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Copyrighted Material Chapter 1 INTRODUCTION This volume isintendedasabroadintroductiontotheevolutionand scopeofIslamistpoliticalthoughtfromtheearlytwentiethcenturytothe present. Our sample is relatively small, and unavoidably so. Given the complexityofIslamisttrendsandhowtheyrelatetootherreligio-politi- calorientations,evenamuchlargerselectionoftextscouldnotcapture thefullrangeofargumentsandcommitmentsthatconstitutetheIslamist movement.Asaresult,thisreaderaimsnottobeexhaustiveorcompre- hensivebutrathertobeillustrative:weseektomapwhatisdistinctive about Islamist discourses by attending to the regional breadth, gender dynamics,andpolitical,theoretical,andtheologicalcomplexitythatcur- rentlytravelundertherubricofIslamism.Ourselectionsaredrawnfrom theArabMiddleEast,Africa,Iran,andSouthandCentralAsia;include Sunni and Shi‘i activists and intellectuals; incorporate those trained as ‘ulamaaswellasthe“newreligiousintellectuals”(cf.EickelmanandPis- catori1996,13,44);andattendtoarangeofpositionsontherelation- shipbetweenjihadandviolenceaswellasIslamanddemocracy.Manyof thevoiceshereinreflectthefactthatmostIslamistideologuesandactiv- istsaremale,yetwomenhavebecomeanincreasinglycrucialpartofthe movement.Consequently,thisvolumeillustratesnotonlyhowmaleIs- lamistsconceiveoftheroleofwomenbutalsohowcertainprominent womenhavearticulatedtheirownIslamistvision.Suchperspectivesfur- therprovideawindowontothoseunwrittengendernormsthathelpes- tablishtheparametersandcontentofIslamistargumentsaboutpolitics, virtue,action,andthefamily. ThefocusonIslamistthoughtinevitablytendstoprivilegewritingover speech, ideas over particular practices. Yet this reader ultimately chal- lengestheveryoppositionbetween“theory”and“practice”byshowing theinterrelationofthoughtandactioninthelivesofindividualIslamists as well as in Islamist ideas and the dynamics of their political appeal. Thus,whilethefollowingchaptersdonotdelveintotherecentriseofIs- lamist organizations in Indonesia and Bangladesh or the strategies of such “radical” groups as Egypt’s Gama‘a al-Islamiyya and the Islamic SalvationFrontinAlgeria,theydoilluminatethecontoursandcomplex- ityofaninterpretiveframeworkmanyIslamistsshare.Thelanguageof “interpretiveframework,”inturn,signalsbothanapproachtoIslamism andanargumentforunderstandingitasalensontheworldratherthan a mere reflection of material conditions or conduit for socioeconomic

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Page 1: Chapter 1 INTRODUCTION - assets.press.princeton.eduassets.press.princeton.edu/chapters/s9067.pdf · Chapter 1 INTRODUCTION This volume is intended as a broad introduction to the evolution

Copyrighted Material

Chapter 1

INTRODUCTION

This volume isintendedasabroadintroductiontotheevolutionandscopeofIslamistpoliticalthoughtfromtheearlytwentiethcenturytothepresentOursample isrelativelysmallandunavoidablysoGiventhecomplexityofIslamisttrendsandhowtheyrelatetootherreligio-politi-calorientationsevenamuchlargerselectionoftextscouldnotcapturethefullrangeofargumentsandcommitmentsthatconstitutetheIslamistmovementAsaresultthisreaderaimsnottobeexhaustiveorcompre-hensivebutrathertobeillustrativeweseektomapwhatisdistinctiveabout Islamistdiscoursesbyattending to the regionalbreadth genderdynamicsandpoliticaltheoreticalandtheologicalcomplexitythatcur-rentlytravelundertherubricofIslamismOurselectionsaredrawnfromtheArabMiddleEastAfricaIranandSouthandCentralAsiaincludeSunniandShilsquoi activistsand intellectuals incorporate those trainedaslsquoulamaaswellastheldquonewreligiousintellectualsrdquo(cfEickelmanandPis-catori19961344)andattendtoarangeofpositionsontherelation-shipbetweenjihadandviolenceaswellasIslamanddemocracyManyofthevoiceshereinreflectthefactthatmostIslamistideologuesandactiv-istsaremaleyetwomenhavebecomeanincreasinglycrucialpartofthemovementConsequentlythisvolumeillustratesnotonlyhowmaleIs-lamistsconceiveoftheroleofwomenbutalsohowcertainprominentwomenhavearticulatedtheirownIslamistvisionSuchperspectivesfur-therprovideawindowontothoseunwrittengendernormsthathelpes-tablishtheparametersandcontentofIslamistargumentsaboutpoliticsvirtueactionandthefamily

ThefocusonIslamistthoughtinevitablytendstoprivilegewritingoverspeech ideasoverparticularpracticesYet this readerultimately chal-lengestheveryoppositionbetweenldquotheoryrdquoandldquopracticerdquobyshowingtheinterrelationofthoughtandactioninthelivesofindividualIslamistsaswell as in Islamist ideasand thedynamicsof theirpolitical appealThuswhilethefollowingchaptersdonotdelveintotherecentriseofIs-lamist organizations in Indonesia and Bangladesh or the strategies ofsuchldquoradicalrdquogroupsasEgyptrsquosGamalsquoaal-Islamiyyaand the IslamicSalvationFrontinAlgeriatheydoilluminatethecontoursandcomplex-ityofaninterpretiveframeworkmanyIslamistsshareThelanguageofldquointerpretiveframeworkrdquointurnsignalsbothanapproachtoIslamismandanargumentforunderstandingitasalensontheworldratherthana mere reflection of material conditions or conduit for socioeconomic

2

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

grievancesAmongotherthingsIslamistthoughtisacomplexsystemofrepresentationthatarticulatesanddefinesarangeofidentitiescatego-riesandnormsorganizeshumanexperienceintonarrativesthatassem-blepastpresentand future intoacompelling interpretive frameandspecifiestherangeandmeaningofacceptableanddesirablepractices

UnlikeotheranthologiesofIslamistwritingsoursbalancesattentiontobroaderpoliticalandtheoreticalframeswithrelativelysubstantialin-troductionstothelifeandworkofeachoftheauthorsincludedhereTheselectedtextsmustspeakforthemselvesofcoursebutitisourhopethattheseindividualintroductionsofferamorenuancedsenseofthemulti-facetedcontextsinwhichIslamistthoughtandactivismhavebeenarticu-latedthaniscommonlyfoundintheliteratureoncontemporaryIslamismWithineachchapterweattendnotonlytothemultipleandvariouswaysIslamistthinkersreinterpretIslambutalsotothespecifichistoricalcul-turalandpoliticalcontextsinwhichtheyareembeddedalongwiththeparticularproblemspartisansandaudiencestheyseektoaddressAtthesame time we have organized the chapters thematically rather thanchronologically to bring into view the web of concerns animating Is-lamistsaswellasthepolyvalentconversationsacrosshistoryandcultureinwhichtheyparticipate

OurapproachandargumentimplicitlychallengetheManichaeanworld-viewthatcurrentlypervadescommonperceptionsandpopularrhetoricaboutIslamismoneinwhichoppositionsbetweengoodandevilorusandthemaregraftedontoadivisionbetweenldquotheWestrdquoandldquoIslamrdquo1

Suchaperspective isparadoxically endorsedand reinforcedby thosewhosharelittleelsefromIslamistswhoseethemselvesastheforcesoflightagainst infideldarkness topatriotswhodepictAmericaasGodrsquosbulwarkagainstencroachingheathendomtoproponentsoftheldquoclashofcivilizationsrdquothesiswhopositafuturerivenintotwoclearlydelineatedand constitutively antagonistic cultural traditions (Mahbubani 1992Huntington19931996)Asthisworldviewcongealsitbecomesincreas-inglydifficulttorecognizeletalonetomakesenseofthewealthofin-formationthatchallengesordisruptsitInthiswaytheveryoppositionbetweenIslamandtheWestbecomesaself-fulfillingprophecypresumingandsustainingaviewoftheworldinwhichcontradictorymultipleandcross-pollinatinghistoriesand identitiesarepressed into the serviceof

1BinariessuchasWestndashnon-WestorWest-Islamcarveuptheworldinwaysthatobscurecriticalpointsofengagementandcommonalitybetweenthemaswellasthecomplexdif-ferencessubsumedwithineachtermGiventhatsuchterminologynotonlyisinvokedbypeoplesallovertheworldbutevokesallegiancesandenmitieswithquiterealpoliticalcon-sequenceshoweveritisnotpossiblesimplytodispensewithitThisisparticularlytrueinthecaseofIslamistdiscourseinwhichtheoppositionbetweenldquotheWestrdquoandldquoIslamrdquofre-quentlyfunctionsasastructuringpremiseSubsequentreferencesappearwithoutquotationmarksbutshouldbeunderstoodasrepresentationsoftheworldratherthanaccuratehis-toricalculturalorterritorialdescriptions

3

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

neatbinaries thatdistort rather than illuminate thepolitical landscape(REuben2002a)

Ifthisvolumeisanimplicitcorrectivetosuchreductionistgeneraliza-tionsitisalsointendedasanexplicitguidethroughthehazeofpolemicfearandconfusionswirlingaroundthesubjectofIslamismintheearlytwenty-firstcenturySuchconfusionevencharacterizeswhatmightseemtobesimplemattersofterminologyWhatwecallIslamismherehasbeendescribedinthemediaandpolicycirclesinnumerousotherwaysfromldquoIslamicextremismrdquotoldquopoliticalIslamrdquotoldquofundamentalismrdquostillthemostcommonlyusedEnglishtermtorefertoreligio-politicalmovementsMuslimorotherwise2InthewakeoftheeventsofSeptember112001thearrayofnames for thephenomenonhasonlyproliferated therebyaddingtotheterminologicalconfusionAcaseinpointisldquojihadismrdquoaneologismderived fromtheArabic jihad (to struggle to strive) that isfrequently used in the press to denote the most violent strands of Is-lamism those associated with what are alternatively called ldquosuicidebombingsrdquoorldquomartyrdomoperationsrdquoinparticularOlderwordsputtonewuseshavealsogainedcurrencyintheyearssince911suchisthecasewithldquoSalafismrdquowhichreferstocontemporaryMuslimswhogener-allyeschewtheinterpretivemethodsandnormsofthemedievalIslamicschoolsandtakeasaguideforproperbehavioronlythewordofGodthe teachingsof theProphetMuhammad and the example set by thepiousforbears

ButthereisperhapsnoothertermwithwhichIslamismhasbeenmorecloselyidentifiedinrecentyearsthanldquoterrorismrdquosomuchsothatthetwotermsandthephenomenatheynameareoftendepictedassynony-mous(Desai200723Richardson200761ndash69)Someofthemostvio-lentIslamistsclearlydoengageinwhattheUSStateDepartmentdefinesas terrorismldquopremeditated politicallymotivated violenceperpetratedagainst non-combatant targets by sub-national groups or clandestineagentsusuallyintendedtoinfluenceanaudiencerdquo(Title22oftheUnitedStatesCodeSection2656f(d))Yetinasmuchasmanyterroristspastand

2ldquoFundamentalismrdquowascoinedin1920specificallytodescribeProtestantevangelicalsanxioustorescueAmericanChristianityandculturefromwhattheyviewedasthemoraldegenerationinauguratedbymodernismrationalismandmaterialismSuchwarriorsforGodsoughttoldquodobattleroyalfortheFundamentalsrdquoby(re)establishingtheBibleastheauthoritativemoralcompassforAmericanlifeinfalliblenotonlyinregardtotheologicalissuesbutalsoinmattersofhistoricalgeographicalandscientificfact(Laws1920834Massee192058Barr19781374046ndash4752Marsden1980118ndash23159)Itisre-vealingthattherewasnoequivalentforldquofundamentalismrdquoinArabicthelanguageoftheQurrsquoanuntiltheneedtoapproximatetheEnglishtermcalledforoneUsuliyyaderivedfromusul theword for fundamentalsor rootshas emergedas anArabicname for Is-lamismbutitscurrencyisduetothewayitapproximatestheEnglishldquofundamentalismrdquoratherthananycorrespondencewithaspectsoftheIslamictraditionWithinthistraditionusuli isassociatedwithscholarshipontherootsandprinciplesofIslamicjurisprudenceandexpertsinthisdisciplineareoftenreferredtoasalshyusuliyyun

4

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INTRODUCTION

presentareneitherreligiousnorMuslim(Bloom2005Gambetta2005Pape2005)andIslamiststhemselvesaredividedaboutthelegitimacyofterroristtacticstheterminologyofldquoIslamistterrorismrdquotakesapartforthewholewhileimplicitlycollapsingdiverseIslamistperspectivesaboutretaliatoryactionintoanargumentforviolenceagainstnoncombatantsWhilesuchequationsandassumptionshaverecentlygatheredsteamtheyare structuredbybroader culturaldiscourses thatpredate theUS-ledldquoWaronTerrorrdquobydecadesandevencenturiesAsRichardJacksonshowsthefieldofterrorismstudiesOrientalistscholarshipontheMiddleEastandlong-standingEuro-AmericansuspicionsaboutIslamnowinteractandreinforceoneanothertoproduceadiscourseonIslamistterrorismthatisldquohighlypoliticizedintellectuallycontestabledamagingtocommunityre-lationsandlargelycounter-productiveinthestruggletocontrolsubalternviolenceinthelongrunrdquo(RJackson2007395397ndash400)

Incontrasttomanyofthesedesignationsandtheassumptionsanimat-ing them we prefer ldquoIslamismrdquo perhaps the most widely used termamongscholarsofMuslimsocieties3WetakeIslamismtorefertocon-temporarymovements thatattempt toreturn to thescriptural founda-tionsoftheMuslimcommunityexcavatingandreinterpretingthemforapplicationtothepresent-daysocialandpoliticalworldSuchfounda-tionsconsistof theQurrsquoanandthenormativeexampleof theProphetMuhammad(sunnahadith)whichconstitutethesourcesofGodrsquosguid-anceinmatterspertainingtobothworshipandhumanrelationsIngen-eralIslamistsaimatrestoringtheprimacyofthenormsderivedfromthesefoundationaltextsincollectiveliferegardingthemnotonlyasanexpres-sionofGodrsquoswillbutasanantidotetothemoralbankruptcyinauguratedbyWesternculturaldominancefromabroadaidedandabettedbycorruptMuslimrulersfromwithintheumma(Islamiccommunity)

IncontrasttothoseMuslimswhoprimarilyseektocultivateamysticalunderstandingofthedivine(whichisnotitselfdevoidofpoliticalimpli-cations)orwhostrivetocarryontheirdevotionalpracticesandscholarlypursuitsindifferenttotheirpoliticalsurroundingsIslamistsmaybechar-acterizedasexplicitlyandintentionallypoliticalandasengaginginmulti-facetedcritiquesofallthosepeopleinstitutionspracticesandorienta-tionsthatdonotmeettheirstandardsofthisdivinelymandatedpoliticalengagementUsingMaxWeberrsquosterminologyIslamismisnotdefinedbyanldquoother-worldlyrdquoorientationinwhichsalvationrequireswithdrawalfromworldlyaffairsbutratherisdefinedasamovementinwhichsalva-tionispossibleonlythroughparticipationintheworldormorepreciselyldquowithintheinstitutionsoftheworldbutinoppositiontothemrdquo(Weber1964166)

3ldquoIslamismrdquoisnothoweveruniversallyacceptedandisfrequentlyinvokedwithcautionandcaveatsAnAlgerianwriterhasarguedforexamplethatIslamismwronglyimpliesthatthosewhoclaimthenamehavecapturedtheessenceofIslamandthusitsuseisnomoreap-propriatethancallingDavidKoreshaChristianist(citedinBennoune199437n1)

5

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

InthefollowingpageswerefinethispreliminarydefinitionfurtherbydelineatingseveralaspectsofIslamismthatshouldbeconsideredbroadtendenciesandldquofamilyresemblancesrdquoratherthanfixedattributeschar-acteristicsofIslamismthatnoteveryIslamistexhibitsallofthetimeyetwhichinterweavetoformaldquocomplicatednetworkofsimilaritiesover-lappingandcriss-crossingsometimesoverallsimilaritiessometimessim-ilaritiesofdetailrdquo (Wittgenstein1953sect66)Webring such tendenciesandresemblancesintosharpreliefbywayofcontrastwithseveralotherMuslimorientationsandgroupscrucialtomodernandcontemporaryIs-lamicthoughtmodernistslsquoulama(traditionallyeducatedreligiousschol-ars)SalafisandSufisThiswayofsituatingIslamismisbothanargu-mentandaheuristicdevicedesignedfirsttoidentifythecommonalitiesamongIslamistthinkerssecondtomakevisibletheheterogeneityofIs-lamistargumentsandideasandthirdtosuggestthattherelationshipbetweenIslamistandnon-Islamistreligio-politicalorientationspastandpresentismarkedasmuchbycontinuitiescomplexoverlapsandsubtledifferentiationsasbyradicalbreaks

Situating Islamism

The Muslim Modernists and the lsquoUlama

TheonsetofEuropeancolonialruleacrossMuslimsocietiesinauguratedagreatdealofsoulsearchingonthenatureandcausesofMuslimpoliti-caldeclineandwhatcouldbedonetoreverseitManyMuslimreformersofthenineteenthcenturyinsistedthatthepoliticalsubjugationofMus-limstoforeignnon-Muslimrulerswastheresultofafallingawayfromadherence to their authoritative religious norms The best indeed theonlywayMuslimscouldhopetoremedytheircircumstanceswasthrougharenewedadherencetoGodrsquoscommandsThiswouldentitlethemonceagaintoGodrsquosfavortheargumentwentnotjustbeyondthegravebutinthisworldThisperspectivewasnotnewLongbeforetheadventofEu-ropeancolonialismreformersandmujaddidun(renewers)hadperiodi-callyarisentoguidethecommunityoutofwhattheysawasitsmoralan-archyNot infrequentlysuchreformershadmadecommoncausewithmembersofthepoliticalandmilitaryeliteineffortstosetthingsrightastheythoughtGodhadintended

YetifneitherthediagnosisnortheremedywasnewcallsforarevivedIslamicpietydid come to carry anewburden in colonial societies InSouthAsiaadecadeorsoaftertheformalestablishmentofBritishcolo-nialrulein1857someMuslimreligiousscholarsbegancallingforare-invigoratedadherence to Islam in lightof theQurrsquoanhadithand thenormsoftheHanafischooloflawdominantinIndiaembarkingonsus-tained efforts to educate members of the Muslim community in these

6

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INTRODUCTION

norms4This reformist effort centeredon amadrasamdasha school of ad-vancedIslamiclearningmdashfoundedatDeobandinnorthernIndiain1867whichgraduallybecamethenucleusofnumerousmadrasassharingthesamereformistorientationandspreadthroughoutSouthAsiaandeven-tuallybeyondtheIndiansubcontinent(Metcalf1982Zaman2002)TheconvictionthatguidedthesereligiousscholarsthelsquoulamawasnotjustthatthesorrystateoftheirfellowMuslimsreflectedalaxityinadheringtoGodrsquoscommandsbutalsothatintheabsenceofMuslimpoliticalrulereligiousknowledge anchored in the foundational andother religioustextswasthebestguaranteeforthepreservationofadistinctMuslimidentity

SuchlsquoulamahavehadtheiranaloguesacrossmodernMuslimsocieties(cfZeghal1995Zaman2002144ndash80HefnerandZaman2007)TheyhavealsohadtheiropponentsManyoftheopponentsarewhatmightbecharacterizedasinternalthatisotherlsquoulamacommittedtoarivaldoc-trinalorientationortodifferentbeliefsaboutsayhowthememoryofasaintoroftheProphetMuhammadoughttobeveneratedorwhatcus-tomary norms might be accommodated into legitimate ways of beingMuslim But other Muslim reformersmdashwhom scholars have often re-ferredtoastheldquomodernistsrdquomdashhavehadverydifferentideasaboutwhathadgonewrongwiththeMuslimworldandhowtoremedyit5Tothemodernists the sort of institutions and practices represented by thelsquoulamaandtheremediesproposedbythempointednottoasolutionoftheproblemsMuslimshadcometofaceinthecolonialcontextbuttotheirperpetuationModernistreformersalsoprofessedfirmcommitmenttoIslamicnormsbutwithsomecrucialdifferencesTheyarguedthatitwasnolongerenoughforMuslimssimplytoholdfirmtotheteachingsoftheirfaithasconventionallyunderstoodThetimeshadchangeddras-ticallyMuslimsneededtoacquiremodernWesternformsofknowledgeandtoaccommodatethemselvestoEuropeanpracticestechnologiesandinstitutionsiftheyweretoimprovetheirlotandindeedtosurviveatallasacommunityTheearlymodernistsalsoinsistedmdashashavetheirsucces-sorstothisdaymdashthatIslamitselfneededtobereinterpretedinorderto

4MostSunniMuslimshave longbelonged tooneof fourmadhhabs (schoolsof law)whosebeginningsareattributedtoscholarswholivedintheeighthandtheninthcenturiesTheHanafischooloflawisnamedafterAbuHanifa(d767)theMalikischoolafterMalikbAnas(d795)theShafilsquoischoolafterMuhammadbIdrisal-Shafilsquoi(d820)andtheHanbalischoolafterAhmadibnHanbal(d855)AmongtheShilsquoathereareseveralsectar-iandivisionsOfthesethelargestcommunitymdashtheImamisortheIthnalsquoasharis(ldquoTwelversrdquo)mdashadheretoalegalsystemwhoseearlyarticulationisattributedtothesixthShilsquoiimamJalsquofaral-Sadiq(d765)

5ThescholarlyliteratureonMuslimmodernismissubstantialbutunevenNotablestud-iesincludeHourani1983(firstpublishedin1962)Ahmad1967Troll1978Brown1996Khalid1998andHefner2000ThespectrumofmodernistthoughtmayusefullybeseenintwoanthologieseditedbyKurzmanLiberal Islam(1998)andModernist Islam(2002)andinKamrava2006

7

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INTRODUCTION

meetthenewchallengesthatconfrontedMuslimsItwasnotIslamthatboretheresponsibilityforthepoliticalandintellectualweaknessesafflict-ingMuslimsocietiesmdashasmanyaEuropeanobserverofIslamsuggestedmdashbutthefailureofMuslimstoproperlyinterprettheirfoundationaltextsinaccordancewithchangingneeds

While many among the lsquoulama have long affirmed the authority oftheirmadhhabs(schoolsoflaw)andtheneedforstrictadherence(taqlid)toschooldoctrinesinordertomaintainthecontinuityandcoherenceoftheirscholarlyandespeciallytheirjuridicaltraditionmodernistshavesel-domseenanythingredeeminginsuchconceptionsofauthority6TaqlidtothemisldquoblindimitationrdquooflongdeadmastersandoftheiranachronisticviewswhichhasstoodinthewayofpeoplersquosabilitytoadaptthemselvestonewchallengesThemodernistshavealsoallegedthatinholdingfirmtotheiroutmodedwaysthelsquoulamawereinterestedneitherinthewelfareofIslamnor inthatofthecommunity theywereonlydefendingtheirownprivilegesastheguardiansandauthoritativeinterpretersofthereli-gioustraditionandtheconsiderablesocialstandingthatoftenwentwithitAs themodernist reformers have understood it there is nothing inIslamtostoppeoplefrominterpretingitsnormsaccordingtotheneedsofchangingtimesIndeedtheQurrsquoaninvitespeopletoreflectonit(ldquoWilltheynotthinkaboutthisQurrsquoanrdquoQ482)whichistheveryoppositeofthelsquoulamarsquosinsistenceonfirmadherencetoearlierauthoritiesAsMu-hammadRashidRida(d1935) theeditorof theEgyptian journalalshyManar(1898ndash1935)andadiscipleofthefamousreformerMuhammadlsquoAbduh(d1905)wroteinhiscommentaryonQurrsquoan482

Theonlyunavoidablerequisite[tobeabletoreflectontheQurrsquoan]isknowledgeof the languageof theQurrsquoan itswordsand its stylewhich[inanycase]isthesortofthingrequiredofanyonewhobe-comes aMuslimTaqlid signifiespreventing [people] from re-flectingontheQurrsquoanYetGodhimselfhascommandedustoreflectonHisbookandtoreasonwithitandnoonefromamongHiscreaturescanforbidwhatHehasmadeobligatoryBytherejectionoftaqlidwedonotmeanthateveryMuslimcanpossiblybecomeaMalik[d795]oraShafilsquoi[d820]inderivingthejuristicrulesrelatingtothecommunityorthateveryoneoughttodosoWemeanonlythateveryMuslimisobligatedtoreflectontheQurrsquoanandtobeguidedbyitinaccordancewithhisabilitiesItisneverper-missible foraMuslimtoabandon[theQurrsquoan]andto turnawayfromitortoprefermdashoverwhatheunderstandsofitsguidancemdashthewordsofanyoneelsebeitamujtahid[apractitionerofijtihadieofindependentlegalreasoning]oronecommittedtotaqlid(muqalshylid)AMuslimrsquosreligionislifelesswithouttheQurrsquoanThereisno

6On the lsquoulamarsquos conception of tradition see Zaman 2002 especially 3ndash16 2007b63ndash70

8

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

bookbyamastermujtahidorbyamuqallidthatcanmakeupfor[direct]reflectionontheBookofGodIfMuslimshadstoodfirminreflectingontheQurrsquoanandinbeingguidedbyitineveryagetheirmoralsandmannerswouldnothavebeenruinedtheirrulerswouldnothavebeenunjustanddespotictheirauthoritywouldnothavedeclinedandtheywouldnothavebecomedependentonothersfortheirlivelihood(Rida1947ndash545296ndash97)7

AsthispassageillustratescentraltomodernistdiscoursesacrossMus-limsocieties istheideaof ijtihad(cfKurzman20029ndash14)bywhichtheyhaveoftenmeantnotonlytheefforttoformulateIslamiclegalrul-ingsonmattersthefoundationaltextshadleftunregulatedbutalsothereinterpretationofmattersonwhichthegeneralityofearlierscholarsandeventhefoundationaltextsthemselveshadhadareasonablyclearviewManyamongthelsquoulamahaveinsistedthattheirschooldoctrinesprovidesufficient resources to meet all contingencies and what remains to bedoneistofindaparticularnormordoctrinethatmatchesthequestionorproblemathandNotall lsquoulamaofmoderntimeshavebeenaversetoparticularformsofijtihadindeedthecontinuingnecessityofijtihadinatleastsomeofitsformshascometobeincreasinglyrecognizedbymanyamongthem(cfZaman200816ndash1764126)Stilltheideathatspe-cificlegalrulingsenunciatedinthefoundationaltextsmightthemselvesbesetasideinthenameofdarura(necessity)orsubordinatedtoconsid-erationsofmaslaha (commongood) is tothemtantamounttotakinglibertieswithGodrsquoseternalword(cfZaman2004133ndash39)

Needlesstosaymodernistreformershaveneverthoughtoftheirinitia-tivesastakinglibertieswithGodrsquoscommandsTheyhaveofteninsistedhoweverthattheliteralwordofGodmustalwaysbeunderstoodinlightoftheoverallldquospiritrdquoofthedivineinjunctionstakenbothintheiren-tiretyandintheiroriginalhistoricalcontext8Modernistdiscourseson

7ThiscommentarytheTafsir alshyManarreflectstheviewsofbothMuhammadlsquoAbduhandRashidRidathoughitwaslargelywrittenbyRida

8InvocationsoftheldquospiritrdquooftheQurrsquoanoftheProphetrsquosexampleorofIslamatlargeareacommonmotifinmodernist(andsomeIslamist)writingsSyedAmeerAli(d1928)aShilsquoimodernistscholarandjudgeincolonialIndiahadcharacteristicallytitledhisbest-knownbookThe Spirit of IslamForsomeotherinstancesoftheappealtothespiritofIslamandtheQurrsquoanandrelatedformulationscfIqbal1934149156Kurzman200260256Ramadan2007xiThemedieval juridical ideaof theoverarchingldquopurposesrdquounderlyingthesacredlaw(maqasid alshysharilsquoa)anunderstandingofwhichoughttoguidethejuristinallhisendeavorsmightbethoughttohavesomethingincommonwithmod-ernistappealstothespiritofIslamAndit isnoaccidentthattheworkofthemedievalSpanishjuristal-Shatibi(d1388)whoisamongthosemostcloselyassociatedwiththeelaborationofthisideahasremainedespeciallypopularinmodernistcirclesMedievalju-ristsunderstoodtheideaofthemaqasidal-sharilsquoatomeanthatthesharilsquoawasconcernedaboveallwiththepreservationoflifereligionrationalityprogenyandpropertyandthatnolegalrulingsshouldviolatethesefundamentalconcernsInmarkedcontrasthowevertothecarefulexegeticalandlegalargumentationthatwentintodemonstratingwhatthepur-

9

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

polygamyofferanillustrationoftheirapproachTheQurrsquoanallowspo-lygamyldquoIfyoufearthatyouwillnotdealfairlywithorphangirlsyoumaymarrywhicheverwomenseemgoodtoyoutwothreeorfourIfyoufearthatyoucannotbeequitable[tothem]thenmarryonlyoneoryourslave(s)thatismorelikelytomakeyouavoidbiasrdquo(Q43)TheQurrsquoanthuspermitspolygamybutsimultaneously insistsonequityasthenecessaryconditionforapolygamoushouseholdaqualificationsup-plementedbyQurrsquoan4129ldquoYouwillneverbeabletotreatyourwiveswithequalfairnesshowevermuchyoumaydesiretodosobutdonotignore one wife altogether leaving her suspendedrdquo Modernist re-formershaveoftenseentheQurrsquoanicsanctionforpolygamynotjustasbeingspecifictoextraordinarycircumstancesmdashasawayofprovidingforgirlsmadeorphanbywarmdashbutaseffectivelyruledoutbytheQurrsquoanicstatementthatmencanneverreallybeequitabletowardmorethanonewife(cfRahman198947ndash48)TothelsquoulamathisisspeciousreasoningforifGodhadreallywantedtoprohibitpolygamyHecouldsimplyhavesaid so (cf Shafilsquo 2005ndash7 2313ndash14 592ndash93) That medieval juristsandexegetesarepracticallyunanimousinallowingpolygamyisfortheirlatter-daysuccessorsfurtherconfirmationofthecorrectnessoftheirownunderstandingoftheQurrsquoanonthismatter

Asthisexamplesuggestsatissuebetweenmodernistsandthelsquoulamaisnotonlyhowparticularnormsareviewedbutalsohowtheyareaf-firmedanddefendedThelsquoulamarsquosscholarlytraditionisconstitutedbyalongandcomplexhistoryofcommentarydebateagreementsanddis-agreementsaboutthefoundationaltextsandaboutallmattersIslamicAstheyseeitthistraditionisnotclosedfrozenormonolithicyetitiswith reference to the scholarly tradition that anygiven readingof thefoundational or other texts finds meaning and legitimacy in their dis-coursesModernistreformersfortheirparthaveusuallyseenthistradi-tionpreciselyasclosedandanachronisticasoccludingthetruespiritofIslamic teachings and therefore as unworthy of serious and sustainedengagement

Modernists Islamists and the lsquoUlama

ThecontestationbetweenthemodernistsandthelsquoulamaprovidesawayofsituatingtheIslamistswithinabroadspectrumofcompetingbutalsooverlappingorientationsintheMuslimpublicsphereLikethemodern-istswhothemselvesholdvariedpositionsontherelationshipbetweenIslamandpoliticsmanyamongthe IslamistsareproductsofmodernWesterninstitutionsoflearningSayyidQutb(d1966)wasnottrained

posesofthelawwerehowoneknewwhattheywereandhowthelawwastobeinter-pretedwithreferencetothem(cfHallaq1997esp162ndash206Weiss199878ndash87145ndash71)modernistappealstothespiritoressenceofIslamareoftenextremelyvague

10

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

asareligiousscholarNorwasHasanal-Banna(d1949)thefounderoftheMuslimBrotherhoodofEgypttheoldestandoneofthemostinflu-entialof Islamistorganizations in theSunniMuslimworldBothwereeducatedattheDaral-lsquoUluminCairoaninstitutionfoundedinthelatenineteenthcenturytoestablishsomethingofamiddlegroundbetweenal-AzharUniversityinCairoandmodernseculareducationalthoughitgradually veered toward the latter and in 1946 became part of CairoUniversity (cfReid1990139ndash49)Abursquol-AlsquolaMawdudi (d 1979)ofPakistandidreceivean intermittentmadrasaeducationbut itwasthevocationof a journalist not that of an lsquoalim (plural lsquoulama) that headoptedThanksinparttothisbroadlysimilareducationalbackgroundIslamistsalsosharewithmodernistsasupremeconfidenceintheirownabilitytodiscernthetruemeaningorspiritofIslamthroughamoreorlessdirectencounterwiththefoundationaltextsAsCharlesJAdams(1966396)hasobservedincomparingMawdudiwithMuslimmodern-istsldquoBothhaveclaimedtheabilitytodisengagethespiritoressentialsofGodrsquosguidancetoliberatethemselvesfromtheauthorityofthecu-mulativeMuslimpastand toundercut thepositionof theulamawhorepresentthatauthorityrdquoMuchthesamemightbesaidofSayyidQutbaswellasofmanycontemporaryIslamists

Despitesuchcommonalities IslamistsfrequentlypositionthemselvesinoppositiontothemodernistsAstheIslamistssee it themodernistshavemadeIslamitselfsubservienttotheprojectofestablishingitscom-patibilitywithWesternnorms and institutions rejectingor explainingawayanythingthatdoesnotconformtothesenormsMawdudiputitthisway inderidingmodernistdiscomfortwith the implementationofpunishmentsmandatedbyIslamiclaw

Iwouldliketoputastraightquestiontothesevotariesofldquomoder-nityrdquoldquoWhatarethevaluesthatyoubelieveinDoyoubelieveintheIslamicvaluesoflifeandstandardsofmoralityorthoseofthemoderncivilizationrdquoIfyouhavemadeyourchoiceandacceptedsomeothervaluesandsomedifferentstandardofrightandwrongofvirtueandviceofthepermissibleandtheprohibitedasagainstthoseenvisagedbyIslamitisthenadifferenceofaveryfundamen-talnatureItmeansthatyoudifferwithanddisbelieveintheIslamicideologyitselfInthiscaseyoushouldhavethecouragetodeclarethatyourejectIslamoutrightIsitnotfoolishtoallegefaithinaGodwhose laws you consider as barbarous Anyhow nobody can re-maininsidethepaleofIslamafterholdingsuchanopinionaboutthelawofGod(Mawdudi[Maududi]196067)

PolemicsofthissortnotonlysuggesttheIslamistsrsquosenseofwhatsepa-ratesthemfromthemodernistsbutalsopointtointermittentIslamistef-forts to make common cause with the lsquoulama Such efforts are oftenpredicated on both the rhetorical claim that all sincere Muslims fully

11

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INTRODUCTION

concurintheirconceptionofthesharilsquoa(Islamiclaw)andtheIslamistsrsquoastuterecognitionofthelsquoulamarsquosconsiderablestandinginsocietyUnsur-prisinglysomeleadingIslamistshavesoughttoblurdistinctionsbetweenthemselves and the lsquoulama to enhance their own authority Usama binLaden(b1957)styledhisfamous1996ldquoDeclarationofWaragainsttheAmericansOccupyingtheLandoftheTwoHolyPlacesrdquoasafatwathatisajuridicalopiniontherebyrhetoricallyobscuringthehistoricalfactthatfatwashavetypicallybeenthepreserveofthe lsquoulamaandmorespecifi-callyofthefuqahaormuftis(jurists)amongthemBinLadenhoweverhasnoformalscholarlycredentialsinmattersIslamicMawdudiwascom-monly styledasmawlana a commonhonorific for the lsquoulama inSouthAsiaAdeliberateblurringofdistinctionsislikewiseevidentinthestate-ment of the Sudanese Islamist Hasan al-Turabi (b 1932) ldquoBecause allknowledgeisdivineandreligiousachemistanengineeraneconomistorajuristarealllsquoulamardquo(Turabi1983245alsochapter8inthisvolume) YetthereareleadingIslamistsmdashinthisvolumeKhomeiniMutahhariBaqiral-SadrFadlallah lsquoAliNadwi lsquoUmar lsquoAbdal-RahmanandQa-radawimdashwhoweretrainedaslsquoulamawhichmeansthatporousbounda-riesbetweenIslamistsandthelsquoulamaarenotjustamatterofself-servingrhetoricbyautodidactsGiventhisfactthedistinctionbetweenIslamistsandlsquoulamaturnslessonstarkdifferencesineducationalbackgroundandmoreonthecharacterandcontentoftheirpoliticalcommitmentsMorethananythingelseIslamistsseektoimplementIslamiclawthroughtheagencyofthestateNotallarewillingtoresorttoviolentmeansinpur-suitofthisendManysuchasYusufal-Qaradawi(b1926)ahighlyin-fluentialIslamistandoneofthemostprominentlsquoulamaofcontemporaryIslam(Skovgaard-Petersen2004Kraumlmer2006)professdemocraticcom-mitmentsButwhateverthestancetowardeitherdemocracyorviolencethepublicimplementationofthesharilsquoaisattheheartofallIslamisminbothitsShilsquoiandSunniformsThissuggestsanimportantcontrastwithmanyamongthelsquoulama

SincethefirstcenturiesofIslamthelsquoulamahaveoftensoughttomain-tainacarefuldistancefromtherulingelitejealouslyguardingtheirinsti-tutionsandpracticesfromgovernmentalinterferenceThelsquoulamagener-allyrecognizedthatthefunctioningoflegalandotherIslamicinstitutionspresupposedtheexistenceofaMuslimgovernmentandtheydefinedalegitimategovernmentasonethatoversawtheimplementationofsharilsquoanormsButtheyhavetypicallyunderstoodthegovernmentrsquoscommitmenttothesharilsquoatomeanthattherulerdefendedthebordersofthepolityregulatedpublicmoralitysuppressedhereticsandappointedthosepro-ficientinlegalmatterstoimplementthelaw(cfCrone2004286ndash314)TheyhavenotunderstoodanyofthistomeaneitherthattherulershouldbeabletoofferabsoluteinterpretationsofGodrsquoslaworthattherealmofpoliticsandstatecraftshouldbecomesynonymouswithIslamitselfYetthis ispreciselyhowIslamistshaveoftenconceivedof therelationship

12

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

betweenIslamandpoliticsandmorespecificallybetweenIslamandthestatenocallingishigherthanstrivingtowardtheestablishmentofanIs-lamicstateandoncebroughtaboutallwillbeinaccordancewithGodrsquospurposesMawdudi(1960177)claimedthatldquothestruggleforobtainingcontrolovertheorgansofthestatewhenmotivatedbytheurgetoestab-lishthedin[religion]andtheIslamicSharilsquoahandtoenforcetheIslamicinjunctionsisnotonlypermissiblebutpositivelydesirableandassuchobligatoryrdquo

Tomanylsquoulamathisamountstonothinglessthanmakingreligiousnorms subservient topolitical goalsAsMuftiMuhammadTaqi lsquoUth-manialeadingDeobandischolarofPakistannotesinhisrejoindertoviewssuchasMawdudirsquos

Intheirzealtorefutesecularismsomewritersandthinkersofthepresentagehavegonesofarastocharacterizepoliticsandgovern-ment as the true objective of Islam the reason why the prophetsweresent[byGodtothepeople]indeedtheveryreasonforthecre-ationofthehumanbeingAndtheyhavenotonlygivenotherIs-lamiccommandmentsmdashforinstanceonmattersofworshipmdashasec-ondarypositiontheyhaveevendeemedthemtobemeremeansforpoliticalendsjustawayoftrainingpeople[towardpoliticalmobili-zation](lsquoUthmani199825ndash26cfZaman2008116ndash18)

NotalllsquoulamasharesuchmisgivingsaboutthesubordinationofIslamtopoliticsthoughitshouldbenotedthattheywouldseethisintermsnotofanysuchsubordinationbutratheroftheutterinseparabilityofthere-ligiousandthepoliticalByfarthemostnotableoftheseamongtheShilsquoaisAyatollahKhomeini(d1989)ofIranAgainstalong-standingtradi-tionofShilsquoipoliticalquietismintheabsenceofthehiddenShilsquoiimamKhomeiniarguedthattheShilsquoi lsquoulamaoughttoassumedirectpoliticalleadershipandhethenproceededtospearheadthemovementthatcul-minatedinthefalloftheIranianmonarchyandtheestablishmentoftheIslamicRepublicofIran9Hisdoctrineofthevelayatshye faqih(guardian-shipofthejurist)isaradicalrethinkingofShilsquoipoliticaltheologyblur-ringanymeaningfulboundarybetweenreligiousandpoliticalauthority(seechapter6)ItispreciselyKhomeinirsquoscommitmenttoestablishinganIslamic statealong these lines thatwarrantshis classificationasan Is-

9TheImamiorIthnalsquoashariShilsquoabelievethatthetwelfthandlastoftheirimamswentintoghayba(hiding)in874andthathewilleventuallyreturnasthemahdimdashamessianicfigurewhoalonecanrestoreproperordertotheworldinaugurateaneraofunalloyedjus-ticeandreclaimfortheShilsquoatherightsofwhichtheyhavebeendispossessedbytheSunnisandbycorruptrulersformuchofthehistoryofIslamShilsquoischolarshavelongdebatedthequestionofwhatsortofauthoritytheleadingreligiousscholarsoughttohaveinofficiatingintheimamrsquosabsenceKhomeinirsquosviewdisputedbymanyotherscholarswasthatthelead-ingscholar(s)oughttodischargethefullrangeoftheimamrsquosfunctionsincludingthepoliti-calheadshipofthecommunity

