responded in modifying

the curriculum or experimenting with new instructional techniques. Moreover, parents

and interested groups in the locality have not been invited to participate in the planning or

SELF-TEST 7.2 1. Why do people resist change?

2. Suggest other reasons why people resist change.

7.5 Case Study: Curriculum Reform and Implementation in Indonesia

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management of the LCC program. According to LCC policy, schools are supposed to

reorganise the curriculum into a new set of subjects. In some cases teachers have made

connections between the subject matter they disseminate to the world outside, but the

basic curricular foundations in junior secondary school has remained essentially the same

as the previous curriculum.

National Curriculum (80%) Local Content Curriculum (20%)

Pancasila and civic education Agriculture

Religion (Islam, Christianity, Environmental education

Catholicism, Hinduism, Buddhism) Computer and information

Indonesian language Local culture (dance, local language,

Reading and writing traditional games, etc

Mathematics English

Science & technology

Geography

National and World history

The following are some limitations and obstacles found in the LCC

implementation: lack of communication between the provincial and local levels, the lack

of training, teachers‟ attitudes toward the LCC, lack of resources, and lack of funding

allocation.

o First, in the process of curriculum decentralization some decisions made at the

provincial level tend to not meet each district‟s needs and conditions.

o Second, was a lack of teachers to teach the LCC. In the LCC implemented in the

provinces of Jambi, Lampung, Maluku Island, South Sulawesi, and East Java.

Most of the local content subjects were taught by teachers who do not have any

specific skills and experience, such as teaching specific traditional culture and

local languages.

o Third teachers‟ attitudes toward the LCC implementation. Teachers did not

respond to the innovation because they do not have enough background

knowledge or skills for its implementation. In fact, they did not have necessary

support from the government and provincial levels to develop their knowledge

and skills.

While it is easy for the government to establish policies, conditions at the school level are

completely different. Most teachers tended to concentrate on the national

curriculum. Finally, there was lack of funds to develop the LCC which required regular

meetings at the school/district level for LCC subject development. This caused a lack of

participation in LCC implementation.

[source: MinHo, Y, Clementina, A. and Erry, U. The Reform of Secondary Education in

Indonesia during the 1990s: Improving Relevance and Quality through Curriculum

Decentralization Implementing the curriculum in Indonesia

http://www.ginie.org/cstudies/indonesia/cs-asia-pacific.htm ]

ACTIVITY 7.2

Refer to Case Study 7.5 and answer the following questions”

1. What are some of the reasons given for poor implementation of the local

curriculum content (LCC) in Indonesia?

2. To what extent is such flexibility given to teachers in your country?

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Implementing a curriculum requires the involvement of many different people.

Each is a „key player‟ in the change process. Without the coordinated involvement of

these individuals the implementation of the curriculum programme will encounter many

problems. Among the key players identified are: teachers, students,

principals/headmasters, assistant principals, district education officers, state education

officers, curriculum developers, academics, parents, interested political officials and lay

citizens. In a centralized system, the national curriculum is developed at the national level

and passed on to the individual districts and schools to be implemented.

7.6.1 Teachers

Without doubt, the most important person in the curriculum implementation

process is the teacher. With their knowledge, experience and competencies, teachers are

central to any curriculum improvement effort. Regardless of which philosophical belief

the education system is based on, there is no denying that teachers influence students‟

learning. Better teachers foster better learning. Teachers are most knowledgeable about

the practice of teaching and are responsible for introducing the curriculum in the

classroom.

The key to getting teachers committed to an innovation is to enhance their

knowledge of the programme. This means teachers need be trained and workshops have

to be organised for professional development. Unfortunately, in any curriculum

implementation process not all teachers will have the benefit of such exposure. There are

just too many teachers and insufficient funds to go around. The most common approach

is to have one-day workshops given by experts with the lecture method being the

dominant pedagogical strategy. Among the many extrinsic factors identified that may

impede curriculum change are adequacy of resources, time, school ethos and professional

support. The intrinsic factors are; professional knowledge, professional adequacy and

professional interest and motivation. (see Table 7.1).

Hence, professional development of teachers is as an important factor

contributing to the success of curriculum implementation. To what extent have teacher

education programmes required prospective teachers to study curriculum development?

Some view teachers as technicians and as such do not include curriculum development in

their teacher education programmes. [Did you study curriculum development in your

training as a teacher?] Certainly an adequate teacher education programme should

include curriculum development (both the theory and the work of curriculum

development) if teaching is to be a profession and if educational opportunities for

learners are really to be improved.

Below are some topics to be addressed in designing professional development

opportunities for teachers who are implementing a new programme.