13

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INTRODUCTION

lamistnotwithstandinghiswell-recognizedstatusasoneoftheleadingShilsquoilsquoulamaofhisgeneration

The Azhar-educated Yusuf al-Qaradawi has for his part criticizedmanyfellowIslamistsonseveralissuesbutnotonthefundamentalques-tion of their political orientation Just as Khomeini had chastised theldquopropagandainstitutionsofimperialism[fortrying]topersuadeusthatthereligiousleadersmustnotinterfereinsocialmattersandthatthefuqaha[jurists]donothavethedutyofoverseeingthedestinyoftheIslamicnationrdquo(Algar1981141)Qaradawiinsiststhatdenyingthepo-liticalorientationofIslamamountstoitswillfuldistortion

Amongtheinterpretationswithwhichthesecularists[lsquoalmaniyyun]andthemodernists[alshyhadathiyyun]calumniate[Islamproperlyun-derstood and those committed to it] is the notion of ldquopoliticalIslamrdquowhichwithoutdoubtisanideaalientoourIslamicsocietyBy[politicalIslam]theymeananIslamthatconcernsitselfwiththeinternalandexternalaffairsoftheMuslimcommunity[Theymeanbyit]actionsaimedatfreeingthecommunityfromtheforeignpowerthatdirects [Muslim]affairsphysicallyandmorallyas itpleases[Theyalsomeanbyit]actionsseekingtocleansethecommunityofthecultural socialand legalsedimentsofWesterncolonialismsothatthecommunitycanreturnonceagaintosubmissiontoGodrsquoslawindifferentareasoflifeTheyusethischaracterizationofldquopoliticalIslamrdquoinordertoalienatepeoplefromits[aforementioned]contentandto frighten themawayfromthosecalling toacomprehensiveconceptionofIslammdashonethatisinclusiveofbeliefandlawworshipandsocialinteractionproselytismandthestate(Qaradawi200793)

Islamistpoliticalcommitmentsareoftenintertwinedwithcritiquesofthescholarlytraditionanditsattendant institutionsandpracticesandthiscriticismprovidesusacrucialwayof thinkingfurtherbothaboutwhatdistinguishesIslamistsfromthelsquoulamaandabouthowtoviewIs-lamismitselfWhatthelsquoulamacannotbutseeasacavalierattitudeto-wardtheirscholarlytraditioniswesuggestbetterviewedaspartofalargerIslamistcritiqueonethatgoestotheheartofhowIslamismoughttobeunderstoodasaphenomenonItisacritiqueofparticularMuslimbeliefspracticesmoresandinstitutionsthataredeemedtohaveonlyatenuousbasis inldquotruerdquoandldquoauthenticrdquo Islamof the repeatedwrongturnsMuslimshavetakenthroughouttheirlonghistoryofthecorrupt-ingldquoforeignrdquoinfluencesmdashfromSufismtoGreekphilosophytothelureofmodernWesternculturesmdashbywhichMuslimshaveallowedthemselvestobeseducedandoftheirunwillingnesstodowhateverittakestoestab-lish thehakimiyya (sovereignty)ofGodonearthThat it is the sover-eigntyofGodthatIslamistsseekultimatelytoaffirmintheirindividualandpubliclivesremindsusthattheircritiqueofthepastandthepresentisapoliticalcritiqueanchoredinanddrivenbyaspirationstoinstitutea

14

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

newreligio-politicalorderWhetherthiscritiqueisarticulatedinconcreteor vague terms in a seeminglymoderateorplainlymilitant languagethere is no mistaking either its principal targetmdashfacets of the Islamictraditionmdashoritsfundamentallypoliticalorientation10

IslamistshaveofteninsistedthatthewordofGodcanandshouldbeapproacheddirectlywithoutthemediationofpresentorpastscholarsandwithoutanyneedfortheedifyingtalesthephilologicaldebatesandthelong-windedtheologicaldisquisitionssooftenfoundinmedievalexe-geticalliteratureamajorfacetoftheIslamicscholarlytradition(cfCarreacute200318)ShukriMustafaanEgyptianIslamistexecutedin1977forthemurderousactivitiesofhisSocietyofMuslims(popularlyknownastheSociety of Excommunication and Emigration) had famously assertedthatalloneneededtoresolveuncertaintiesinonersquosunderstandingofthewordofGodwasadictionary(Kepel199379)SayyidQutbdidnotgoquite that farButhe tooaffirmed that the fundamental teachingsofIslamwereentirelytransparentldquoWhatwearesayingaboutIslamisnoinventionofoursoranynewinterpretationofitsessenceIt issimplyplainIslamasitwasunderstoodbyitsfirstadherentMuhammadandhissincereCompanionsandthoseclosetoitsauthenticsourcerdquo(Qutb19969withminorchange)

TheimplicationofQutbrsquosstrikingassertionistwofoldFirstbehindarhetoric of humility in relation to divine knowledge Qutb implicitlyclaimsthefullbackingofGodandHisProphetfortheldquoplainIslamrdquohesetsforthMorespecificallyheessentiallydepictshisownunderstandingofIslamassynonymouswithGodrsquoseternalintentmuchasKhomeinirsquospronouncementsasthevalishyye faqih(guardianjurist)presumedtoarticu-latewhatIslamitselfstoodfororrequiredonanygivenmatterSecondthestatementimpliesnotonlythatviewsotherthanhisaremereinter-pretationsbutthattheyarethemorereprehensibleforbeingldquonovelrdquomdashasuggestionthatevokesthenotionofbidlsquoathatisofillicitcapriciousin-

10ThatIslamismshouldbeseenasawide-rangingcritiqueoftheworldandoftheIslamictraditionisareminderofcoursethatcritiqueisnotaninherentlysecularphenomenonnordoesitnecessitateasecularframeworkAsTalalAsad(2008)hasobservedgivenawidevarietyofldquopossibleinstancesofcritiquecriticismwhatwehaveisafamilyconceptforwhichitisnotpossibletoprovideasingletheorybecausethepracticesthatconstitutethemdifferradicallyrdquo(alsocfMahmood2008Taylor2008)NorshouldourviewingIs-lamism as a politically motivated critique suggest that other competing orientations inmodernIslamcannotalsobeseenascritiquesofparticularpracticesparticularformsofknowledgeWhatdoesdistinguishanIslamistorientationfromothersisonceagainboththedegreetowhichIslamistcritiquesbreakwiththeirpastandpresentandtheiraspirationto remake theworld in accordancewith their understandingof immutable divine com-mandsThisismarkedlydifferentfromhowthelsquoulamamightcritiqueparticularaspectsoftheirscholarlytraditionintheinterestofastrongersenseofcontinuitywiththattraditionorinordertomakeitmorereceptivetowhattheyseeasthecommunityrsquoschangingneedsItisalsoverydifferentfromhowMuslimmodernistsoftenbreakwiththescholarlytradi-tioninordertoadaptMuslimnormsandinstitutionstothedominantpoliticalandculturalinstitutionsoftheircontemporaryworld

15

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INTRODUCTION

novationinmattersofreligionSuchaviewofIslamjettisonsmuchofwhatwouldnormallycountasitshistoryandcivilizationldquoThehistoryoflsquoIslamrsquordquoQutbtellshisreadersldquoisthehistoryofthetrueapplicationofIslammdashinpeoplersquosconceptionsandtheirpracticesintheirlivesandtheirsocialsystemsIslamisthefixedaxisaroundwhichpeoplersquoslivesrevolveinafixedframeWhentheygooutofthisframeorwhentheycategorically abandon this axis what then do they have to do withIslamrdquo (Qutb 1967a vol 2 part 4 169 quotation marks aroundldquoIslamrdquoinoriginal)ItisforthefixedaxistheplainIslammdashandinoppo-sition to much of its historymdashthat the Islamist professes to stand (cfGrunebaum1962251ndash52)

Qutbhoweverisfarfromconsistentinhisattitudetowardtheschol-arlytraditionorinhowheseekstoarticulatehisownauthorityinrela-tiontoitHisfaithinthetransparencyandthetransformativeimmedi-acyofGodrsquoswordswouldappeartomakeallexegesissuperfluousyethehimselfhadproceededtowriteamajorcommentaryIn the Shade of the QurrsquoanthatwouldexceedfourthousandpagesinprintThejustifi-cationheoffers for it intheopening linesof thecommentary isauda-ciousnotapologetic

LifeintheshadeoftheQurrsquoanisablessingItisablessingunknownto anyonewhohasnrsquot tasted itAll praisebe toGodHehasgrantedmetheopportunitytoliveintheshadeoftheQurrsquoanforaperiodoftimeduringwhichIhavetastedHisblessingsasIneverhadearlierinmylifeIhavelistenedtoGodtheexaltedconvers-ingwithmethroughthisQurrsquoanmdashwithmeasmalllittleslaveIhavelivedintheshadeoftheQurrsquoanlookingfromanelevationatthejahiliyya[paganignorance]raginginthelandandthepettycon-cernsof itspeople [Fromthisvantage] Ihave seen thepride thepeopleofthisjahiliyyatakeintheirchildishknowledgetheirchild-ishideastheirchildishpreoccupations[Ihavelookeduponthem]likeanelderlooksuponthefrivolitiesofchildrenupontheireffortsandupontheirlisps(Qutb1967a13)

Theseresoundingwordsserveinteraliatoexplainwhyanewcom-mentaryshouldhavebeenneededatallthemind-numbingimpactofthejahiliyyahasmadepeopleincapableofrespondingtoeventhemostdi-rectofdivinesummonsandonlysomeonewhohaslivedldquointheshadeoftheQurrsquoanrdquocanunderstandtheirplightandremedyitFromtheper-spectiveQutbadoptshereanyappealtothescholarlytraditionanyef-forttoresthisauthorityonitwouldappearaltogetheroutofplaceYetQutbrsquosclaimstoauthoritydonotderiveexclusivelyfromhisconversingwithGodthroughtheQurrsquoanTosomedegreetheyalsodependonhisbeingseenashavingmasteryovertheveryexegeticaltraditionofwhichheisotherwisefrequentlydismissiveQutbcitesasmallnumberofearliercommentators and other authorities when it suits his purpose to do

16

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INTRODUCTION

so11justashesidestepstheexegeticaltraditionwhendoingsooffersarhetoricallymoreeffectivewayofarrivingataconclusionMoretradi-tionalexegetespastandpresentalsopickandchooseofcourseButtheyhavetypicallydonesowithinanoverallframeworkthatisdefinedbyacontinuousengagementwiththeexegeticaltraditionasawhole(cfSaleh2004)BycontrastQutbandotherIslamistexegeteswriteoutsideandofteninconsciousoppositiontoanysuchframeworkTheconversa-tionisnotwiththeearlierexegetesbutdirectlywithGodthoughthismightonoccasionbeaidedbyillustrationsfromtheearlierexegeticaltradition

If thereareunacknowledgedambiguities inQutbrsquosrelationshipwiththe Islamic traditionaswehaveobserveda frequentlyacerbic stancedoesnonetheless remain characteristicofhowheviews itmostof thetimeQutbisanythingbutuniqueinthisrespectYetifIslamistssharealmostbydefinitionacriticalstancetowardfacetsofthistraditionthereismuchthatalsoseparatesthemfromoneanotherinpreciselyhowthiscritique and its implications are articulated in different instances Al-thoughthemerepresenceofdisagreementamongIslamist intellectualsandactivistsishardlyremarkablethescopeandimplicationsofsomeofthedisagreementsinasmuchastheyrelatetothescholarlytraditionarenonethelessworthexamininghereFortheysuggestthatwhileIslamistsshare the conviction that particular institutions practices and normsneedtoberefashionedinlightofimmutabledivinecommandsthiscon-victionoftenrestsonquitedifferentviewsofIslamichistoryandciviliza-tionofcontemporaryMuslimsocietiesandnotleastofreligiousau-thorityanditslociNowhereperhapsisthismoreevidentthaninsomeofthewritingsofYusufal-QaradawiLikeQutbQaradawiisamongthemostinfluentialIslamistideologuesintheSunniworldHeisalsooneofQutbrsquosseverestcriticsfromwithintheIslamistcamp(seeespeciallyQa-radawi1994101ndash31)

ThatldquoMuslimrdquosocietieslackedaproperIslamicfoundationmadeitfutileQutbhadarguedtodebatespecificquestionsofIslamiclawand

11TheseincludeinteraliaMuhammadibnIshaq(d767)theauthoroftheSirat rasul AllahoneoftheearliestbiographiesoftheProphetMuhammadal-Tabari(d923)theauthorofJamilsquo alshybayan lishytarsquowil ay alshyQurrsquoanoneofthemostinfluentialcommentariesoftheQurrsquoaneverproducedal-Baghawi(d1117)whosecommentaryistitledMalsquoalim alshytanzilal-Qurtubi(d1273)theauthorofaworkalshyJamilsquo lishyahkam alshyQurrsquoanwhichises-peciallyattentivetothelegalcontentoftheQurrsquoanandIbnKathir(d1373)theauthorofaQurrsquoan commentaryTafsir alshyQurrsquoan alshylsquoazimwhichhasbeenpopular amongmanyMuslimsofaSalafiorientationOnoccasionQutbalsocitesinfluentialfellowIslamistsSeeforexampleQutbFi zilal alshyQurrsquoanvol2part4132(Mawdudi)vol2part525(Nadwi)vol2part6143and150ndash53(lsquoAbdal-QadirlsquoAwdaanEgyptianIslamistandlegalscholarexecutedundertheNasserregimein1954)OccasionallyQutbcitesRidarsquosTafsir alshymanaraswell thoughmoreoftenthannot toregisterhisdisagreementswithRidaandwiththelatterrsquosmentorMuhammadlsquoAbduhForadetailedcomparisonbetweenthecommentariesofRidaandQutbseeCarreacute2003

17

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INTRODUCTION

howitdealtwithparticularsocialoreconomicissuesThelsquoulamawerepatheticallydeludediftheythoughtthattheinterestsofIslamcouldbefurtheredthroughdisquisitionsonthesharilsquoainsuchconditionsofper-vasiveungodliness(Qutb1967b183ndash90)WhatpeopleneededbeforeanythingelsewasareturntothebasicsofthefaithThetaskofrighteouspreacherswastoinstructtheminthesemattersandtohelpthemrecog-nizewhatthesovereigntyofGoddemandedofthem(Qutb199135cfQaradawi1994102ndash4)Allothermattersincludingthenicetiesofjuris-ticdiscussionwerebestpostponeduntilaproperlyIslamicsocietybasedonthisfoundationhadbeenrealized

Qaradawi vehemently disagrees with Qutb arguing that educatedMuslimsarenotpagansbutbelieversandassuchdonotneedtobetu-toredinthefundamentalsoftheirfaithWhattheyoftendonotunder-standverywellmdashandhereQaradawiconcurswithotherIslamistsmdashisthenatureofIslamasanizam (socialandpoliticalsystem)TheproblemofMuslimsinotherwordsisnotgodlessnessbutsimplyignorance(whichiswhat the term jahiliyya literallymeans)of the teachingsof Islam intheircomprehensiveall-encompassingdimensionsAsQaradawiseesitmanyldquocaptivesofWesternthoughtrdquohavedoubtsnotabouttheessentialsoftheirfaithbutratheraboutIslamasacomprehensivesystemanditistheirunaddressedmisunderstandingstheirignoranceonthelatterscorethatsometimesopens thedoor todoubtsaboutmattersofbelief itself(Qaradawi1994113ndash14)Tocontinuetoexpoundonthesocialpoliti-calandotherteachingsofIslamwhilethesocietyisyetimperfectisnottoendorseorstrengthenthejahiliorderasQutbhadallegedbutonlytohelpordinarypeopleintheirefforttoleadvirtuouslivesevenininiqui-touscircumstances

ThisviewrepresentsanappealtowhatQaradawihasrepeatedlyre-ferredtoasthemoderatepathoralshymadrasa alshywasatiyya(theldquocentristschoolrdquocfQaradawi2006137ndash217)mdashonethatlocatesitselfonaputa-tivemiddlegroundbetweenacompleterejectionoftheworldincludingMuslimsocietiesanditstotalembraceQaradawiisequallyconcernedwithrescuingIslamichistoryandcivilizationfromoutrightdismissalatthehandsofIslamistslikeQutb12TheideathatjahilinormshadbeguntocreepbackintotheMuslimcommunityshortlyafterthedeathoftheProphetandthattheyhaveremainedunchallengedformuchofIslamrsquoshistoryignoresallthoseQaradawisayswhohavecontinuedtorepre-sentthepathofrighteousnessthroughoutthehistoryofIslamContrarytotheconvictionoftheSunnisthatldquothecommunitywillneveragreeonerrorrdquomdashastheProphetissaidtohavepromisedmdashthenotionofaperva-

12AmongleadingfiguresQaradawisinglesoutforcriticisminthisregardarebesidesQutbMawdudiandtheEgyptianIslamistscholarMuhammadal-Ghazali(d1996)SeeQaradawi2005b46ndash64It isworthnotingthatdespitetheseandotherdisagreementsQaradawihaswrittenrespectfullyofallthreedevotinganentirebooktohislongassocia-tionwithMuhammadal-Ghazali(seeQaradawi1995)

18

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INTRODUCTION

sivejahiliyyasuggestsmoreoverthatthecommunitydidindeedagreeonerror13Mostgrievouslyperhaps Islamist critiques tend to suggestthatthesharilsquoahasalmostneverbeenimplementedinMuslimsocietiesaftertheveryfirstyearsofIslamIronicallysaysQaradawisuchindis-criminaterejectionofIslamichistoryinadvertentlyreinforcessecularist argumentsthatthesharilsquoaisunsuitedtopracticalapplication(Qaradawi2005b46)QaradawirsquoscritiqueofQutbandotherIslamistsisfinallyanargumentforthecontinuingcentralityofthelsquoulamatothetaskofpro-viding authoritative guidance to the communityHisunderstandingofwhoconstitutesthelsquoulamaisfarmoreexpansivethanthatofmostDeo-bandilsquoulamaofSouthAsiaButlikethemheisinnodoubtthatseriousreligiousscholarsasdistinguishedfromamateurishautodidactsarecru-cialtothetaskofprovidingauthoritativereligiousandmoralguidancetothecommunity

AlthoughwehavesoughttoillustratecertainfacetsoftheIslamistcri-tiqueof the scholarly traditionandof theworldas somekey IslamistthinkershavearticulateditwedonotwishtosuggestofcoursethatIslamists are necessarily ldquointellectualsrdquo Whatever Qutb KhomeiniMawdudiandQaradawimightthinkofotherscholarsandintellectualsorofthemselvesinrelationtothemtheformerobviouslyarereligiousintellectualsThesameishardlytrueofmanyotherIslamistsYeteventhosewithlittleornointellectualpretensionsareoftenrecognizableas IslamistsnotonlyfortheircommitmenttothepublicimplementationofIslamicnormsgroundedinthefoundationaltextsbutalsomdashandasacor-ollaryoftheformermdashfortheiroftenself-consciouscritiqueofanddisen-gagementfromthenormsandmorestheyseearoundthemIncontempo-raryLebanonforinstanceShilsquoiIslamistshaveoftenseentheirtext-basedreligiouscommitmentsasmarkingacleardeparturefromearlierandex-isting religious practicesAs anthropologist LaraDeeb (2006 20) ob-servesldquoTheyvieweditasnewanddifferentmdashdifferentfromwhattheyoftenreferredtoenigmaticallyaslsquobeforersquoorlsquohowwewerersquoanddifferentfromwhattheycalledalshytaqalid(traditions)Inlieuofpracticesandbeliefscastastraditionaltheyespoused [an] lsquoauthenticatedrsquoIslamexpressedinpublicpietyrdquo14ManyIslamists living inrefugeecampsinGazahavehadasimilarviewTothemldquoPalestinianshadeitherbe-comelostinforeignideologiesortheyhadbecomelsquoMuslimsbycon-

13Theconvictionthatthecommunityatlargeisdivinelyprotectedfromerrorisanim-portantbasisoftheauthorityofldquoconsensusrdquoasamajorsourceofjuridicalnormsinSunniIslamFormoderndebateson consensus and someof the literatureon this subject seeZaman2006

14Theldquotraditionsrdquohereprimarilyrefer tocustomarynormsanddevotionalpracticesratherthantothecenturies-olddiscursivetraditionfromwhichthelsquoulamabothShilsquoiandSunniderivetheirauthorityIslamistcritiquesareoftendirectedasmuchhoweverattra-ditionsinthesenseofldquoinauthenticrdquoculturallyrootedreligiouspracticesastheyareatthescholarlytraditionofthelsquoulamawhichtothemisequallyinauthenticinhavingobscuredthesimpleandfundamentalteachingsofthefoundationaltexts

19

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INTRODUCTION

ventionrsquowhowentalongwiththefastorprayednowandthenbecausethiswaslsquocustomandtraditionrsquo(lsquoada wa taqlid)ThislackofconsciouszealousadherencetoIslamhadresultedinsocialweaknessleadingtode-featatthehandsofIsraelrdquo(Lybarger2007211)ThereismuchthatsuchanalysessharewiththewritingsandpronouncementsoftheleadingIs-lamistintellectuals

Islamists and Salafi s

JustasitisnotalwayseasytodifferentiatelsquoulamafromIslamistsorIs-lamists frommodernists it is sometimesdifficult to clearlydistinguishbetweenIslamistsandtheSalafisThelatterderivethisself-designationfromclaimsofstrictadherencetothenormativepracticeofalshysalaf alshysalih(thepiousforbears)usuallyunderstoodastheMuslimsofthefirstgenerations of Islam The guiding Salafi assumption is that these firstMuslims inbeingcontemporariesof theProphetMuhammadandtheimmediatesuccessorsofthosecontemporariesexemplifymostperfectlywhatitmeanstobeavirtuousMuslimandthatlatergenerationscandonobetterthanemulatetheexampleofthesefirstgenerationsSomever-sionofthisviewwouldfindbroadresonanceamongIslamistsbutalsoordinary believers though the Shilsquoa of various doctrinal orientationshavealwayshada farmore restrictiveviewofpreciselywho isworthemulating Again like the Islamists the Salafis insist on deriving theirnormsdirectlyfromtheIslamicfoundationaltextstheQurrsquoanandtheexampleoftheProphetMuhammadunmediatedbythemedievalschoolsoflawThismeansdoingawaywiththesortofhistoricallyarticulatedscholarlytraditionfromwhichthelsquoulamahavetendedtodrawmuchoftheirauthorityTheSalafisdohavetheirownlsquoulamamdashQaradawiisano-tableinstanceasaremembersoftheSaudireligiousestablishmentmdashbuteventheirauthorityisbasedfarmoreondirectlyinterpretingthefounda-tional texts than it is on any systematic engagement with the Islamicscholarlytradition

AllthissoundsagooddealnotjustliketheIslamistsbutalsolikethemodernistsThisshouldnotbesurprisingfortheSalafiorientationisanimportantpartofthegenealogyofbothmodernismandIslamismTheSalafi reformer Muhammad lsquoAbduh though a traditionally educatedscholarwhoservedtowardtheendofhislifeasthegrandmuftiofEgyptwasakeyinfluenceinthedevelopmentofIslamicmodernismButwhilesomeoflsquoAbduhrsquosdisciplesdevelopedhisideasinthedirectionofsecularnationalismothersmdashnotablytheSalafijournalistandQurrsquoancommenta-torRashidRidamdasheventuallytookthemdespitehismodernistproclivi-tiesinadecidedlyconservativedirection(Hourani1983alsocfDallal2000)Hasan al-Banna the founder of the MuslimBrotherhoodwasclose to many Egyptian Salafis Muhibb al-din al-Khatib (d 1969) aleadingSalafiofthetimeandtheowneroftheSalafiPublishingHousein

20

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INTRODUCTION

CairowasinchargeofoneoftheBrotherhoodrsquosfirstjournals(Mitchell1993185)andafterRidarsquosdeathin1935itwasatBannarsquosinitiativethatRidarsquosinfluentialjournalalshyManarwouldcontinuetobepublishedforsomeyears(RMitchell1993186)

ForalltheiraffinitieshoweverSalafiscannotsimplybesubsumedwiththeIslamistsanymorethantheycanwiththemodernistsUnliketheearlySalafisandothermodernists Islamistshavealmost invariablysought toaddressthemselvestoawidepopularaudienceratherthantotheintellec-tualelite(cfRMitchell1993211)TheSalafishavealsobeenfarmorepreoccupiedwithmattersofcorrectbeliefthenuancesofdoctrinethanhaveeither the Islamistsor themodernists (cfHaykel2009 [forthcom-ing])BythesametokenwhilemanyIslamistshavehadasomewhatam-bivalentrelationshipwithSufismSalafishaveusuallybeenunrelentinglyhostile to devotional Sufi practices But if it is useful to distinguish theSalafisfromothercompetingorientationsinmodernIslamitisimportantalsotorecognizethatthereismuchonwhichSalafisthemselveshavedis-agreedsometimessharplyInquestionintheseldquointernalrdquodifferencesisnottheiroverallorientationmdashtowardtheIslamicfoundational textsandthepristinenormsofIslamrsquosfirstgenerationsmdashbutratherthepreciseimplica-tionsofthisorientationforbeliefandconductinthepresentAconsider-ationofsomeofthesedifferencesshouldinturnfurtherillustratehowtheSalafisoughttobedistinguishedfromothercompetingcamps

WheremanySalafisseetheschoolsoflawasobstructingandindeeddistortingthesimplemessageofthefoundationaltextsothersviewthelegaltraditionasrepresentingIslamrsquosrichintellectuallegacyfromwhichMuslimsought todrawboth inspirationandguidanceQaradawi forinstance has been critical not just of the Muslimmodernists but alsooffellowSalafisfortheirirreverencetowardtherichesofthelegaltradi-tiontheiruneducatedproclivitytosetitasidealltoocallouslyOnthisviewarejectionofthetaqlid-boundlsquoulamashouldnotleadtotheotherextrememdashexemplifiedbynotafewSalafismdashofjettisoningthescholarlytraditionaltogether SalafisalsodifferamongthemselvesintheirattitudestowardmodernWesterninstitutionsandpracticesInthelatenineteenthandearlytwen-tieth centuries Salafi reformers like Muhammad lsquoAbduh and RashidRidainEgyptandJamalal-dinal-Qasimi(d1914)inSyriahadcalledforareorientationtowardthefoundationaltextsasawayofjustifyingnotresistingchangesinlawandeducationaswellasotherfacetsofso-cialreform(cfHourani1983Commins1990)OnthisviewadirectrecoursetotheQurrsquoanandthesunnaofferedthebestwayofdemonstrat-ing the accord between their teachings and the reformist project15 In

15SymptomaticofotherdisagreementsamongtheSalafisistheveryquestionofpreciselywhothesalafarewhoseexampleoughttobeemulatedThenarrowerviewslimitthesalaftothefirstthreegenerationsofIslammdashtheageoftheProphetMuhammadandhiscompan-ionstheirsuccessorsandthelatterrsquosimmediatesuccessorsmdashbuteventhesenarrowviews

21

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INTRODUCTION

contemporaryEuropeTariqRamadananinfluentialSwissArabphilos-opherhasarguedthatMuslimslivinginWesternsocietiesoughttofeelathomeinandcontributetoward thosesocietieswhileretainingandcultivatingtheirdistinctIslamicidentityHetooappearstoseehimselfinthegenealogyofwhathecharacterizesasldquoSalafireformismrdquo(onthischaracterization see Ramadan 2004 26ndash27) and he has echoed Qa-radawiinsomeofhisviews(cfRamadan199993ndash99) Other Salafis have remained staunchly opposed to institutions andpracticesofaWesternprovenanceAnespeciallyinfluentialfigureinthegenealogyofthelatterpositionistheeighteenth-centurypuritanicalre-former Muhammad ibn lsquoAbd al-Wahhab (d 1792) whose alliance in1744 with Muhammad ibn Salsquoud contributed to the establishment ofthefirstSaudistateinthelateeighteenthcenturyIbnlsquoAbdal-WahhabwashostilenotonlytoShilsquoismandtoSufidevotionalismbutalsotoany-thinghedeemednottobeinstrictconformitywiththeteachingsofthefoundationaltextsTherewasmuchthatseemedtohimtofailthisstan-dardallofwhichhebrandedasoneoranotherformofunbeliefTheWahhabismdashas the followers of Ibn lsquoAbd al-Wahhab are oftenknownthoughtheyprefertothinkofthemselvessimplyasgoodMuslimsoratbestasSalafismdashoftenadheretothelegalnormsoftheHanbalischooloflawthoughitistheteachingsofthefoundationaltextsirrespectiveofthisoranyotherschooldoctrinethattheyprofesstofollowThemoststringentoftheSaudiSalafisaswellasotherselsewhereareaveryfarcryindeedfromwhatQaradawiwouldcharacterizeasldquocentristrdquoSalafireformersletalonefromtheearlytwentieth-centurySalafimodernists

ThepoliticalviewsoftheWahhabisandmorebroadlyoftheSalafisare likewiseanythingbutuniformInSaudiArabiaWahhabireligiousscholarshavelongaffirmedaquietistpoliticalstancewhichhasmeantleavingmattersofthestatetotherulingfamilyFormuchofthehistoryofmodernSaudiArabiatherulingelitefor itsparthas imposedfewconstraintsontheSaudilsquoulamainmattersofreligiouslifetheregulationofsocialnormsandjudicialadministration(cfVogel2000)Onseveraloccasions however this relationship has come under severe strain In1979agroupofWahhabiswhorejectedthelegitimacyoftheSaudistateyethadtieswithsomeprominentreligiousscholarsmdashincludinglsquoAbdal-

feelconstrainedtomakeroomforsuchreveredfiguresasAhmadibnHanbaltheputativefounderoftheHanbalischooloflawandthefourteenth-centuryDamascenescholarIbnTaymiyya(d1328)OtherviewsarerathermoreexpansivenotjustinchronologicalbutalsoandcruciallyinintellectualtermsThusMuhammadlsquoAbduhthoughtthesalaftoalsoincludesuchtheologiansasal-Ashlsquoari(d935)al-Baqillani(d1013)andal-Maturidi(d944)SeeHourani1983149SuchaviewobviouslyopensthedoorforpreciselythesortoftheologicaldebatesthatotherSalafisaswellasIslamistsoftenfrownuponfortakingthebelieversveryfarfromthesimpleanddirectwordsofGod lsquoAbduhrsquosdiscipleRidaagaintookanarrowerviewofthesalafandlaterinhiscareerbecameastrongdefenderoftheWahhabisCfHourani1983230ndash32

22

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INTRODUCTION

lsquoAzizBinBaz(d1999)laterthegrandmuftiofSaudiArabiamdashtookoverthesacredprecinctsoftheKalsquobainMeccainashort-livedbutextremelyembarrassingchallenge toSaudi royalauthority (cfHegghammerandLacroix2007)In1990KingFahdrsquosdecisiontoinviteAmericantroopstodefendthekingdomagainstthethreatofanIraqiinvasioncreatedwide-spreadresentmentamongSaudis theeffectsofwhichcontinue to thisdayThestationingofnon-MuslimmilitarypersonnelinIslamrsquosholiestlandwasdeemedbythekingrsquoscriticstobescandalousandevensacrile-giousAnumberofprominentSaudiSalafispubliclycriticizedthekingrsquosdecisiononthisoccasioncallinguponhimaswellasonBinBazandoth-ersatthehelmoftheSaudireligiousestablishmenttoreorienttheSaudipolitytowarditstruereligiousfoundationsManyofthesedissidentsmdashwhowerealsojoinedbyldquosecularrdquoSaudicriticsoftheroyalfamilymdashwereandhaveremainedrestrainedintheircriticismevenastheycalledforstricterconformitytoIslamicnormsasthepanaceaforallills(cfFandy1999)OthershoweverhavedenouncedtheroyalfamilyanditsWesternalliesinnouncertaintermsBinLadenisonlythemostnotoriousofthosewhobrokewiththeroyalfamilyinthewakeofKingFahdrsquosdecisiontoinviteWesterntroopsin1990andwhocalledfortheoverthrowoftheroyal familyand for jihadagainstWesternpowers Such strident callshavebeencontinuedbyotherSalafisbothbeforeandaftertheterroristattacksofSeptember112001aswellasintheaftermathoftheUS-ledinvasionofIraq(al-Rasheed2007)

ItshouldbeclearinlightoftheforegoingthatanyunderstandingofthedifferencesbetweenIslamistsandtheSalafismustrestontakingac-countofthediversityamongtheSalafisSalafiswhooftenrejectmuchoftheIslamicscholarlytraditioninfavorofadirectrecoursetothefoun-dationaltextsarenotnecessarilyrenderedldquoIslamistrdquosimplybyvirtueofthisstanceForasnotedmanyoftheseSalafiscontinuetoprofessareso-lutelyquietiststancewhichinthecaseoftheSaudiSalafismeansaf-firmingallegiancetotheSaudiroyalfamilyThispositionisrepresentedforinstancebyBinBaztheerstwhilegrandmuftiaswellasbyotherleading members of the Saudi religious establishment A pro-regimestanceoroneindifferenttopoliticsisnolessldquopoliticalrdquoofcoursethana position of strident hostility to the established order at home andabroadForourpurposeshoweveritisonlywhentheSalafisrejecttheexistingdispensationandbeginstrivingmdashthoughnotnecessarilythroughmilitantmeansmdashforanewreligio-politicalorderthattheycanbesaidtojointheranksoftheIslamists

ItisworthnotingfinallythatSalafipositionsamongSaudisandelse-wherearemarkednotonlybydiversitybutalsobyconsiderablefluidity(al-Rasheed 2007) The same activist or intellectual might at varioustimesmoveamongavarietyofseeminglyincompatiblepositionsmdashap-pearingtobemoreldquomoderaterdquoonsomeissuesthanonothersForallhiscriticismofradicalIslamistsQaradawiforinstancehashimselfwrittenin justificationofsuicidebombingsbyPalestiniansagainst Israelis (see

23

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INTRODUCTION

chapter 9 on Qaradawi) And Saudi Salafis like Safar al-Hawali andSalmanal-lsquoAwdamdashwhocame toprominence in the early1990smdashhavealternatedbetweencriticismoftheSaudipoliciesanddenunciationsofradicalSalaficallstojihadagainsttheSaudiregime(seeal-Rasheed200759ndash101onal-HawalialsoseeReichmuth2006)Theirshiftingviewsreflect changes in their relations with the Saudi regime but they alsopointtothebroadspectrumofpositionswhichSalafishavetakenatdif-ferenttimesindifferentcontextsandbeforedifferentaudiencesThusevenasal-Hawaliandal-lsquoAwdahavecondemnedterroristactsdirectedagainstSaudiArabiaandadvisedSaudisnottofightAmericantroopsinpostndashSaddamHusseinIraqtheyhavecalledupontheIraqisthemselvestoresistAmericantroopsandhavecharacterizedthateffortasaldquodefen-sivejihadrdquo(al-Rasheed200794ndash95)

Sufi s and Islamists

ItseemsmuchsimpleronthefaceofittodistinguishbetweenIslamistsandSufisThecharacteristicSuficonvictionthattherearelevelsofmean-ingintheQurrsquoanthatgobeyondtheliteralandtheobviousandthataselectfewmdashtheldquofriendsofGodrdquomdashareendowedwiththeuniqueabilityto discern them is anathema to all those who insist that God intendsHisteachingstobeequallyintelligibletoallDespitetheirtendencytoviewthemselvesasbearersof true Islam Islamists typicallyregard theSufi idea that somepeoplehaveaprivileged relationshipwithGodassuspectthebasisnotonlyforsanctioninginterpretationsofIslamthatlackwarrantintheplainteachingsofGodandtheProphetbutalsoforpracticallyldquoworshipingrdquothesefriendsofGodIslamists(andmodernists)havefrequentlyalsobeencriticalofthewaySufidevotionalismcanyieldaturningawayfromtheworldratherthananefforttochangeitaswellasapreoccupationwithpersonalspiritualtransformationattheexpenseofconcernsforthewelfareofthecommunityatlarge SufipracticesandtheteachingsoftheSufimastershavevariedenor-mouslythroughoutthehistoryofIslamyetIslamistcritiquesofSufismareseldomattentivetoitsnuancesortothecomplexwaysithasrelatedtootherfacetsofIslamNorhaveIslamiststakenmuchaccountofthefactthatmanyleadingfiguresofearliertimeswerebesidesmuchelseSufisaswellThisistrueevenofIbnTaymiyya(d1328)whoseprestigeinIslamistandSalaficirclesismatchedbyfewothersandwhowasinhisdayamemberoftheQadiriSufiorder(Makdisi1974)EvenifonearguesmdashasanIslamistmightbeinclinedtomdashthatldquogoodrdquoSufismisnoth-ingbutproperIslamitselftheveryfactthatsuchfigureshadaSufiiden-tityatallnecessarilycomplicateswhatissupposedtobethepristinesim-plicityofafaithsharedequallybyallbelievers

Complicatingthingsstillfurtheristhevarietyofwaysinwhichsomeleading Islamists relate to Sufism Ayatollah Khomeini was a lifelongstudentofIslamicmysticismandtheinfluenceofthemedievalSpanish

24

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INTRODUCTION

Sufi Ibn lsquoArabi loomed especially large in his thought To Khomeinimysticismmdashoften referred to as lsquoirfan (gnosis) especially when inter-twinedwithIslamicphilosophyandtheology(Knysh1992632)mdashwascrucialtoaproperunderstandingofGodrsquosrelationshipwiththeworldandwiththehumanbeingItwasalsoessentialforonersquosethicalforma-tionforamasteryovertheselfandultimatelyforrealizinginoneselftheattributesofwhat Ibn lsquoArabihadcalledldquotheperfectmanrdquo (cfKnysh1992 635 also Mottahedeh 1985 180ndash85) Some of the austerity ofKhomeinirsquospersonallifeprobablyalsoderivedfromSufiasceticismAndthoughheanchoredhisconceptionofIslamicgovernmentinanexposi-tionofShilsquoijuridicalthoughtratherthaninIslamicmysticismthesortofreligiousauthorityhecametoenjoyonthebasisofhisreformulationofShilsquoipoliticaltheologyseemstoechomysticalideasoftheperfectmanwho embodies and upholds the moral order as the microcosm of theuniverse

UnlikeKhomeiniQutbwasnotaSufiandhegivesnoindicationofsharinganyofKhomeinirsquosenthusiasmforthegreatSufithinkersofear-liertimesEvensoechoesofamysticrsquosdirectencounterwiththefoun-tainheadoftruthandknowledgearehardtomissinQutbrsquoswritingses-peciallyinhiscommentaryontheQurrsquoan(cfCarreacute200395ndash97)TheveryfirstsentenceofhiscommentarymdashldquolifeintheshadeoftheQurrsquoanisablessingunknowntoanyonewhohasnrsquottasteditrdquomdashevokesthefa-miliarSufiideathatincontrovertibleknowledgeofRealityisultimatelyacquired only through direct personal experience (dhawq that is theldquotasterdquooftheTruth)ThegreatmedievalSufial-Ghazali(d1111)hadauthoredafamousautobiographicalaccountofhowitwasonlythroughthe immediacyofhispersonalmysticalexperience thathewasable toovercomehisdebilitatingepistemologicaldoubtsandreassurehimselfofthenecessarytruths(Watt199857)QutbdoesnotmentionGhazaliinthiscontextbutitisdifficultnottobestruckbythemysticalresonanceofsomeofhislanguageHereisoneexamplewhichoccursinhiscom-mentaryonsura(chapter)53oftheQurrsquoan16

16TheearlyversesinthissuraoftheQurrsquoanhavebeenunderstoodbyMuslimexegetesasreferringtotheProphetrsquosrevelatoryexperienceaswellastohisldquonightjourneyrdquoandhisascensiontoheavenormilsquoraj inthecourseofonenighthewastransportedfirstfromMeccatoJerusalemandthentothepresenceofGodbeforebeingreturnedtoMecca

UnrelatedtothenightjourneybutrelatedtohisrevelatoryexperiencestheexegeticalsignificanceofthisQurrsquoanicsuraalsoliesinitsconnectionwiththeso-calledSatanicVersesAccordingtocertainexegeticalreportsMuhammadwasinthecourseofreceivingarevela-tionwhenSataninterpolatedsomeversesintoitmdashversespraisingthreegoddessesreveredbythepolytheistsofMeccaItwasnotuntilsometimelaterthatMuhammadrealizedhiserrorwhereupontheversesinterpolatedbySatanwereremovedTheepisodeoftheldquoSa-tanicVersesrdquohasbeenacontroversialoneinIslamichistorylongbeforeSalmanRushdiersquosnovelofthatnameandKhomeinirsquosjuridicalruling(fatwa)callingforRushdiersquosdeathMostMuslimscholarshavefoundittooshockingtobelievethattheProphetcouldhavemadesuchagrievouserrorandhavedeniedthatanysuch incidentever tookplaceYetsome

25

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

IwaschattingoneeveningwithsomecompanionswhentoourearscamethesoundofsomeonerecitingtheQurrsquoannearbyrecitingtheSuraoftheStar[al-Najm]andweinterruptedourconversationtolistentotheNobleQurrsquoanLittlebylittlemyheartenteredintowhatwasbeing recited into theheartofMuhammadashe jour-neyedtotheHeavenlyHostIwaswithhimashesawGabrielintheangelicforminwhichGodhadcreatedhimIwaswithhiminhis loftyandfree-flying journey to theLoteTreeof theBoundaryandtheGardenoftheRefugeIwaswithhimtotheextentthatmyimaginationcouldformavisionofitandtotheextentthatmyfeelings couldbear itThen came the final cry andmywholebeingshookatthefearfulreproachldquoDoyoumarvelatthisdiscourseanddoyoulaughandnotweepandmakemerryrdquo[Q5359ndash61]WhenIheardldquoBowdownbeforeGodandserveHimrdquo[Q5362]thetremblinginmyhearthadbecomeaphysicalandvisibletremblingthroughoutmybodythatIcouldnotresistMybodykeptshakingandIcouldnotcontrolitNorcouldIholdbackthetearsthatwerepouringforthhowevermuchItried(QutbZilalvol7part2774ndash75quotedfromCarreacute2003333ndash34withminorchanges)

TheQurrsquoanrsquosprofoundimpactontheaestheticsensibilitiesofitslisten-ersisafamiliarmotifindiscussionsofitsliteraryqualities(cfGrahamandKermani2006)AssomeonewhoseearlywritingswereconcernedwithArabicliterarycriticismandspecificallywiththeliteraryexcellenceoftheIslamicscripture(Qutb1949b)QutbwasespeciallyreceptivetothisaspectoftheQurrsquoanThesenseofbeingtransportedbacktothetimeoftheProphetandtowitnessingtheProphetrsquosascension(milsquoraj)tothepresence of Godmdashwhich is how the passage being commented on byQutbherehascommonlybeeninterpretedbytheexegetesmdashcanlikewisebeseenasanillustrationoftheoverpoweringimpactthewordsoftheQurrsquoancanhaveonthebelieverQutbrsquosaccountofconversingwithGodthrough the Qurrsquoan (cited earlier) is again something he may havewantedtoseeallbelieversdoYetallbelieverscanscarcelydosoany-morethanallaspirantsevenontheSufipathcanexperiencethetransfor-mativemysticalldquostatesrdquothatGodbestowsonHisspecialfriends(awlshyiya)IrrespectiveofwhetherhesawitinquitethiswayQutbrsquosassertionthatheisabletoenterldquointotheheartofMuhammadrdquoandtoseeGabrielasMuhammad sawhimsurelygiveshimaperspective thatothers en-counteringthewordofGoddonothave

ThepointisnotofcoursethatQutbwaseverrecognizedbyhisfol-lowersasaSufimasterbutthatsomeofthehermeneuticalauthorityheclaimshasadistinctiveSufiringtoitMorebroadlythesortofunques-

leadingscholarsofearlyandmedievalIslammdashincludingIbnTaymiyyamdashacceptedthehisto-ricityofthisincidentSeeSAhmed1998

26

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INTRODUCTION

tioningreligio-politicalauthorityIslamistleadershaveoftenenjoyedovertheirfollowersisnotunlikethatoftheSufimasteroverhisfollowersBe-ginningwithHasanal-BannathefounderoftheMuslimBrotherhoodandoncehimselfamemberofaSufiordertheleaderofthisorganizationis formally referred to as themurshid (guide)ormore specificallyalshymurshid alshylsquoam (thegeneralguide[RMitchell1993165])whichisafamiliartermforthemasterinSuficontextsForhispartAbdessalamYassine the founder and leader of lsquoAdl warsquol-Ihsan Party of Morocco(oftenreferredtoastheJusticeandSpiritualityAssociationorJSA)haslike Khomeini gone well beyond simply echoing Sufi conceptions ofauthorityinhisowndiscoursesHetoowasonceamemberofaMoroc-canSufiorderandhehascontinuedtodrawonSufithemesinhiswrit-ingsTheverynameofYassinersquospoliticalorganizationevokesacentralSufiideanamelyihsanThisisaQurrsquoanicterm(cfQ756)thattrans-latedliterallymeansldquotodogoodrdquothoughSufishaveunderstoodittomeanmuchmore thanthatFollowingawell-knownstatementattrib-uted to theProphetMuhammad theyhaveoften interpreted ihsan tomeangoingbeyondtheexternalsofIslamicritualpracticestoldquoworshipGodasifyouseeHimrdquo(Schimmel197529)thatiscultivatingasenseof personal communion and intimacy with God Even as Yassine hassoughttodistancehimselffromwhathedeemstobetheexcessesofSu-fismthereislittledoubtthathispoliticalappealowesmuchtocarefullycalibratedeffortstocombinedistinctiveSufiideaswithhisownbrandofIslamism(cfLauziegravere2005seealsochapter12onNadiaYassineinthisvolume)

FinallyMawdudirsquosJamalsquoat-iIslamimdashoneoftheearliestIslamistorga-nizations in the Sunni worldmdashillustrates both the Islamistsrsquo complexrelationshipwith Sufismand their pragmatic recognitionof its appealinmanyMuslimsocietiesMawdudihadoncebeenaharshcriticofSu-fismblamingitformanyillsafflictingMuslimsocietiesYettheJama-lsquoat-iIslamigraduallycametosoftenitsstanceonSufipracticesconsider-ablynodoubtintheinterestofbroadeningsomeofitssupportbaseinPakistanwheresaintsandSufishrinesareanimportantpartofthereli-giousandpoliticallandscapeAlreadyinMawdudirsquoslifetimeMianTufaylMuhammadhissuccessorastheheadoftheJamalsquoat-iIslamihadtakentheextraordinaryinitiativeoftranslatinganearlySuficlassictheKashf alshymahjub into Urdu The author of this work Shaykh lsquoAli Hujwiri(d1072)isburiedinLahoreinPakistanandhismuch-frequentedshrineishometoprecisely thesortofdevotionalpractices that Islamistsandmodernist reformers letaloneSalafishaveoften frownedupon (Nasr1996124)

ThesediverseexamplesarenotintendedtoobscuretherealdifferencesbetweenthegeneralityofIslamistsandmostSufisTheirsignificanceliesratherinillustratingthedifficultyofdistinguishingbetweenIslamismandotherreligiousintellectualandpoliticaltrendsintermsofneatcharac-

27

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

terizationsofgrandtranslocalgeneralizationsAstheforegoingsuggeststhesameistrueandmoresowhenitcomestocharacterizingIslamistsinrelationtothelsquoulamatheMuslimmodernistsandtheSalafisIndeedasLorenLybargerhasarguedwithreferencetothoseusuallycharacter-izedasldquosecularnationalistrdquoorldquoIslamistrdquoPalestiniansintheWestBankandGazadifferenceswithintheranksofyoungsecularnationalistsandIslamistscansometimesalsoshadeintosignificantsimilaritiesbetweenthesesupposedlyrivalorientations(Lybarger2007)ManyIslamistshavesoughttodistancethemselvesfromwhattheyseeastherigidityandau-thoritarianismofotherIslamistsandtoarguenotjustfortheimplemen-tationofthesharilsquoabutalsofordemocracyandpluralismConverselynot a few of the younger secular nationalists have ldquoadopted IslamisttheodiciesthatexplainedthefailuretoovercomeIsraelastheresultoffallingawayfrompietytheirconclusionsmirroredIslamistonestootheroadbackfromthebrinkhadtotraceitscoursethrougharenewedcom-mitmenttoIslambutnotnecessarilyinthemannerthattheIslamistmove-mentsmighthaveintendedrdquo(Lybarger2007237ndash38quotationat238)

Yet ifneatcategoriesremainelusiveacombinationoftheIslamistsrsquoself-consciouslypoliticalgoalstheirmultifacetedifnotalwaysexplicitpoliticalcritiquesofmanypastandpresentwaysofunderstandingandlivingIslamandanunshakeableconfidenceintheirownabilitytodis-cern Godrsquos will from the foundational texts do often provide enoughgrounds tobroadlydistinguish themfromotheractivists intellectualsand orientations in the Muslim public sphere What this combinationamountstovariesfromonesocialpoliticalreligiousandculturalcon-texttoanotherandsothereforedothewaysinwhichIslamistsrelatetooneanotherorcompeteandoverlapwithothergroupsandorientations

The Politics of Islamism

FromAeneasrsquosmythicalfoundingofRometothedeathandresurrectionofJesusChristtoMuhammadrsquosmigrationtoMedinafoundationalnar-rativesareascommontocollectivelifeasthemovementsthatperiodi-callyarisetorevivethemandclaimantstothemantleoflegitimacytheyconferSounderstoodIslamistsrsquopoliticalaspirationstorestorefounda-tionslocatedinamythicalpastarefarfromuniqueNorareIslamistsaloneintheirconvictionthatscripturalauthorityisguaranteedbyitsdi-vineauthormdashforinthatallMuslimsagreeRatherthechaptersinthisvolumesuggest thatwhatmakes Islamistpoliticsdistinctive (ifnotsui generis)istheclaimtorecuperateanldquoauthenticIslamrdquocomprisedofself-evidenttruthspurgedofalienandcorruptinginfluencesalongwithaninsistenceonremakingthefoundationsofthestateinitsimageGiventhelimitsofhumanunderstandingrelativetoGodrsquosknowledgeIslamistssimultaneouslydepictsuchfidelitytotheunadulteratedwordofAllahas

28

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

theultimateexpressionofdeferencetodivineomniscienceandportrayhumilityasaconstitutivefeatureofthehumanconditionAspirationstofullyknowandmasterthenaturalandsocialworldsthusentailnotonlyahumanhubrisdeaftotheQurrsquoanicadmonitionthatldquoAllahknowsbutandyoudonotknowrdquo(Q366)butalsoatransgressionagainstadi-vinely-ordainedontologicalorder

ItisnotablehoweverthattheIslamistemphasisonthelimitsofhumanknowledgerequireshumilityonlyinrelationtoAllahitrarelyyieldshu-milityinregardtotheirownclaimstospeakinHisnameortowardotherhumanbeingswhodissentfromthepremiseofdivineomnipotenceandIslamistaccountsofwhat it requiresThis suggests thatwhile IslamistchallengestostatepowerareobviouslypoliticaltheIslamistclaimtoau-thenticityisalsopolitical inthecoercivepoweritroutinelyenactsandjustifiesmostnotablybywayofthesilencesitimposesandthedebatesitforeclosesAzizal-Azmehpointsoutthatldquothenotionofauthenticityisnotsomuchadeterminateconceptasitisanodeofassociationsandin-terpellationsatropebymeansofwhichthehistoricalworldisreducedtoaparticularorderandatokenwhichmarksoffsocialandpoliticalgroupsandforgesandreconstituteshistoricalidentitiesrdquo(al-Azmeh199341)WhetherintheserviceofArabnationalismChristianfundamental-ismEuropeanromanticismorMuslimmodernismtheclaimofauthen-ticityisanactofpowerthatfunctionsnotjusttoreflecttheworldbuttoconstructitbydeterminingwhoisincludedandexcludedwhomayandmaynotspeakauthoritativelywhatistheproperrealmofdebateandwhatisbeyondcontestation

ItiscertainlythecasethatasingleldquoIslamrdquocapturesandorganizestheperspectivesofmillionswhoself-identifyasMuslim(amongotherthings)yetwhattravelsunderitsrubricisinescapablydiversemultiethnicanddefined asmuchbydisagreement as consensus Just as theTorah andBible lend themselves toat times radicallydivergent interpretationsofwhatitmeanstobeJewishorChristiantheQurrsquoanandhaditharecom-plexandsusceptibletomanydifferentandattimescontradictoryenact-mentsSounderstoodIslamislessafixedessencethanalivingtraditionthatcaptureswhatisimaginedascontinuousandunitaryindialecticalrelationshiptothoseconcretearticulationsandpracticesbywhichitistransformedandadaptedindifferentcontextsforpluralpurposesItispreciselythisunderstandingofreligionthatisanathematoIslamistswhoseek tofix theparametersof Islamicauthenticityonceandforallandtherebyarrogateforthemselvestherighttodeterminewhoqualifiesasagood Muslim to discredit those lsquoulama unable or unwilling to purgeIslamofpurportedimpietiestodeclarenominallyMuslimrulersapos-tatesunfittogovernandtocharacterizeallwhodisagreeascorrupthe-reticalguiltyofunbelieforvictimsoffalseconsciousness

Thesegeneralpoliticaltendencieshowevermustbecarefullysituatedwithinadialecticoftheglobalandthevernacularunderstoodtoreflect

29

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INTRODUCTION

thewaysinwhichunifyingmacrohistoricaldynamicsinformandareinturntransformedbydiversecontingentandfluidlocalcircumstancesInaworldstampedbyWesterndominanceandtheconsolidationofpostco-lonial authoritarian regimes Islamists confront a common set of con-straintsandchallengesInasmuchassuchconstraintsandchallengeshavemade Islamist thinkers (often reluctant) participants in conversationsacrossbothcultureandhistorytheireffortstoremakethefoundationsofcollectiveliferevealasharedinterpretiveframeworkandcommonreli-gio-political grammar At the same time this frame and grammar arecontinuallybeingreworkedinrelationtothedistinctpublicspheresinwhichIslamistsoperateandtowhichtheycarefullycalibratetheirpoliti-calcommitments

Attention to this complex dynamic suggests that the Islamist move-mentcannotsimplybecharacterizedasviolentantidemocraticandop-pressiveofwomenlabelsinvokedsofrequentlyinscholarlyandpopularliterature on the subject that they have become virtually synonymouswithIslamistpoliticsSuchcharacterizationsdocapturecrucialdimen-sionsofIslamistpoliticsyettheyalsosidesteptheparadoxesitsvarie-gatedandoftencontradictoryexpressionspresentInsteadwearguethatIslamistpoliticscanbeproductivelyreadin terms ofandagainst the grain ofsuchbroadcategorizationsasantidemocraticantiwomanorviolentmdashthat is as commitments that at different moments in various localesbothencourageandconstrainbroad-basedpoliticalparticipationdisruptandratifyhierarchicalgendernormsresistandreproducestate-sanctionedbrutalityThepointofreadingIslamistpoliticsinthiswayisnottosug-gestthatIslamistsaresecretlydemocraticfeministandopposedtovio-lenceRatherthepointistodrawattentiontothecomplexityandcon-tradictionserasedbyeasygeneralizationsontheonehandandtheoftenunacknowledgedfluidityandculturaladaptabilityofotherwisefamiliarpoliticalcategoriesontheother

Islamism and Democracy

DespiteimportantdifferencesamongIslamistthinkerstheyhaveincom-monatendencytoviewhumansovereigntyastransgressiveofdivinelawandsharetheaspirationtoestablishsharilsquoaastheprimaryorsolesourceofauthorityAsisoftennotedsuchpremisesandaspirationsrunafoulofassumptionsaboutpopularruleattheheartofdemocracynamelythathumanbeingshavetherighttolegislaterulesforcollectivebehaviorandarecapableofthewisdomrequiredtodevisejustlawsInrecentyearspolicymakersandcommentatorshaveevincedaparticularpreoccupa-tionwiththewaysinwhichIslamistnotionsofdivineauthoritythrottlethespiritandpracticeofpopularsovereigntySomehaveevengonesofarastocharacterizeIslamistsasldquoIslamo-fascistsrdquoanimatedbyhatredoftheldquodemocratic Westrdquo psychologically unable to contend with the fluidity

30

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

andindeterminacythatmarkpopularruleandeagertoconvertelectionsintoaldquoone-manone-voteone-timerdquomechanismforestablishinganIs-lamicstate(Murdock2002MRubin2005Kramer1993)

SuchviewsareechoedbythoseIslamistskeentoportraydemocracynotonlyasantitheticaltothesupremacyofdivinelawbutasaTrojanhorseforWesternimperialismFormanyIslamistsincludingseveralinthis volumedemocracy is justone symptomofametastasizingmoralandspiritualbankruptcywherebymoraltransgressionsaretransfiguredintonaturalurgescrassself-interestbecomesthebedrockofcollectivelifeandthedivineplanfortheuniverseandallthingsinitisreducedtoa system of physical causality just waiting to be mastered by way ofhumaningenuity(REuben2007)Qutbcallsthisdiseasedviewoftheworldjahiliyyaanditsignalsnotonlyhumanarrogancebutatransgres-sionagainstdivineauthoritythescopeofwhichencompassesbothpub-licandprivatedomainsofhumanaffairsaswellasbothvisibleandun-seendimensionsoftheuniverseFormanyIslamistssuchtransgressionisattherootofmuchofwhatpassesforMuslimruleinthecontemporaryworldmdashnationalistdemocraticandmonarchicalalikeSucharroganceisalsosaidtobethepatternunderlyingalonghistoryofunrelievedWest-ernaggressionagainstIslaminwhichtheChristianCrusadesEuropeancolonialismIsraelitreatmentofPalestiniansethniccleansinginBosniaGermananti-TurkishviolencetheAmericaninvasionofIraqandDutchcartoonsofMuhammadarebutafewexamples

YetthereisarangeofviewsamongIslamistsaboutboththesubstanceofdemocracyanditscompatibilitywiththereligio-politicalrenewaltheyadvocateAccordingtoQaradawiforexampleldquotheessenceofdemoc-racyisthatpeoplechoosewhorulesoverthemandmanagestheiraf-fairsthatnorulerorregimetheydislikeisforceduponthemthattheyhavetherighttocalltherulertoaccountifheerrsandtoremovehimfromofficeincaseofmisconductandthatpeoplearenotforcedineco-nomicsocialculturalorpoliticaldirectionsthattheyneitherrecognizenor acceptrdquo (Qaradawi1997132 also chapter9 in this volume)TohimthereisnoheavierburdenoppressingMuslimsinthecontemporaryworld thandespotism indeed it is throughdespoticgovernments thatMuslimshavebeenforcedtosubmittootherillsincludingtheneglectofthesharilsquoaandthecoerciveimpositionofsecularismandwesternizationDemocracy then recommends itself to Qaradawi as the most effectiveavailableantidotetodespotismandtheafflictionsofwhichitservesasavehicle

WheremanyamongtheIslamistsandthelsquoulamahaveseenconsider-able tensionbetween IslamanddemocracyQaradawiprofesses to seenoneAswesuggestedearlierbyfarthemostcommonoftheIslamistreservationsaboutademocraticsystemrelatestothesovereigntyofthepeoplewhichistakentocontravenetheideathatGodaloneissovereignQaradawi however is unperturbedby such concernsThe rule of the

31

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

peopleoughttobeseenhearguesnotinoppositiontotheruleofGodbutratherinoppositiontotheruleofthedespotMorefundamentallyQaradawirsquos view of democracy does not necessarily require that thepeopleshouldbeabletooverturndivinelyinstitutednormsRatherhisassumptionisthatpeopleexercisetheirsovereigntywithinconstitutionalboundsandMuslimslivinginapredominantlyMuslimdemocraticpol-itywouldlikewisenotwishtotransgresstheparametersoflegitimatehumanactionlaiddownintheIslamicfoundationaltexts(seeQaradawichapter9inthisvolumeandcfFeldman2007)

NadiaYassineofMoroccorsquosJusticeandSpiritualityAssociationisan-othercaseinpointWhilecriticalofthedemocraticgesturesembracedbyamonarchythatshedepictsasallergictogenuinelypopularsovereigntyYassineinsiststhatthemodelofMuslimruleadumbratedintheummafoundedbytheProphetMuhammadandinparticulartheConstitutionofMedina17isnothingshortofdemocratic(NYassine2005d2005e)UnliketheMuslimdynastiesthatarosetousurpitYassinecontendsthiscommunity was participatory egalitarian committed to freedom andexpressiveofGodrsquosmercyMostimportantitwasgovernedalwaysbytheQurrsquoanicprincipleofshura (consultation)bywhichYassinemeansaphilosophy of power that places sovereignty in the community ratherthaninanyindividuallinksvirtuetodeliberationratherthanobedienceandexhortsbelieverstocontinuallyadaptQurrsquoanicprinciplesthroughijtihad rather than adhere reflexively to precedent (N Yassine 2006a182ndash862005d)ManyscholarsandjournalistsremainskepticaloftheJSArsquosasyetuntestedcommitment toproceduraldemocracyandworrythatNadiaandher fatherAbdessalamultimatelyseektoestablishanIslamic state inhospitable to tolerance pluralism and civil liberties(Maghraoui2001Brandon2007Whitlock2006)YetothersarguethattheJSAisagenuinelypopulistorganizationthatrepresentstheunrepre-sentedtendstothewelfareofthedispossessedandbothexpressesandcontributestoanincreasinglyvibrantcivilsocietyinMorocco(Cavatorta2006Entelis2002)

QaradawirsquosandYassinersquosargumentstogethersuggestthatdemocracycanandhasservedaseitheracosmeticcoverfordespotismoranauthen-ticallyIslamiccheckuponcorruptandarbitraryruleAtissueinIslamistargumentsforandagainstdemocracythenarenotonlywhatcountsasldquoauthenticIslamrdquoandtheintentionsofthosewhoclaimtoknowitbutalsothecontentandcharacterofdemocracyitselfParadoxicallybothIslamistsopposedtodemocracyandthosewhotakeIslamismasinher-entlyantidemocraticregardthisasasimplematterwithanobviousan-swerdemocracyisanexpressionofandevensynonymouswithliberal-ismcapitalismandtheWestYetdemocracyisbothmorecapaciousand

17TheConstitutionofMedinawasanagreementtheProphethadenteredintowiththelocalcommunitiesincludingJewishtribesuponhisemigrationfromMeccatoMedina

32

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

moredistinctthanthispresumptionsuggestsTheworditselfofcoursederivesfromtheancientGreekdemokratiawhichmeansrule(kratos)ofthepeople(demos)andmanyderivetheequationofdemocracyandtheWestfromthisassociationwithclassicalGreeceYetancientGreekphi-losopherssuchasPlatosawindemocracythespecterofmobrulepartic-ularly vulnerable to demagoguery and despotism (a suspicion notablyechoedbyAmerican founder JamesMadison)Contrary to thedemo-cratic idealof inclusivenessmoreover citizenship inGreekdemocracyexcludedasubstantialpartofthepopulationincludingwomenslavesandforeignersFinallytheextenttowhichtheancientGreeksmayevenbecalledWesternisamatterofgreatdisputeparticularlyastheldquoWestrdquoisacategoryofrelativelyrecentprovenancethroughwhichhistoryandgeographyhavebeenretroactivelyorganized18DespitedepictionsoftheHellenicworldasWesternancientGreeksdidnotinfactviewthem-selvesintheseterms19

TheequationofdemocracywiththeWestalsopresupposestheexis-tenceofacoherentldquoWesterncivilizationrdquowitheitherculturallyhomoge-neousrootsorclearlydelineatedhistoricalandcontemporarybounda-riesorbothYetwhatiscalledtheWestisanamalgamationofmultipletraditionsincludingtheGreekRomanJudaicChristianandIslamicmdashtraditionsthatarethemselvespolyvalentratherthanhomogeneousmdashandistodaycharacterizedbyporousbordershybridsubculturesandmyriaddebtstodiversecivilizationspastandpresent20AsageographicmarkeritisvirtuallyimpossibletopinpointexactlywheretheWestbeginsandendsandthisisespeciallysonowthatpeoplesinformationandmate-rial goods crisscross cultural andnational borders atwill creating allkindsoftransnationalsubnationalandmultipleidentitiesthatshiftandreconstitutethemselvesinunpredictablewaysEventhosevaluesidenti-fiedasWesternoftenappearelsewhereinotherguisesIndeedscholarssuggestthatavarietyoftheldquostandardsexportedbytheWestanditscul-turalindustriesthemselvesturnouttobeofculturallymixedcharacterifweexaminetheirculturallineagesrdquo(Pieterse199553)

Manyalsoarguethatdemocracyisnotonlydistinctfrombutinten-sionwithboththetheoryandpracticeofpoliticsinldquoWesternrdquosocieties

18MichaelGillespie(19997ndash10)arguesthattherereadingofhistorygeographyandculturethroughtheprismofthissenseofldquotheWestrdquobegannoearlierthanthenineteenthcenturyTheideaofatimelessandbrightlinebetweenWestandEastisalsochallengedbyJeremyBrottonrsquosstudy(19989096ndash97)ofthediplomaticandintellectualexchangesbe-tweenEuropeandtheOttomanEmpireintheearlymodernperiodBrottonshowsnotonlytheextentandamityofsuchexchangesbutapersistentuncertaintyaboutwherepreciselyEuropeldquoendedrdquoandAsialdquobeganrdquo

19AncientGreeksunderstoodthemselvesasgeographicallywestofthebarbariansbutnotWesterninthecontemporarysensethatisasbothaculturalandhistoricalcategory

20StevenRuncimanrsquoswork(19543480)ontheCrusadesforexampledemonstratesaldquolongsequenceofinteractionandfusionbetweenOrientandOccidentoutofwhichourcivilizationhasgrownrdquo

33

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

many of which are more accurately classified as liberal and capitalist(Wood1994Wolin2001BallandDagger1999)Whileitisnowcom-monplacetospeakofldquoliberaldemocracyrdquoinasinglebreathliberalismanddemocracyareconceptsandpracticeswithverydifferenthistoriesandpresuppositionsUnlikedemocracyforexampleliberalismemergedfromthecrucibleofChristianreligiouswarsandintandemwiththeas-cendanceofamiddleclassthatpresagedtheendofEuropeanfeudalismTheliberalnation-statecanthusbeviewedasbothanexpressionandaconsolidationofcapitalismontheonehandandtheprincipleofasepa-rationbetweenchurchandstateontheotherBycontrastthereisnoth-ingaboutdemocracyeitherasasystemofgovernanceoracultureofpar-ticipationthatisinherentlysecularIndeedAlexisdeTocquevillefamouslyinsistedthatAmericandemocracycannotandshouldnotbesecularasreligionhelpsshiftattentionawayfromimmediatematerialpreoccupa-tionstolargerconcernsofcommunitycooperationandmoralityInfactmanydemocratictheoristsarguethatgenuinelyinclusivepopularsover-eignty is antithetical to the sharp inequalities of wealth and politicalpowerthatcapitalismoftenproducesandlegitimates

SuchongoingdefinitionalandsubstantivedebatessuggestthatthereismuchmoreatstakeindemocraticpoliticsthanprocedurespertainingtogovernmentauthorityandorderandpointtoawidespreadifelusiveunderstandingofdemocracynotjustasasetofinstitutionsbutasTocque-villesuggestsawayoflifeSeveralpoliticaltheoristshavecharacterizedthiselusiveunderstandingintermsofaldquodemocraticethosrdquoBythistheymeanbothanidealandanargumentforacultureofparticipationactivepowersharingmutualaccountabilityinclusivenessanddeliberationinwhichcitizensmayroutinelyandsafelychallengenotonlyspecificpoli-ciesandpolitical institutionsbutalso thevalues thatgoverncollectivelifeprinciplesofinclusionandexclusionandthepremisesofauthorityitself(Connolly1995JPEuben2003Sadiki2004)AdemocraticethosismuchmoredifficulttomeasureorquantifythanforexampleSamuelHuntingtonrsquosparsimoniousdefinitionofdemocracyasapolityinwhichtherehavebeentwoconsecutivepeacefulchangesofgovernmentbywayof freeand fairelections (Huntington1991)21Yetademocraticethosmakesitpossibletobothrecognizeanddisaggregatethepreconditionsaspirations mechanisms and institutions bundled into ldquodemocracyrdquotherebybringingintofocusforexamplethefrequentlyantidemocratic

21Manypoliticalscientistsprefertodefinedemocracyintermsofproceduresdesignedtorealizepopularruleincludingfreecompetitiveandfairelectionsalongwithstateprotec-tionofcertainrightsandlibertiesSuchaformalminimalistdefinitionhastheadvantageofdetachingdemocracyfromquestionsoforiginsandofferingastandardtowhichallgov-ernmentsmaybeheldregardlessofcultureandplaceAsKeithTopper(2005205ndash7)ar-gueshoweveritalsotendstosidestepknottyquestionsaboutthesubstanceofrepresenta-tion power responsiveness and accountability that are arguably central to democraticpolitics

34

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

casttoelectionsimposedbyelitesorforeignpowersthefeltimpotenceofmanycitizensinestablisheddemocraciesandthosehighlyparticipa-torycivilsocietiesthatflourishevenundermonarchicortheocraticrule

Forourpurposes inparticularademocraticethosmakesvisible theparadoxofanIslamistmovementthatseekstomobilizeordinaryMus-limsagainstcoercivepowerbutinthenameofareligio-politicalorderlargelyimmunizedfromchallengeQutbisanaptillustrationhereashistendencytogroundhisownspecialauthorityandinsightintheunsulliedwisdomofordinarybelieversmakesitpossibletoreadhisworkaseitherabriefagainstdemocracy(amongotherthings)oranenactmentofitIn-asmuchasdemocracyasaformofgovernanceisidentifiedwithpopularsovereigntyQutbrsquosbasicpremisethat thefoundationof legitimateau-thoritymustbedivineratherthanhumansuggeststhatheisunambigu-ouslyantidemocraticMoreoverQutbrsquoseffortstopluralizereligiousandpolitical authority express not a confidence in common wisdom butratheradesiretoclaimforhimselfthestatureofareligiousexpertwhodespitehislackofIslamicacademiccredentialscanclearlyseewhatoth-erscannotQutbcharacterizestherealIslamasself-evidentbuthealsoassumesthatonlyasmallvanguardofbelieversbesideshimselfwillhavetheabilitytorecognizeitandactdecisivelytoremaketheworldinitsimageSounderstoodthesignofldquochosennessrdquoisunyieldingcommitmenttoestablishingareligio-politicalorderthatsimultaneouslypresumesthesupremacyofthefewcapableoftrueknowledgeandpromisesaworldinwhichdissentitselfwillbecomebothunnecessaryandillegitimate

Yetifdemocracyrefersnotonlytoasystemofgovernanceorsetofprocedurestorealizepopularsovereigntybutalsotopracticesthatdis-ruptthoseforceswhichconcentratepowerandestablishpoliticalexclu-sionthecharacterizationofQutbrsquosworkassimplyantidemocraticmissesa crucial dimensionof its significance and appealAs the sacred textscontaintherulesandregulationsmeanttogovernbothpublicandpri-vateaffairsQutbrsquosinsistencethatordinaryuntrainedMuslimsmusten-gagethemdirectlyisinmanywaysademocratizationofaccesstoau-thoritySuchaccesscandisruptdeeplyentrenchedpatternsofpowerandpowerlessness particularlywhen conjoined to Islamist arguments thatarbitrarypowerisun-Islamicthatreligiousknowledgedependsoncom-mitmentratherthantrainingorexpertise thatMuslimshavetherightandobligationtodeterminewhenrulersareillegitimateandthatthosewhopreferordertojusticesecuritytofreedomandmoneytopietyhaveforfeitedanyclaimtoauthority

ThisaspectofIslamismhasfrequentlybeencomparedtotheProtestantReformationandmorespecificallytoCalvinistsrsquoattemptstotransferldquore-ligiousauthorityawayfromofficiallysanctionedindividualswhointer-prettextstoordinarycitizensrdquo(EGoldberg19913alsocfLoimeier2005)Suchaparallelhassparkedagreatdealofscholarlyspeculation

35

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

regardingapossibleldquoIslamicReformationrdquo22andarangeofargumentsaboutwhetherandhowIslamismmightfacilitatethedemocratizationofMuslim societies much as the Protestant Reformation is said to haveheralded the emergence of European ldquoliberal democracyrdquo While suchcomparisonsareevocativeafullerunderstandingof IslamismrequiresfirstsituatingitinrelationtoahistoricalshiftinthenatureandlocusofreligiousauthorityinIslambeginninginthenineteenthcenturyAsschol-arsofMuslimsocietieshavepointedouttheimpactofmasseducationnewtechnologiesfordisseminatingknowledgeandinformationanddra-matically changed social economic and political contexts have madeavailabletoamateurswhathadpreviouslybeenthepurviewofreligiousexpertsAtthesametimeithasinauguratedafragmentationofauthor-itywithintheveryranksofthelsquoulamathatcontinuestothepresentday23

InthiscontexttheascendanceandinfluenceofautodidactssuchasQutbHasanal-BannalsquoAbdal-SalamFarajandBinLadensimultaneouslyex-pressandaccelerateanongoingrenegotiationofauthorityoverwhomayspeakforIslamandonwhatbasisthepathofwhichisstillunfoldingandtheoutcomeasyetuncertain

Islamism and Gender

One already apparent consequence of this ongoing renegotiation overwhomayspeakforIslamandonwhatbasisistheentryofwomenintothe interpretive fray This development is increasingly unsettling thoseunwrittengendernormsarguablyattheveryheartofIslamistthoughtdisruptingthestandardsofmasculinityandfemininitythatreflecthowparticularculturesorganizehumanbeingsrsquosocialandreproductiveactiv-itiesintorolesthatareinturnthoughttoexpresstheldquonaturerdquoofmenand women Such norms are frequently considered tangential to theknottyproblemsofdefiningIslamismandadumbratingitscentralideasyetarangeofscholarshiponculturespastandpresenthasshownthatgenderisconsistentlytheterrainoverwhichbattlesforpoliticalcontrolandculturalidentityarefoughtMorespecificallyresearchindisciplinessuchasanthropologyhistoryclassicsandpostcolonialstudieshasdem-onstratedthatculturesinwhichfemalebodiesandbehaviorareregardedas indicesofmoralpurity tend to symbolically transformwomen intoconduitsof cultural corruption in timesof internal crisis and externalthreat(Papenek1994Chatterjee1990Tavakoli-Targhi1991Just1989Cohen1991Welter1966Bloch1978)Thisisespeciallytrueofcontem-

22Foralatenineteenth-centuryassessmentoftheprospectsforaldquoMuhammadanRefor-mationrdquoseeBlunt1882132ndash73

23EickelmanandPiscatori199637ndash39131ndash35Zaman2006Suchfragmentationhasinmanywaysbeenacceleratedbytheexplosionofdigitalcultureswhichpromoteamongotherthingsaldquoformofempoweredamateurismrdquo(Mirzoeff20026)

36

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

poraryreligio-politicalmovementswhosememberstendtoldquoidealizepa-triarchalstructuresofauthorityandmoralityrdquoendorsegenderdualismasgod-givenornaturalandcondemnvigorouslyrecentchangesingen-derrelationsasasymptomandsymbolofsecularistmoralbankruptcy(Riesebrodt1993Moghadam1992Hawley1994)

SeveralchaptersinthisvolumeilluminateIslamistgendernormsbyre-vealing thecharacterandcontentof Islamistconcernsabout theplaceandpurityofMuslimwomenmdashpreoccupationsFatimaMernissi(199199)hasgonesofarastocharacterizeasanobsessionDespiteimportantdifferences among Islamists thinkers many endorse gender norms inwhichthefairlyconventionalinsistencethatfemalenatureisdefinedinand through reproduction undergirds an understanding of women assymbolsofmoralvirtueandvesselsofculturalpurityThisviewsustainstheclaimthatmenandwomenareequalinreligiousbeliefbutperformfundamentallydifferentandcomplementaryfunctionsinsocietyWhilemenarenaturallymadetoruleinboththepublicandprivatedomainawomanbelongsinthedomesticrealmwhereherprimaryroleistobeawifeandmotheraswellastoinsuretheintegrityofthefamilythefirstschoolofmoraleducationAssuchfunctionsarerootedinaninescap-ablehumannaturefashionedbyGodawomanrsquosinabilityorunwilling-nesstoperformherdutiessignalsadisobediencetothedivinewillandpresages the corruption of the Muslim family from within From thisvantagepointtheWesterninsistenceonfullequalitybetweenthesexesisdoubly pernicious it at once liberates women from basic moral con-straintsandenslavesthemtomutuallyreinforcingsexualandcapitalistexploitationAsMurtazaMutahhari(1998xxxi)arguescapitalismmakesuseofwomentomarket itsgoodsldquoby trading inhonourandrespectthrough[their]powertoenticerdquotherebyldquotransform[ing]manintoaninvoluntaryagentofconsumptionrdquoInasmuchaswomenareresponsiblefor producing the next generation of Muslim men destined to restoreIslamtoitsformergloryitisnotonlythevirtueofwomenortheinteg-rityofthefamilythathangsinthebalancebutthefutureofIslamiccivili-zationitself

Zaynab al-Ghazali andMutahharimake several of these argumentsexplicitlyandindetail(seechapters10and11)butinmuchofIslamistrhetoricthenatureandsignificanceofwomenareestablishedindirectlyandsymbolicallyandthroughthreerecurrentimagesinparticularThefirstisofwomenassilentsymbolsofculturalmoralandsexualvulnera-bilityvoicelessfiguresinneedofmasculineprotectionorwhenitistoolatedefiledbodiesthatmutelydemandvengeanceSoforexamplelsquoAb-dallahlsquoAzzam(oneofBinLadenrsquosmentorsseechapter18)graphicallydetailstheagonizinghumiliationofyoungmenunabletoactwhentheAfghanwoman isldquocryingout forhelpher childrenarebeing slaugh-tered her women are being raped the innocent are killed and theircorpsesscatteredrdquo(lsquoAzzam1987a)Inthesecondimagewomenfunction

37

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

muchlikeachorusthatspeaksinpermittedcadencestoratifymasculineendeavorsSuchisthecaseforexampleinBinLadenrsquos1996ldquoDeclara-tionofWaragainsttheAmericansOccupyingtheLandoftheTwoHolyPlacesrdquo(seechapter18)wherethewomenexhortmentojihadinthefollowing way ldquoPrepare yourself like a struggler the matter is biggerthanwordsAreyougoingtoleaveusforthewolvesofKufr[unbe-lief]eatingourwingsWherearethefreemendefendingfreewomenbyarmsDeath isbetter than life inhumiliation Some scandals andshameswillneverbeotherwiseeradicatedrdquo24InthethirdimagewomenarecreaturesnotofthisworldbutofanothervirginalrewardsforthecourageousmartyrintheafterlifeThisisevidentinthefinalinstructionsforthe911hijackersforexamplewhereMuslimldquobrothersrdquoareurgedto purify their carnal impulses sharpen their knives for the dhabh (slaughter)andheedthecallofthehur lsquoayn (theblack-eyedones)await-ingtheminParadise(seechapter19)

Such rhetoric primarily registers women as an extensionmirror ormeasure of masculinity and together with explicit Islamist argumentsabouthumannatureandthefamilyarticulatesIslamistgendernormsinwhichmenandwomeneachhaveaproperlocationandpurposeinadi-vinely ordained social hierarchy Deviance from this gendered scriptthussignalsdisruptionofamuchbroaderreligio-politicalorderitbothpresumes and seeks to bring into existence The disruption caused byforeign aggression in particular exacerbates the tendency to translateconflict into an assault on Muslim masculinity and to conceptualizewomenaspotentialvehiclesforWesterncorruptioninneedofguidingand guarding Women such as Zaynab al-Ghazali and Nadia Yassinewho seek a prominent place and voice within the Islamist movementhavehadlittlechoicebuttocontendwiththisgenderedscriptDoingsohasentailedamongotherthingsnavigatingcarefullybetweenIslamistcharacterizations of womenrsquos visibility and agency as symptomatic ofthe new jahiliyya on the one hand and essentializing arguments thatequateIslamwithveilingfemalegenitalmutilationandhonorkillingsontheother

AsthechaptersonGhazaliandYassinesuggestIslamistwomenhavenegotiatedbetweensuchconstraintsandpressuresandtheirownambi-tionsindifferentwaysApioneeringdalsquoiya(onewhoinvitesMuslimstogreater piety)Ghazalirsquos own life reveals a fierce resistance to conven-tionalnormsofdomesticityevenasmuchofher(earlier)workappearsto embrace an Islamist gender ideology that defines women as wivesmothers andldquobuilders ofmenrdquo (al-Hashimi 1990 118)By contrastYassineisawifeandmotherwhoembracesanldquoIslamicfeminismrdquothatrequiresldquoreappropriatingtheinstrumentsofclassicaltheologyrdquoanden-

24TheIslamistjournalSawt alshyJihadhasgonesofarastofeatureldquowomenrsquosvoicesrdquointheformofrolemodelsnamedforexampleumm alshyshahid(motherofthemartyr)al-thoughitisunclearthattheseldquovoicesrdquoareactuallywomenrsquos(SUsher2004)

38

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INTRODUCTION

gaging the textsdirectly through ijtihad (NYassine2003) In this re-spect Yassine must be understood as part of a broader effort amongMuslimwomenwithdifferentpoliticalcommitmentstosimultaneouslyadvocateandenacttheirrighttorecuperatetheldquooriginalintentrdquooftheIslamictextsIfwomenandmendoinfacthavedistinctperspectivesontheworldYassinesuggestswomenhaveaspecialobligationtoexcavatewhattheyseeasthegenderparityoftheQurrsquoanburiedbeneaththoseldquomachointerpretationsrdquoofIslamuponwhichmenhavebuilttheirprivi-legeandpower(Khalaf2006)25

ManyAnglo-AmericanandEuropean feministsworry that Islamistsseekonly to secureor restorepatriarchalpowerConverselymany Is-lamist women view feminism as a term and a movement inescapablyWesterninoriginfreightedwiththelegacyofcolonialismanduneasilyimplicatedinculturalimperialismThisapplieseventoYassinewhoisunwillingtoadoptwithoutqualificationalabelsheassociateswithagen-dasopposedtoherowntheWesttheMoroccanstateMaghribi(North-westAfrican)elitesYetfeminismitselfisahighlycontestedtermwithin theso-calledWestitisthebearerofmultiplemeaningssomeofwhichareevenopposedandischaracterizedbydeepdisagreementsaboutwhowomenarewhatwomenneedwhoisauthorizedtoworkonwomenrsquosbehalf andbywhatmeans Inasmuch as these various feminismsmayshareonlyastatedconcernforwomenrsquoswelfarethereisnothinginco-herentinmodifyingldquofeminismrdquowithldquoIslamicrdquoldquoMuslimrdquoorevenldquoIs-lamistrdquounlessone iscommitted toarguing thatfirst Islam isanun-changingessencebeyondhistorypoliticsandculturesecondthereisaneutralobjectivevantagefromwhichtoidentifythisessenceonceandforallandfinallytheIslamicessencesoidentifiedisfundamentallyin-compatiblewitheffortstoimprovetheconditionsandqualityofwomenrsquoslivesBythesametokenIslamistwomenwhorejectthetermfeminismcanbe(althoughnotalwaysare)deeplycommittedtoimprovingwom-enrsquoswelfareaswellasactivelyresistanttoeffortsthatreduceortrans-formthemintosilentaccessoriesofmalepower