Programme philosophy: It is important for teachers to understand both the

philosophy behind the programme as well as how the new programme may

impact students, parents, administrators and other stakeholders.

Content: Teachers may find the curriculum introduces content with which they

are unfamiliar, which they have not taught in a while, or is familiar but presented

in an unfamiliar way. For example, using a problem-solving approach rather than

a topical approach.

7.6 Individuals Involved in Curriculum Implementation

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Factors Description

Adequacy of resources

Adequacy of equipment, facilities and general

resources required for implementing a new

curriculum

Time

Time available for preparing and delivering the

requirements of the new curriculum. e.g. teachers

need enough time to develop their own

understanding of the subject they are required to

teach.

School ethos

Overall school beliefs towards the new curriculum.

Status of the curriculum as viewed by staff,

administrators and community. e.g. school

administration recognises the importance of the

subject in the overall school curriculum.

Professional support

Support for teachers from both within the school

and outside. e.g. opportunities to receive ongoing

curriculum professional support

Professional adequacy

Teachers‟ own ability and competence to teach the

curriculum. i.e. confidence in teaching

Professional knowledge

Professional attitude and

interest

Knowledge and understandings teachers possess

regarding the new curriculum. e.g. different ways

of teaching to foster student learning.

Attitudes and interest of teachers toward the new

curriculum e.g. keen to teach the subject

Table 7.1 Factors influencing the implementation of a curriculum in schools

[source: adapted from the Science Curriculum Implementation Questionnaire (SCIQ).

http://home.cc.umanitoba.ca/~lewthwai/introSCIQ.html]

Pedagogy: Teachers need opportunities to become familiar with the new

programme‟s pedagogical approach. They may need to work on particular

teaching skills emphasised in the new programme, such as teaching of values, or

perhaps to become familiar with a tool such as the internet.

Components of the programme: Teachers will need opportunities to learn about

the components of the new programme early in the implementation phase. For

example, the new programme might place greater emphasis on school-based

assessment while teachers are more accustomed to national or centralised

assessment.

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7.6.2 Students

There is a tendency among curriculum implementers to ignore the role of

students as agents of change. Increasingly, there is the realisation that even primary

school children can contribute to meaningful change. Students must be willing to

participate in the programme. If students do not see the relevance of the programme

there is the likelihood that they will not be motivated to participate or learn. However, it

is still not clear how students should be involved in the curriculum implementation

phase even though they are the main recipients of the programme. Students may be so

entrenched in their thinking and behaviour that changes proposed in the curriculum may

not be enthusiastically received. For example, students may be used to being given notes

by their teachers and the new programme requires them to make their own notes. Some

students may not know how to make notes and have to be taught how to go about it.

Even getting students to participate in discussions may not be well received if they have

been accustomed to being passive recipients to information.

7.6.3 Principals or Headmasters

Principals or headmasters are important players the curriculum implementation

process in a school.

They should understand the need for change as well as the steps that have to be

taken along the way.

They should have in-depth knowledge about the planned change and of the

implementation process. They should be familiar with the goals and components

of the curriculum and be able to see a shift in teachers‟ role in the classroom and

the way in which teachers interact with students.

They should be accessible and willing to communicate with others involved in the

process. Establishing a two-way information flow will give principals or

headmasters a chance to stay on top of issues that need to be addressed. It will

ACTIVITY 7.3

According to Friendenberg, people who go into teaching tend to be

conformist in nature and reluctant to innovate. These people have succeeded

in the school system as it has existed. They have learned to play it safe and to

keep a low profile in a bureaucratic system run by administrators who do

not like to create waves. They have found success and fulfilment as students

and now as teachers in this system, and for this reason many see no reason to

change it.

[source: Edgar Friendenberg, 1965. Coming of Age in America. New York: Random House]

1. To what extent do you agree with Friedenberg‟s views about teachers

and curriculum change?

2. Is this characteristic of other professions?

13

also allow attending to critical problems or concerns before they lead to

frustration or even anger among teachers. Lines of communication are best set

early to get out information to people as well to provide a platform in which they

can voice their concern. Information gathered from listening and talking to people

will also help principals or headmasters decide where to focus and needs

attention.

They should be able to convince parents on the merits of the new curriculum and

how the new pedagogical strategies can become more meaningful for their

children. For example, they may need to speak to parents and the community on

the new curriculum. It is important that they give the message that they have

thought carefully about the need for change, that the have anticipated the issues

that will arise and have a plan for addressing the issues.

They should keep in mind, that even the best-laid plans can meet unexpected

challenges. For example, insufficient teachers in a particular subject area due to

resignation, unexpected introduction of programmes by the government, sudden

change of government policy. For this reason, a flexible implementation plan may

be necessary which is adapted and revisited along the way.