YassineandGhazalidifferaboutwhatwomenareandshouldbeyetbroadlyspeakingbothmaybeconsideredpartofarecenttrendtowardthe feminizationofdalsquowa Dalsquowa literallymeanscallappealor sum-monsbutthetermhascometosignifyavarietyofpracticesandargu-mentsmeanttoexhortinviteandguideMuslimstowhatisregardedasproperconductandmoraldevotionWomenrsquosparticipationindalsquowais

25WomenrsquosparticipationintheldquoproductionofofficialIslamicknowledgerdquohasalonghistoryalthoughtheyhaveoftendonesoinrelativeobscurityandwithoutthebenefitofeducation in the Islamicsciences thathas legitimateddirectengagementwith thesacredtexts (Cooke 2001 xiv Badran and Cooke 2004) Pioneering attempts to read genderequalityinIslamarealsonotconfinedtowritingbywomenasevincedbyQasimAminrsquosTahrir alshymarrsquoa [TheLiberationofWoman] (1899)andMumtaz lsquoAlirsquosHuquqshye niswan [TheRightsofWomen](1898)

39

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

notabrandnewphenomenonasisevidentinGhazalirsquosworkwiththeEgyptianSocietyofMuslimLadiesinthe1930sYetfromEgypttoPaki-stantoSaudiArabiatotheUnitedStatesthenumberoffemaledalsquoiyashasproliferatedexponentially inrecentyears(Cooke2001Mahmood2005Hirschkind2006)Thisreflectsinpartcurrentdoctrinalempha-sesondalsquowaasincumbentuponbothmenandwomenanddependentlessupontechnicalknowledgethanmoralvirtueandpracticalfamiliaritywiththeIslamictradition(Mahmood200565ndash66)It isalsoaconse-quenceofrecentpoliticalandsocioeconomictransformationsinMuslimsocietiesincludingtheexpansionofmasseducationthathasnotonlyin-creasedwomenrsquosliteracyandsocialmobilitybutalsomadeIslamictextsmoreaccessibletheproliferationoftechnologiesmdashfromthecassettetapetotheInternetmdashthatfacilitatethecirculationofreligiousknowledgeevenamongthosewhocannotreadortraveltheprecedentsetbythevigorousparticipationof IranianwomeninpostrevolutiondebatesaboutIslamandthemodeloflegalactivismevidentintheIslamistmovementrsquosownchallenge to the lsquoulamarsquos status as gatekeepers of religious knowledge(Singerman2005Mir-Hosseini1999)

If Ghazali and Yassine exemplify the feminization of dalsquowa amongelitesthemosquemovementinEgyptillustratesthegrowingparticipa-tionofwomenfromdiversesocialbackgroundsinreligiousclassesde-votedtostudyinganddebatingwhatIslamrequiresforawomantobeldquomorallyuprightrdquointhecontemporaryworld(Mahmood2005)Con-ceptualizingpiety in termsof adeepandholistic commitment to self-transformationparticipantsinthemosquemovementareconcernedlesswithmattersofsovereigntyandpoliticsconventionallyunderstoodandmorewiththeldquomoralcultivationrdquoofthosedailypracticesseenascrucialtobecomingclosertoGod(Mahmood2005)SomeIslamistshavecriti-cizedthis focusonpracticesofworshipasapoliticalandoverlypriva-tizedyetsuchcriticismmissestheforceofIslamistsrsquoowninsistenceondin(religion)asawayoflifeinwhichthedomainsofpublicandprivateare inextricably linked26AsSabaMahmood (2005193194) showsthesewomenrsquosintenseeffortsatldquoretrainingethicalsensibilitiesrdquohavealdquosociopoliticalforcerdquothatextendswellbeyondmattersofgovernancefacilitatingnolessthantheemergenceofaldquonewsocialandmoralorderrdquoEvidenceofitstransformativepowermaybefoundnotonlyinthesheernumbersandvarietyofwomenmdashwealthyandpoor literateand illiter-atemdashparticipatinginthemosquemovementbutalsointherhetoricalandpoliticaleffortsbythestateandsomeIslamiststocurtailcontrolordis-creditit(Mahmood200571194)

26ParticipantsinthemosquemovementinturnareoftencriticalofwhattheyseeasthereductionofIslamtotokensofculturalauthenticityorofitsinstrumentalizationbybothnationalistsandIslamiststheycharacterizeasmoreinterestedinpoliticalmaneuveringthanreligiouspiety

40

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

Understoodtoincludebothwrittenandembodiedpracticesthefemi-nizationof dalsquowa illustrates theways inwhichwomen fromdifferentperspectivesandsocialclassesareinsistingonengagingthesacredtextsdirectly for and with one another without the mediating authority ofmenwhohavetraditionallyheldthemonopolyonsuchactivitiesAsSu-danese Islamist Lubabah al-Fadl argues ldquoAs an insan [human being]whohappenstobeawomanIhavearighttorejectthemanipulativeexegesesofoursharilsquoa thatthreatenmyexistenceinawaythat isnotconsistentwiththeGodlywayandtoapplymyownijtihadtorectifyer-roneoustendenciesbysomeshuyukh[pluralofshaykh]rdquo(Sadiki2004290)DespitetheproliferationofvoicesintentonclaimingforthemselvestheauthoritytodemarcatewhatisauthenticallyIslamicandun-Islamiconceandforallcontestationoveritsscopeandmeaningproceedsapacefacilitatedatleastinpartbywomenformerlyexcludedfromtheconver-sationAtthesametimeIslamistwomenrsquosagencyandclaimstoauthorityarefrequentlystillpredicatedonawillingnesstofollowfairlypatriarchalrulesaboutwherehowandwithwhomtheymaypracticetheirvocation(Hirschkind2003Sadiki2004283)

Islamism and Violence

IfgenderisfrequentlyanimplicitpreoccupationamongIslamistsjihadisarguably Islamistsrsquomost consistently explicit concern Jihad is derivedfromtheArabicverbthatmeanstostruggleortostriveyetitisaparticu-larkindofstruggle that isofconcern tomanyof thefigurescollectedheretheoftenviolentstruggleagainstapostatesandinfidelsbothathomeandabroadtowhicheveryindividualMuslimmustcontributeTheclaimthatfightingunbelieversisthepreeminentenactmentofindividualMus-limpiety seems to justify characterizationsof Islam ingeneral and Is-lamisminparticularassanctioningevenencouragingviolenceYetwhatIslamistsrepresentasjihadtout courtisahistoricallyspecificunderstand-ingderivedfromahighlyselectiveuseoftextsandprecedentsprominentamongthemaformerlyobscureclaimbytheinfluentialfourteenth-cen-tury jurist IbnTaymiyya thatMongol rulerswhohad contravened Is-lamiclawcouldbesubjecttoforcibleremovalFarfromadefinitiveex-pressionof Islamldquoproperlyunderstoodrdquo such Islamist argumentsnotonlymarkasignificantdeparturefrommuchofantecedentdoctrineandpractice but also diminish the importance of ongoing disagreementsamongMuslimsabouttheformandpurposesofjihad

TobeginwithMuslimscholarshavetendedtoconsiderjihadagainstforeignenemiesafard kifaya(collectiveobligation)thatisadutyagroupofpeoplewithinthecommunitymayperformonbehalfoftherestandonethatpresupposesalegitimateMuslimleadertodeclareorleadthechargeJuristshavedistinguishedthisfromthefard lsquoayn(individualduty)thatmustbefulfilledbyeverysingleMuslimincasesofdefensivejihad

41

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

thatiswhentheummaisunderattackManyIslamistsincludedheretakeamuchlessnuancedviewofjihadAsamodeofpoliticalactionQutbarguesjihadmustberegardedasaldquopermanentconditionnotanocca-sionalconcernrdquoonethatincurrentcircumstancesrequiresdeedsratherthanwordsstruggleratherthancontemplationrevolutionathomeaswellasresistanceabroad(Qutb199167ndash6882)lsquoAbdal-SalamFarajarguesalongsimilarlinesthatthenatureoftheattackonIslammakespolitical authorization by a caliph (ldquodeputyrdquo referring to a legitimatesuccessortotheProphetrsquosleadership)unnecessaryafterallldquoleadershipovertheMuslimsis(always)intheirownhandsifonlytheymakethismanifestIfthereissomethinglackingintheleadershipwellthereisnothingthatcannotbeacquiredrdquo(Jansen1986asec93)

SuchargumentsareadeliberaterejectionofearlyMuslimmodernistswhohademphasizedthelargelydefensivecharacterofjihadandsoughttoshowthatrelationsbetweenMuslimsandnon-MuslimswerenormallypeacefulratherthanantagonisticMahmudShaltut(d1963)therectorof al-Azhar from 1958 to 1963 had argued for example that theQurrsquoanicversesonfightingldquoprohibittheprovocationofhostilityandthisprohibitionisreinforcedbyGodrsquosrepugnancetoaggressionandbyhisdislikeofthosewhoprovokehostilityrdquo(Peters199674onShaltutseeZebiri1993)ConversionbyforceisanathematoIslamShaltutaversandfightingiscommandedonlyindefenseinresponsetoaggressionini-tiatedbyothersEvendefensivejihadmustaimatldquotheterminationoftheaggressionandtheestablishmentofreligiouslibertydevotedtoGodandfreefromanypressureorforcerdquo(Peters199675)

ManyIslamistsexplicitlydismisssuchargumentsasasymptomoffalseconsciousnessoneamongmanydestructiveeffectsofcolonialdomina-tionMawdudiargues for example thatwhile imperialists ravage theworld to satisfy their greed jihad alone ldquoconjures up the vision of amarching band of religious fanatics with savage beards and fiery eyesbrandishingdrawnswordsandattackingtheinfidelswherevertheymeetthemrdquoHavinginternalizedthis imageMuslimsrushtoapologizeandrenouncearmedstruggleInthiswayhelamentscolonialistsretaintheexclusiverighttoldquofightwitharmsandammunitionwhilewearecon-tented with our pen and our tonguerdquo (Mawdudi 1948 1ndash3) SayyidQutbforhispartagreedthatIslamdoesnotcountenancespreadingitsmessagebyforceandcoercionyethehadlittlepatiencewiththosewhosoughttopresentjihadaslegitimateonlyinself-defense

IfweinsistoncallingIslamicjihadadefensivemovementthenwemustchangethemeaningofthewordldquodefenserdquoandmeanbyitldquothedefenseofmanrdquoagainstallthoseforcesthatlimithisfreedomWhenwetakethisbroadmeaningofthewordldquodefenserdquoweunder-standthetruecharacterofIslaminthatitproclaimstheuniversalfreedomofeverypersonandcommunityfromservitudetoanyother

42

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

individualorsocietytheendofmanrsquosarroganceandselfishnesstheestablishmentofthesovereigntyofAllahandHisLordshipthrough-outtheworldandtheruleofthedivinesharilsquoainhumanaffairs(Qutb199050)

Qutbdoesnotnameanynamesincastigatingtheldquowriterswithdefeatistandapologeticmentalities[who]writeaboutlsquojihadinIslamrsquoandtrytoremovethislsquoblotrsquofromIslamrdquo(Qutb199046)buthecouldverywellhavehadhisdistinguishedfellowEgyptianMahmudShaltutinmind

These arguments about jihad may be said to constitute a commongrammarandframeworkofanalysisformanyIslamistsalthoughseveralthinkers in this volume carefully calibrate such claims to suit variouspurposesanddifferentpublicspheresInhisjustificationfortheassassi-nationofEgyptianpresidentAnwaral-SadatforexamplelsquoAbdal-SalamFarajdepictsthestruggletoreclaimthemoralfoundationsoftheEgyp-tianstateasafightagainstjahiliyyafromwithinarguingthatthejihadagainstacorruptnationalistregimeathomemusttakeprecedenceoverfightingenemieselsewhereTheCharterofHamas(seechapter15)how-everinsiststhatallMuslimsrecognizetheprimacyofthejihadforJeru-salemweldingIslamistrhetorictothatofnationalistresistanceinanef-fortbothtofightIsraelioccupationandtocompeteforadherentswiththePalestinianLiberationOrganization(PLO)IncontrasttobothFarajandHamasBinLadenembracesaglobaljihadthatessentiallycollapsesdistinctionsbetweennationalandinternationaloffensiveanddefensivefightingenemiesathomeandthosefromafar

Yet despite such differences these arguments tend to presume thatviolent jihad is a necessary response to the pervasive power of thosewithdemonstratedhostilitytoMuslimliveslandspietiesandsensibili-tiesaformofretaliationwhoseurgencyandlegitimacyderivefromtheviolencemdashpsychologicalandeconomicaswellasphysicalmdashoftheinitialassaultThisviewofjihadsubsumesindividualsintoarchetypesofldquoin-fidelsrdquoandldquobelieversrdquoandinsodoingvitiatesmoreconventionaldis-tinctionsbetweenforexamplesoldierandcivilianorcollectiveandin-dividual responsibility It is far from inevitable that thosewhoharborsuchviewswillautomaticallyactuponthemyetthecarnagewroughtbytheattacksontheWorldTradeCenterandthePentagonin2001aBalinightclub in 2002 Madrid commuter trains in 2004 and throughoutIraqonadailybasissuggestjusthowlethalsuchclaimscanbegiventheright circumstances The fact that such violence does not discriminateamongvictimsonlyfurtherfuelsrhetoriccharacterizingIslamistsasirra-tional fanatics ldquoin love with deathrdquo terrorists animated by a religioncharacterizedbyapropensityforviolenceandauthoritarianism27

27AnxietiesabouttheparticularsusceptibilityofMuslimstoirrationalityinsularityandfanaticismhavealonganddistinguishedpedigreeinEuro-AmericanhistoryandpoliticalthoughtSeeforexampleRenan18833

43

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

AsinsomanyothermattershoweverIslamistsarehardlyofonemindonthesubjectofjihadindeedthereareIslamistswhoexplicitlyrejectthereductionof struggle toviolenceAcase inpoint isNadiaYassine(20032005c)whoinsiststhatjihadisthededicatedstruggleagainstisshytikbar(arrogance)particularlyinitscommonformasthelustforpoweranddominationAsjihadagainstistikbarisbothafinalgoalandapre-scriptionforactionYassinesuggestsitisantitheticaltoviolentpracticesthataimatdominationTheprimaryinstrumentsofjihadarenotbombsbutwords particularly thosedeployed in the art of persuasion (Fara-marzi2005NYassine2006a)WhenIslamistssuchaslsquoAbdal-SalamFarajandlsquoUmarlsquoAbdal-RahmanseektolegitimizeviolentrevolutionbyrecoursetoIslamictextsshearguestheycontravenethetruemeaningofjihadtoservetheirownarrogantendsBythesametokenBinLadenrsquosdecisiontoldquofightevilwithevilandbarbaritywithbarbarityrdquonotonlyviolatesspecificIslamicprohibitionsagainstharmingcivilianswomenandchildrenbutalsobetraystheethicalimperativetoembodythemes-sageofamercifulGodwhocautionsbelieversthat(Q8822)ldquoYouhavenopoweroverthemrdquo(NYassine2005cDaily Excelsior2002)

SuchpersistentdisagreementsamongMuslimspastandpresentsug-gest that Islam isnomore inherently violent andbloody-minded thanitmdashorChristianityor Judaism for thatmattermdashis inherentlypeacefulIslamists often claim to speak for an unchanging authentic Islam thatexistsoutsideoftimeandspaceyetthepoliticalpurchaseoftheirper-spective derives from the ways it assembles disparate yet recognizablecontemporaryexperiencesofsufferingfrustrationandlossintoanex-planationthatresonateswithMuslimswholiveincommunitiescultur-allylinguisticallyandgeographicallydistantfromoneanotherTheex-tenttowhichIslamistargumentsresonatebroadlyacrossMuslimsocie-tiesthusdependsuponasetofexperiencesandphenomenathatmarkthisparticularmomentinhistoryincludingthewaysinwhichcontempo-raryglobalinequalitiescompoundalegacyofhistoricalasymmetriestocontinuallyreproduceasenseofMuslimpowerlessnessmdashbothrealandimaginedmdashrelativetotheWestcontinuingEuro-Americanpoliticalandfinancialsupportofcorruptautocratsmanyofwhompresideoverna-tion-statesbrutallystitchedtogetherbyWesternfiat thepersistenceofauthoritarian regimes eager to control domestic unrest by catalyzingldquoMuslimragerdquotowardexternaltargetsthesenseofemasculationpro-ducedbydecadesofpoliticalrepressionandeconomicfrustrationandthecontinualflowofimagesofbloodiedMuslimbodiesdeliveredbyaburgeoningarrayofvideosatelliteandelectronicmedia

It is notable that the understanding of jihad many Islamists proffermirrorstheverystate-sanctionedviolenceagainstwhichtheyhavestrug-gledforalmostacenturyAlongwiththousandsofMuslimscaughtinthemachineryoftwentieth-centurystateviolenceprominentIslamistsfromQutbtoGhazalitoAymanal-Zawahirimdashal-Qalsquoidarsquossecondincommandmdash

44

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

arewellknowntohavebeenradicalizedbyextendedandoftenbrutaltermsofincarcerationinEgyptSyriaIraqJordanIsraelAlgeriaandelsewhere(onal-ZawahiriandprisoncfKepelandMilelli2008152ndash54)ItisthusfarfromsurprisingthatIslamistsforgedbyinterrogationtortureinprisoncampswouldconcludethatthepreeminentenactmentofMuslimpietyisviolentstruggleldquoPrisonrdquoasPalestinianKhaledAbuHilalhassaidldquoismyuniversityrdquo(Erlanger2007)anargumentmadeingreaterdetailinadifferenttimeandplacebyRussianwriterandrevolu-tionaryMaximGorky(1868ndash1936)

Apeoplebroughtupinaschoolthatremindsoneofthetormentsofhellonasmallscaleapeopleaccustomedtotheclenched-fistprisonandthewhipwillnotbeblestwithatenderheartApeoplethatthepoliceagentshaveriddenoverwillbecapableintheirturnofwalk-ingoverthebodiesofothersInacountrywhereunresthasreignedsolongit isdifficultforthepeopletorealizefromonedaytothenextthepowerofrightOnecannotdemandfromamanwhohasneverknownjusticethatheshouldbejust(Gorky1920)

InthiscontextasTimothyMitchell(1990195ndash96199207ndash8)suggestsIslamistviewsoftheworldcanbecharacterizedasbothamodeofresis-tancetostatemechanismsofcoercionandanexpressionofthemSuchisthedynamic evident inGhazalirsquosmemoirs for examplewhen shede-scribeshowtheldquodarknessofprisonsthebladesoftortureandthevi-ciousbeatingsonly increasetheenduranceandresolveofthefaithfulrdquo(Ghazali19786)

There is no doubt a great deal of pragmatism at work in IslamistargumentsaboutviolenceAsQutb(19916447ndash48)drylynotesthepathtofreedommustoccasionallybehewnbywayoftheswordbecausetyrants are not reasoned out of power and ldquojahiliyya is not lsquoabstracttheoryrsquo[it]consciouslyorunconsciouslystrivestopreserveitsownexistence to defend its essence to annihilate dangerous elementswhichthreatenitsverybeingrdquoYetitisalsothecasethatformanyoftheseIslamistsjihadisbothameansandanendanefforttoeradicatethoseobstacles torestoringa justcommunityonearththatsimultane-ouslybringshumanaction intoaccordwithGodrsquosplansandpurposes(Haddad198321)While theQurrsquoan (2256) states thatldquothere isnocompulsioninreligionrdquoIslamistscontendthatonlyinastateinwhichIslamiclawreignssupremearehumanbeingsfreefromenslavementtooneanotherrsquosruleandallareequalbyvirtueoftheircommonsubmissiontoGodAsQutb(1991107ndash8)argues

WhenthehighestauthorityinsocietyisGodalonemdashexpressedintheruleofdivinelawmdashonlythenishumanitytrulyandcompletelyliber-atedfromslaverytomenOnlythisisldquohumancivilizationrdquobecausetheessentialfoundationofhumancivilizationisthetrueandcom-

45

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

pletefreedomofhumanityandtheabsolutedignityofeveryindivid-ualinsocietyThereisnotruefreedomanddignityforhumanityortheindividualinasocietywheresomepeoplearelordswholegislateandothersareslaveswhoobey

From this perspective the realization of justice liberty equality andchoiceitselfnecessitatestheforcibleremovaloftheconstraintsimposedbyjahiliyyaalongwiththosewhoaidandabetitno matter the costAsMawdudi(1954160ndash61)writes

[W]hyisitthatinreligionsuchimportanceisgiventojihadthattheQurrsquoanpronouncesthejudgmentofhypocrisyuponthosewhoshirkandevadeitJihadisbutanothernamefortheattempttoerectthesystemoftruthandtheQurrsquoandeclaresjihadtobeatouchstoneonthesamefootingwithamanrsquosfaithInotherwordshewhohasfaithinhisheartwillneitherbecontentwiththedominationofthesystemofevilnorwillhegrudgetheexpenditureoflifeandwealthinthestruggleforerectingthesystemoftruthIfoneshowsweaknessinthismatterhisfaithitselfisdoubtfulWhatcananythingelsebesidethenprofithimThemanwhoprofesses faith in this religioncannotfulfillhisdutyonlybytryingasfaraspossibletopatternhislifeonIslamThenatureofhisfaithitselfrequiresthatheshouldconcentrateallhiseffortuponwrestingleadershipfromunbelievingandcorruptmentoentrustittotherighteousanduponerectingthesystemoftruththathasbeenordainedfortheconductoftheworldaccordingtothewillofGodBecausethisendisunattainablewith-out thehighestdegreeofcollectiveeffort theremustexistarigh-teouscommunitycommittedtotheprincipleoftruthanddevotedtothesolepurposeintheworldoferectingmaintainingandproperlyrealizingthesystemoftruth

ThefactthatsomeIslamistthinkerssanctifyviolentstruggleinsuchtermsdoesnotmeanofcoursethatallthosewhoadvocateorengageinjihadendorseviolence28NordoesitimplythatthosewhoclaimtokillforIslamareentirelywithoutulteriormotivesthosemanipulativepur-poses andpsychologicalmotivations that even themost rarified scrip-turalargumentscanexpressorserveWhattheprecedinganalysisdoessuggesthoweveristhatthereductionofthisviewofjihadtoirrationalbloodlusttheself-interestedgrabfortemporalpoweroradoorthroughwhichtopassintothehereaftermissesacrucialdimensionofitssignifi-canceandappealfortruebelieversjihadisnolessthananenactmentof

28EvenashespokeofaneweraofjahiliyyaandofjihadMawdudihimselfstoppedwellshortof recommendingor condoning the actual resort to violence in themannermanyotherIslamistsdidAsNasr(199670)observesMawdudirsquosorganizationtheJamalsquoat-iIs-lamildquohasavoidedviolentsocialchangeandhasinsteadviewedthepathtotheIslamicstateaslyingwithintheexistingsociopoliticalorderrdquoAlsoseethechapters5and3onQutbandMawdudiinthisvolume

46

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

adivineimperativetoremakethefoundationsofcollectivelifeInthisre-spectIslamistviewsofjihadcanbeseenaspartofalong-standingasso-ciationbetweenviolenceandpoliticalfoundingsuponwhichnoparticu-larcultureorhistoricalepochhasamonopolyThisassociationandtheldquolegacyofviolencerdquoitbequeathstofuturegenerationsarenolessappar-entinthoseradicalrevolutionsofrenewalthatmovebywayoftheswordfromthemarginstothecenterthanthosepoliticalfoundingsthatclaimtocreatesomethingoutofnothing(Connolly1995251)Ineithercasethetollofsuchbrutalitycanbeimmeasurableforinadditiontothevic-timswhosufferdirectlytheldquopracticeofviolencelikeallactionchangestheworldbutthemostprobablechangeistoamoreviolentworldrdquo(Ar-endt1972177)

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 ESP 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geoptimaliseerd voor prepress-afdrukken van hoge kwaliteit De gemaakte PDF-documenten kunnen worden geopend met Acrobat en Adobe Reader 50 en hoger) NOR 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 PTB ltFEFF005500740069006c0069007a006500200065007300730061007300200063006f006e00660069006700750072006100e700f50065007300200064006500200066006f0072006d00610020006100200063007200690061007200200064006f00630075006d0065006e0074006f0073002000410064006f0062006500200050004400460020006d00610069007300200061006400650071007500610064006f00730020007000610072006100200070007200e9002d0069006d0070007200650073007300f50065007300200064006500200061006c007400610020007100750061006c00690064006100640065002e0020004f007300200064006f00630075006d0065006e0074006f00730020005000440046002000630072006900610064006f007300200070006f00640065006d0020007300650072002000610062006500720074006f007300200063006f006d0020006f0020004100630072006f006200610074002000650020006f002000410064006f00620065002000520065006100640065007200200035002e0030002000650020007600650072007300f50065007300200070006f00730074006500720069006f007200650073002egt SUO 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 SVE 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Page 2: Chapter 1 INTRODUCTION - assets.press.princeton.eduassets.press.princeton.edu/chapters/s9067.pdf · Chapter 1 INTRODUCTION This volume is intended as a broad introduction to the evolution

2

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

grievancesAmongotherthingsIslamistthoughtisacomplexsystemofrepresentationthatarticulatesanddefinesarangeofidentitiescatego-riesandnormsorganizeshumanexperienceintonarrativesthatassem-blepastpresentand future intoacompelling interpretive frameandspecifiestherangeandmeaningofacceptableanddesirablepractices

UnlikeotheranthologiesofIslamistwritingsoursbalancesattentiontobroaderpoliticalandtheoreticalframeswithrelativelysubstantialin-troductionstothelifeandworkofeachoftheauthorsincludedhereTheselectedtextsmustspeakforthemselvesofcoursebutitisourhopethattheseindividualintroductionsofferamorenuancedsenseofthemulti-facetedcontextsinwhichIslamistthoughtandactivismhavebeenarticu-latedthaniscommonlyfoundintheliteratureoncontemporaryIslamismWithineachchapterweattendnotonlytothemultipleandvariouswaysIslamistthinkersreinterpretIslambutalsotothespecifichistoricalcul-turalandpoliticalcontextsinwhichtheyareembeddedalongwiththeparticularproblemspartisansandaudiencestheyseektoaddressAtthesame time we have organized the chapters thematically rather thanchronologically to bring into view the web of concerns animating Is-lamistsaswellasthepolyvalentconversationsacrosshistoryandcultureinwhichtheyparticipate

OurapproachandargumentimplicitlychallengetheManichaeanworld-viewthatcurrentlypervadescommonperceptionsandpopularrhetoricaboutIslamismoneinwhichoppositionsbetweengoodandevilorusandthemaregraftedontoadivisionbetweenldquotheWestrdquoandldquoIslamrdquo1

Suchaperspective isparadoxically endorsedand reinforcedby thosewhosharelittleelsefromIslamistswhoseethemselvesastheforcesoflightagainst infideldarkness topatriotswhodepictAmericaasGodrsquosbulwarkagainstencroachingheathendomtoproponentsoftheldquoclashofcivilizationsrdquothesiswhopositafuturerivenintotwoclearlydelineatedand constitutively antagonistic cultural traditions (Mahbubani 1992Huntington19931996)Asthisworldviewcongealsitbecomesincreas-inglydifficulttorecognizeletalonetomakesenseofthewealthofin-formationthatchallengesordisruptsitInthiswaytheveryoppositionbetweenIslamandtheWestbecomesaself-fulfillingprophecypresumingandsustainingaviewoftheworldinwhichcontradictorymultipleandcross-pollinatinghistoriesand identitiesarepressed into the serviceof

1BinariessuchasWestndashnon-WestorWest-Islamcarveuptheworldinwaysthatobscurecriticalpointsofengagementandcommonalitybetweenthemaswellasthecomplexdif-ferencessubsumedwithineachtermGiventhatsuchterminologynotonlyisinvokedbypeoplesallovertheworldbutevokesallegiancesandenmitieswithquiterealpoliticalcon-sequenceshoweveritisnotpossiblesimplytodispensewithitThisisparticularlytrueinthecaseofIslamistdiscourseinwhichtheoppositionbetweenldquotheWestrdquoandldquoIslamrdquofre-quentlyfunctionsasastructuringpremiseSubsequentreferencesappearwithoutquotationmarksbutshouldbeunderstoodasrepresentationsoftheworldratherthanaccuratehis-toricalculturalorterritorialdescriptions

3

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INTRODUCTION

neatbinaries thatdistort rather than illuminate thepolitical landscape(REuben2002a)

Ifthisvolumeisanimplicitcorrectivetosuchreductionistgeneraliza-tionsitisalsointendedasanexplicitguidethroughthehazeofpolemicfearandconfusionswirlingaroundthesubjectofIslamismintheearlytwenty-firstcenturySuchconfusionevencharacterizeswhatmightseemtobesimplemattersofterminologyWhatwecallIslamismherehasbeendescribedinthemediaandpolicycirclesinnumerousotherwaysfromldquoIslamicextremismrdquotoldquopoliticalIslamrdquotoldquofundamentalismrdquostillthemostcommonlyusedEnglishtermtorefertoreligio-politicalmovementsMuslimorotherwise2InthewakeoftheeventsofSeptember112001thearrayofnames for thephenomenonhasonlyproliferated therebyaddingtotheterminologicalconfusionAcaseinpointisldquojihadismrdquoaneologismderived fromtheArabic jihad (to struggle to strive) that isfrequently used in the press to denote the most violent strands of Is-lamism those associated with what are alternatively called ldquosuicidebombingsrdquoorldquomartyrdomoperationsrdquoinparticularOlderwordsputtonewuseshavealsogainedcurrencyintheyearssince911suchisthecasewithldquoSalafismrdquowhichreferstocontemporaryMuslimswhogener-allyeschewtheinterpretivemethodsandnormsofthemedievalIslamicschoolsandtakeasaguideforproperbehavioronlythewordofGodthe teachingsof theProphetMuhammad and the example set by thepiousforbears

ButthereisperhapsnoothertermwithwhichIslamismhasbeenmorecloselyidentifiedinrecentyearsthanldquoterrorismrdquosomuchsothatthetwotermsandthephenomenatheynameareoftendepictedassynony-mous(Desai200723Richardson200761ndash69)Someofthemostvio-lentIslamistsclearlydoengageinwhattheUSStateDepartmentdefinesas terrorismldquopremeditated politicallymotivated violenceperpetratedagainst non-combatant targets by sub-national groups or clandestineagentsusuallyintendedtoinfluenceanaudiencerdquo(Title22oftheUnitedStatesCodeSection2656f(d))Yetinasmuchasmanyterroristspastand

2ldquoFundamentalismrdquowascoinedin1920specificallytodescribeProtestantevangelicalsanxioustorescueAmericanChristianityandculturefromwhattheyviewedasthemoraldegenerationinauguratedbymodernismrationalismandmaterialismSuchwarriorsforGodsoughttoldquodobattleroyalfortheFundamentalsrdquoby(re)establishingtheBibleastheauthoritativemoralcompassforAmericanlifeinfalliblenotonlyinregardtotheologicalissuesbutalsoinmattersofhistoricalgeographicalandscientificfact(Laws1920834Massee192058Barr19781374046ndash4752Marsden1980118ndash23159)Itisre-vealingthattherewasnoequivalentforldquofundamentalismrdquoinArabicthelanguageoftheQurrsquoanuntiltheneedtoapproximatetheEnglishtermcalledforoneUsuliyyaderivedfromusul theword for fundamentalsor rootshas emergedas anArabicname for Is-lamismbutitscurrencyisduetothewayitapproximatestheEnglishldquofundamentalismrdquoratherthananycorrespondencewithaspectsoftheIslamictraditionWithinthistraditionusuli isassociatedwithscholarshipontherootsandprinciplesofIslamicjurisprudenceandexpertsinthisdisciplineareoftenreferredtoasalshyusuliyyun

4

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INTRODUCTION

presentareneitherreligiousnorMuslim(Bloom2005Gambetta2005Pape2005)andIslamiststhemselvesaredividedaboutthelegitimacyofterroristtacticstheterminologyofldquoIslamistterrorismrdquotakesapartforthewholewhileimplicitlycollapsingdiverseIslamistperspectivesaboutretaliatoryactionintoanargumentforviolenceagainstnoncombatantsWhilesuchequationsandassumptionshaverecentlygatheredsteamtheyare structuredbybroader culturaldiscourses thatpredate theUS-ledldquoWaronTerrorrdquobydecadesandevencenturiesAsRichardJacksonshowsthefieldofterrorismstudiesOrientalistscholarshipontheMiddleEastandlong-standingEuro-AmericansuspicionsaboutIslamnowinteractandreinforceoneanothertoproduceadiscourseonIslamistterrorismthatisldquohighlypoliticizedintellectuallycontestabledamagingtocommunityre-lationsandlargelycounter-productiveinthestruggletocontrolsubalternviolenceinthelongrunrdquo(RJackson2007395397ndash400)

Incontrasttomanyofthesedesignationsandtheassumptionsanimat-ing them we prefer ldquoIslamismrdquo perhaps the most widely used termamongscholarsofMuslimsocieties3WetakeIslamismtorefertocon-temporarymovements thatattempt toreturn to thescriptural founda-tionsoftheMuslimcommunityexcavatingandreinterpretingthemforapplicationtothepresent-daysocialandpoliticalworldSuchfounda-tionsconsistof theQurrsquoanandthenormativeexampleof theProphetMuhammad(sunnahadith)whichconstitutethesourcesofGodrsquosguid-anceinmatterspertainingtobothworshipandhumanrelationsIngen-eralIslamistsaimatrestoringtheprimacyofthenormsderivedfromthesefoundationaltextsincollectiveliferegardingthemnotonlyasanexpres-sionofGodrsquoswillbutasanantidotetothemoralbankruptcyinauguratedbyWesternculturaldominancefromabroadaidedandabettedbycorruptMuslimrulersfromwithintheumma(Islamiccommunity)

IncontrasttothoseMuslimswhoprimarilyseektocultivateamysticalunderstandingofthedivine(whichisnotitselfdevoidofpoliticalimpli-cations)orwhostrivetocarryontheirdevotionalpracticesandscholarlypursuitsindifferenttotheirpoliticalsurroundingsIslamistsmaybechar-acterizedasexplicitlyandintentionallypoliticalandasengaginginmulti-facetedcritiquesofallthosepeopleinstitutionspracticesandorienta-tionsthatdonotmeettheirstandardsofthisdivinelymandatedpoliticalengagementUsingMaxWeberrsquosterminologyIslamismisnotdefinedbyanldquoother-worldlyrdquoorientationinwhichsalvationrequireswithdrawalfromworldlyaffairsbutratherisdefinedasamovementinwhichsalva-tionispossibleonlythroughparticipationintheworldormorepreciselyldquowithintheinstitutionsoftheworldbutinoppositiontothemrdquo(Weber1964166)

3ldquoIslamismrdquoisnothoweveruniversallyacceptedandisfrequentlyinvokedwithcautionandcaveatsAnAlgerianwriterhasarguedforexamplethatIslamismwronglyimpliesthatthosewhoclaimthenamehavecapturedtheessenceofIslamandthusitsuseisnomoreap-propriatethancallingDavidKoreshaChristianist(citedinBennoune199437n1)

5

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

InthefollowingpageswerefinethispreliminarydefinitionfurtherbydelineatingseveralaspectsofIslamismthatshouldbeconsideredbroadtendenciesandldquofamilyresemblancesrdquoratherthanfixedattributeschar-acteristicsofIslamismthatnoteveryIslamistexhibitsallofthetimeyetwhichinterweavetoformaldquocomplicatednetworkofsimilaritiesover-lappingandcriss-crossingsometimesoverallsimilaritiessometimessim-ilaritiesofdetailrdquo (Wittgenstein1953sect66)Webring such tendenciesandresemblancesintosharpreliefbywayofcontrastwithseveralotherMuslimorientationsandgroupscrucialtomodernandcontemporaryIs-lamicthoughtmodernistslsquoulama(traditionallyeducatedreligiousschol-ars)SalafisandSufisThiswayofsituatingIslamismisbothanargu-mentandaheuristicdevicedesignedfirsttoidentifythecommonalitiesamongIslamistthinkerssecondtomakevisibletheheterogeneityofIs-lamistargumentsandideasandthirdtosuggestthattherelationshipbetweenIslamistandnon-Islamistreligio-politicalorientationspastandpresentismarkedasmuchbycontinuitiescomplexoverlapsandsubtledifferentiationsasbyradicalbreaks

Situating Islamism

The Muslim Modernists and the lsquoUlama

TheonsetofEuropeancolonialruleacrossMuslimsocietiesinauguratedagreatdealofsoulsearchingonthenatureandcausesofMuslimpoliti-caldeclineandwhatcouldbedonetoreverseitManyMuslimreformersofthenineteenthcenturyinsistedthatthepoliticalsubjugationofMus-limstoforeignnon-Muslimrulerswastheresultofafallingawayfromadherence to their authoritative religious norms The best indeed theonlywayMuslimscouldhopetoremedytheircircumstanceswasthrougharenewedadherencetoGodrsquoscommandsThiswouldentitlethemonceagaintoGodrsquosfavortheargumentwentnotjustbeyondthegravebutinthisworldThisperspectivewasnotnewLongbeforetheadventofEu-ropeancolonialismreformersandmujaddidun(renewers)hadperiodi-callyarisentoguidethecommunityoutofwhattheysawasitsmoralan-archyNot infrequentlysuchreformershadmadecommoncausewithmembersofthepoliticalandmilitaryeliteineffortstosetthingsrightastheythoughtGodhadintended

YetifneitherthediagnosisnortheremedywasnewcallsforarevivedIslamicpietydid come to carry anewburden in colonial societies InSouthAsiaadecadeorsoaftertheformalestablishmentofBritishcolo-nialrulein1857someMuslimreligiousscholarsbegancallingforare-invigoratedadherence to Islam in lightof theQurrsquoanhadithand thenormsoftheHanafischooloflawdominantinIndiaembarkingonsus-tained efforts to educate members of the Muslim community in these

6

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

norms4This reformist effort centeredon amadrasamdasha school of ad-vancedIslamiclearningmdashfoundedatDeobandinnorthernIndiain1867whichgraduallybecamethenucleusofnumerousmadrasassharingthesamereformistorientationandspreadthroughoutSouthAsiaandeven-tuallybeyondtheIndiansubcontinent(Metcalf1982Zaman2002)TheconvictionthatguidedthesereligiousscholarsthelsquoulamawasnotjustthatthesorrystateoftheirfellowMuslimsreflectedalaxityinadheringtoGodrsquoscommandsbutalsothatintheabsenceofMuslimpoliticalrulereligiousknowledge anchored in the foundational andother religioustextswasthebestguaranteeforthepreservationofadistinctMuslimidentity

SuchlsquoulamahavehadtheiranaloguesacrossmodernMuslimsocieties(cfZeghal1995Zaman2002144ndash80HefnerandZaman2007)TheyhavealsohadtheiropponentsManyoftheopponentsarewhatmightbecharacterizedasinternalthatisotherlsquoulamacommittedtoarivaldoc-trinalorientationortodifferentbeliefsaboutsayhowthememoryofasaintoroftheProphetMuhammadoughttobeveneratedorwhatcus-tomary norms might be accommodated into legitimate ways of beingMuslim But other Muslim reformersmdashwhom scholars have often re-ferredtoastheldquomodernistsrdquomdashhavehadverydifferentideasaboutwhathadgonewrongwiththeMuslimworldandhowtoremedyit5Tothemodernists the sort of institutions and practices represented by thelsquoulamaandtheremediesproposedbythempointednottoasolutionoftheproblemsMuslimshadcometofaceinthecolonialcontextbuttotheirperpetuationModernistreformersalsoprofessedfirmcommitmenttoIslamicnormsbutwithsomecrucialdifferencesTheyarguedthatitwasnolongerenoughforMuslimssimplytoholdfirmtotheteachingsoftheirfaithasconventionallyunderstoodThetimeshadchangeddras-ticallyMuslimsneededtoacquiremodernWesternformsofknowledgeandtoaccommodatethemselvestoEuropeanpracticestechnologiesandinstitutionsiftheyweretoimprovetheirlotandindeedtosurviveatallasacommunityTheearlymodernistsalsoinsistedmdashashavetheirsucces-sorstothisdaymdashthatIslamitselfneededtobereinterpretedinorderto

4MostSunniMuslimshave longbelonged tooneof fourmadhhabs (schoolsof law)whosebeginningsareattributedtoscholarswholivedintheeighthandtheninthcenturiesTheHanafischooloflawisnamedafterAbuHanifa(d767)theMalikischoolafterMalikbAnas(d795)theShafilsquoischoolafterMuhammadbIdrisal-Shafilsquoi(d820)andtheHanbalischoolafterAhmadibnHanbal(d855)AmongtheShilsquoathereareseveralsectar-iandivisionsOfthesethelargestcommunitymdashtheImamisortheIthnalsquoasharis(ldquoTwelversrdquo)mdashadheretoalegalsystemwhoseearlyarticulationisattributedtothesixthShilsquoiimamJalsquofaral-Sadiq(d765)