They must be committed to the change and be able to employ a variety of

leadership strategies to meet the needs of teachers such as; building on the

strengths of their staff, being willing to take risks; being positive about the

planned change and to use this optimism to motivate others.

7.6.4 Parents

Besides teachers, students and school administrators, parents also play an

important role in the implementation process. For example, when parents see a subject

being taught in way that is unfamiliar to them, they naturally have questions about what

is going on. When children bring homework from school that parents feel unable to help

with, they feel confused and lost. To be successful, any new programme needs to be

embraced by parents. One way of reaching out to parents is to organise workshops for

them focusing on the new curriculum. The workshops should be designed to help parents

better understand the content and philosophy of the new programme. Parents need an

opportunity to share their concerns and voice their support in an open forum. These

workshops should be conducted by teachers so that they may explain what is really going

on in the classroom.

Another approach in reaching out to parents is to make available information on

curriculum change on the internet. For example, the government of the province of

Alberta in, Canada has on its website a curriculum handbook for parents containing

information on subjects offered, programmes and courses available in all schools. The

information is updated each year as changes are made to the curriculum (refer to

http://www.education.gov.ab.ca/parents/handbooks). Similarly, print-based newsletters

can be made available to parents informing them of the changes that are taking place with

the introduction of the new curriculum.

SELF-TEST 7.3 1. What should principals or headmasters do to ensure the successful

implementation of any curriculum?

2. How should parents be involved in the curriculum implementation

process?

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The law requires that all schools in England provide for all pupils a balanced and

broadly based curriculum which provides for all pupils to learn and achieve; promotes

students‟ spiritual, moral, cultural, mental and physical development; prepares students

for the opportunities, responsibilities and experiences of adult life. The following subjects

must be taught:

English

Mathematics

Science

Design and Technology

Information and Communication

Technology

History

Other statutory requirements are: Religious Education, Sex and Relationship

Education, and, Careers Education (from Year 9). The core subjects: English,

mathematics and science will be given priority to ensure that they are secure. Beyond

this, each school can decide which subject to give more time to and, within a subject,

which aspects or skills to emphasise. The priority or emphasis might apply across

subjects, to particular year groups, to groups of pupils or to individuals.

For example,

a school with particular strengths in its ICT and language departments offers

Spanish as a second foreign language using ICT facilities for weekly video-

conference sessions with students in a partner school in Spain.

a school with substantial low-achieving students emphasises literacy across the

curriculum. Teachers plan into their schemes of work where and how they will

teach literacy objectives in their subject.

In an area of high-technology industries such as computing and pharmaceuticals,

school gives priority to mathematics and science to help its students to make the

most of local job opportunities. Scientists from local companies visit the school as

part of the science and engineering ambassadors scheme, and year 9 students

undertake project work to achieve creativity in science and technology (CREST)

awards.

[Source: Key Stage 3 National Strategy: Designing the Key Stage 3 Curriculum,

Department for Education and Skills. England.]

ACTIVITY 7.4

1. What flexibility is given to teachers in England‟s secondary

school curriculum?

2. Do you agree with the flexibility given to schools in meeting local

needs? Give reasons.

3. Do you think such flexibility should be given to schools in your

country? Why?

7.7 Case Study: England’ National Curriculum for Secondary Schools

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The final destination of any curriculum is the classroom. As we enter the

classroom, decision making becomes the responsibility of the teacher. Up to this point

curriculum implementation was discussed at the programme level and decision making

was of a programmatic nature (though we did discuss briefly the role of the teacher).

Now classroom teachers will take over and make decisions of a methodological nature.

They will be answering question like:

What objectives do I hope to accomplish as a result of instruction?

What topics or content will I have to cover?

What teaching methods or strategies should I use to direct learning and

achieve the objectives?

How do I evaluate instruction to determine whether I have successfully

achieved the objective?

Figure 7.2 An example of an instructional model

Implementing instruction in the classroom includes specifying instructional or

learning goals (discussed in Chapter 5), selecting content, selecting learning experiences

and choosing techniques or tasks to evaluate instruction (see Figure 7.2). Where and how

does the teacher begin to plan for instruction? Let‟s look at three examples of planning

for instruction.

Teacher X takes the textbook and divides the number of chapters by the number

of weeks in the school year. For example, one chapter may be taught over two or

7.8 Implementing Curriculum in the Classroom

Learning

Activities

CONTENT

LEARNING

EXPERIENCES

LEARNING

GOALS

ASSESSMENT

TASKS

Teaching

Methods

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three lessons. The sequence and subheadings of the respective chapter guides the

presentation of content. He or she may prepare some notes for students, ask some

questions during class (which may come from the textbook) and give group

assignments to clarify points in the chapter or chapters.