5ThescholarlyliteratureonMuslimmodernismissubstantialbutunevenNotablestud-iesincludeHourani1983(firstpublishedin1962)Ahmad1967Troll1978Brown1996Khalid1998andHefner2000ThespectrumofmodernistthoughtmayusefullybeseenintwoanthologieseditedbyKurzmanLiberal Islam(1998)andModernist Islam(2002)andinKamrava2006

7

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

meetthenewchallengesthatconfrontedMuslimsItwasnotIslamthatboretheresponsibilityforthepoliticalandintellectualweaknessesafflict-ingMuslimsocietiesmdashasmanyaEuropeanobserverofIslamsuggestedmdashbutthefailureofMuslimstoproperlyinterprettheirfoundationaltextsinaccordancewithchangingneeds

While many among the lsquoulama have long affirmed the authority oftheirmadhhabs(schoolsoflaw)andtheneedforstrictadherence(taqlid)toschooldoctrinesinordertomaintainthecontinuityandcoherenceoftheirscholarlyandespeciallytheirjuridicaltraditionmodernistshavesel-domseenanythingredeeminginsuchconceptionsofauthority6TaqlidtothemisldquoblindimitationrdquooflongdeadmastersandoftheiranachronisticviewswhichhasstoodinthewayofpeoplersquosabilitytoadaptthemselvestonewchallengesThemodernistshavealsoallegedthatinholdingfirmtotheiroutmodedwaysthelsquoulamawereinterestedneitherinthewelfareofIslamnor inthatofthecommunity theywereonlydefendingtheirownprivilegesastheguardiansandauthoritativeinterpretersofthereli-gioustraditionandtheconsiderablesocialstandingthatoftenwentwithitAs themodernist reformers have understood it there is nothing inIslamtostoppeoplefrominterpretingitsnormsaccordingtotheneedsofchangingtimesIndeedtheQurrsquoaninvitespeopletoreflectonit(ldquoWilltheynotthinkaboutthisQurrsquoanrdquoQ482)whichistheveryoppositeofthelsquoulamarsquosinsistenceonfirmadherencetoearlierauthoritiesAsMu-hammadRashidRida(d1935) theeditorof theEgyptian journalalshyManar(1898ndash1935)andadiscipleofthefamousreformerMuhammadlsquoAbduh(d1905)wroteinhiscommentaryonQurrsquoan482

Theonlyunavoidablerequisite[tobeabletoreflectontheQurrsquoan]isknowledgeof the languageof theQurrsquoan itswordsand its stylewhich[inanycase]isthesortofthingrequiredofanyonewhobe-comes aMuslimTaqlid signifiespreventing [people] from re-flectingontheQurrsquoanYetGodhimselfhascommandedustoreflectonHisbookandtoreasonwithitandnoonefromamongHiscreaturescanforbidwhatHehasmadeobligatoryBytherejectionoftaqlidwedonotmeanthateveryMuslimcanpossiblybecomeaMalik[d795]oraShafilsquoi[d820]inderivingthejuristicrulesrelatingtothecommunityorthateveryoneoughttodosoWemeanonlythateveryMuslimisobligatedtoreflectontheQurrsquoanandtobeguidedbyitinaccordancewithhisabilitiesItisneverper-missible foraMuslimtoabandon[theQurrsquoan]andto turnawayfromitortoprefermdashoverwhatheunderstandsofitsguidancemdashthewordsofanyoneelsebeitamujtahid[apractitionerofijtihadieofindependentlegalreasoning]oronecommittedtotaqlid(muqalshylid)AMuslimrsquosreligionislifelesswithouttheQurrsquoanThereisno

6On the lsquoulamarsquos conception of tradition see Zaman 2002 especially 3ndash16 2007b63ndash70

8

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INTRODUCTION

bookbyamastermujtahidorbyamuqallidthatcanmakeupfor[direct]reflectionontheBookofGodIfMuslimshadstoodfirminreflectingontheQurrsquoanandinbeingguidedbyitineveryagetheirmoralsandmannerswouldnothavebeenruinedtheirrulerswouldnothavebeenunjustanddespotictheirauthoritywouldnothavedeclinedandtheywouldnothavebecomedependentonothersfortheirlivelihood(Rida1947ndash545296ndash97)7

AsthispassageillustratescentraltomodernistdiscoursesacrossMus-limsocieties istheideaof ijtihad(cfKurzman20029ndash14)bywhichtheyhaveoftenmeantnotonlytheefforttoformulateIslamiclegalrul-ingsonmattersthefoundationaltextshadleftunregulatedbutalsothereinterpretationofmattersonwhichthegeneralityofearlierscholarsandeventhefoundationaltextsthemselveshadhadareasonablyclearviewManyamongthelsquoulamahaveinsistedthattheirschooldoctrinesprovidesufficient resources to meet all contingencies and what remains to bedoneistofindaparticularnormordoctrinethatmatchesthequestionorproblemathandNotall lsquoulamaofmoderntimeshavebeenaversetoparticularformsofijtihadindeedthecontinuingnecessityofijtihadinatleastsomeofitsformshascometobeincreasinglyrecognizedbymanyamongthem(cfZaman200816ndash1764126)Stilltheideathatspe-cificlegalrulingsenunciatedinthefoundationaltextsmightthemselvesbesetasideinthenameofdarura(necessity)orsubordinatedtoconsid-erationsofmaslaha (commongood) is tothemtantamounttotakinglibertieswithGodrsquoseternalword(cfZaman2004133ndash39)

Needlesstosaymodernistreformershaveneverthoughtoftheirinitia-tivesastakinglibertieswithGodrsquoscommandsTheyhaveofteninsistedhoweverthattheliteralwordofGodmustalwaysbeunderstoodinlightoftheoverallldquospiritrdquoofthedivineinjunctionstakenbothintheiren-tiretyandintheiroriginalhistoricalcontext8Modernistdiscourseson

7ThiscommentarytheTafsir alshyManarreflectstheviewsofbothMuhammadlsquoAbduhandRashidRidathoughitwaslargelywrittenbyRida

8InvocationsoftheldquospiritrdquooftheQurrsquoanoftheProphetrsquosexampleorofIslamatlargeareacommonmotifinmodernist(andsomeIslamist)writingsSyedAmeerAli(d1928)aShilsquoimodernistscholarandjudgeincolonialIndiahadcharacteristicallytitledhisbest-knownbookThe Spirit of IslamForsomeotherinstancesoftheappealtothespiritofIslamandtheQurrsquoanandrelatedformulationscfIqbal1934149156Kurzman200260256Ramadan2007xiThemedieval juridical ideaof theoverarchingldquopurposesrdquounderlyingthesacredlaw(maqasid alshysharilsquoa)anunderstandingofwhichoughttoguidethejuristinallhisendeavorsmightbethoughttohavesomethingincommonwithmod-ernistappealstothespiritofIslamAndit isnoaccidentthattheworkofthemedievalSpanishjuristal-Shatibi(d1388)whoisamongthosemostcloselyassociatedwiththeelaborationofthisideahasremainedespeciallypopularinmodernistcirclesMedievalju-ristsunderstoodtheideaofthemaqasidal-sharilsquoatomeanthatthesharilsquoawasconcernedaboveallwiththepreservationoflifereligionrationalityprogenyandpropertyandthatnolegalrulingsshouldviolatethesefundamentalconcernsInmarkedcontrasthowevertothecarefulexegeticalandlegalargumentationthatwentintodemonstratingwhatthepur-

9

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INTRODUCTION

polygamyofferanillustrationoftheirapproachTheQurrsquoanallowspo-lygamyldquoIfyoufearthatyouwillnotdealfairlywithorphangirlsyoumaymarrywhicheverwomenseemgoodtoyoutwothreeorfourIfyoufearthatyoucannotbeequitable[tothem]thenmarryonlyoneoryourslave(s)thatismorelikelytomakeyouavoidbiasrdquo(Q43)TheQurrsquoanthuspermitspolygamybutsimultaneously insistsonequityasthenecessaryconditionforapolygamoushouseholdaqualificationsup-plementedbyQurrsquoan4129ldquoYouwillneverbeabletotreatyourwiveswithequalfairnesshowevermuchyoumaydesiretodosobutdonotignore one wife altogether leaving her suspendedrdquo Modernist re-formershaveoftenseentheQurrsquoanicsanctionforpolygamynotjustasbeingspecifictoextraordinarycircumstancesmdashasawayofprovidingforgirlsmadeorphanbywarmdashbutaseffectivelyruledoutbytheQurrsquoanicstatementthatmencanneverreallybeequitabletowardmorethanonewife(cfRahman198947ndash48)TothelsquoulamathisisspeciousreasoningforifGodhadreallywantedtoprohibitpolygamyHecouldsimplyhavesaid so (cf Shafilsquo 2005ndash7 2313ndash14 592ndash93) That medieval juristsandexegetesarepracticallyunanimousinallowingpolygamyisfortheirlatter-daysuccessorsfurtherconfirmationofthecorrectnessoftheirownunderstandingoftheQurrsquoanonthismatter

Asthisexamplesuggestsatissuebetweenmodernistsandthelsquoulamaisnotonlyhowparticularnormsareviewedbutalsohowtheyareaf-firmedanddefendedThelsquoulamarsquosscholarlytraditionisconstitutedbyalongandcomplexhistoryofcommentarydebateagreementsanddis-agreementsaboutthefoundationaltextsandaboutallmattersIslamicAstheyseeitthistraditionisnotclosedfrozenormonolithicyetitiswith reference to the scholarly tradition that anygiven readingof thefoundational or other texts finds meaning and legitimacy in their dis-coursesModernistreformersfortheirparthaveusuallyseenthistradi-tionpreciselyasclosedandanachronisticasoccludingthetruespiritofIslamic teachings and therefore as unworthy of serious and sustainedengagement

Modernists Islamists and the lsquoUlama

ThecontestationbetweenthemodernistsandthelsquoulamaprovidesawayofsituatingtheIslamistswithinabroadspectrumofcompetingbutalsooverlappingorientationsintheMuslimpublicsphereLikethemodern-istswhothemselvesholdvariedpositionsontherelationshipbetweenIslamandpoliticsmanyamongthe IslamistsareproductsofmodernWesterninstitutionsoflearningSayyidQutb(d1966)wasnottrained

posesofthelawwerehowoneknewwhattheywereandhowthelawwastobeinter-pretedwithreferencetothem(cfHallaq1997esp162ndash206Weiss199878ndash87145ndash71)modernistappealstothespiritoressenceofIslamareoftenextremelyvague

10

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INTRODUCTION

asareligiousscholarNorwasHasanal-Banna(d1949)thefounderoftheMuslimBrotherhoodofEgypttheoldestandoneofthemostinflu-entialof Islamistorganizations in theSunniMuslimworldBothwereeducatedattheDaral-lsquoUluminCairoaninstitutionfoundedinthelatenineteenthcenturytoestablishsomethingofamiddlegroundbetweenal-AzharUniversityinCairoandmodernseculareducationalthoughitgradually veered toward the latter and in 1946 became part of CairoUniversity (cfReid1990139ndash49)Abursquol-AlsquolaMawdudi (d 1979)ofPakistandidreceivean intermittentmadrasaeducationbut itwasthevocationof a journalist not that of an lsquoalim (plural lsquoulama) that headoptedThanksinparttothisbroadlysimilareducationalbackgroundIslamistsalsosharewithmodernistsasupremeconfidenceintheirownabilitytodiscernthetruemeaningorspiritofIslamthroughamoreorlessdirectencounterwiththefoundationaltextsAsCharlesJAdams(1966396)hasobservedincomparingMawdudiwithMuslimmodern-istsldquoBothhaveclaimedtheabilitytodisengagethespiritoressentialsofGodrsquosguidancetoliberatethemselvesfromtheauthorityofthecu-mulativeMuslimpastand toundercut thepositionof theulamawhorepresentthatauthorityrdquoMuchthesamemightbesaidofSayyidQutbaswellasofmanycontemporaryIslamists

Despitesuchcommonalities IslamistsfrequentlypositionthemselvesinoppositiontothemodernistsAstheIslamistssee it themodernistshavemadeIslamitselfsubservienttotheprojectofestablishingitscom-patibilitywithWesternnorms and institutions rejectingor explainingawayanythingthatdoesnotconformtothesenormsMawdudiputitthisway inderidingmodernistdiscomfortwith the implementationofpunishmentsmandatedbyIslamiclaw

Iwouldliketoputastraightquestiontothesevotariesofldquomoder-nityrdquoldquoWhatarethevaluesthatyoubelieveinDoyoubelieveintheIslamicvaluesoflifeandstandardsofmoralityorthoseofthemoderncivilizationrdquoIfyouhavemadeyourchoiceandacceptedsomeothervaluesandsomedifferentstandardofrightandwrongofvirtueandviceofthepermissibleandtheprohibitedasagainstthoseenvisagedbyIslamitisthenadifferenceofaveryfundamen-talnatureItmeansthatyoudifferwithanddisbelieveintheIslamicideologyitselfInthiscaseyoushouldhavethecouragetodeclarethatyourejectIslamoutrightIsitnotfoolishtoallegefaithinaGodwhose laws you consider as barbarous Anyhow nobody can re-maininsidethepaleofIslamafterholdingsuchanopinionaboutthelawofGod(Mawdudi[Maududi]196067)

PolemicsofthissortnotonlysuggesttheIslamistsrsquosenseofwhatsepa-ratesthemfromthemodernistsbutalsopointtointermittentIslamistef-forts to make common cause with the lsquoulama Such efforts are oftenpredicated on both the rhetorical claim that all sincere Muslims fully

11

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INTRODUCTION

concurintheirconceptionofthesharilsquoa(Islamiclaw)andtheIslamistsrsquoastuterecognitionofthelsquoulamarsquosconsiderablestandinginsocietyUnsur-prisinglysomeleadingIslamistshavesoughttoblurdistinctionsbetweenthemselves and the lsquoulama to enhance their own authority Usama binLaden(b1957)styledhisfamous1996ldquoDeclarationofWaragainsttheAmericansOccupyingtheLandoftheTwoHolyPlacesrdquoasafatwathatisajuridicalopiniontherebyrhetoricallyobscuringthehistoricalfactthatfatwashavetypicallybeenthepreserveofthe lsquoulamaandmorespecifi-callyofthefuqahaormuftis(jurists)amongthemBinLadenhoweverhasnoformalscholarlycredentialsinmattersIslamicMawdudiwascom-monly styledasmawlana a commonhonorific for the lsquoulama inSouthAsiaAdeliberateblurringofdistinctionsislikewiseevidentinthestate-ment of the Sudanese Islamist Hasan al-Turabi (b 1932) ldquoBecause allknowledgeisdivineandreligiousachemistanengineeraneconomistorajuristarealllsquoulamardquo(Turabi1983245alsochapter8inthisvolume) YetthereareleadingIslamistsmdashinthisvolumeKhomeiniMutahhariBaqiral-SadrFadlallah lsquoAliNadwi lsquoUmar lsquoAbdal-RahmanandQa-radawimdashwhoweretrainedaslsquoulamawhichmeansthatporousbounda-riesbetweenIslamistsandthelsquoulamaarenotjustamatterofself-servingrhetoricbyautodidactsGiventhisfactthedistinctionbetweenIslamistsandlsquoulamaturnslessonstarkdifferencesineducationalbackgroundandmoreonthecharacterandcontentoftheirpoliticalcommitmentsMorethananythingelseIslamistsseektoimplementIslamiclawthroughtheagencyofthestateNotallarewillingtoresorttoviolentmeansinpur-suitofthisendManysuchasYusufal-Qaradawi(b1926)ahighlyin-fluentialIslamistandoneofthemostprominentlsquoulamaofcontemporaryIslam(Skovgaard-Petersen2004Kraumlmer2006)professdemocraticcom-mitmentsButwhateverthestancetowardeitherdemocracyorviolencethepublicimplementationofthesharilsquoaisattheheartofallIslamisminbothitsShilsquoiandSunniformsThissuggestsanimportantcontrastwithmanyamongthelsquoulama

SincethefirstcenturiesofIslamthelsquoulamahaveoftensoughttomain-tainacarefuldistancefromtherulingelitejealouslyguardingtheirinsti-tutionsandpracticesfromgovernmentalinterferenceThelsquoulamagener-allyrecognizedthatthefunctioningoflegalandotherIslamicinstitutionspresupposedtheexistenceofaMuslimgovernmentandtheydefinedalegitimategovernmentasonethatoversawtheimplementationofsharilsquoanormsButtheyhavetypicallyunderstoodthegovernmentrsquoscommitmenttothesharilsquoatomeanthattherulerdefendedthebordersofthepolityregulatedpublicmoralitysuppressedhereticsandappointedthosepro-ficientinlegalmatterstoimplementthelaw(cfCrone2004286ndash314)TheyhavenotunderstoodanyofthistomeaneitherthattherulershouldbeabletoofferabsoluteinterpretationsofGodrsquoslaworthattherealmofpoliticsandstatecraftshouldbecomesynonymouswithIslamitselfYetthis ispreciselyhowIslamistshaveoftenconceivedof therelationship

12

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INTRODUCTION

betweenIslamandpoliticsandmorespecificallybetweenIslamandthestatenocallingishigherthanstrivingtowardtheestablishmentofanIs-lamicstateandoncebroughtaboutallwillbeinaccordancewithGodrsquospurposesMawdudi(1960177)claimedthatldquothestruggleforobtainingcontrolovertheorgansofthestatewhenmotivatedbytheurgetoestab-lishthedin[religion]andtheIslamicSharilsquoahandtoenforcetheIslamicinjunctionsisnotonlypermissiblebutpositivelydesirableandassuchobligatoryrdquo

Tomanylsquoulamathisamountstonothinglessthanmakingreligiousnorms subservient topolitical goalsAsMuftiMuhammadTaqi lsquoUth-manialeadingDeobandischolarofPakistannotesinhisrejoindertoviewssuchasMawdudirsquos

Intheirzealtorefutesecularismsomewritersandthinkersofthepresentagehavegonesofarastocharacterizepoliticsandgovern-ment as the true objective of Islam the reason why the prophetsweresent[byGodtothepeople]indeedtheveryreasonforthecre-ationofthehumanbeingAndtheyhavenotonlygivenotherIs-lamiccommandmentsmdashforinstanceonmattersofworshipmdashasec-ondarypositiontheyhaveevendeemedthemtobemeremeansforpoliticalendsjustawayoftrainingpeople[towardpoliticalmobili-zation](lsquoUthmani199825ndash26cfZaman2008116ndash18)

NotalllsquoulamasharesuchmisgivingsaboutthesubordinationofIslamtopoliticsthoughitshouldbenotedthattheywouldseethisintermsnotofanysuchsubordinationbutratheroftheutterinseparabilityofthere-ligiousandthepoliticalByfarthemostnotableoftheseamongtheShilsquoaisAyatollahKhomeini(d1989)ofIranAgainstalong-standingtradi-tionofShilsquoipoliticalquietismintheabsenceofthehiddenShilsquoiimamKhomeiniarguedthattheShilsquoi lsquoulamaoughttoassumedirectpoliticalleadershipandhethenproceededtospearheadthemovementthatcul-minatedinthefalloftheIranianmonarchyandtheestablishmentoftheIslamicRepublicofIran9Hisdoctrineofthevelayatshye faqih(guardian-shipofthejurist)isaradicalrethinkingofShilsquoipoliticaltheologyblur-ringanymeaningfulboundarybetweenreligiousandpoliticalauthority(seechapter6)ItispreciselyKhomeinirsquoscommitmenttoestablishinganIslamic statealong these lines thatwarrantshis classificationasan Is-

9TheImamiorIthnalsquoashariShilsquoabelievethatthetwelfthandlastoftheirimamswentintoghayba(hiding)in874andthathewilleventuallyreturnasthemahdimdashamessianicfigurewhoalonecanrestoreproperordertotheworldinaugurateaneraofunalloyedjus-ticeandreclaimfortheShilsquoatherightsofwhichtheyhavebeendispossessedbytheSunnisandbycorruptrulersformuchofthehistoryofIslamShilsquoischolarshavelongdebatedthequestionofwhatsortofauthoritytheleadingreligiousscholarsoughttohaveinofficiatingintheimamrsquosabsenceKhomeinirsquosviewdisputedbymanyotherscholarswasthatthelead-ingscholar(s)oughttodischargethefullrangeoftheimamrsquosfunctionsincludingthepoliti-calheadshipofthecommunity

13

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INTRODUCTION

lamistnotwithstandinghiswell-recognizedstatusasoneoftheleadingShilsquoilsquoulamaofhisgeneration

The Azhar-educated Yusuf al-Qaradawi has for his part criticizedmanyfellowIslamistsonseveralissuesbutnotonthefundamentalques-tion of their political orientation Just as Khomeini had chastised theldquopropagandainstitutionsofimperialism[fortrying]topersuadeusthatthereligiousleadersmustnotinterfereinsocialmattersandthatthefuqaha[jurists]donothavethedutyofoverseeingthedestinyoftheIslamicnationrdquo(Algar1981141)Qaradawiinsiststhatdenyingthepo-liticalorientationofIslamamountstoitswillfuldistortion

Amongtheinterpretationswithwhichthesecularists[lsquoalmaniyyun]andthemodernists[alshyhadathiyyun]calumniate[Islamproperlyun-derstood and those committed to it] is the notion of ldquopoliticalIslamrdquowhichwithoutdoubtisanideaalientoourIslamicsocietyBy[politicalIslam]theymeananIslamthatconcernsitselfwiththeinternalandexternalaffairsoftheMuslimcommunity[Theymeanbyit]actionsaimedatfreeingthecommunityfromtheforeignpowerthatdirects [Muslim]affairsphysicallyandmorallyas itpleases[Theyalsomeanbyit]actionsseekingtocleansethecommunityofthecultural socialand legalsedimentsofWesterncolonialismsothatthecommunitycanreturnonceagaintosubmissiontoGodrsquoslawindifferentareasoflifeTheyusethischaracterizationofldquopoliticalIslamrdquoinordertoalienatepeoplefromits[aforementioned]contentandto frighten themawayfromthosecalling toacomprehensiveconceptionofIslammdashonethatisinclusiveofbeliefandlawworshipandsocialinteractionproselytismandthestate(Qaradawi200793)

Islamistpoliticalcommitmentsareoftenintertwinedwithcritiquesofthescholarlytraditionanditsattendant institutionsandpracticesandthiscriticismprovidesusacrucialwayof thinkingfurtherbothaboutwhatdistinguishesIslamistsfromthelsquoulamaandabouthowtoviewIs-lamismitselfWhatthelsquoulamacannotbutseeasacavalierattitudeto-wardtheirscholarlytraditioniswesuggestbetterviewedaspartofalargerIslamistcritiqueonethatgoestotheheartofhowIslamismoughttobeunderstoodasaphenomenonItisacritiqueofparticularMuslimbeliefspracticesmoresandinstitutionsthataredeemedtohaveonlyatenuousbasis inldquotruerdquoandldquoauthenticrdquo Islamof the repeatedwrongturnsMuslimshavetakenthroughouttheirlonghistoryofthecorrupt-ingldquoforeignrdquoinfluencesmdashfromSufismtoGreekphilosophytothelureofmodernWesternculturesmdashbywhichMuslimshaveallowedthemselvestobeseducedandoftheirunwillingnesstodowhateverittakestoestab-lish thehakimiyya (sovereignty)ofGodonearthThat it is the sover-eigntyofGodthatIslamistsseekultimatelytoaffirmintheirindividualandpubliclivesremindsusthattheircritiqueofthepastandthepresentisapoliticalcritiqueanchoredinanddrivenbyaspirationstoinstitutea

14

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INTRODUCTION

newreligio-politicalorderWhetherthiscritiqueisarticulatedinconcreteor vague terms in a seeminglymoderateorplainlymilitant languagethere is no mistaking either its principal targetmdashfacets of the Islamictraditionmdashoritsfundamentallypoliticalorientation10

IslamistshaveofteninsistedthatthewordofGodcanandshouldbeapproacheddirectlywithoutthemediationofpresentorpastscholarsandwithoutanyneedfortheedifyingtalesthephilologicaldebatesandthelong-windedtheologicaldisquisitionssooftenfoundinmedievalexe-geticalliteratureamajorfacetoftheIslamicscholarlytradition(cfCarreacute200318)ShukriMustafaanEgyptianIslamistexecutedin1977forthemurderousactivitiesofhisSocietyofMuslims(popularlyknownastheSociety of Excommunication and Emigration) had famously assertedthatalloneneededtoresolveuncertaintiesinonersquosunderstandingofthewordofGodwasadictionary(Kepel199379)SayyidQutbdidnotgoquite that farButhe tooaffirmed that the fundamental teachingsofIslamwereentirelytransparentldquoWhatwearesayingaboutIslamisnoinventionofoursoranynewinterpretationofitsessenceIt issimplyplainIslamasitwasunderstoodbyitsfirstadherentMuhammadandhissincereCompanionsandthoseclosetoitsauthenticsourcerdquo(Qutb19969withminorchange)

TheimplicationofQutbrsquosstrikingassertionistwofoldFirstbehindarhetoric of humility in relation to divine knowledge Qutb implicitlyclaimsthefullbackingofGodandHisProphetfortheldquoplainIslamrdquohesetsforthMorespecificallyheessentiallydepictshisownunderstandingofIslamassynonymouswithGodrsquoseternalintentmuchasKhomeinirsquospronouncementsasthevalishyye faqih(guardianjurist)presumedtoarticu-latewhatIslamitselfstoodfororrequiredonanygivenmatterSecondthestatementimpliesnotonlythatviewsotherthanhisaremereinter-pretationsbutthattheyarethemorereprehensibleforbeingldquonovelrdquomdashasuggestionthatevokesthenotionofbidlsquoathatisofillicitcapriciousin-

10ThatIslamismshouldbeseenasawide-rangingcritiqueoftheworldandoftheIslamictraditionisareminderofcoursethatcritiqueisnotaninherentlysecularphenomenonnordoesitnecessitateasecularframeworkAsTalalAsad(2008)hasobservedgivenawidevarietyofldquopossibleinstancesofcritiquecriticismwhatwehaveisafamilyconceptforwhichitisnotpossibletoprovideasingletheorybecausethepracticesthatconstitutethemdifferradicallyrdquo(alsocfMahmood2008Taylor2008)NorshouldourviewingIs-lamism as a politically motivated critique suggest that other competing orientations inmodernIslamcannotalsobeseenascritiquesofparticularpracticesparticularformsofknowledgeWhatdoesdistinguishanIslamistorientationfromothersisonceagainboththedegreetowhichIslamistcritiquesbreakwiththeirpastandpresentandtheiraspirationto remake theworld in accordancewith their understandingof immutable divine com-mandsThisismarkedlydifferentfromhowthelsquoulamamightcritiqueparticularaspectsoftheirscholarlytraditionintheinterestofastrongersenseofcontinuitywiththattraditionorinordertomakeitmorereceptivetowhattheyseeasthecommunityrsquoschangingneedsItisalsoverydifferentfromhowMuslimmodernistsoftenbreakwiththescholarlytradi-tioninordertoadaptMuslimnormsandinstitutionstothedominantpoliticalandculturalinstitutionsoftheircontemporaryworld

15

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

novationinmattersofreligionSuchaviewofIslamjettisonsmuchofwhatwouldnormallycountasitshistoryandcivilizationldquoThehistoryoflsquoIslamrsquordquoQutbtellshisreadersldquoisthehistoryofthetrueapplicationofIslammdashinpeoplersquosconceptionsandtheirpracticesintheirlivesandtheirsocialsystemsIslamisthefixedaxisaroundwhichpeoplersquoslivesrevolveinafixedframeWhentheygooutofthisframeorwhentheycategorically abandon this axis what then do they have to do withIslamrdquo (Qutb 1967a vol 2 part 4 169 quotation marks aroundldquoIslamrdquoinoriginal)ItisforthefixedaxistheplainIslammdashandinoppo-sition to much of its historymdashthat the Islamist professes to stand (cfGrunebaum1962251ndash52)

Qutbhoweverisfarfromconsistentinhisattitudetowardtheschol-arlytraditionorinhowheseekstoarticulatehisownauthorityinrela-tiontoitHisfaithinthetransparencyandthetransformativeimmedi-acyofGodrsquoswordswouldappeartomakeallexegesissuperfluousyethehimselfhadproceededtowriteamajorcommentaryIn the Shade of the QurrsquoanthatwouldexceedfourthousandpagesinprintThejustifi-cationheoffers for it intheopening linesof thecommentary isauda-ciousnotapologetic

LifeintheshadeoftheQurrsquoanisablessingItisablessingunknownto anyonewhohasnrsquot tasted itAll praisebe toGodHehasgrantedmetheopportunitytoliveintheshadeoftheQurrsquoanforaperiodoftimeduringwhichIhavetastedHisblessingsasIneverhadearlierinmylifeIhavelistenedtoGodtheexaltedconvers-ingwithmethroughthisQurrsquoanmdashwithmeasmalllittleslaveIhavelivedintheshadeoftheQurrsquoanlookingfromanelevationatthejahiliyya[paganignorance]raginginthelandandthepettycon-cernsof itspeople [Fromthisvantage] Ihave seen thepride thepeopleofthisjahiliyyatakeintheirchildishknowledgetheirchild-ishideastheirchildishpreoccupations[Ihavelookeduponthem]likeanelderlooksuponthefrivolitiesofchildrenupontheireffortsandupontheirlisps(Qutb1967a13)

Theseresoundingwordsserveinteraliatoexplainwhyanewcom-mentaryshouldhavebeenneededatallthemind-numbingimpactofthejahiliyyahasmadepeopleincapableofrespondingtoeventhemostdi-rectofdivinesummonsandonlysomeonewhohaslivedldquointheshadeoftheQurrsquoanrdquocanunderstandtheirplightandremedyitFromtheper-spectiveQutbadoptshereanyappealtothescholarlytraditionanyef-forttoresthisauthorityonitwouldappearaltogetheroutofplaceYetQutbrsquosclaimstoauthoritydonotderiveexclusivelyfromhisconversingwithGodthroughtheQurrsquoanTosomedegreetheyalsodependonhisbeingseenashavingmasteryovertheveryexegeticaltraditionofwhichheisotherwisefrequentlydismissiveQutbcitesasmallnumberofearliercommentators and other authorities when it suits his purpose to do

16

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INTRODUCTION

so11justashesidestepstheexegeticaltraditionwhendoingsooffersarhetoricallymoreeffectivewayofarrivingataconclusionMoretradi-tionalexegetespastandpresentalsopickandchooseofcourseButtheyhavetypicallydonesowithinanoverallframeworkthatisdefinedbyacontinuousengagementwiththeexegeticaltraditionasawhole(cfSaleh2004)BycontrastQutbandotherIslamistexegeteswriteoutsideandofteninconsciousoppositiontoanysuchframeworkTheconversa-tionisnotwiththeearlierexegetesbutdirectlywithGodthoughthismightonoccasionbeaidedbyillustrationsfromtheearlierexegeticaltradition

If thereareunacknowledgedambiguities inQutbrsquosrelationshipwiththe Islamic traditionaswehaveobserveda frequentlyacerbic stancedoesnonetheless remain characteristicofhowheviews itmostof thetimeQutbisanythingbutuniqueinthisrespectYetifIslamistssharealmostbydefinitionacriticalstancetowardfacetsofthistraditionthereismuchthatalsoseparatesthemfromoneanotherinpreciselyhowthiscritique and its implications are articulated in different instances Al-thoughthemerepresenceofdisagreementamongIslamist intellectualsandactivistsishardlyremarkablethescopeandimplicationsofsomeofthedisagreementsinasmuchastheyrelatetothescholarlytraditionarenonethelessworthexamininghereFortheysuggestthatwhileIslamistsshare the conviction that particular institutions practices and normsneedtoberefashionedinlightofimmutabledivinecommandsthiscon-victionoftenrestsonquitedifferentviewsofIslamichistoryandciviliza-tionofcontemporaryMuslimsocietiesandnotleastofreligiousau-thorityanditslociNowhereperhapsisthismoreevidentthaninsomeofthewritingsofYusufal-QaradawiLikeQutbQaradawiisamongthemostinfluentialIslamistideologuesintheSunniworldHeisalsooneofQutbrsquosseverestcriticsfromwithintheIslamistcamp(seeespeciallyQa-radawi1994101ndash31)

ThatldquoMuslimrdquosocietieslackedaproperIslamicfoundationmadeitfutileQutbhadarguedtodebatespecificquestionsofIslamiclawand

11TheseincludeinteraliaMuhammadibnIshaq(d767)theauthoroftheSirat rasul AllahoneoftheearliestbiographiesoftheProphetMuhammadal-Tabari(d923)theauthorofJamilsquo alshybayan lishytarsquowil ay alshyQurrsquoanoneofthemostinfluentialcommentariesoftheQurrsquoaneverproducedal-Baghawi(d1117)whosecommentaryistitledMalsquoalim alshytanzilal-Qurtubi(d1273)theauthorofaworkalshyJamilsquo lishyahkam alshyQurrsquoanwhichises-peciallyattentivetothelegalcontentoftheQurrsquoanandIbnKathir(d1373)theauthorofaQurrsquoan commentaryTafsir alshyQurrsquoan alshylsquoazimwhichhasbeenpopular amongmanyMuslimsofaSalafiorientationOnoccasionQutbalsocitesinfluentialfellowIslamistsSeeforexampleQutbFi zilal alshyQurrsquoanvol2part4132(Mawdudi)vol2part525(Nadwi)vol2part6143and150ndash53(lsquoAbdal-QadirlsquoAwdaanEgyptianIslamistandlegalscholarexecutedundertheNasserregimein1954)OccasionallyQutbcitesRidarsquosTafsir alshymanaraswell thoughmoreoftenthannot toregisterhisdisagreementswithRidaandwiththelatterrsquosmentorMuhammadlsquoAbduhForadetailedcomparisonbetweenthecommentariesofRidaandQutbseeCarreacute2003

17

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

howitdealtwithparticularsocialoreconomicissuesThelsquoulamawerepatheticallydeludediftheythoughtthattheinterestsofIslamcouldbefurtheredthroughdisquisitionsonthesharilsquoainsuchconditionsofper-vasiveungodliness(Qutb1967b183ndash90)WhatpeopleneededbeforeanythingelsewasareturntothebasicsofthefaithThetaskofrighteouspreacherswastoinstructtheminthesemattersandtohelpthemrecog-nizewhatthesovereigntyofGoddemandedofthem(Qutb199135cfQaradawi1994102ndash4)Allothermattersincludingthenicetiesofjuris-ticdiscussionwerebestpostponeduntilaproperlyIslamicsocietybasedonthisfoundationhadbeenrealized

Qaradawi vehemently disagrees with Qutb arguing that educatedMuslimsarenotpagansbutbelieversandassuchdonotneedtobetu-toredinthefundamentalsoftheirfaithWhattheyoftendonotunder-standverywellmdashandhereQaradawiconcurswithotherIslamistsmdashisthenatureofIslamasanizam (socialandpoliticalsystem)TheproblemofMuslimsinotherwordsisnotgodlessnessbutsimplyignorance(whichiswhat the term jahiliyya literallymeans)of the teachingsof Islam intheircomprehensiveall-encompassingdimensionsAsQaradawiseesitmanyldquocaptivesofWesternthoughtrdquohavedoubtsnotabouttheessentialsoftheirfaithbutratheraboutIslamasacomprehensivesystemanditistheirunaddressedmisunderstandingstheirignoranceonthelatterscorethatsometimesopens thedoor todoubtsaboutmattersofbelief itself(Qaradawi1994113ndash14)Tocontinuetoexpoundonthesocialpoliti-calandotherteachingsofIslamwhilethesocietyisyetimperfectisnottoendorseorstrengthenthejahiliorderasQutbhadallegedbutonlytohelpordinarypeopleintheirefforttoleadvirtuouslivesevenininiqui-touscircumstances

ThisviewrepresentsanappealtowhatQaradawihasrepeatedlyre-ferredtoasthemoderatepathoralshymadrasa alshywasatiyya(theldquocentristschoolrdquocfQaradawi2006137ndash217)mdashonethatlocatesitselfonaputa-tivemiddlegroundbetweenacompleterejectionoftheworldincludingMuslimsocietiesanditstotalembraceQaradawiisequallyconcernedwithrescuingIslamichistoryandcivilizationfromoutrightdismissalatthehandsofIslamistslikeQutb12TheideathatjahilinormshadbeguntocreepbackintotheMuslimcommunityshortlyafterthedeathoftheProphetandthattheyhaveremainedunchallengedformuchofIslamrsquoshistoryignoresallthoseQaradawisayswhohavecontinuedtorepre-sentthepathofrighteousnessthroughoutthehistoryofIslamContrarytotheconvictionoftheSunnisthatldquothecommunitywillneveragreeonerrorrdquomdashastheProphetissaidtohavepromisedmdashthenotionofaperva-

12AmongleadingfiguresQaradawisinglesoutforcriticisminthisregardarebesidesQutbMawdudiandtheEgyptianIslamistscholarMuhammadal-Ghazali(d1996)SeeQaradawi2005b46ndash64It isworthnotingthatdespitetheseandotherdisagreementsQaradawihaswrittenrespectfullyofallthreedevotinganentirebooktohislongassocia-tionwithMuhammadal-Ghazali(seeQaradawi1995)

18

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INTRODUCTION

sivejahiliyyasuggestsmoreoverthatthecommunitydidindeedagreeonerror13Mostgrievouslyperhaps Islamist critiques tend to suggestthatthesharilsquoahasalmostneverbeenimplementedinMuslimsocietiesaftertheveryfirstyearsofIslamIronicallysaysQaradawisuchindis-criminaterejectionofIslamichistoryinadvertentlyreinforcessecularist argumentsthatthesharilsquoaisunsuitedtopracticalapplication(Qaradawi2005b46)QaradawirsquoscritiqueofQutbandotherIslamistsisfinallyanargumentforthecontinuingcentralityofthelsquoulamatothetaskofpro-viding authoritative guidance to the communityHisunderstandingofwhoconstitutesthelsquoulamaisfarmoreexpansivethanthatofmostDeo-bandilsquoulamaofSouthAsiaButlikethemheisinnodoubtthatseriousreligiousscholarsasdistinguishedfromamateurishautodidactsarecru-cialtothetaskofprovidingauthoritativereligiousandmoralguidancetothecommunity

AlthoughwehavesoughttoillustratecertainfacetsoftheIslamistcri-tiqueof the scholarly traditionandof theworldas somekey IslamistthinkershavearticulateditwedonotwishtosuggestofcoursethatIslamists are necessarily ldquointellectualsrdquo Whatever Qutb KhomeiniMawdudiandQaradawimightthinkofotherscholarsandintellectualsorofthemselvesinrelationtothemtheformerobviouslyarereligiousintellectualsThesameishardlytrueofmanyotherIslamistsYeteventhosewithlittleornointellectualpretensionsareoftenrecognizableas IslamistsnotonlyfortheircommitmenttothepublicimplementationofIslamicnormsgroundedinthefoundationaltextsbutalsomdashandasacor-ollaryoftheformermdashfortheiroftenself-consciouscritiqueofanddisen-gagementfromthenormsandmorestheyseearoundthemIncontempo-raryLebanonforinstanceShilsquoiIslamistshaveoftenseentheirtext-basedreligiouscommitmentsasmarkingacleardeparturefromearlierandex-isting religious practicesAs anthropologist LaraDeeb (2006 20) ob-servesldquoTheyvieweditasnewanddifferentmdashdifferentfromwhattheyoftenreferredtoenigmaticallyaslsquobeforersquoorlsquohowwewerersquoanddifferentfromwhattheycalledalshytaqalid(traditions)Inlieuofpracticesandbeliefscastastraditionaltheyespoused [an] lsquoauthenticatedrsquoIslamexpressedinpublicpietyrdquo14ManyIslamists living inrefugeecampsinGazahavehadasimilarviewTothemldquoPalestinianshadeitherbe-comelostinforeignideologiesortheyhadbecomelsquoMuslimsbycon-

13Theconvictionthatthecommunityatlargeisdivinelyprotectedfromerrorisanim-portantbasisoftheauthorityofldquoconsensusrdquoasamajorsourceofjuridicalnormsinSunniIslamFormoderndebateson consensus and someof the literatureon this subject seeZaman2006

14Theldquotraditionsrdquohereprimarilyrefer tocustomarynormsanddevotionalpracticesratherthantothecenturies-olddiscursivetraditionfromwhichthelsquoulamabothShilsquoiandSunniderivetheirauthorityIslamistcritiquesareoftendirectedasmuchhoweverattra-ditionsinthesenseofldquoinauthenticrdquoculturallyrootedreligiouspracticesastheyareatthescholarlytraditionofthelsquoulamawhichtothemisequallyinauthenticinhavingobscuredthesimpleandfundamentalteachingsofthefoundationaltexts

19

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

ventionrsquowhowentalongwiththefastorprayednowandthenbecausethiswaslsquocustomandtraditionrsquo(lsquoada wa taqlid)ThislackofconsciouszealousadherencetoIslamhadresultedinsocialweaknessleadingtode-featatthehandsofIsraelrdquo(Lybarger2007211)ThereismuchthatsuchanalysessharewiththewritingsandpronouncementsoftheleadingIs-lamistintellectuals

Islamists and Salafi s

JustasitisnotalwayseasytodifferentiatelsquoulamafromIslamistsorIs-lamists frommodernists it is sometimesdifficult to clearlydistinguishbetweenIslamistsandtheSalafisThelatterderivethisself-designationfromclaimsofstrictadherencetothenormativepracticeofalshysalaf alshysalih(thepiousforbears)usuallyunderstoodastheMuslimsofthefirstgenerations of Islam The guiding Salafi assumption is that these firstMuslims inbeingcontemporariesof theProphetMuhammadandtheimmediatesuccessorsofthosecontemporariesexemplifymostperfectlywhatitmeanstobeavirtuousMuslimandthatlatergenerationscandonobetterthanemulatetheexampleofthesefirstgenerationsSomever-sionofthisviewwouldfindbroadresonanceamongIslamistsbutalsoordinary believers though the Shilsquoa of various doctrinal orientationshavealwayshada farmore restrictiveviewofpreciselywho isworthemulating Again like the Islamists the Salafis insist on deriving theirnormsdirectlyfromtheIslamicfoundationaltextstheQurrsquoanandtheexampleoftheProphetMuhammadunmediatedbythemedievalschoolsoflawThismeansdoingawaywiththesortofhistoricallyarticulatedscholarlytraditionfromwhichthelsquoulamahavetendedtodrawmuchoftheirauthorityTheSalafisdohavetheirownlsquoulamamdashQaradawiisano-tableinstanceasaremembersoftheSaudireligiousestablishmentmdashbuteventheirauthorityisbasedfarmoreondirectlyinterpretingthefounda-tional texts than it is on any systematic engagement with the Islamicscholarlytradition

AllthissoundsagooddealnotjustliketheIslamistsbutalsolikethemodernistsThisshouldnotbesurprisingfortheSalafiorientationisanimportantpartofthegenealogyofbothmodernismandIslamismTheSalafi reformer Muhammad lsquoAbduh though a traditionally educatedscholarwhoservedtowardtheendofhislifeasthegrandmuftiofEgyptwasakeyinfluenceinthedevelopmentofIslamicmodernismButwhilesomeoflsquoAbduhrsquosdisciplesdevelopedhisideasinthedirectionofsecularnationalismothersmdashnotablytheSalafijournalistandQurrsquoancommenta-torRashidRidamdasheventuallytookthemdespitehismodernistproclivi-tiesinadecidedlyconservativedirection(Hourani1983alsocfDallal2000)Hasan al-Banna the founder of the MuslimBrotherhoodwasclose to many Egyptian Salafis Muhibb al-din al-Khatib (d 1969) aleadingSalafiofthetimeandtheowneroftheSalafiPublishingHousein

20

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

CairowasinchargeofoneoftheBrotherhoodrsquosfirstjournals(Mitchell1993185)andafterRidarsquosdeathin1935itwasatBannarsquosinitiativethatRidarsquosinfluentialjournalalshyManarwouldcontinuetobepublishedforsomeyears(RMitchell1993186)

ForalltheiraffinitieshoweverSalafiscannotsimplybesubsumedwiththeIslamistsanymorethantheycanwiththemodernistsUnliketheearlySalafisandothermodernists Islamistshavealmost invariablysought toaddressthemselvestoawidepopularaudienceratherthantotheintellec-tualelite(cfRMitchell1993211)TheSalafishavealsobeenfarmorepreoccupiedwithmattersofcorrectbeliefthenuancesofdoctrinethanhaveeither the Islamistsor themodernists (cfHaykel2009 [forthcom-ing])BythesametokenwhilemanyIslamistshavehadasomewhatam-bivalentrelationshipwithSufismSalafishaveusuallybeenunrelentinglyhostile to devotional Sufi practices But if it is useful to distinguish theSalafisfromothercompetingorientationsinmodernIslamitisimportantalsotorecognizethatthereismuchonwhichSalafisthemselveshavedis-agreedsometimessharplyInquestionintheseldquointernalrdquodifferencesisnottheiroverallorientationmdashtowardtheIslamicfoundational textsandthepristinenormsofIslamrsquosfirstgenerationsmdashbutratherthepreciseimplica-tionsofthisorientationforbeliefandconductinthepresentAconsider-ationofsomeofthesedifferencesshouldinturnfurtherillustratehowtheSalafisoughttobedistinguishedfromothercompetingcamps

WheremanySalafisseetheschoolsoflawasobstructingandindeeddistortingthesimplemessageofthefoundationaltextsothersviewthelegaltraditionasrepresentingIslamrsquosrichintellectuallegacyfromwhichMuslimsought todrawboth inspirationandguidanceQaradawi forinstance has been critical not just of the Muslimmodernists but alsooffellowSalafisfortheirirreverencetowardtherichesofthelegaltradi-tiontheiruneducatedproclivitytosetitasidealltoocallouslyOnthisviewarejectionofthetaqlid-boundlsquoulamashouldnotleadtotheotherextrememdashexemplifiedbynotafewSalafismdashofjettisoningthescholarlytraditionaltogether SalafisalsodifferamongthemselvesintheirattitudestowardmodernWesterninstitutionsandpracticesInthelatenineteenthandearlytwen-tieth centuries Salafi reformers like Muhammad lsquoAbduh and RashidRidainEgyptandJamalal-dinal-Qasimi(d1914)inSyriahadcalledforareorientationtowardthefoundationaltextsasawayofjustifyingnotresistingchangesinlawandeducationaswellasotherfacetsofso-cialreform(cfHourani1983Commins1990)OnthisviewadirectrecoursetotheQurrsquoanandthesunnaofferedthebestwayofdemonstrat-ing the accord between their teachings and the reformist project15 In

15SymptomaticofotherdisagreementsamongtheSalafisistheveryquestionofpreciselywhothesalafarewhoseexampleoughttobeemulatedThenarrowerviewslimitthesalaftothefirstthreegenerationsofIslammdashtheageoftheProphetMuhammadandhiscompan-ionstheirsuccessorsandthelatterrsquosimmediatesuccessorsmdashbuteventhesenarrowviews

21

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

contemporaryEuropeTariqRamadananinfluentialSwissArabphilos-opherhasarguedthatMuslimslivinginWesternsocietiesoughttofeelathomeinandcontributetoward thosesocietieswhileretainingandcultivatingtheirdistinctIslamicidentityHetooappearstoseehimselfinthegenealogyofwhathecharacterizesasldquoSalafireformismrdquo(onthischaracterization see Ramadan 2004 26ndash27) and he has echoed Qa-radawiinsomeofhisviews(cfRamadan199993ndash99) Other Salafis have remained staunchly opposed to institutions andpracticesofaWesternprovenanceAnespeciallyinfluentialfigureinthegenealogyofthelatterpositionistheeighteenth-centurypuritanicalre-former Muhammad ibn lsquoAbd al-Wahhab (d 1792) whose alliance in1744 with Muhammad ibn Salsquoud contributed to the establishment ofthefirstSaudistateinthelateeighteenthcenturyIbnlsquoAbdal-WahhabwashostilenotonlytoShilsquoismandtoSufidevotionalismbutalsotoany-thinghedeemednottobeinstrictconformitywiththeteachingsofthefoundationaltextsTherewasmuchthatseemedtohimtofailthisstan-dardallofwhichhebrandedasoneoranotherformofunbeliefTheWahhabismdashas the followers of Ibn lsquoAbd al-Wahhab are oftenknownthoughtheyprefertothinkofthemselvessimplyasgoodMuslimsoratbestasSalafismdashoftenadheretothelegalnormsoftheHanbalischooloflawthoughitistheteachingsofthefoundationaltextsirrespectiveofthisoranyotherschooldoctrinethattheyprofesstofollowThemoststringentoftheSaudiSalafisaswellasotherselsewhereareaveryfarcryindeedfromwhatQaradawiwouldcharacterizeasldquocentristrdquoSalafireformersletalonefromtheearlytwentieth-centurySalafimodernists

ThepoliticalviewsoftheWahhabisandmorebroadlyoftheSalafisare likewiseanythingbutuniformInSaudiArabiaWahhabireligiousscholarshavelongaffirmedaquietistpoliticalstancewhichhasmeantleavingmattersofthestatetotherulingfamilyFormuchofthehistoryofmodernSaudiArabiatherulingelitefor itsparthas imposedfewconstraintsontheSaudilsquoulamainmattersofreligiouslifetheregulationofsocialnormsandjudicialadministration(cfVogel2000)Onseveraloccasions however this relationship has come under severe strain In1979agroupofWahhabiswhorejectedthelegitimacyoftheSaudistateyethadtieswithsomeprominentreligiousscholarsmdashincludinglsquoAbdal-

feelconstrainedtomakeroomforsuchreveredfiguresasAhmadibnHanbaltheputativefounderoftheHanbalischooloflawandthefourteenth-centuryDamascenescholarIbnTaymiyya(d1328)OtherviewsarerathermoreexpansivenotjustinchronologicalbutalsoandcruciallyinintellectualtermsThusMuhammadlsquoAbduhthoughtthesalaftoalsoincludesuchtheologiansasal-Ashlsquoari(d935)al-Baqillani(d1013)andal-Maturidi(d944)SeeHourani1983149SuchaviewobviouslyopensthedoorforpreciselythesortoftheologicaldebatesthatotherSalafisaswellasIslamistsoftenfrownuponfortakingthebelieversveryfarfromthesimpleanddirectwordsofGod lsquoAbduhrsquosdiscipleRidaagaintookanarrowerviewofthesalafandlaterinhiscareerbecameastrongdefenderoftheWahhabisCfHourani1983230ndash32

22

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

lsquoAzizBinBaz(d1999)laterthegrandmuftiofSaudiArabiamdashtookoverthesacredprecinctsoftheKalsquobainMeccainashort-livedbutextremelyembarrassingchallenge toSaudi royalauthority (cfHegghammerandLacroix2007)In1990KingFahdrsquosdecisiontoinviteAmericantroopstodefendthekingdomagainstthethreatofanIraqiinvasioncreatedwide-spreadresentmentamongSaudis theeffectsofwhichcontinue to thisdayThestationingofnon-MuslimmilitarypersonnelinIslamrsquosholiestlandwasdeemedbythekingrsquoscriticstobescandalousandevensacrile-giousAnumberofprominentSaudiSalafispubliclycriticizedthekingrsquosdecisiononthisoccasioncallinguponhimaswellasonBinBazandoth-ersatthehelmoftheSaudireligiousestablishmenttoreorienttheSaudipolitytowarditstruereligiousfoundationsManyofthesedissidentsmdashwhowerealsojoinedbyldquosecularrdquoSaudicriticsoftheroyalfamilymdashwereandhaveremainedrestrainedintheircriticismevenastheycalledforstricterconformitytoIslamicnormsasthepanaceaforallills(cfFandy1999)OthershoweverhavedenouncedtheroyalfamilyanditsWesternalliesinnouncertaintermsBinLadenisonlythemostnotoriousofthosewhobrokewiththeroyalfamilyinthewakeofKingFahdrsquosdecisiontoinviteWesterntroopsin1990andwhocalledfortheoverthrowoftheroyal familyand for jihadagainstWesternpowers Such strident callshavebeencontinuedbyotherSalafisbothbeforeandaftertheterroristattacksofSeptember112001aswellasintheaftermathoftheUS-ledinvasionofIraq(al-Rasheed2007)

ItshouldbeclearinlightoftheforegoingthatanyunderstandingofthedifferencesbetweenIslamistsandtheSalafismustrestontakingac-countofthediversityamongtheSalafisSalafiswhooftenrejectmuchoftheIslamicscholarlytraditioninfavorofadirectrecoursetothefoun-dationaltextsarenotnecessarilyrenderedldquoIslamistrdquosimplybyvirtueofthisstanceForasnotedmanyoftheseSalafiscontinuetoprofessareso-lutelyquietiststancewhichinthecaseoftheSaudiSalafismeansaf-firmingallegiancetotheSaudiroyalfamilyThispositionisrepresentedforinstancebyBinBaztheerstwhilegrandmuftiaswellasbyotherleading members of the Saudi religious establishment A pro-regimestanceoroneindifferenttopoliticsisnolessldquopoliticalrdquoofcoursethana position of strident hostility to the established order at home andabroadForourpurposeshoweveritisonlywhentheSalafisrejecttheexistingdispensationandbeginstrivingmdashthoughnotnecessarilythroughmilitantmeansmdashforanewreligio-politicalorderthattheycanbesaidtojointheranksoftheIslamists

ItisworthnotingfinallythatSalafipositionsamongSaudisandelse-wherearemarkednotonlybydiversitybutalsobyconsiderablefluidity(al-Rasheed 2007) The same activist or intellectual might at varioustimesmoveamongavarietyofseeminglyincompatiblepositionsmdashap-pearingtobemoreldquomoderaterdquoonsomeissuesthanonothersForallhiscriticismofradicalIslamistsQaradawiforinstancehashimselfwrittenin justificationofsuicidebombingsbyPalestiniansagainst Israelis (see

23

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

chapter 9 on Qaradawi) And Saudi Salafis like Safar al-Hawali andSalmanal-lsquoAwdamdashwhocame toprominence in the early1990smdashhavealternatedbetweencriticismoftheSaudipoliciesanddenunciationsofradicalSalaficallstojihadagainsttheSaudiregime(seeal-Rasheed200759ndash101onal-HawalialsoseeReichmuth2006)Theirshiftingviewsreflect changes in their relations with the Saudi regime but they alsopointtothebroadspectrumofpositionswhichSalafishavetakenatdif-ferenttimesindifferentcontextsandbeforedifferentaudiencesThusevenasal-Hawaliandal-lsquoAwdahavecondemnedterroristactsdirectedagainstSaudiArabiaandadvisedSaudisnottofightAmericantroopsinpostndashSaddamHusseinIraqtheyhavecalledupontheIraqisthemselvestoresistAmericantroopsandhavecharacterizedthateffortasaldquodefen-sivejihadrdquo(al-Rasheed200794ndash95)

Sufi s and Islamists

ItseemsmuchsimpleronthefaceofittodistinguishbetweenIslamistsandSufisThecharacteristicSuficonvictionthattherearelevelsofmean-ingintheQurrsquoanthatgobeyondtheliteralandtheobviousandthataselectfewmdashtheldquofriendsofGodrdquomdashareendowedwiththeuniqueabilityto discern them is anathema to all those who insist that God intendsHisteachingstobeequallyintelligibletoallDespitetheirtendencytoviewthemselvesasbearersof true Islam Islamists typicallyregard theSufi idea that somepeoplehaveaprivileged relationshipwithGodassuspectthebasisnotonlyforsanctioninginterpretationsofIslamthatlackwarrantintheplainteachingsofGodandtheProphetbutalsoforpracticallyldquoworshipingrdquothesefriendsofGodIslamists(andmodernists)havefrequentlyalsobeencriticalofthewaySufidevotionalismcanyieldaturningawayfromtheworldratherthananefforttochangeitaswellasapreoccupationwithpersonalspiritualtransformationattheexpenseofconcernsforthewelfareofthecommunityatlarge SufipracticesandtheteachingsoftheSufimastershavevariedenor-mouslythroughoutthehistoryofIslamyetIslamistcritiquesofSufismareseldomattentivetoitsnuancesortothecomplexwaysithasrelatedtootherfacetsofIslamNorhaveIslamiststakenmuchaccountofthefactthatmanyleadingfiguresofearliertimeswerebesidesmuchelseSufisaswellThisistrueevenofIbnTaymiyya(d1328)whoseprestigeinIslamistandSalaficirclesismatchedbyfewothersandwhowasinhisdayamemberoftheQadiriSufiorder(Makdisi1974)EvenifonearguesmdashasanIslamistmightbeinclinedtomdashthatldquogoodrdquoSufismisnoth-ingbutproperIslamitselftheveryfactthatsuchfigureshadaSufiiden-tityatallnecessarilycomplicateswhatissupposedtobethepristinesim-plicityofafaithsharedequallybyallbelievers

Complicatingthingsstillfurtheristhevarietyofwaysinwhichsomeleading Islamists relate to Sufism Ayatollah Khomeini was a lifelongstudentofIslamicmysticismandtheinfluenceofthemedievalSpanish

24

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

Sufi Ibn lsquoArabi loomed especially large in his thought To Khomeinimysticismmdashoften referred to as lsquoirfan (gnosis) especially when inter-twinedwithIslamicphilosophyandtheology(Knysh1992632)mdashwascrucialtoaproperunderstandingofGodrsquosrelationshipwiththeworldandwiththehumanbeingItwasalsoessentialforonersquosethicalforma-tionforamasteryovertheselfandultimatelyforrealizinginoneselftheattributesofwhat Ibn lsquoArabihadcalledldquotheperfectmanrdquo (cfKnysh1992 635 also Mottahedeh 1985 180ndash85) Some of the austerity ofKhomeinirsquospersonallifeprobablyalsoderivedfromSufiasceticismAndthoughheanchoredhisconceptionofIslamicgovernmentinanexposi-tionofShilsquoijuridicalthoughtratherthaninIslamicmysticismthesortofreligiousauthorityhecametoenjoyonthebasisofhisreformulationofShilsquoipoliticaltheologyseemstoechomysticalideasoftheperfectmanwho embodies and upholds the moral order as the microcosm of theuniverse

UnlikeKhomeiniQutbwasnotaSufiandhegivesnoindicationofsharinganyofKhomeinirsquosenthusiasmforthegreatSufithinkersofear-liertimesEvensoechoesofamysticrsquosdirectencounterwiththefoun-tainheadoftruthandknowledgearehardtomissinQutbrsquoswritingses-peciallyinhiscommentaryontheQurrsquoan(cfCarreacute200395ndash97)TheveryfirstsentenceofhiscommentarymdashldquolifeintheshadeoftheQurrsquoanisablessingunknowntoanyonewhohasnrsquottasteditrdquomdashevokesthefa-miliarSufiideathatincontrovertibleknowledgeofRealityisultimatelyacquired only through direct personal experience (dhawq that is theldquotasterdquooftheTruth)ThegreatmedievalSufial-Ghazali(d1111)hadauthoredafamousautobiographicalaccountofhowitwasonlythroughthe immediacyofhispersonalmysticalexperience thathewasable toovercomehisdebilitatingepistemologicaldoubtsandreassurehimselfofthenecessarytruths(Watt199857)QutbdoesnotmentionGhazaliinthiscontextbutitisdifficultnottobestruckbythemysticalresonanceofsomeofhislanguageHereisoneexamplewhichoccursinhiscom-mentaryonsura(chapter)53oftheQurrsquoan16

16TheearlyversesinthissuraoftheQurrsquoanhavebeenunderstoodbyMuslimexegetesasreferringtotheProphetrsquosrevelatoryexperienceaswellastohisldquonightjourneyrdquoandhisascensiontoheavenormilsquoraj inthecourseofonenighthewastransportedfirstfromMeccatoJerusalemandthentothepresenceofGodbeforebeingreturnedtoMecca

UnrelatedtothenightjourneybutrelatedtohisrevelatoryexperiencestheexegeticalsignificanceofthisQurrsquoanicsuraalsoliesinitsconnectionwiththeso-calledSatanicVersesAccordingtocertainexegeticalreportsMuhammadwasinthecourseofreceivingarevela-tionwhenSataninterpolatedsomeversesintoitmdashversespraisingthreegoddessesreveredbythepolytheistsofMeccaItwasnotuntilsometimelaterthatMuhammadrealizedhiserrorwhereupontheversesinterpolatedbySatanwereremovedTheepisodeoftheldquoSa-tanicVersesrdquohasbeenacontroversialoneinIslamichistorylongbeforeSalmanRushdiersquosnovelofthatnameandKhomeinirsquosjuridicalruling(fatwa)callingforRushdiersquosdeathMostMuslimscholarshavefoundittooshockingtobelievethattheProphetcouldhavemadesuchagrievouserrorandhavedeniedthatanysuch incidentever tookplaceYetsome

25

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

IwaschattingoneeveningwithsomecompanionswhentoourearscamethesoundofsomeonerecitingtheQurrsquoannearbyrecitingtheSuraoftheStar[al-Najm]andweinterruptedourconversationtolistentotheNobleQurrsquoanLittlebylittlemyheartenteredintowhatwasbeing recited into theheartofMuhammadashe jour-neyedtotheHeavenlyHostIwaswithhimashesawGabrielintheangelicforminwhichGodhadcreatedhimIwaswithhiminhis loftyandfree-flying journey to theLoteTreeof theBoundaryandtheGardenoftheRefugeIwaswithhimtotheextentthatmyimaginationcouldformavisionofitandtotheextentthatmyfeelings couldbear itThen came the final cry andmywholebeingshookatthefearfulreproachldquoDoyoumarvelatthisdiscourseanddoyoulaughandnotweepandmakemerryrdquo[Q5359ndash61]WhenIheardldquoBowdownbeforeGodandserveHimrdquo[Q5362]thetremblinginmyhearthadbecomeaphysicalandvisibletremblingthroughoutmybodythatIcouldnotresistMybodykeptshakingandIcouldnotcontrolitNorcouldIholdbackthetearsthatwerepouringforthhowevermuchItried(QutbZilalvol7part2774ndash75quotedfromCarreacute2003333ndash34withminorchanges)

TheQurrsquoanrsquosprofoundimpactontheaestheticsensibilitiesofitslisten-ersisafamiliarmotifindiscussionsofitsliteraryqualities(cfGrahamandKermani2006)AssomeonewhoseearlywritingswereconcernedwithArabicliterarycriticismandspecificallywiththeliteraryexcellenceoftheIslamicscripture(Qutb1949b)QutbwasespeciallyreceptivetothisaspectoftheQurrsquoanThesenseofbeingtransportedbacktothetimeoftheProphetandtowitnessingtheProphetrsquosascension(milsquoraj)tothepresence of Godmdashwhich is how the passage being commented on byQutbherehascommonlybeeninterpretedbytheexegetesmdashcanlikewisebeseenasanillustrationoftheoverpoweringimpactthewordsoftheQurrsquoancanhaveonthebelieverQutbrsquosaccountofconversingwithGodthrough the Qurrsquoan (cited earlier) is again something he may havewantedtoseeallbelieversdoYetallbelieverscanscarcelydosoany-morethanallaspirantsevenontheSufipathcanexperiencethetransfor-mativemysticalldquostatesrdquothatGodbestowsonHisspecialfriends(awlshyiya)IrrespectiveofwhetherhesawitinquitethiswayQutbrsquosassertionthatheisabletoenterldquointotheheartofMuhammadrdquoandtoseeGabrielasMuhammad sawhimsurelygiveshimaperspective thatothers en-counteringthewordofGoddonothave

ThepointisnotofcoursethatQutbwaseverrecognizedbyhisfol-lowersasaSufimasterbutthatsomeofthehermeneuticalauthorityheclaimshasadistinctiveSufiringtoitMorebroadlythesortofunques-

leadingscholarsofearlyandmedievalIslammdashincludingIbnTaymiyyamdashacceptedthehisto-ricityofthisincidentSeeSAhmed1998

26

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INTRODUCTION

tioningreligio-politicalauthorityIslamistleadershaveoftenenjoyedovertheirfollowersisnotunlikethatoftheSufimasteroverhisfollowersBe-ginningwithHasanal-BannathefounderoftheMuslimBrotherhoodandoncehimselfamemberofaSufiordertheleaderofthisorganizationis formally referred to as themurshid (guide)ormore specificallyalshymurshid alshylsquoam (thegeneralguide[RMitchell1993165])whichisafamiliartermforthemasterinSuficontextsForhispartAbdessalamYassine the founder and leader of lsquoAdl warsquol-Ihsan Party of Morocco(oftenreferredtoastheJusticeandSpiritualityAssociationorJSA)haslike Khomeini gone well beyond simply echoing Sufi conceptions ofauthorityinhisowndiscoursesHetoowasonceamemberofaMoroc-canSufiorderandhehascontinuedtodrawonSufithemesinhiswrit-ingsTheverynameofYassinersquospoliticalorganizationevokesacentralSufiideanamelyihsanThisisaQurrsquoanicterm(cfQ756)thattrans-latedliterallymeansldquotodogoodrdquothoughSufishaveunderstoodittomeanmuchmore thanthatFollowingawell-knownstatementattrib-uted to theProphetMuhammad theyhaveoften interpreted ihsan tomeangoingbeyondtheexternalsofIslamicritualpracticestoldquoworshipGodasifyouseeHimrdquo(Schimmel197529)thatiscultivatingasenseof personal communion and intimacy with God Even as Yassine hassoughttodistancehimselffromwhathedeemstobetheexcessesofSu-fismthereislittledoubtthathispoliticalappealowesmuchtocarefullycalibratedeffortstocombinedistinctiveSufiideaswithhisownbrandofIslamism(cfLauziegravere2005seealsochapter12onNadiaYassineinthisvolume)

FinallyMawdudirsquosJamalsquoat-iIslamimdashoneoftheearliestIslamistorga-nizations in the Sunni worldmdashillustrates both the Islamistsrsquo complexrelationshipwith Sufismand their pragmatic recognitionof its appealinmanyMuslimsocietiesMawdudihadoncebeenaharshcriticofSu-fismblamingitformanyillsafflictingMuslimsocietiesYettheJama-lsquoat-iIslamigraduallycametosoftenitsstanceonSufipracticesconsider-ablynodoubtintheinterestofbroadeningsomeofitssupportbaseinPakistanwheresaintsandSufishrinesareanimportantpartofthereli-giousandpoliticallandscapeAlreadyinMawdudirsquoslifetimeMianTufaylMuhammadhissuccessorastheheadoftheJamalsquoat-iIslamihadtakentheextraordinaryinitiativeoftranslatinganearlySuficlassictheKashf alshymahjub into Urdu The author of this work Shaykh lsquoAli Hujwiri(d1072)isburiedinLahoreinPakistanandhismuch-frequentedshrineishometoprecisely thesortofdevotionalpractices that Islamistsandmodernist reformers letaloneSalafishaveoften frownedupon (Nasr1996124)

ThesediverseexamplesarenotintendedtoobscuretherealdifferencesbetweenthegeneralityofIslamistsandmostSufisTheirsignificanceliesratherinillustratingthedifficultyofdistinguishingbetweenIslamismandotherreligiousintellectualandpoliticaltrendsintermsofneatcharac-

27

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INTRODUCTION

terizationsofgrandtranslocalgeneralizationsAstheforegoingsuggeststhesameistrueandmoresowhenitcomestocharacterizingIslamistsinrelationtothelsquoulamatheMuslimmodernistsandtheSalafisIndeedasLorenLybargerhasarguedwithreferencetothoseusuallycharacter-izedasldquosecularnationalistrdquoorldquoIslamistrdquoPalestiniansintheWestBankandGazadifferenceswithintheranksofyoungsecularnationalistsandIslamistscansometimesalsoshadeintosignificantsimilaritiesbetweenthesesupposedlyrivalorientations(Lybarger2007)ManyIslamistshavesoughttodistancethemselvesfromwhattheyseeastherigidityandau-thoritarianismofotherIslamistsandtoarguenotjustfortheimplemen-tationofthesharilsquoabutalsofordemocracyandpluralismConverselynot a few of the younger secular nationalists have ldquoadopted IslamisttheodiciesthatexplainedthefailuretoovercomeIsraelastheresultoffallingawayfrompietytheirconclusionsmirroredIslamistonestootheroadbackfromthebrinkhadtotraceitscoursethrougharenewedcom-mitmenttoIslambutnotnecessarilyinthemannerthattheIslamistmove-mentsmighthaveintendedrdquo(Lybarger2007237ndash38quotationat238)

Yet ifneatcategoriesremainelusiveacombinationoftheIslamistsrsquoself-consciouslypoliticalgoalstheirmultifacetedifnotalwaysexplicitpoliticalcritiquesofmanypastandpresentwaysofunderstandingandlivingIslamandanunshakeableconfidenceintheirownabilitytodis-cern Godrsquos will from the foundational texts do often provide enoughgrounds tobroadlydistinguish themfromotheractivists intellectualsand orientations in the Muslim public sphere What this combinationamountstovariesfromonesocialpoliticalreligiousandculturalcon-texttoanotherandsothereforedothewaysinwhichIslamistsrelatetooneanotherorcompeteandoverlapwithothergroupsandorientations

The Politics of Islamism

FromAeneasrsquosmythicalfoundingofRometothedeathandresurrectionofJesusChristtoMuhammadrsquosmigrationtoMedinafoundationalnar-rativesareascommontocollectivelifeasthemovementsthatperiodi-callyarisetorevivethemandclaimantstothemantleoflegitimacytheyconferSounderstoodIslamistsrsquopoliticalaspirationstorestorefounda-tionslocatedinamythicalpastarefarfromuniqueNorareIslamistsaloneintheirconvictionthatscripturalauthorityisguaranteedbyitsdi-vineauthormdashforinthatallMuslimsagreeRatherthechaptersinthisvolumesuggest thatwhatmakes Islamistpoliticsdistinctive (ifnotsui generis)istheclaimtorecuperateanldquoauthenticIslamrdquocomprisedofself-evidenttruthspurgedofalienandcorruptinginfluencesalongwithaninsistenceonremakingthefoundationsofthestateinitsimageGiventhelimitsofhumanunderstandingrelativetoGodrsquosknowledgeIslamistssimultaneouslydepictsuchfidelitytotheunadulteratedwordofAllahas

28

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INTRODUCTION

theultimateexpressionofdeferencetodivineomniscienceandportrayhumilityasaconstitutivefeatureofthehumanconditionAspirationstofullyknowandmasterthenaturalandsocialworldsthusentailnotonlyahumanhubrisdeaftotheQurrsquoanicadmonitionthatldquoAllahknowsbutandyoudonotknowrdquo(Q366)butalsoatransgressionagainstadi-vinely-ordainedontologicalorder

ItisnotablehoweverthattheIslamistemphasisonthelimitsofhumanknowledgerequireshumilityonlyinrelationtoAllahitrarelyyieldshu-milityinregardtotheirownclaimstospeakinHisnameortowardotherhumanbeingswhodissentfromthepremiseofdivineomnipotenceandIslamistaccountsofwhat it requiresThis suggests thatwhile IslamistchallengestostatepowerareobviouslypoliticaltheIslamistclaimtoau-thenticityisalsopolitical inthecoercivepoweritroutinelyenactsandjustifiesmostnotablybywayofthesilencesitimposesandthedebatesitforeclosesAzizal-Azmehpointsoutthatldquothenotionofauthenticityisnotsomuchadeterminateconceptasitisanodeofassociationsandin-terpellationsatropebymeansofwhichthehistoricalworldisreducedtoaparticularorderandatokenwhichmarksoffsocialandpoliticalgroupsandforgesandreconstituteshistoricalidentitiesrdquo(al-Azmeh199341)WhetherintheserviceofArabnationalismChristianfundamental-ismEuropeanromanticismorMuslimmodernismtheclaimofauthen-ticityisanactofpowerthatfunctionsnotjusttoreflecttheworldbuttoconstructitbydeterminingwhoisincludedandexcludedwhomayandmaynotspeakauthoritativelywhatistheproperrealmofdebateandwhatisbeyondcontestation

ItiscertainlythecasethatasingleldquoIslamrdquocapturesandorganizestheperspectivesofmillionswhoself-identifyasMuslim(amongotherthings)yetwhattravelsunderitsrubricisinescapablydiversemultiethnicanddefined asmuchbydisagreement as consensus Just as theTorah andBible lend themselves toat times radicallydivergent interpretationsofwhatitmeanstobeJewishorChristiantheQurrsquoanandhaditharecom-plexandsusceptibletomanydifferentandattimescontradictoryenact-mentsSounderstoodIslamislessafixedessencethanalivingtraditionthatcaptureswhatisimaginedascontinuousandunitaryindialecticalrelationshiptothoseconcretearticulationsandpracticesbywhichitistransformedandadaptedindifferentcontextsforpluralpurposesItispreciselythisunderstandingofreligionthatisanathematoIslamistswhoseek tofix theparametersof Islamicauthenticityonceandforallandtherebyarrogateforthemselvestherighttodeterminewhoqualifiesasagood Muslim to discredit those lsquoulama unable or unwilling to purgeIslamofpurportedimpietiestodeclarenominallyMuslimrulersapos-tatesunfittogovernandtocharacterizeallwhodisagreeascorrupthe-reticalguiltyofunbelieforvictimsoffalseconsciousness

Thesegeneralpoliticaltendencieshowevermustbecarefullysituatedwithinadialecticoftheglobalandthevernacularunderstoodtoreflect

29

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INTRODUCTION

thewaysinwhichunifyingmacrohistoricaldynamicsinformandareinturntransformedbydiversecontingentandfluidlocalcircumstancesInaworldstampedbyWesterndominanceandtheconsolidationofpostco-lonial authoritarian regimes Islamists confront a common set of con-straintsandchallengesInasmuchassuchconstraintsandchallengeshavemade Islamist thinkers (often reluctant) participants in conversationsacrossbothcultureandhistorytheireffortstoremakethefoundationsofcollectiveliferevealasharedinterpretiveframeworkandcommonreli-gio-political grammar At the same time this frame and grammar arecontinuallybeingreworkedinrelationtothedistinctpublicspheresinwhichIslamistsoperateandtowhichtheycarefullycalibratetheirpoliti-calcommitments

Attention to this complex dynamic suggests that the Islamist move-mentcannotsimplybecharacterizedasviolentantidemocraticandop-pressiveofwomenlabelsinvokedsofrequentlyinscholarlyandpopularliterature on the subject that they have become virtually synonymouswithIslamistpoliticsSuchcharacterizationsdocapturecrucialdimen-sionsofIslamistpoliticsyettheyalsosidesteptheparadoxesitsvarie-gatedandoftencontradictoryexpressionspresentInsteadwearguethatIslamistpoliticscanbeproductivelyreadin terms ofandagainst the grain ofsuchbroadcategorizationsasantidemocraticantiwomanorviolentmdashthat is as commitments that at different moments in various localesbothencourageandconstrainbroad-basedpoliticalparticipationdisruptandratifyhierarchicalgendernormsresistandreproducestate-sanctionedbrutalityThepointofreadingIslamistpoliticsinthiswayisnottosug-gestthatIslamistsaresecretlydemocraticfeministandopposedtovio-lenceRatherthepointistodrawattentiontothecomplexityandcon-tradictionserasedbyeasygeneralizationsontheonehandandtheoftenunacknowledgedfluidityandculturaladaptabilityofotherwisefamiliarpoliticalcategoriesontheother

Islamism and Democracy

DespiteimportantdifferencesamongIslamistthinkerstheyhaveincom-monatendencytoviewhumansovereigntyastransgressiveofdivinelawandsharetheaspirationtoestablishsharilsquoaastheprimaryorsolesourceofauthorityAsisoftennotedsuchpremisesandaspirationsrunafoulofassumptionsaboutpopularruleattheheartofdemocracynamelythathumanbeingshavetherighttolegislaterulesforcollectivebehaviorandarecapableofthewisdomrequiredtodevisejustlawsInrecentyearspolicymakersandcommentatorshaveevincedaparticularpreoccupa-tionwiththewaysinwhichIslamistnotionsofdivineauthoritythrottlethespiritandpracticeofpopularsovereigntySomehaveevengonesofarastocharacterizeIslamistsasldquoIslamo-fascistsrdquoanimatedbyhatredoftheldquodemocratic Westrdquo psychologically unable to contend with the fluidity

30

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INTRODUCTION

andindeterminacythatmarkpopularruleandeagertoconvertelectionsintoaldquoone-manone-voteone-timerdquomechanismforestablishinganIs-lamicstate(Murdock2002MRubin2005Kramer1993)

SuchviewsareechoedbythoseIslamistskeentoportraydemocracynotonlyasantitheticaltothesupremacyofdivinelawbutasaTrojanhorseforWesternimperialismFormanyIslamistsincludingseveralinthis volumedemocracy is justone symptomofametastasizingmoralandspiritualbankruptcywherebymoraltransgressionsaretransfiguredintonaturalurgescrassself-interestbecomesthebedrockofcollectivelifeandthedivineplanfortheuniverseandallthingsinitisreducedtoa system of physical causality just waiting to be mastered by way ofhumaningenuity(REuben2007)Qutbcallsthisdiseasedviewoftheworldjahiliyyaanditsignalsnotonlyhumanarrogancebutatransgres-sionagainstdivineauthoritythescopeofwhichencompassesbothpub-licandprivatedomainsofhumanaffairsaswellasbothvisibleandun-seendimensionsoftheuniverseFormanyIslamistssuchtransgressionisattherootofmuchofwhatpassesforMuslimruleinthecontemporaryworldmdashnationalistdemocraticandmonarchicalalikeSucharroganceisalsosaidtobethepatternunderlyingalonghistoryofunrelievedWest-ernaggressionagainstIslaminwhichtheChristianCrusadesEuropeancolonialismIsraelitreatmentofPalestiniansethniccleansinginBosniaGermananti-TurkishviolencetheAmericaninvasionofIraqandDutchcartoonsofMuhammadarebutafewexamples

YetthereisarangeofviewsamongIslamistsaboutboththesubstanceofdemocracyanditscompatibilitywiththereligio-politicalrenewaltheyadvocateAccordingtoQaradawiforexampleldquotheessenceofdemoc-racyisthatpeoplechoosewhorulesoverthemandmanagestheiraf-fairsthatnorulerorregimetheydislikeisforceduponthemthattheyhavetherighttocalltherulertoaccountifheerrsandtoremovehimfromofficeincaseofmisconductandthatpeoplearenotforcedineco-nomicsocialculturalorpoliticaldirectionsthattheyneitherrecognizenor acceptrdquo (Qaradawi1997132 also chapter9 in this volume)TohimthereisnoheavierburdenoppressingMuslimsinthecontemporaryworld thandespotism indeed it is throughdespoticgovernments thatMuslimshavebeenforcedtosubmittootherillsincludingtheneglectofthesharilsquoaandthecoerciveimpositionofsecularismandwesternizationDemocracy then recommends itself to Qaradawi as the most effectiveavailableantidotetodespotismandtheafflictionsofwhichitservesasavehicle

WheremanyamongtheIslamistsandthelsquoulamahaveseenconsider-able tensionbetween IslamanddemocracyQaradawiprofesses to seenoneAswesuggestedearlierbyfarthemostcommonoftheIslamistreservationsaboutademocraticsystemrelatestothesovereigntyofthepeoplewhichistakentocontravenetheideathatGodaloneissovereignQaradawi however is unperturbedby such concernsThe rule of the

31

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INTRODUCTION

peopleoughttobeseenhearguesnotinoppositiontotheruleofGodbutratherinoppositiontotheruleofthedespotMorefundamentallyQaradawirsquos view of democracy does not necessarily require that thepeopleshouldbeabletooverturndivinelyinstitutednormsRatherhisassumptionisthatpeopleexercisetheirsovereigntywithinconstitutionalboundsandMuslimslivinginapredominantlyMuslimdemocraticpol-itywouldlikewisenotwishtotransgresstheparametersoflegitimatehumanactionlaiddownintheIslamicfoundationaltexts(seeQaradawichapter9inthisvolumeandcfFeldman2007)

NadiaYassineofMoroccorsquosJusticeandSpiritualityAssociationisan-othercaseinpointWhilecriticalofthedemocraticgesturesembracedbyamonarchythatshedepictsasallergictogenuinelypopularsovereigntyYassineinsiststhatthemodelofMuslimruleadumbratedintheummafoundedbytheProphetMuhammadandinparticulartheConstitutionofMedina17isnothingshortofdemocratic(NYassine2005d2005e)UnliketheMuslimdynastiesthatarosetousurpitYassinecontendsthiscommunity was participatory egalitarian committed to freedom andexpressiveofGodrsquosmercyMostimportantitwasgovernedalwaysbytheQurrsquoanicprincipleofshura (consultation)bywhichYassinemeansaphilosophy of power that places sovereignty in the community ratherthaninanyindividuallinksvirtuetodeliberationratherthanobedienceandexhortsbelieverstocontinuallyadaptQurrsquoanicprinciplesthroughijtihad rather than adhere reflexively to precedent (N Yassine 2006a182ndash862005d)ManyscholarsandjournalistsremainskepticaloftheJSArsquosasyetuntestedcommitment toproceduraldemocracyandworrythatNadiaandher fatherAbdessalamultimatelyseektoestablishanIslamic state inhospitable to tolerance pluralism and civil liberties(Maghraoui2001Brandon2007Whitlock2006)YetothersarguethattheJSAisagenuinelypopulistorganizationthatrepresentstheunrepre-sentedtendstothewelfareofthedispossessedandbothexpressesandcontributestoanincreasinglyvibrantcivilsocietyinMorocco(Cavatorta2006Entelis2002)

QaradawirsquosandYassinersquosargumentstogethersuggestthatdemocracycanandhasservedaseitheracosmeticcoverfordespotismoranauthen-ticallyIslamiccheckuponcorruptandarbitraryruleAtissueinIslamistargumentsforandagainstdemocracythenarenotonlywhatcountsasldquoauthenticIslamrdquoandtheintentionsofthosewhoclaimtoknowitbutalsothecontentandcharacterofdemocracyitselfParadoxicallybothIslamistsopposedtodemocracyandthosewhotakeIslamismasinher-entlyantidemocraticregardthisasasimplematterwithanobviousan-swerdemocracyisanexpressionofandevensynonymouswithliberal-ismcapitalismandtheWestYetdemocracyisbothmorecapaciousand

17TheConstitutionofMedinawasanagreementtheProphethadenteredintowiththelocalcommunitiesincludingJewishtribesuponhisemigrationfromMeccatoMedina