Teacher Y selects a topic for study for the week or over a number of lessons

using all kinds of resources related to the topic. The resources may include the

textbook, reference books, websites, magazines, etc. A problem-solving

approach is adopted where students look through various sources of

information to solve a problem.

Teacher Z comes to class without knowing what he or she will cover. A theme or

issue is written on the blackboard and students are expected to contribute their

understanding and interpretation about the theme or issue. While some may

argue that this is spontaneity, others, less kind, might term it non-planning.

These three approaches may be extreme, but there are many teachers who fall

into one of these categories. These teachers may follow the curriculum or follow the

plan in general terms. All three approaches may not specify the instructional objectives

or learning outcomes students are expected to accomplish. In most cases, teachers

adopted an eclectic approach, i.e. they combine one or more methods.

Instructional objectives or learning outcomes are statements indicating what you

want students to know, to do and to value after having completed a lesson. Why

instructional objectives? [The issue of instructional objectives has been discussed in

Chapter 1 and Chapter 5]. Instructional objectives:

make it clear to teachers what changes they want students to achieve

help in choosing the appropriate learning experiences to achieve the changes

or learning desired

inform students of what is expected of them

indicate what will be important in assessing the lesson

In planning for instruction lesson plans are used. A lesson plan is “simply an

outline prepared in advance of teaching, so that time and materials will be used

efficiently” (Peter, 1975. p.194). Ideally, different lessons require different lesson plans

and different students require different lesson plans. The following is generic outline for

a lesson plan which consists of: (see Figure 7.3):

a) objectives

b) pre-requisite knowledge

c) learning experiences (teaching methods and learning activities)

d) instructional aids and resources

e) assignment

f) evaluation tasks or techniques

The teacher with less experience will have more details included in the lesson

plan. However, it is desirable for both experienced and inexperienced teachers to

prepare complete lesson plans to fully communicate their ideas. It is common practice

for experienced teachers to simplify or shorten lesson plans. As teachers gain

experience, less detail in planning is possible. Once the lesson plan has been made, the

teacher can begin to demonstrate his or her style and skills of teaching.

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Figure 7.3 Generic components of a lesson plan

Date: when is the lesson to be conducted

Time: time when the lesson is to be conducted

Duration: how long will the lesson take?

Grade Level: state what level

Topic: From one topic two or lessons plans may be developed.

Objectives:

a) Cognitive

1. mastery and understanding of the content (eg. able to give three

characteristics, able to give reasons)

b) Affective

1. the affective outcomes desired (eg. express an opinion, take a

position, empathise with the issue discussed)

Pre-Requisite Knowledge:

1. List all skills and content knowledge needed prior to teaching this

lesson

Instructional Aids and Resources:

1. the instructional aids that will be used (eg. maps, pictures, video-

clip)

2. show how they will be used

Learning Experiences:

1. Set induction: how the lesson will begin (eg. review previous lesson)

2. the teaching strategy used (eg. inductive approach)

3. questions posed (to increase understanding and thinking)

4. what students will be required to do (eg. listen, manipulate data)

5. how students interact with the instructional aids

6. Closure: ask students questions and summarise lesson

Assignment:

1. learning activity students are required to do after the lesson (eg. refer

to newspaper article)

Evaluation Techniques:

1. how will student learning be assessed? (eg. oral questioning)

2. What criteria or rubric will be used to evaluate the lesson?

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DISCUSSION QUESTIONS:

1. Identify some problems in the implementation of the Primary School

Integrated Curriculum (KBSR) and the Secondary School Integrated

Curriculum (KBSM)?

2. Describe how the teaching of science and mathematics in English was

implemented in your school?

3. “New curriculum often fail to become established in schools because the

importance and complexity of the implementation phase is not understood”

Discuss.

READINGS

Ben-Peretz, M. (1990). The Teacher-Curriculum Encounter. Buffalo:

State University of New York Press.

o Chapter 1: Patterns of teacher’s involvement in the curriculum

endeavour.

o Chapter 3: Teacher’s concerns about curriculum issues

o Chapter 7; Implications for teacher education and staff

development [available at eBrary].

Ornstein, A. and Hunkins, F. Curriculum: Foundations, principle and

issues. (1998). Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon. Chapter 10: Curriculum

implementation.

Sowell, E. (2000). Curriculum: An integrative introduction. Upper

Saddle River, NJ: Prentice-Hall. Chapter 1: Overview of curriculum

processes and products.