32

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

moredistinctthanthispresumptionsuggestsTheworditselfofcoursederivesfromtheancientGreekdemokratiawhichmeansrule(kratos)ofthepeople(demos)andmanyderivetheequationofdemocracyandtheWestfromthisassociationwithclassicalGreeceYetancientGreekphi-losopherssuchasPlatosawindemocracythespecterofmobrulepartic-ularly vulnerable to demagoguery and despotism (a suspicion notablyechoedbyAmerican founder JamesMadison)Contrary to thedemo-cratic idealof inclusivenessmoreover citizenship inGreekdemocracyexcludedasubstantialpartofthepopulationincludingwomenslavesandforeignersFinallytheextenttowhichtheancientGreeksmayevenbecalledWesternisamatterofgreatdisputeparticularlyastheldquoWestrdquoisacategoryofrelativelyrecentprovenancethroughwhichhistoryandgeographyhavebeenretroactivelyorganized18DespitedepictionsoftheHellenicworldasWesternancientGreeksdidnotinfactviewthem-selvesintheseterms19

TheequationofdemocracywiththeWestalsopresupposestheexis-tenceofacoherentldquoWesterncivilizationrdquowitheitherculturallyhomoge-neousrootsorclearlydelineatedhistoricalandcontemporarybounda-riesorbothYetwhatiscalledtheWestisanamalgamationofmultipletraditionsincludingtheGreekRomanJudaicChristianandIslamicmdashtraditionsthatarethemselvespolyvalentratherthanhomogeneousmdashandistodaycharacterizedbyporousbordershybridsubculturesandmyriaddebtstodiversecivilizationspastandpresent20AsageographicmarkeritisvirtuallyimpossibletopinpointexactlywheretheWestbeginsandendsandthisisespeciallysonowthatpeoplesinformationandmate-rial goods crisscross cultural andnational borders atwill creating allkindsoftransnationalsubnationalandmultipleidentitiesthatshiftandreconstitutethemselvesinunpredictablewaysEventhosevaluesidenti-fiedasWesternoftenappearelsewhereinotherguisesIndeedscholarssuggestthatavarietyoftheldquostandardsexportedbytheWestanditscul-turalindustriesthemselvesturnouttobeofculturallymixedcharacterifweexaminetheirculturallineagesrdquo(Pieterse199553)

Manyalsoarguethatdemocracyisnotonlydistinctfrombutinten-sionwithboththetheoryandpracticeofpoliticsinldquoWesternrdquosocieties

18MichaelGillespie(19997ndash10)arguesthattherereadingofhistorygeographyandculturethroughtheprismofthissenseofldquotheWestrdquobegannoearlierthanthenineteenthcenturyTheideaofatimelessandbrightlinebetweenWestandEastisalsochallengedbyJeremyBrottonrsquosstudy(19989096ndash97)ofthediplomaticandintellectualexchangesbe-tweenEuropeandtheOttomanEmpireintheearlymodernperiodBrottonshowsnotonlytheextentandamityofsuchexchangesbutapersistentuncertaintyaboutwherepreciselyEuropeldquoendedrdquoandAsialdquobeganrdquo

19AncientGreeksunderstoodthemselvesasgeographicallywestofthebarbariansbutnotWesterninthecontemporarysensethatisasbothaculturalandhistoricalcategory

20StevenRuncimanrsquoswork(19543480)ontheCrusadesforexampledemonstratesaldquolongsequenceofinteractionandfusionbetweenOrientandOccidentoutofwhichourcivilizationhasgrownrdquo

33

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INTRODUCTION

many of which are more accurately classified as liberal and capitalist(Wood1994Wolin2001BallandDagger1999)Whileitisnowcom-monplacetospeakofldquoliberaldemocracyrdquoinasinglebreathliberalismanddemocracyareconceptsandpracticeswithverydifferenthistoriesandpresuppositionsUnlikedemocracyforexampleliberalismemergedfromthecrucibleofChristianreligiouswarsandintandemwiththeas-cendanceofamiddleclassthatpresagedtheendofEuropeanfeudalismTheliberalnation-statecanthusbeviewedasbothanexpressionandaconsolidationofcapitalismontheonehandandtheprincipleofasepa-rationbetweenchurchandstateontheotherBycontrastthereisnoth-ingaboutdemocracyeitherasasystemofgovernanceoracultureofpar-ticipationthatisinherentlysecularIndeedAlexisdeTocquevillefamouslyinsistedthatAmericandemocracycannotandshouldnotbesecularasreligionhelpsshiftattentionawayfromimmediatematerialpreoccupa-tionstolargerconcernsofcommunitycooperationandmoralityInfactmanydemocratictheoristsarguethatgenuinelyinclusivepopularsover-eignty is antithetical to the sharp inequalities of wealth and politicalpowerthatcapitalismoftenproducesandlegitimates

SuchongoingdefinitionalandsubstantivedebatessuggestthatthereismuchmoreatstakeindemocraticpoliticsthanprocedurespertainingtogovernmentauthorityandorderandpointtoawidespreadifelusiveunderstandingofdemocracynotjustasasetofinstitutionsbutasTocque-villesuggestsawayoflifeSeveralpoliticaltheoristshavecharacterizedthiselusiveunderstandingintermsofaldquodemocraticethosrdquoBythistheymeanbothanidealandanargumentforacultureofparticipationactivepowersharingmutualaccountabilityinclusivenessanddeliberationinwhichcitizensmayroutinelyandsafelychallengenotonlyspecificpoli-ciesandpolitical institutionsbutalso thevalues thatgoverncollectivelifeprinciplesofinclusionandexclusionandthepremisesofauthorityitself(Connolly1995JPEuben2003Sadiki2004)AdemocraticethosismuchmoredifficulttomeasureorquantifythanforexampleSamuelHuntingtonrsquosparsimoniousdefinitionofdemocracyasapolityinwhichtherehavebeentwoconsecutivepeacefulchangesofgovernmentbywayof freeand fairelections (Huntington1991)21Yetademocraticethosmakesitpossibletobothrecognizeanddisaggregatethepreconditionsaspirations mechanisms and institutions bundled into ldquodemocracyrdquotherebybringingintofocusforexamplethefrequentlyantidemocratic

21Manypoliticalscientistsprefertodefinedemocracyintermsofproceduresdesignedtorealizepopularruleincludingfreecompetitiveandfairelectionsalongwithstateprotec-tionofcertainrightsandlibertiesSuchaformalminimalistdefinitionhastheadvantageofdetachingdemocracyfromquestionsoforiginsandofferingastandardtowhichallgov-ernmentsmaybeheldregardlessofcultureandplaceAsKeithTopper(2005205ndash7)ar-gueshoweveritalsotendstosidestepknottyquestionsaboutthesubstanceofrepresenta-tion power responsiveness and accountability that are arguably central to democraticpolitics

34

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

casttoelectionsimposedbyelitesorforeignpowersthefeltimpotenceofmanycitizensinestablisheddemocraciesandthosehighlyparticipa-torycivilsocietiesthatflourishevenundermonarchicortheocraticrule

Forourpurposes inparticularademocraticethosmakesvisible theparadoxofanIslamistmovementthatseekstomobilizeordinaryMus-limsagainstcoercivepowerbutinthenameofareligio-politicalorderlargelyimmunizedfromchallengeQutbisanaptillustrationhereashistendencytogroundhisownspecialauthorityandinsightintheunsulliedwisdomofordinarybelieversmakesitpossibletoreadhisworkaseitherabriefagainstdemocracy(amongotherthings)oranenactmentofitIn-asmuchasdemocracyasaformofgovernanceisidentifiedwithpopularsovereigntyQutbrsquosbasicpremisethat thefoundationof legitimateau-thoritymustbedivineratherthanhumansuggeststhatheisunambigu-ouslyantidemocraticMoreoverQutbrsquoseffortstopluralizereligiousandpolitical authority express not a confidence in common wisdom butratheradesiretoclaimforhimselfthestatureofareligiousexpertwhodespitehislackofIslamicacademiccredentialscanclearlyseewhatoth-erscannotQutbcharacterizestherealIslamasself-evidentbuthealsoassumesthatonlyasmallvanguardofbelieversbesideshimselfwillhavetheabilitytorecognizeitandactdecisivelytoremaketheworldinitsimageSounderstoodthesignofldquochosennessrdquoisunyieldingcommitmenttoestablishingareligio-politicalorderthatsimultaneouslypresumesthesupremacyofthefewcapableoftrueknowledgeandpromisesaworldinwhichdissentitselfwillbecomebothunnecessaryandillegitimate

Yetifdemocracyrefersnotonlytoasystemofgovernanceorsetofprocedurestorealizepopularsovereigntybutalsotopracticesthatdis-ruptthoseforceswhichconcentratepowerandestablishpoliticalexclu-sionthecharacterizationofQutbrsquosworkassimplyantidemocraticmissesa crucial dimensionof its significance and appealAs the sacred textscontaintherulesandregulationsmeanttogovernbothpublicandpri-vateaffairsQutbrsquosinsistencethatordinaryuntrainedMuslimsmusten-gagethemdirectlyisinmanywaysademocratizationofaccesstoau-thoritySuchaccesscandisruptdeeplyentrenchedpatternsofpowerandpowerlessness particularlywhen conjoined to Islamist arguments thatarbitrarypowerisun-Islamicthatreligiousknowledgedependsoncom-mitmentratherthantrainingorexpertise thatMuslimshavetherightandobligationtodeterminewhenrulersareillegitimateandthatthosewhopreferordertojusticesecuritytofreedomandmoneytopietyhaveforfeitedanyclaimtoauthority

ThisaspectofIslamismhasfrequentlybeencomparedtotheProtestantReformationandmorespecificallytoCalvinistsrsquoattemptstotransferldquore-ligiousauthorityawayfromofficiallysanctionedindividualswhointer-prettextstoordinarycitizensrdquo(EGoldberg19913alsocfLoimeier2005)Suchaparallelhassparkedagreatdealofscholarlyspeculation

35

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

regardingapossibleldquoIslamicReformationrdquo22andarangeofargumentsaboutwhetherandhowIslamismmightfacilitatethedemocratizationofMuslim societies much as the Protestant Reformation is said to haveheralded the emergence of European ldquoliberal democracyrdquo While suchcomparisonsareevocativeafullerunderstandingof IslamismrequiresfirstsituatingitinrelationtoahistoricalshiftinthenatureandlocusofreligiousauthorityinIslambeginninginthenineteenthcenturyAsschol-arsofMuslimsocietieshavepointedouttheimpactofmasseducationnewtechnologiesfordisseminatingknowledgeandinformationanddra-matically changed social economic and political contexts have madeavailabletoamateurswhathadpreviouslybeenthepurviewofreligiousexpertsAtthesametimeithasinauguratedafragmentationofauthor-itywithintheveryranksofthelsquoulamathatcontinuestothepresentday23

InthiscontexttheascendanceandinfluenceofautodidactssuchasQutbHasanal-BannalsquoAbdal-SalamFarajandBinLadensimultaneouslyex-pressandaccelerateanongoingrenegotiationofauthorityoverwhomayspeakforIslamandonwhatbasisthepathofwhichisstillunfoldingandtheoutcomeasyetuncertain

Islamism and Gender

One already apparent consequence of this ongoing renegotiation overwhomayspeakforIslamandonwhatbasisistheentryofwomenintothe interpretive fray This development is increasingly unsettling thoseunwrittengendernormsarguablyattheveryheartofIslamistthoughtdisruptingthestandardsofmasculinityandfemininitythatreflecthowparticularculturesorganizehumanbeingsrsquosocialandreproductiveactiv-itiesintorolesthatareinturnthoughttoexpresstheldquonaturerdquoofmenand women Such norms are frequently considered tangential to theknottyproblemsofdefiningIslamismandadumbratingitscentralideasyetarangeofscholarshiponculturespastandpresenthasshownthatgenderisconsistentlytheterrainoverwhichbattlesforpoliticalcontrolandculturalidentityarefoughtMorespecificallyresearchindisciplinessuchasanthropologyhistoryclassicsandpostcolonialstudieshasdem-onstratedthatculturesinwhichfemalebodiesandbehaviorareregardedas indicesofmoralpurity tend to symbolically transformwomen intoconduitsof cultural corruption in timesof internal crisis and externalthreat(Papenek1994Chatterjee1990Tavakoli-Targhi1991Just1989Cohen1991Welter1966Bloch1978)Thisisespeciallytrueofcontem-

22Foralatenineteenth-centuryassessmentoftheprospectsforaldquoMuhammadanRefor-mationrdquoseeBlunt1882132ndash73

23EickelmanandPiscatori199637ndash39131ndash35Zaman2006Suchfragmentationhasinmanywaysbeenacceleratedbytheexplosionofdigitalcultureswhichpromoteamongotherthingsaldquoformofempoweredamateurismrdquo(Mirzoeff20026)

36

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

poraryreligio-politicalmovementswhosememberstendtoldquoidealizepa-triarchalstructuresofauthorityandmoralityrdquoendorsegenderdualismasgod-givenornaturalandcondemnvigorouslyrecentchangesingen-derrelationsasasymptomandsymbolofsecularistmoralbankruptcy(Riesebrodt1993Moghadam1992Hawley1994)

SeveralchaptersinthisvolumeilluminateIslamistgendernormsbyre-vealing thecharacterandcontentof Islamistconcernsabout theplaceandpurityofMuslimwomenmdashpreoccupationsFatimaMernissi(199199)hasgonesofarastocharacterizeasanobsessionDespiteimportantdifferences among Islamists thinkers many endorse gender norms inwhichthefairlyconventionalinsistencethatfemalenatureisdefinedinand through reproduction undergirds an understanding of women assymbolsofmoralvirtueandvesselsofculturalpurityThisviewsustainstheclaimthatmenandwomenareequalinreligiousbeliefbutperformfundamentallydifferentandcomplementaryfunctionsinsocietyWhilemenarenaturallymadetoruleinboththepublicandprivatedomainawomanbelongsinthedomesticrealmwhereherprimaryroleistobeawifeandmotheraswellastoinsuretheintegrityofthefamilythefirstschoolofmoraleducationAssuchfunctionsarerootedinaninescap-ablehumannaturefashionedbyGodawomanrsquosinabilityorunwilling-nesstoperformherdutiessignalsadisobediencetothedivinewillandpresages the corruption of the Muslim family from within From thisvantagepointtheWesterninsistenceonfullequalitybetweenthesexesisdoubly pernicious it at once liberates women from basic moral con-straintsandenslavesthemtomutuallyreinforcingsexualandcapitalistexploitationAsMurtazaMutahhari(1998xxxi)arguescapitalismmakesuseofwomentomarket itsgoodsldquoby trading inhonourandrespectthrough[their]powertoenticerdquotherebyldquotransform[ing]manintoaninvoluntaryagentofconsumptionrdquoInasmuchaswomenareresponsiblefor producing the next generation of Muslim men destined to restoreIslamtoitsformergloryitisnotonlythevirtueofwomenortheinteg-rityofthefamilythathangsinthebalancebutthefutureofIslamiccivili-zationitself

Zaynab al-Ghazali andMutahharimake several of these argumentsexplicitlyandindetail(seechapters10and11)butinmuchofIslamistrhetoricthenatureandsignificanceofwomenareestablishedindirectlyandsymbolicallyandthroughthreerecurrentimagesinparticularThefirstisofwomenassilentsymbolsofculturalmoralandsexualvulnera-bilityvoicelessfiguresinneedofmasculineprotectionorwhenitistoolatedefiledbodiesthatmutelydemandvengeanceSoforexamplelsquoAb-dallahlsquoAzzam(oneofBinLadenrsquosmentorsseechapter18)graphicallydetailstheagonizinghumiliationofyoungmenunabletoactwhentheAfghanwoman isldquocryingout forhelpher childrenarebeing slaugh-tered her women are being raped the innocent are killed and theircorpsesscatteredrdquo(lsquoAzzam1987a)Inthesecondimagewomenfunction

37

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INTRODUCTION

muchlikeachorusthatspeaksinpermittedcadencestoratifymasculineendeavorsSuchisthecaseforexampleinBinLadenrsquos1996ldquoDeclara-tionofWaragainsttheAmericansOccupyingtheLandoftheTwoHolyPlacesrdquo(seechapter18)wherethewomenexhortmentojihadinthefollowing way ldquoPrepare yourself like a struggler the matter is biggerthanwordsAreyougoingtoleaveusforthewolvesofKufr[unbe-lief]eatingourwingsWherearethefreemendefendingfreewomenbyarmsDeath isbetter than life inhumiliation Some scandals andshameswillneverbeotherwiseeradicatedrdquo24InthethirdimagewomenarecreaturesnotofthisworldbutofanothervirginalrewardsforthecourageousmartyrintheafterlifeThisisevidentinthefinalinstructionsforthe911hijackersforexamplewhereMuslimldquobrothersrdquoareurgedto purify their carnal impulses sharpen their knives for the dhabh (slaughter)andheedthecallofthehur lsquoayn (theblack-eyedones)await-ingtheminParadise(seechapter19)

Such rhetoric primarily registers women as an extensionmirror ormeasure of masculinity and together with explicit Islamist argumentsabouthumannatureandthefamilyarticulatesIslamistgendernormsinwhichmenandwomeneachhaveaproperlocationandpurposeinadi-vinely ordained social hierarchy Deviance from this gendered scriptthussignalsdisruptionofamuchbroaderreligio-politicalorderitbothpresumes and seeks to bring into existence The disruption caused byforeign aggression in particular exacerbates the tendency to translateconflict into an assault on Muslim masculinity and to conceptualizewomenaspotentialvehiclesforWesterncorruptioninneedofguidingand guarding Women such as Zaynab al-Ghazali and Nadia Yassinewho seek a prominent place and voice within the Islamist movementhavehadlittlechoicebuttocontendwiththisgenderedscriptDoingsohasentailedamongotherthingsnavigatingcarefullybetweenIslamistcharacterizations of womenrsquos visibility and agency as symptomatic ofthe new jahiliyya on the one hand and essentializing arguments thatequateIslamwithveilingfemalegenitalmutilationandhonorkillingsontheother

AsthechaptersonGhazaliandYassinesuggestIslamistwomenhavenegotiatedbetweensuchconstraintsandpressuresandtheirownambi-tionsindifferentwaysApioneeringdalsquoiya(onewhoinvitesMuslimstogreater piety)Ghazalirsquos own life reveals a fierce resistance to conven-tionalnormsofdomesticityevenasmuchofher(earlier)workappearsto embrace an Islamist gender ideology that defines women as wivesmothers andldquobuilders ofmenrdquo (al-Hashimi 1990 118)By contrastYassineisawifeandmotherwhoembracesanldquoIslamicfeminismrdquothatrequiresldquoreappropriatingtheinstrumentsofclassicaltheologyrdquoanden-

24TheIslamistjournalSawt alshyJihadhasgonesofarastofeatureldquowomenrsquosvoicesrdquointheformofrolemodelsnamedforexampleumm alshyshahid(motherofthemartyr)al-thoughitisunclearthattheseldquovoicesrdquoareactuallywomenrsquos(SUsher2004)

38

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

gaging the textsdirectly through ijtihad (NYassine2003) In this re-spect Yassine must be understood as part of a broader effort amongMuslimwomenwithdifferentpoliticalcommitmentstosimultaneouslyadvocateandenacttheirrighttorecuperatetheldquooriginalintentrdquooftheIslamictextsIfwomenandmendoinfacthavedistinctperspectivesontheworldYassinesuggestswomenhaveaspecialobligationtoexcavatewhattheyseeasthegenderparityoftheQurrsquoanburiedbeneaththoseldquomachointerpretationsrdquoofIslamuponwhichmenhavebuilttheirprivi-legeandpower(Khalaf2006)25

ManyAnglo-AmericanandEuropean feministsworry that Islamistsseekonly to secureor restorepatriarchalpowerConverselymany Is-lamist women view feminism as a term and a movement inescapablyWesterninoriginfreightedwiththelegacyofcolonialismanduneasilyimplicatedinculturalimperialismThisapplieseventoYassinewhoisunwillingtoadoptwithoutqualificationalabelsheassociateswithagen-dasopposedtoherowntheWesttheMoroccanstateMaghribi(North-westAfrican)elitesYetfeminismitselfisahighlycontestedtermwithin theso-calledWestitisthebearerofmultiplemeaningssomeofwhichareevenopposedandischaracterizedbydeepdisagreementsaboutwhowomenarewhatwomenneedwhoisauthorizedtoworkonwomenrsquosbehalf andbywhatmeans Inasmuch as these various feminismsmayshareonlyastatedconcernforwomenrsquoswelfarethereisnothinginco-herentinmodifyingldquofeminismrdquowithldquoIslamicrdquoldquoMuslimrdquoorevenldquoIs-lamistrdquounlessone iscommitted toarguing thatfirst Islam isanun-changingessencebeyondhistorypoliticsandculturesecondthereisaneutralobjectivevantagefromwhichtoidentifythisessenceonceandforallandfinallytheIslamicessencesoidentifiedisfundamentallyin-compatiblewitheffortstoimprovetheconditionsandqualityofwomenrsquoslivesBythesametokenIslamistwomenwhorejectthetermfeminismcanbe(althoughnotalwaysare)deeplycommittedtoimprovingwom-enrsquoswelfareaswellasactivelyresistanttoeffortsthatreduceortrans-formthemintosilentaccessoriesofmalepower

YassineandGhazalidifferaboutwhatwomenareandshouldbeyetbroadlyspeakingbothmaybeconsideredpartofarecenttrendtowardthe feminizationofdalsquowa Dalsquowa literallymeanscallappealor sum-monsbutthetermhascometosignifyavarietyofpracticesandargu-mentsmeanttoexhortinviteandguideMuslimstowhatisregardedasproperconductandmoraldevotionWomenrsquosparticipationindalsquowais

25WomenrsquosparticipationintheldquoproductionofofficialIslamicknowledgerdquohasalonghistoryalthoughtheyhaveoftendonesoinrelativeobscurityandwithoutthebenefitofeducation in the Islamicsciences thathas legitimateddirectengagementwith thesacredtexts (Cooke 2001 xiv Badran and Cooke 2004) Pioneering attempts to read genderequalityinIslamarealsonotconfinedtowritingbywomenasevincedbyQasimAminrsquosTahrir alshymarrsquoa [TheLiberationofWoman] (1899)andMumtaz lsquoAlirsquosHuquqshye niswan [TheRightsofWomen](1898)

39

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

notabrandnewphenomenonasisevidentinGhazalirsquosworkwiththeEgyptianSocietyofMuslimLadiesinthe1930sYetfromEgypttoPaki-stantoSaudiArabiatotheUnitedStatesthenumberoffemaledalsquoiyashasproliferatedexponentially inrecentyears(Cooke2001Mahmood2005Hirschkind2006)Thisreflectsinpartcurrentdoctrinalempha-sesondalsquowaasincumbentuponbothmenandwomenanddependentlessupontechnicalknowledgethanmoralvirtueandpracticalfamiliaritywiththeIslamictradition(Mahmood200565ndash66)It isalsoaconse-quenceofrecentpoliticalandsocioeconomictransformationsinMuslimsocietiesincludingtheexpansionofmasseducationthathasnotonlyin-creasedwomenrsquosliteracyandsocialmobilitybutalsomadeIslamictextsmoreaccessibletheproliferationoftechnologiesmdashfromthecassettetapetotheInternetmdashthatfacilitatethecirculationofreligiousknowledgeevenamongthosewhocannotreadortraveltheprecedentsetbythevigorousparticipationof IranianwomeninpostrevolutiondebatesaboutIslamandthemodeloflegalactivismevidentintheIslamistmovementrsquosownchallenge to the lsquoulamarsquos status as gatekeepers of religious knowledge(Singerman2005Mir-Hosseini1999)

If Ghazali and Yassine exemplify the feminization of dalsquowa amongelitesthemosquemovementinEgyptillustratesthegrowingparticipa-tionofwomenfromdiversesocialbackgroundsinreligiousclassesde-votedtostudyinganddebatingwhatIslamrequiresforawomantobeldquomorallyuprightrdquointhecontemporaryworld(Mahmood2005)Con-ceptualizingpiety in termsof adeepandholistic commitment to self-transformationparticipantsinthemosquemovementareconcernedlesswithmattersofsovereigntyandpoliticsconventionallyunderstoodandmorewiththeldquomoralcultivationrdquoofthosedailypracticesseenascrucialtobecomingclosertoGod(Mahmood2005)SomeIslamistshavecriti-cizedthis focusonpracticesofworshipasapoliticalandoverlypriva-tizedyetsuchcriticismmissestheforceofIslamistsrsquoowninsistenceondin(religion)asawayoflifeinwhichthedomainsofpublicandprivateare inextricably linked26AsSabaMahmood (2005193194) showsthesewomenrsquosintenseeffortsatldquoretrainingethicalsensibilitiesrdquohavealdquosociopoliticalforcerdquothatextendswellbeyondmattersofgovernancefacilitatingnolessthantheemergenceofaldquonewsocialandmoralorderrdquoEvidenceofitstransformativepowermaybefoundnotonlyinthesheernumbersandvarietyofwomenmdashwealthyandpoor literateand illiter-atemdashparticipatinginthemosquemovementbutalsointherhetoricalandpoliticaleffortsbythestateandsomeIslamiststocurtailcontrolordis-creditit(Mahmood200571194)

26ParticipantsinthemosquemovementinturnareoftencriticalofwhattheyseeasthereductionofIslamtotokensofculturalauthenticityorofitsinstrumentalizationbybothnationalistsandIslamiststheycharacterizeasmoreinterestedinpoliticalmaneuveringthanreligiouspiety

40

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

Understoodtoincludebothwrittenandembodiedpracticesthefemi-nizationof dalsquowa illustrates theways inwhichwomen fromdifferentperspectivesandsocialclassesareinsistingonengagingthesacredtextsdirectly for and with one another without the mediating authority ofmenwhohavetraditionallyheldthemonopolyonsuchactivitiesAsSu-danese Islamist Lubabah al-Fadl argues ldquoAs an insan [human being]whohappenstobeawomanIhavearighttorejectthemanipulativeexegesesofoursharilsquoa thatthreatenmyexistenceinawaythat isnotconsistentwiththeGodlywayandtoapplymyownijtihadtorectifyer-roneoustendenciesbysomeshuyukh[pluralofshaykh]rdquo(Sadiki2004290)DespitetheproliferationofvoicesintentonclaimingforthemselvestheauthoritytodemarcatewhatisauthenticallyIslamicandun-Islamiconceandforallcontestationoveritsscopeandmeaningproceedsapacefacilitatedatleastinpartbywomenformerlyexcludedfromtheconver-sationAtthesametimeIslamistwomenrsquosagencyandclaimstoauthorityarefrequentlystillpredicatedonawillingnesstofollowfairlypatriarchalrulesaboutwherehowandwithwhomtheymaypracticetheirvocation(Hirschkind2003Sadiki2004283)

Islamism and Violence

IfgenderisfrequentlyanimplicitpreoccupationamongIslamistsjihadisarguably Islamistsrsquomost consistently explicit concern Jihad is derivedfromtheArabicverbthatmeanstostruggleortostriveyetitisaparticu-larkindofstruggle that isofconcern tomanyof thefigurescollectedheretheoftenviolentstruggleagainstapostatesandinfidelsbothathomeandabroadtowhicheveryindividualMuslimmustcontributeTheclaimthatfightingunbelieversisthepreeminentenactmentofindividualMus-limpiety seems to justify characterizationsof Islam ingeneral and Is-lamisminparticularassanctioningevenencouragingviolenceYetwhatIslamistsrepresentasjihadtout courtisahistoricallyspecificunderstand-ingderivedfromahighlyselectiveuseoftextsandprecedentsprominentamongthemaformerlyobscureclaimbytheinfluentialfourteenth-cen-tury jurist IbnTaymiyya thatMongol rulerswhohad contravened Is-lamiclawcouldbesubjecttoforcibleremovalFarfromadefinitiveex-pressionof Islamldquoproperlyunderstoodrdquo such Islamist argumentsnotonlymarkasignificantdeparturefrommuchofantecedentdoctrineandpractice but also diminish the importance of ongoing disagreementsamongMuslimsabouttheformandpurposesofjihad

TobeginwithMuslimscholarshavetendedtoconsiderjihadagainstforeignenemiesafard kifaya(collectiveobligation)thatisadutyagroupofpeoplewithinthecommunitymayperformonbehalfoftherestandonethatpresupposesalegitimateMuslimleadertodeclareorleadthechargeJuristshavedistinguishedthisfromthefard lsquoayn(individualduty)thatmustbefulfilledbyeverysingleMuslimincasesofdefensivejihad

41

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INTRODUCTION

thatiswhentheummaisunderattackManyIslamistsincludedheretakeamuchlessnuancedviewofjihadAsamodeofpoliticalactionQutbarguesjihadmustberegardedasaldquopermanentconditionnotanocca-sionalconcernrdquoonethatincurrentcircumstancesrequiresdeedsratherthanwordsstruggleratherthancontemplationrevolutionathomeaswellasresistanceabroad(Qutb199167ndash6882)lsquoAbdal-SalamFarajarguesalongsimilarlinesthatthenatureoftheattackonIslammakespolitical authorization by a caliph (ldquodeputyrdquo referring to a legitimatesuccessortotheProphetrsquosleadership)unnecessaryafterallldquoleadershipovertheMuslimsis(always)intheirownhandsifonlytheymakethismanifestIfthereissomethinglackingintheleadershipwellthereisnothingthatcannotbeacquiredrdquo(Jansen1986asec93)

SuchargumentsareadeliberaterejectionofearlyMuslimmodernistswhohademphasizedthelargelydefensivecharacterofjihadandsoughttoshowthatrelationsbetweenMuslimsandnon-MuslimswerenormallypeacefulratherthanantagonisticMahmudShaltut(d1963)therectorof al-Azhar from 1958 to 1963 had argued for example that theQurrsquoanicversesonfightingldquoprohibittheprovocationofhostilityandthisprohibitionisreinforcedbyGodrsquosrepugnancetoaggressionandbyhisdislikeofthosewhoprovokehostilityrdquo(Peters199674onShaltutseeZebiri1993)ConversionbyforceisanathematoIslamShaltutaversandfightingiscommandedonlyindefenseinresponsetoaggressionini-tiatedbyothersEvendefensivejihadmustaimatldquotheterminationoftheaggressionandtheestablishmentofreligiouslibertydevotedtoGodandfreefromanypressureorforcerdquo(Peters199675)

ManyIslamistsexplicitlydismisssuchargumentsasasymptomoffalseconsciousnessoneamongmanydestructiveeffectsofcolonialdomina-tionMawdudiargues for example thatwhile imperialists ravage theworld to satisfy their greed jihad alone ldquoconjures up the vision of amarching band of religious fanatics with savage beards and fiery eyesbrandishingdrawnswordsandattackingtheinfidelswherevertheymeetthemrdquoHavinginternalizedthis imageMuslimsrushtoapologizeandrenouncearmedstruggleInthiswayhelamentscolonialistsretaintheexclusiverighttoldquofightwitharmsandammunitionwhilewearecon-tented with our pen and our tonguerdquo (Mawdudi 1948 1ndash3) SayyidQutbforhispartagreedthatIslamdoesnotcountenancespreadingitsmessagebyforceandcoercionyethehadlittlepatiencewiththosewhosoughttopresentjihadaslegitimateonlyinself-defense

IfweinsistoncallingIslamicjihadadefensivemovementthenwemustchangethemeaningofthewordldquodefenserdquoandmeanbyitldquothedefenseofmanrdquoagainstallthoseforcesthatlimithisfreedomWhenwetakethisbroadmeaningofthewordldquodefenserdquoweunder-standthetruecharacterofIslaminthatitproclaimstheuniversalfreedomofeverypersonandcommunityfromservitudetoanyother

42

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

individualorsocietytheendofmanrsquosarroganceandselfishnesstheestablishmentofthesovereigntyofAllahandHisLordshipthrough-outtheworldandtheruleofthedivinesharilsquoainhumanaffairs(Qutb199050)

Qutbdoesnotnameanynamesincastigatingtheldquowriterswithdefeatistandapologeticmentalities[who]writeaboutlsquojihadinIslamrsquoandtrytoremovethislsquoblotrsquofromIslamrdquo(Qutb199046)buthecouldverywellhavehadhisdistinguishedfellowEgyptianMahmudShaltutinmind

These arguments about jihad may be said to constitute a commongrammarandframeworkofanalysisformanyIslamistsalthoughseveralthinkers in this volume carefully calibrate such claims to suit variouspurposesanddifferentpublicspheresInhisjustificationfortheassassi-nationofEgyptianpresidentAnwaral-SadatforexamplelsquoAbdal-SalamFarajdepictsthestruggletoreclaimthemoralfoundationsoftheEgyp-tianstateasafightagainstjahiliyyafromwithinarguingthatthejihadagainstacorruptnationalistregimeathomemusttakeprecedenceoverfightingenemieselsewhereTheCharterofHamas(seechapter15)how-everinsiststhatallMuslimsrecognizetheprimacyofthejihadforJeru-salemweldingIslamistrhetorictothatofnationalistresistanceinanef-fortbothtofightIsraelioccupationandtocompeteforadherentswiththePalestinianLiberationOrganization(PLO)IncontrasttobothFarajandHamasBinLadenembracesaglobaljihadthatessentiallycollapsesdistinctionsbetweennationalandinternationaloffensiveanddefensivefightingenemiesathomeandthosefromafar

Yet despite such differences these arguments tend to presume thatviolent jihad is a necessary response to the pervasive power of thosewithdemonstratedhostilitytoMuslimliveslandspietiesandsensibili-tiesaformofretaliationwhoseurgencyandlegitimacyderivefromtheviolencemdashpsychologicalandeconomicaswellasphysicalmdashoftheinitialassaultThisviewofjihadsubsumesindividualsintoarchetypesofldquoin-fidelsrdquoandldquobelieversrdquoandinsodoingvitiatesmoreconventionaldis-tinctionsbetweenforexamplesoldierandcivilianorcollectiveandin-dividual responsibility It is far from inevitable that thosewhoharborsuchviewswillautomaticallyactuponthemyetthecarnagewroughtbytheattacksontheWorldTradeCenterandthePentagonin2001aBalinightclub in 2002 Madrid commuter trains in 2004 and throughoutIraqonadailybasissuggestjusthowlethalsuchclaimscanbegiventheright circumstances The fact that such violence does not discriminateamongvictimsonlyfurtherfuelsrhetoriccharacterizingIslamistsasirra-tional fanatics ldquoin love with deathrdquo terrorists animated by a religioncharacterizedbyapropensityforviolenceandauthoritarianism27

27AnxietiesabouttheparticularsusceptibilityofMuslimstoirrationalityinsularityandfanaticismhavealonganddistinguishedpedigreeinEuro-AmericanhistoryandpoliticalthoughtSeeforexampleRenan18833

43

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

AsinsomanyothermattershoweverIslamistsarehardlyofonemindonthesubjectofjihadindeedthereareIslamistswhoexplicitlyrejectthereductionof struggle toviolenceAcase inpoint isNadiaYassine(20032005c)whoinsiststhatjihadisthededicatedstruggleagainstisshytikbar(arrogance)particularlyinitscommonformasthelustforpoweranddominationAsjihadagainstistikbarisbothafinalgoalandapre-scriptionforactionYassinesuggestsitisantitheticaltoviolentpracticesthataimatdominationTheprimaryinstrumentsofjihadarenotbombsbutwords particularly thosedeployed in the art of persuasion (Fara-marzi2005NYassine2006a)WhenIslamistssuchaslsquoAbdal-SalamFarajandlsquoUmarlsquoAbdal-RahmanseektolegitimizeviolentrevolutionbyrecoursetoIslamictextsshearguestheycontravenethetruemeaningofjihadtoservetheirownarrogantendsBythesametokenBinLadenrsquosdecisiontoldquofightevilwithevilandbarbaritywithbarbarityrdquonotonlyviolatesspecificIslamicprohibitionsagainstharmingcivilianswomenandchildrenbutalsobetraystheethicalimperativetoembodythemes-sageofamercifulGodwhocautionsbelieversthat(Q8822)ldquoYouhavenopoweroverthemrdquo(NYassine2005cDaily Excelsior2002)

SuchpersistentdisagreementsamongMuslimspastandpresentsug-gest that Islam isnomore inherently violent andbloody-minded thanitmdashorChristianityor Judaism for thatmattermdashis inherentlypeacefulIslamists often claim to speak for an unchanging authentic Islam thatexistsoutsideoftimeandspaceyetthepoliticalpurchaseoftheirper-spective derives from the ways it assembles disparate yet recognizablecontemporaryexperiencesofsufferingfrustrationandlossintoanex-planationthatresonateswithMuslimswholiveincommunitiescultur-allylinguisticallyandgeographicallydistantfromoneanotherTheex-tenttowhichIslamistargumentsresonatebroadlyacrossMuslimsocie-tiesthusdependsuponasetofexperiencesandphenomenathatmarkthisparticularmomentinhistoryincludingthewaysinwhichcontempo-raryglobalinequalitiescompoundalegacyofhistoricalasymmetriestocontinuallyreproduceasenseofMuslimpowerlessnessmdashbothrealandimaginedmdashrelativetotheWestcontinuingEuro-Americanpoliticalandfinancialsupportofcorruptautocratsmanyofwhompresideoverna-tion-statesbrutallystitchedtogetherbyWesternfiat thepersistenceofauthoritarian regimes eager to control domestic unrest by catalyzingldquoMuslimragerdquotowardexternaltargetsthesenseofemasculationpro-ducedbydecadesofpoliticalrepressionandeconomicfrustrationandthecontinualflowofimagesofbloodiedMuslimbodiesdeliveredbyaburgeoningarrayofvideosatelliteandelectronicmedia

It is notable that the understanding of jihad many Islamists proffermirrorstheverystate-sanctionedviolenceagainstwhichtheyhavestrug-gledforalmostacenturyAlongwiththousandsofMuslimscaughtinthemachineryoftwentieth-centurystateviolenceprominentIslamistsfromQutbtoGhazalitoAymanal-Zawahirimdashal-Qalsquoidarsquossecondincommandmdash

44

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

arewellknowntohavebeenradicalizedbyextendedandoftenbrutaltermsofincarcerationinEgyptSyriaIraqJordanIsraelAlgeriaandelsewhere(onal-ZawahiriandprisoncfKepelandMilelli2008152ndash54)ItisthusfarfromsurprisingthatIslamistsforgedbyinterrogationtortureinprisoncampswouldconcludethatthepreeminentenactmentofMuslimpietyisviolentstruggleldquoPrisonrdquoasPalestinianKhaledAbuHilalhassaidldquoismyuniversityrdquo(Erlanger2007)anargumentmadeingreaterdetailinadifferenttimeandplacebyRussianwriterandrevolu-tionaryMaximGorky(1868ndash1936)

Apeoplebroughtupinaschoolthatremindsoneofthetormentsofhellonasmallscaleapeopleaccustomedtotheclenched-fistprisonandthewhipwillnotbeblestwithatenderheartApeoplethatthepoliceagentshaveriddenoverwillbecapableintheirturnofwalk-ingoverthebodiesofothersInacountrywhereunresthasreignedsolongit isdifficultforthepeopletorealizefromonedaytothenextthepowerofrightOnecannotdemandfromamanwhohasneverknownjusticethatheshouldbejust(Gorky1920)

InthiscontextasTimothyMitchell(1990195ndash96199207ndash8)suggestsIslamistviewsoftheworldcanbecharacterizedasbothamodeofresis-tancetostatemechanismsofcoercionandanexpressionofthemSuchisthedynamic evident inGhazalirsquosmemoirs for examplewhen shede-scribeshowtheldquodarknessofprisonsthebladesoftortureandthevi-ciousbeatingsonly increasetheenduranceandresolveofthefaithfulrdquo(Ghazali19786)

There is no doubt a great deal of pragmatism at work in IslamistargumentsaboutviolenceAsQutb(19916447ndash48)drylynotesthepathtofreedommustoccasionallybehewnbywayoftheswordbecausetyrants are not reasoned out of power and ldquojahiliyya is not lsquoabstracttheoryrsquo[it]consciouslyorunconsciouslystrivestopreserveitsownexistence to defend its essence to annihilate dangerous elementswhichthreatenitsverybeingrdquoYetitisalsothecasethatformanyoftheseIslamistsjihadisbothameansandanendanefforttoeradicatethoseobstacles torestoringa justcommunityonearththatsimultane-ouslybringshumanaction intoaccordwithGodrsquosplansandpurposes(Haddad198321)While theQurrsquoan (2256) states thatldquothere isnocompulsioninreligionrdquoIslamistscontendthatonlyinastateinwhichIslamiclawreignssupremearehumanbeingsfreefromenslavementtooneanotherrsquosruleandallareequalbyvirtueoftheircommonsubmissiontoGodAsQutb(1991107ndash8)argues

WhenthehighestauthorityinsocietyisGodalonemdashexpressedintheruleofdivinelawmdashonlythenishumanitytrulyandcompletelyliber-atedfromslaverytomenOnlythisisldquohumancivilizationrdquobecausetheessentialfoundationofhumancivilizationisthetrueandcom-

45

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

pletefreedomofhumanityandtheabsolutedignityofeveryindivid-ualinsocietyThereisnotruefreedomanddignityforhumanityortheindividualinasocietywheresomepeoplearelordswholegislateandothersareslaveswhoobey

From this perspective the realization of justice liberty equality andchoiceitselfnecessitatestheforcibleremovaloftheconstraintsimposedbyjahiliyyaalongwiththosewhoaidandabetitno matter the costAsMawdudi(1954160ndash61)writes

[W]hyisitthatinreligionsuchimportanceisgiventojihadthattheQurrsquoanpronouncesthejudgmentofhypocrisyuponthosewhoshirkandevadeitJihadisbutanothernamefortheattempttoerectthesystemoftruthandtheQurrsquoandeclaresjihadtobeatouchstoneonthesamefootingwithamanrsquosfaithInotherwordshewhohasfaithinhisheartwillneitherbecontentwiththedominationofthesystemofevilnorwillhegrudgetheexpenditureoflifeandwealthinthestruggleforerectingthesystemoftruthIfoneshowsweaknessinthismatterhisfaithitselfisdoubtfulWhatcananythingelsebesidethenprofithimThemanwhoprofesses faith in this religioncannotfulfillhisdutyonlybytryingasfaraspossibletopatternhislifeonIslamThenatureofhisfaithitselfrequiresthatheshouldconcentrateallhiseffortuponwrestingleadershipfromunbelievingandcorruptmentoentrustittotherighteousanduponerectingthesystemoftruththathasbeenordainedfortheconductoftheworldaccordingtothewillofGodBecausethisendisunattainablewith-out thehighestdegreeofcollectiveeffort theremustexistarigh-teouscommunitycommittedtotheprincipleoftruthanddevotedtothesolepurposeintheworldoferectingmaintainingandproperlyrealizingthesystemoftruth

ThefactthatsomeIslamistthinkerssanctifyviolentstruggleinsuchtermsdoesnotmeanofcoursethatallthosewhoadvocateorengageinjihadendorseviolence28NordoesitimplythatthosewhoclaimtokillforIslamareentirelywithoutulteriormotivesthosemanipulativepur-poses andpsychologicalmotivations that even themost rarified scrip-turalargumentscanexpressorserveWhattheprecedinganalysisdoessuggesthoweveristhatthereductionofthisviewofjihadtoirrationalbloodlusttheself-interestedgrabfortemporalpoweroradoorthroughwhichtopassintothehereaftermissesacrucialdimensionofitssignifi-canceandappealfortruebelieversjihadisnolessthananenactmentof

28EvenashespokeofaneweraofjahiliyyaandofjihadMawdudihimselfstoppedwellshortof recommendingor condoning the actual resort to violence in themannermanyotherIslamistsdidAsNasr(199670)observesMawdudirsquosorganizationtheJamalsquoat-iIs-lamildquohasavoidedviolentsocialchangeandhasinsteadviewedthepathtotheIslamicstateaslyingwithintheexistingsociopoliticalorderrdquoAlsoseethechapters5and3onQutbandMawdudiinthisvolume

46

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

adivineimperativetoremakethefoundationsofcollectivelifeInthisre-spectIslamistviewsofjihadcanbeseenaspartofalong-standingasso-ciationbetweenviolenceandpoliticalfoundingsuponwhichnoparticu-larcultureorhistoricalepochhasamonopolyThisassociationandtheldquolegacyofviolencerdquoitbequeathstofuturegenerationsarenolessappar-entinthoseradicalrevolutionsofrenewalthatmovebywayoftheswordfromthemarginstothecenterthanthosepoliticalfoundingsthatclaimtocreatesomethingoutofnothing(Connolly1995251)Ineithercasethetollofsuchbrutalitycanbeimmeasurableforinadditiontothevic-timswhosufferdirectlytheldquopracticeofviolencelikeallactionchangestheworldbutthemostprobablechangeistoamoreviolentworldrdquo(Ar-endt1972177)

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 ESP 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 JPN 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 SVE 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Page 3: Chapter 1 INTRODUCTION - assets.press.princeton.eduassets.press.princeton.edu/chapters/s9067.pdf · Chapter 1 INTRODUCTION This volume is intended as a broad introduction to the evolution

3

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

neatbinaries thatdistort rather than illuminate thepolitical landscape(REuben2002a)

Ifthisvolumeisanimplicitcorrectivetosuchreductionistgeneraliza-tionsitisalsointendedasanexplicitguidethroughthehazeofpolemicfearandconfusionswirlingaroundthesubjectofIslamismintheearlytwenty-firstcenturySuchconfusionevencharacterizeswhatmightseemtobesimplemattersofterminologyWhatwecallIslamismherehasbeendescribedinthemediaandpolicycirclesinnumerousotherwaysfromldquoIslamicextremismrdquotoldquopoliticalIslamrdquotoldquofundamentalismrdquostillthemostcommonlyusedEnglishtermtorefertoreligio-politicalmovementsMuslimorotherwise2InthewakeoftheeventsofSeptember112001thearrayofnames for thephenomenonhasonlyproliferated therebyaddingtotheterminologicalconfusionAcaseinpointisldquojihadismrdquoaneologismderived fromtheArabic jihad (to struggle to strive) that isfrequently used in the press to denote the most violent strands of Is-lamism those associated with what are alternatively called ldquosuicidebombingsrdquoorldquomartyrdomoperationsrdquoinparticularOlderwordsputtonewuseshavealsogainedcurrencyintheyearssince911suchisthecasewithldquoSalafismrdquowhichreferstocontemporaryMuslimswhogener-allyeschewtheinterpretivemethodsandnormsofthemedievalIslamicschoolsandtakeasaguideforproperbehavioronlythewordofGodthe teachingsof theProphetMuhammad and the example set by thepiousforbears

ButthereisperhapsnoothertermwithwhichIslamismhasbeenmorecloselyidentifiedinrecentyearsthanldquoterrorismrdquosomuchsothatthetwotermsandthephenomenatheynameareoftendepictedassynony-mous(Desai200723Richardson200761ndash69)Someofthemostvio-lentIslamistsclearlydoengageinwhattheUSStateDepartmentdefinesas terrorismldquopremeditated politicallymotivated violenceperpetratedagainst non-combatant targets by sub-national groups or clandestineagentsusuallyintendedtoinfluenceanaudiencerdquo(Title22oftheUnitedStatesCodeSection2656f(d))Yetinasmuchasmanyterroristspastand

2ldquoFundamentalismrdquowascoinedin1920specificallytodescribeProtestantevangelicalsanxioustorescueAmericanChristianityandculturefromwhattheyviewedasthemoraldegenerationinauguratedbymodernismrationalismandmaterialismSuchwarriorsforGodsoughttoldquodobattleroyalfortheFundamentalsrdquoby(re)establishingtheBibleastheauthoritativemoralcompassforAmericanlifeinfalliblenotonlyinregardtotheologicalissuesbutalsoinmattersofhistoricalgeographicalandscientificfact(Laws1920834Massee192058Barr19781374046ndash4752Marsden1980118ndash23159)Itisre-vealingthattherewasnoequivalentforldquofundamentalismrdquoinArabicthelanguageoftheQurrsquoanuntiltheneedtoapproximatetheEnglishtermcalledforoneUsuliyyaderivedfromusul theword for fundamentalsor rootshas emergedas anArabicname for Is-lamismbutitscurrencyisduetothewayitapproximatestheEnglishldquofundamentalismrdquoratherthananycorrespondencewithaspectsoftheIslamictraditionWithinthistraditionusuli isassociatedwithscholarshipontherootsandprinciplesofIslamicjurisprudenceandexpertsinthisdisciplineareoftenreferredtoasalshyusuliyyun

4

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

presentareneitherreligiousnorMuslim(Bloom2005Gambetta2005Pape2005)andIslamiststhemselvesaredividedaboutthelegitimacyofterroristtacticstheterminologyofldquoIslamistterrorismrdquotakesapartforthewholewhileimplicitlycollapsingdiverseIslamistperspectivesaboutretaliatoryactionintoanargumentforviolenceagainstnoncombatantsWhilesuchequationsandassumptionshaverecentlygatheredsteamtheyare structuredbybroader culturaldiscourses thatpredate theUS-ledldquoWaronTerrorrdquobydecadesandevencenturiesAsRichardJacksonshowsthefieldofterrorismstudiesOrientalistscholarshipontheMiddleEastandlong-standingEuro-AmericansuspicionsaboutIslamnowinteractandreinforceoneanothertoproduceadiscourseonIslamistterrorismthatisldquohighlypoliticizedintellectuallycontestabledamagingtocommunityre-lationsandlargelycounter-productiveinthestruggletocontrolsubalternviolenceinthelongrunrdquo(RJackson2007395397ndash400)

Incontrasttomanyofthesedesignationsandtheassumptionsanimat-ing them we prefer ldquoIslamismrdquo perhaps the most widely used termamongscholarsofMuslimsocieties3WetakeIslamismtorefertocon-temporarymovements thatattempt toreturn to thescriptural founda-tionsoftheMuslimcommunityexcavatingandreinterpretingthemforapplicationtothepresent-daysocialandpoliticalworldSuchfounda-tionsconsistof theQurrsquoanandthenormativeexampleof theProphetMuhammad(sunnahadith)whichconstitutethesourcesofGodrsquosguid-anceinmatterspertainingtobothworshipandhumanrelationsIngen-eralIslamistsaimatrestoringtheprimacyofthenormsderivedfromthesefoundationaltextsincollectiveliferegardingthemnotonlyasanexpres-sionofGodrsquoswillbutasanantidotetothemoralbankruptcyinauguratedbyWesternculturaldominancefromabroadaidedandabettedbycorruptMuslimrulersfromwithintheumma(Islamiccommunity)

IncontrasttothoseMuslimswhoprimarilyseektocultivateamysticalunderstandingofthedivine(whichisnotitselfdevoidofpoliticalimpli-cations)orwhostrivetocarryontheirdevotionalpracticesandscholarlypursuitsindifferenttotheirpoliticalsurroundingsIslamistsmaybechar-acterizedasexplicitlyandintentionallypoliticalandasengaginginmulti-facetedcritiquesofallthosepeopleinstitutionspracticesandorienta-tionsthatdonotmeettheirstandardsofthisdivinelymandatedpoliticalengagementUsingMaxWeberrsquosterminologyIslamismisnotdefinedbyanldquoother-worldlyrdquoorientationinwhichsalvationrequireswithdrawalfromworldlyaffairsbutratherisdefinedasamovementinwhichsalva-tionispossibleonlythroughparticipationintheworldormorepreciselyldquowithintheinstitutionsoftheworldbutinoppositiontothemrdquo(Weber1964166)

3ldquoIslamismrdquoisnothoweveruniversallyacceptedandisfrequentlyinvokedwithcautionandcaveatsAnAlgerianwriterhasarguedforexamplethatIslamismwronglyimpliesthatthosewhoclaimthenamehavecapturedtheessenceofIslamandthusitsuseisnomoreap-propriatethancallingDavidKoreshaChristianist(citedinBennoune199437n1)

5

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

InthefollowingpageswerefinethispreliminarydefinitionfurtherbydelineatingseveralaspectsofIslamismthatshouldbeconsideredbroadtendenciesandldquofamilyresemblancesrdquoratherthanfixedattributeschar-acteristicsofIslamismthatnoteveryIslamistexhibitsallofthetimeyetwhichinterweavetoformaldquocomplicatednetworkofsimilaritiesover-lappingandcriss-crossingsometimesoverallsimilaritiessometimessim-ilaritiesofdetailrdquo (Wittgenstein1953sect66)Webring such tendenciesandresemblancesintosharpreliefbywayofcontrastwithseveralotherMuslimorientationsandgroupscrucialtomodernandcontemporaryIs-lamicthoughtmodernistslsquoulama(traditionallyeducatedreligiousschol-ars)SalafisandSufisThiswayofsituatingIslamismisbothanargu-mentandaheuristicdevicedesignedfirsttoidentifythecommonalitiesamongIslamistthinkerssecondtomakevisibletheheterogeneityofIs-lamistargumentsandideasandthirdtosuggestthattherelationshipbetweenIslamistandnon-Islamistreligio-politicalorientationspastandpresentismarkedasmuchbycontinuitiescomplexoverlapsandsubtledifferentiationsasbyradicalbreaks

Situating Islamism

The Muslim Modernists and the lsquoUlama

TheonsetofEuropeancolonialruleacrossMuslimsocietiesinauguratedagreatdealofsoulsearchingonthenatureandcausesofMuslimpoliti-caldeclineandwhatcouldbedonetoreverseitManyMuslimreformersofthenineteenthcenturyinsistedthatthepoliticalsubjugationofMus-limstoforeignnon-Muslimrulerswastheresultofafallingawayfromadherence to their authoritative religious norms The best indeed theonlywayMuslimscouldhopetoremedytheircircumstanceswasthrougharenewedadherencetoGodrsquoscommandsThiswouldentitlethemonceagaintoGodrsquosfavortheargumentwentnotjustbeyondthegravebutinthisworldThisperspectivewasnotnewLongbeforetheadventofEu-ropeancolonialismreformersandmujaddidun(renewers)hadperiodi-callyarisentoguidethecommunityoutofwhattheysawasitsmoralan-archyNot infrequentlysuchreformershadmadecommoncausewithmembersofthepoliticalandmilitaryeliteineffortstosetthingsrightastheythoughtGodhadintended

YetifneitherthediagnosisnortheremedywasnewcallsforarevivedIslamicpietydid come to carry anewburden in colonial societies InSouthAsiaadecadeorsoaftertheformalestablishmentofBritishcolo-nialrulein1857someMuslimreligiousscholarsbegancallingforare-invigoratedadherence to Islam in lightof theQurrsquoanhadithand thenormsoftheHanafischooloflawdominantinIndiaembarkingonsus-tained efforts to educate members of the Muslim community in these

6

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INTRODUCTION

norms4This reformist effort centeredon amadrasamdasha school of ad-vancedIslamiclearningmdashfoundedatDeobandinnorthernIndiain1867whichgraduallybecamethenucleusofnumerousmadrasassharingthesamereformistorientationandspreadthroughoutSouthAsiaandeven-tuallybeyondtheIndiansubcontinent(Metcalf1982Zaman2002)TheconvictionthatguidedthesereligiousscholarsthelsquoulamawasnotjustthatthesorrystateoftheirfellowMuslimsreflectedalaxityinadheringtoGodrsquoscommandsbutalsothatintheabsenceofMuslimpoliticalrulereligiousknowledge anchored in the foundational andother religioustextswasthebestguaranteeforthepreservationofadistinctMuslimidentity

SuchlsquoulamahavehadtheiranaloguesacrossmodernMuslimsocieties(cfZeghal1995Zaman2002144ndash80HefnerandZaman2007)TheyhavealsohadtheiropponentsManyoftheopponentsarewhatmightbecharacterizedasinternalthatisotherlsquoulamacommittedtoarivaldoc-trinalorientationortodifferentbeliefsaboutsayhowthememoryofasaintoroftheProphetMuhammadoughttobeveneratedorwhatcus-tomary norms might be accommodated into legitimate ways of beingMuslim But other Muslim reformersmdashwhom scholars have often re-ferredtoastheldquomodernistsrdquomdashhavehadverydifferentideasaboutwhathadgonewrongwiththeMuslimworldandhowtoremedyit5Tothemodernists the sort of institutions and practices represented by thelsquoulamaandtheremediesproposedbythempointednottoasolutionoftheproblemsMuslimshadcometofaceinthecolonialcontextbuttotheirperpetuationModernistreformersalsoprofessedfirmcommitmenttoIslamicnormsbutwithsomecrucialdifferencesTheyarguedthatitwasnolongerenoughforMuslimssimplytoholdfirmtotheteachingsoftheirfaithasconventionallyunderstoodThetimeshadchangeddras-ticallyMuslimsneededtoacquiremodernWesternformsofknowledgeandtoaccommodatethemselvestoEuropeanpracticestechnologiesandinstitutionsiftheyweretoimprovetheirlotandindeedtosurviveatallasacommunityTheearlymodernistsalsoinsistedmdashashavetheirsucces-sorstothisdaymdashthatIslamitselfneededtobereinterpretedinorderto

4MostSunniMuslimshave longbelonged tooneof fourmadhhabs (schoolsof law)whosebeginningsareattributedtoscholarswholivedintheeighthandtheninthcenturiesTheHanafischooloflawisnamedafterAbuHanifa(d767)theMalikischoolafterMalikbAnas(d795)theShafilsquoischoolafterMuhammadbIdrisal-Shafilsquoi(d820)andtheHanbalischoolafterAhmadibnHanbal(d855)AmongtheShilsquoathereareseveralsectar-iandivisionsOfthesethelargestcommunitymdashtheImamisortheIthnalsquoasharis(ldquoTwelversrdquo)mdashadheretoalegalsystemwhoseearlyarticulationisattributedtothesixthShilsquoiimamJalsquofaral-Sadiq(d765)

5ThescholarlyliteratureonMuslimmodernismissubstantialbutunevenNotablestud-iesincludeHourani1983(firstpublishedin1962)Ahmad1967Troll1978Brown1996Khalid1998andHefner2000ThespectrumofmodernistthoughtmayusefullybeseenintwoanthologieseditedbyKurzmanLiberal Islam(1998)andModernist Islam(2002)andinKamrava2006

7

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

meetthenewchallengesthatconfrontedMuslimsItwasnotIslamthatboretheresponsibilityforthepoliticalandintellectualweaknessesafflict-ingMuslimsocietiesmdashasmanyaEuropeanobserverofIslamsuggestedmdashbutthefailureofMuslimstoproperlyinterprettheirfoundationaltextsinaccordancewithchangingneeds

While many among the lsquoulama have long affirmed the authority oftheirmadhhabs(schoolsoflaw)andtheneedforstrictadherence(taqlid)toschooldoctrinesinordertomaintainthecontinuityandcoherenceoftheirscholarlyandespeciallytheirjuridicaltraditionmodernistshavesel-domseenanythingredeeminginsuchconceptionsofauthority6TaqlidtothemisldquoblindimitationrdquooflongdeadmastersandoftheiranachronisticviewswhichhasstoodinthewayofpeoplersquosabilitytoadaptthemselvestonewchallengesThemodernistshavealsoallegedthatinholdingfirmtotheiroutmodedwaysthelsquoulamawereinterestedneitherinthewelfareofIslamnor inthatofthecommunity theywereonlydefendingtheirownprivilegesastheguardiansandauthoritativeinterpretersofthereli-gioustraditionandtheconsiderablesocialstandingthatoftenwentwithitAs themodernist reformers have understood it there is nothing inIslamtostoppeoplefrominterpretingitsnormsaccordingtotheneedsofchangingtimesIndeedtheQurrsquoaninvitespeopletoreflectonit(ldquoWilltheynotthinkaboutthisQurrsquoanrdquoQ482)whichistheveryoppositeofthelsquoulamarsquosinsistenceonfirmadherencetoearlierauthoritiesAsMu-hammadRashidRida(d1935) theeditorof theEgyptian journalalshyManar(1898ndash1935)andadiscipleofthefamousreformerMuhammadlsquoAbduh(d1905)wroteinhiscommentaryonQurrsquoan482

Theonlyunavoidablerequisite[tobeabletoreflectontheQurrsquoan]isknowledgeof the languageof theQurrsquoan itswordsand its stylewhich[inanycase]isthesortofthingrequiredofanyonewhobe-comes aMuslimTaqlid signifiespreventing [people] from re-flectingontheQurrsquoanYetGodhimselfhascommandedustoreflectonHisbookandtoreasonwithitandnoonefromamongHiscreaturescanforbidwhatHehasmadeobligatoryBytherejectionoftaqlidwedonotmeanthateveryMuslimcanpossiblybecomeaMalik[d795]oraShafilsquoi[d820]inderivingthejuristicrulesrelatingtothecommunityorthateveryoneoughttodosoWemeanonlythateveryMuslimisobligatedtoreflectontheQurrsquoanandtobeguidedbyitinaccordancewithhisabilitiesItisneverper-missible foraMuslimtoabandon[theQurrsquoan]andto turnawayfromitortoprefermdashoverwhatheunderstandsofitsguidancemdashthewordsofanyoneelsebeitamujtahid[apractitionerofijtihadieofindependentlegalreasoning]oronecommittedtotaqlid(muqalshylid)AMuslimrsquosreligionislifelesswithouttheQurrsquoanThereisno

6On the lsquoulamarsquos conception of tradition see Zaman 2002 especially 3ndash16 2007b63ndash70

8

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

bookbyamastermujtahidorbyamuqallidthatcanmakeupfor[direct]reflectionontheBookofGodIfMuslimshadstoodfirminreflectingontheQurrsquoanandinbeingguidedbyitineveryagetheirmoralsandmannerswouldnothavebeenruinedtheirrulerswouldnothavebeenunjustanddespotictheirauthoritywouldnothavedeclinedandtheywouldnothavebecomedependentonothersfortheirlivelihood(Rida1947ndash545296ndash97)7

AsthispassageillustratescentraltomodernistdiscoursesacrossMus-limsocieties istheideaof ijtihad(cfKurzman20029ndash14)bywhichtheyhaveoftenmeantnotonlytheefforttoformulateIslamiclegalrul-ingsonmattersthefoundationaltextshadleftunregulatedbutalsothereinterpretationofmattersonwhichthegeneralityofearlierscholarsandeventhefoundationaltextsthemselveshadhadareasonablyclearviewManyamongthelsquoulamahaveinsistedthattheirschooldoctrinesprovidesufficient resources to meet all contingencies and what remains to bedoneistofindaparticularnormordoctrinethatmatchesthequestionorproblemathandNotall lsquoulamaofmoderntimeshavebeenaversetoparticularformsofijtihadindeedthecontinuingnecessityofijtihadinatleastsomeofitsformshascometobeincreasinglyrecognizedbymanyamongthem(cfZaman200816ndash1764126)Stilltheideathatspe-cificlegalrulingsenunciatedinthefoundationaltextsmightthemselvesbesetasideinthenameofdarura(necessity)orsubordinatedtoconsid-erationsofmaslaha (commongood) is tothemtantamounttotakinglibertieswithGodrsquoseternalword(cfZaman2004133ndash39)

Needlesstosaymodernistreformershaveneverthoughtoftheirinitia-tivesastakinglibertieswithGodrsquoscommandsTheyhaveofteninsistedhoweverthattheliteralwordofGodmustalwaysbeunderstoodinlightoftheoverallldquospiritrdquoofthedivineinjunctionstakenbothintheiren-tiretyandintheiroriginalhistoricalcontext8Modernistdiscourseson

7ThiscommentarytheTafsir alshyManarreflectstheviewsofbothMuhammadlsquoAbduhandRashidRidathoughitwaslargelywrittenbyRida

8InvocationsoftheldquospiritrdquooftheQurrsquoanoftheProphetrsquosexampleorofIslamatlargeareacommonmotifinmodernist(andsomeIslamist)writingsSyedAmeerAli(d1928)aShilsquoimodernistscholarandjudgeincolonialIndiahadcharacteristicallytitledhisbest-knownbookThe Spirit of IslamForsomeotherinstancesoftheappealtothespiritofIslamandtheQurrsquoanandrelatedformulationscfIqbal1934149156Kurzman200260256Ramadan2007xiThemedieval juridical ideaof theoverarchingldquopurposesrdquounderlyingthesacredlaw(maqasid alshysharilsquoa)anunderstandingofwhichoughttoguidethejuristinallhisendeavorsmightbethoughttohavesomethingincommonwithmod-ernistappealstothespiritofIslamAndit isnoaccidentthattheworkofthemedievalSpanishjuristal-Shatibi(d1388)whoisamongthosemostcloselyassociatedwiththeelaborationofthisideahasremainedespeciallypopularinmodernistcirclesMedievalju-ristsunderstoodtheideaofthemaqasidal-sharilsquoatomeanthatthesharilsquoawasconcernedaboveallwiththepreservationoflifereligionrationalityprogenyandpropertyandthatnolegalrulingsshouldviolatethesefundamentalconcernsInmarkedcontrasthowevertothecarefulexegeticalandlegalargumentationthatwentintodemonstratingwhatthepur-

9

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

polygamyofferanillustrationoftheirapproachTheQurrsquoanallowspo-lygamyldquoIfyoufearthatyouwillnotdealfairlywithorphangirlsyoumaymarrywhicheverwomenseemgoodtoyoutwothreeorfourIfyoufearthatyoucannotbeequitable[tothem]thenmarryonlyoneoryourslave(s)thatismorelikelytomakeyouavoidbiasrdquo(Q43)TheQurrsquoanthuspermitspolygamybutsimultaneously insistsonequityasthenecessaryconditionforapolygamoushouseholdaqualificationsup-plementedbyQurrsquoan4129ldquoYouwillneverbeabletotreatyourwiveswithequalfairnesshowevermuchyoumaydesiretodosobutdonotignore one wife altogether leaving her suspendedrdquo Modernist re-formershaveoftenseentheQurrsquoanicsanctionforpolygamynotjustasbeingspecifictoextraordinarycircumstancesmdashasawayofprovidingforgirlsmadeorphanbywarmdashbutaseffectivelyruledoutbytheQurrsquoanicstatementthatmencanneverreallybeequitabletowardmorethanonewife(cfRahman198947ndash48)TothelsquoulamathisisspeciousreasoningforifGodhadreallywantedtoprohibitpolygamyHecouldsimplyhavesaid so (cf Shafilsquo 2005ndash7 2313ndash14 592ndash93) That medieval juristsandexegetesarepracticallyunanimousinallowingpolygamyisfortheirlatter-daysuccessorsfurtherconfirmationofthecorrectnessoftheirownunderstandingoftheQurrsquoanonthismatter

Asthisexamplesuggestsatissuebetweenmodernistsandthelsquoulamaisnotonlyhowparticularnormsareviewedbutalsohowtheyareaf-firmedanddefendedThelsquoulamarsquosscholarlytraditionisconstitutedbyalongandcomplexhistoryofcommentarydebateagreementsanddis-agreementsaboutthefoundationaltextsandaboutallmattersIslamicAstheyseeitthistraditionisnotclosedfrozenormonolithicyetitiswith reference to the scholarly tradition that anygiven readingof thefoundational or other texts finds meaning and legitimacy in their dis-coursesModernistreformersfortheirparthaveusuallyseenthistradi-tionpreciselyasclosedandanachronisticasoccludingthetruespiritofIslamic teachings and therefore as unworthy of serious and sustainedengagement

Modernists Islamists and the lsquoUlama

ThecontestationbetweenthemodernistsandthelsquoulamaprovidesawayofsituatingtheIslamistswithinabroadspectrumofcompetingbutalsooverlappingorientationsintheMuslimpublicsphereLikethemodern-istswhothemselvesholdvariedpositionsontherelationshipbetweenIslamandpoliticsmanyamongthe IslamistsareproductsofmodernWesterninstitutionsoflearningSayyidQutb(d1966)wasnottrained

posesofthelawwerehowoneknewwhattheywereandhowthelawwastobeinter-pretedwithreferencetothem(cfHallaq1997esp162ndash206Weiss199878ndash87145ndash71)modernistappealstothespiritoressenceofIslamareoftenextremelyvague

10

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

asareligiousscholarNorwasHasanal-Banna(d1949)thefounderoftheMuslimBrotherhoodofEgypttheoldestandoneofthemostinflu-entialof Islamistorganizations in theSunniMuslimworldBothwereeducatedattheDaral-lsquoUluminCairoaninstitutionfoundedinthelatenineteenthcenturytoestablishsomethingofamiddlegroundbetweenal-AzharUniversityinCairoandmodernseculareducationalthoughitgradually veered toward the latter and in 1946 became part of CairoUniversity (cfReid1990139ndash49)Abursquol-AlsquolaMawdudi (d 1979)ofPakistandidreceivean intermittentmadrasaeducationbut itwasthevocationof a journalist not that of an lsquoalim (plural lsquoulama) that headoptedThanksinparttothisbroadlysimilareducationalbackgroundIslamistsalsosharewithmodernistsasupremeconfidenceintheirownabilitytodiscernthetruemeaningorspiritofIslamthroughamoreorlessdirectencounterwiththefoundationaltextsAsCharlesJAdams(1966396)hasobservedincomparingMawdudiwithMuslimmodern-istsldquoBothhaveclaimedtheabilitytodisengagethespiritoressentialsofGodrsquosguidancetoliberatethemselvesfromtheauthorityofthecu-mulativeMuslimpastand toundercut thepositionof theulamawhorepresentthatauthorityrdquoMuchthesamemightbesaidofSayyidQutbaswellasofmanycontemporaryIslamists

Despitesuchcommonalities IslamistsfrequentlypositionthemselvesinoppositiontothemodernistsAstheIslamistssee it themodernistshavemadeIslamitselfsubservienttotheprojectofestablishingitscom-patibilitywithWesternnorms and institutions rejectingor explainingawayanythingthatdoesnotconformtothesenormsMawdudiputitthisway inderidingmodernistdiscomfortwith the implementationofpunishmentsmandatedbyIslamiclaw

Iwouldliketoputastraightquestiontothesevotariesofldquomoder-nityrdquoldquoWhatarethevaluesthatyoubelieveinDoyoubelieveintheIslamicvaluesoflifeandstandardsofmoralityorthoseofthemoderncivilizationrdquoIfyouhavemadeyourchoiceandacceptedsomeothervaluesandsomedifferentstandardofrightandwrongofvirtueandviceofthepermissibleandtheprohibitedasagainstthoseenvisagedbyIslamitisthenadifferenceofaveryfundamen-talnatureItmeansthatyoudifferwithanddisbelieveintheIslamicideologyitselfInthiscaseyoushouldhavethecouragetodeclarethatyourejectIslamoutrightIsitnotfoolishtoallegefaithinaGodwhose laws you consider as barbarous Anyhow nobody can re-maininsidethepaleofIslamafterholdingsuchanopinionaboutthelawofGod(Mawdudi[Maududi]196067)

PolemicsofthissortnotonlysuggesttheIslamistsrsquosenseofwhatsepa-ratesthemfromthemodernistsbutalsopointtointermittentIslamistef-forts to make common cause with the lsquoulama Such efforts are oftenpredicated on both the rhetorical claim that all sincere Muslims fully

11

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

concurintheirconceptionofthesharilsquoa(Islamiclaw)andtheIslamistsrsquoastuterecognitionofthelsquoulamarsquosconsiderablestandinginsocietyUnsur-prisinglysomeleadingIslamistshavesoughttoblurdistinctionsbetweenthemselves and the lsquoulama to enhance their own authority Usama binLaden(b1957)styledhisfamous1996ldquoDeclarationofWaragainsttheAmericansOccupyingtheLandoftheTwoHolyPlacesrdquoasafatwathatisajuridicalopiniontherebyrhetoricallyobscuringthehistoricalfactthatfatwashavetypicallybeenthepreserveofthe lsquoulamaandmorespecifi-callyofthefuqahaormuftis(jurists)amongthemBinLadenhoweverhasnoformalscholarlycredentialsinmattersIslamicMawdudiwascom-monly styledasmawlana a commonhonorific for the lsquoulama inSouthAsiaAdeliberateblurringofdistinctionsislikewiseevidentinthestate-ment of the Sudanese Islamist Hasan al-Turabi (b 1932) ldquoBecause allknowledgeisdivineandreligiousachemistanengineeraneconomistorajuristarealllsquoulamardquo(Turabi1983245alsochapter8inthisvolume) YetthereareleadingIslamistsmdashinthisvolumeKhomeiniMutahhariBaqiral-SadrFadlallah lsquoAliNadwi lsquoUmar lsquoAbdal-RahmanandQa-radawimdashwhoweretrainedaslsquoulamawhichmeansthatporousbounda-riesbetweenIslamistsandthelsquoulamaarenotjustamatterofself-servingrhetoricbyautodidactsGiventhisfactthedistinctionbetweenIslamistsandlsquoulamaturnslessonstarkdifferencesineducationalbackgroundandmoreonthecharacterandcontentoftheirpoliticalcommitmentsMorethananythingelseIslamistsseektoimplementIslamiclawthroughtheagencyofthestateNotallarewillingtoresorttoviolentmeansinpur-suitofthisendManysuchasYusufal-Qaradawi(b1926)ahighlyin-fluentialIslamistandoneofthemostprominentlsquoulamaofcontemporaryIslam(Skovgaard-Petersen2004Kraumlmer2006)professdemocraticcom-mitmentsButwhateverthestancetowardeitherdemocracyorviolencethepublicimplementationofthesharilsquoaisattheheartofallIslamisminbothitsShilsquoiandSunniformsThissuggestsanimportantcontrastwithmanyamongthelsquoulama

SincethefirstcenturiesofIslamthelsquoulamahaveoftensoughttomain-tainacarefuldistancefromtherulingelitejealouslyguardingtheirinsti-tutionsandpracticesfromgovernmentalinterferenceThelsquoulamagener-allyrecognizedthatthefunctioningoflegalandotherIslamicinstitutionspresupposedtheexistenceofaMuslimgovernmentandtheydefinedalegitimategovernmentasonethatoversawtheimplementationofsharilsquoanormsButtheyhavetypicallyunderstoodthegovernmentrsquoscommitmenttothesharilsquoatomeanthattherulerdefendedthebordersofthepolityregulatedpublicmoralitysuppressedhereticsandappointedthosepro-ficientinlegalmatterstoimplementthelaw(cfCrone2004286ndash314)TheyhavenotunderstoodanyofthistomeaneitherthattherulershouldbeabletoofferabsoluteinterpretationsofGodrsquoslaworthattherealmofpoliticsandstatecraftshouldbecomesynonymouswithIslamitselfYetthis ispreciselyhowIslamistshaveoftenconceivedof therelationship

12

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

betweenIslamandpoliticsandmorespecificallybetweenIslamandthestatenocallingishigherthanstrivingtowardtheestablishmentofanIs-lamicstateandoncebroughtaboutallwillbeinaccordancewithGodrsquospurposesMawdudi(1960177)claimedthatldquothestruggleforobtainingcontrolovertheorgansofthestatewhenmotivatedbytheurgetoestab-lishthedin[religion]andtheIslamicSharilsquoahandtoenforcetheIslamicinjunctionsisnotonlypermissiblebutpositivelydesirableandassuchobligatoryrdquo

Tomanylsquoulamathisamountstonothinglessthanmakingreligiousnorms subservient topolitical goalsAsMuftiMuhammadTaqi lsquoUth-manialeadingDeobandischolarofPakistannotesinhisrejoindertoviewssuchasMawdudirsquos

Intheirzealtorefutesecularismsomewritersandthinkersofthepresentagehavegonesofarastocharacterizepoliticsandgovern-ment as the true objective of Islam the reason why the prophetsweresent[byGodtothepeople]indeedtheveryreasonforthecre-ationofthehumanbeingAndtheyhavenotonlygivenotherIs-lamiccommandmentsmdashforinstanceonmattersofworshipmdashasec-ondarypositiontheyhaveevendeemedthemtobemeremeansforpoliticalendsjustawayoftrainingpeople[towardpoliticalmobili-zation](lsquoUthmani199825ndash26cfZaman2008116ndash18)

NotalllsquoulamasharesuchmisgivingsaboutthesubordinationofIslamtopoliticsthoughitshouldbenotedthattheywouldseethisintermsnotofanysuchsubordinationbutratheroftheutterinseparabilityofthere-ligiousandthepoliticalByfarthemostnotableoftheseamongtheShilsquoaisAyatollahKhomeini(d1989)ofIranAgainstalong-standingtradi-tionofShilsquoipoliticalquietismintheabsenceofthehiddenShilsquoiimamKhomeiniarguedthattheShilsquoi lsquoulamaoughttoassumedirectpoliticalleadershipandhethenproceededtospearheadthemovementthatcul-minatedinthefalloftheIranianmonarchyandtheestablishmentoftheIslamicRepublicofIran9Hisdoctrineofthevelayatshye faqih(guardian-shipofthejurist)isaradicalrethinkingofShilsquoipoliticaltheologyblur-ringanymeaningfulboundarybetweenreligiousandpoliticalauthority(seechapter6)ItispreciselyKhomeinirsquoscommitmenttoestablishinganIslamic statealong these lines thatwarrantshis classificationasan Is-

9TheImamiorIthnalsquoashariShilsquoabelievethatthetwelfthandlastoftheirimamswentintoghayba(hiding)in874andthathewilleventuallyreturnasthemahdimdashamessianicfigurewhoalonecanrestoreproperordertotheworldinaugurateaneraofunalloyedjus-ticeandreclaimfortheShilsquoatherightsofwhichtheyhavebeendispossessedbytheSunnisandbycorruptrulersformuchofthehistoryofIslamShilsquoischolarshavelongdebatedthequestionofwhatsortofauthoritytheleadingreligiousscholarsoughttohaveinofficiatingintheimamrsquosabsenceKhomeinirsquosviewdisputedbymanyotherscholarswasthatthelead-ingscholar(s)oughttodischargethefullrangeoftheimamrsquosfunctionsincludingthepoliti-calheadshipofthecommunity

13

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

lamistnotwithstandinghiswell-recognizedstatusasoneoftheleadingShilsquoilsquoulamaofhisgeneration

The Azhar-educated Yusuf al-Qaradawi has for his part criticizedmanyfellowIslamistsonseveralissuesbutnotonthefundamentalques-tion of their political orientation Just as Khomeini had chastised theldquopropagandainstitutionsofimperialism[fortrying]topersuadeusthatthereligiousleadersmustnotinterfereinsocialmattersandthatthefuqaha[jurists]donothavethedutyofoverseeingthedestinyoftheIslamicnationrdquo(Algar1981141)Qaradawiinsiststhatdenyingthepo-liticalorientationofIslamamountstoitswillfuldistortion

Amongtheinterpretationswithwhichthesecularists[lsquoalmaniyyun]andthemodernists[alshyhadathiyyun]calumniate[Islamproperlyun-derstood and those committed to it] is the notion of ldquopoliticalIslamrdquowhichwithoutdoubtisanideaalientoourIslamicsocietyBy[politicalIslam]theymeananIslamthatconcernsitselfwiththeinternalandexternalaffairsoftheMuslimcommunity[Theymeanbyit]actionsaimedatfreeingthecommunityfromtheforeignpowerthatdirects [Muslim]affairsphysicallyandmorallyas itpleases[Theyalsomeanbyit]actionsseekingtocleansethecommunityofthecultural socialand legalsedimentsofWesterncolonialismsothatthecommunitycanreturnonceagaintosubmissiontoGodrsquoslawindifferentareasoflifeTheyusethischaracterizationofldquopoliticalIslamrdquoinordertoalienatepeoplefromits[aforementioned]contentandto frighten themawayfromthosecalling toacomprehensiveconceptionofIslammdashonethatisinclusiveofbeliefandlawworshipandsocialinteractionproselytismandthestate(Qaradawi200793)

Islamistpoliticalcommitmentsareoftenintertwinedwithcritiquesofthescholarlytraditionanditsattendant institutionsandpracticesandthiscriticismprovidesusacrucialwayof thinkingfurtherbothaboutwhatdistinguishesIslamistsfromthelsquoulamaandabouthowtoviewIs-lamismitselfWhatthelsquoulamacannotbutseeasacavalierattitudeto-wardtheirscholarlytraditioniswesuggestbetterviewedaspartofalargerIslamistcritiqueonethatgoestotheheartofhowIslamismoughttobeunderstoodasaphenomenonItisacritiqueofparticularMuslimbeliefspracticesmoresandinstitutionsthataredeemedtohaveonlyatenuousbasis inldquotruerdquoandldquoauthenticrdquo Islamof the repeatedwrongturnsMuslimshavetakenthroughouttheirlonghistoryofthecorrupt-ingldquoforeignrdquoinfluencesmdashfromSufismtoGreekphilosophytothelureofmodernWesternculturesmdashbywhichMuslimshaveallowedthemselvestobeseducedandoftheirunwillingnesstodowhateverittakestoestab-lish thehakimiyya (sovereignty)ofGodonearthThat it is the sover-eigntyofGodthatIslamistsseekultimatelytoaffirmintheirindividualandpubliclivesremindsusthattheircritiqueofthepastandthepresentisapoliticalcritiqueanchoredinanddrivenbyaspirationstoinstitutea

14

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

newreligio-politicalorderWhetherthiscritiqueisarticulatedinconcreteor vague terms in a seeminglymoderateorplainlymilitant languagethere is no mistaking either its principal targetmdashfacets of the Islamictraditionmdashoritsfundamentallypoliticalorientation10

IslamistshaveofteninsistedthatthewordofGodcanandshouldbeapproacheddirectlywithoutthemediationofpresentorpastscholarsandwithoutanyneedfortheedifyingtalesthephilologicaldebatesandthelong-windedtheologicaldisquisitionssooftenfoundinmedievalexe-geticalliteratureamajorfacetoftheIslamicscholarlytradition(cfCarreacute200318)ShukriMustafaanEgyptianIslamistexecutedin1977forthemurderousactivitiesofhisSocietyofMuslims(popularlyknownastheSociety of Excommunication and Emigration) had famously assertedthatalloneneededtoresolveuncertaintiesinonersquosunderstandingofthewordofGodwasadictionary(Kepel199379)SayyidQutbdidnotgoquite that farButhe tooaffirmed that the fundamental teachingsofIslamwereentirelytransparentldquoWhatwearesayingaboutIslamisnoinventionofoursoranynewinterpretationofitsessenceIt issimplyplainIslamasitwasunderstoodbyitsfirstadherentMuhammadandhissincereCompanionsandthoseclosetoitsauthenticsourcerdquo(Qutb19969withminorchange)

TheimplicationofQutbrsquosstrikingassertionistwofoldFirstbehindarhetoric of humility in relation to divine knowledge Qutb implicitlyclaimsthefullbackingofGodandHisProphetfortheldquoplainIslamrdquohesetsforthMorespecificallyheessentiallydepictshisownunderstandingofIslamassynonymouswithGodrsquoseternalintentmuchasKhomeinirsquospronouncementsasthevalishyye faqih(guardianjurist)presumedtoarticu-latewhatIslamitselfstoodfororrequiredonanygivenmatterSecondthestatementimpliesnotonlythatviewsotherthanhisaremereinter-pretationsbutthattheyarethemorereprehensibleforbeingldquonovelrdquomdashasuggestionthatevokesthenotionofbidlsquoathatisofillicitcapriciousin-

10ThatIslamismshouldbeseenasawide-rangingcritiqueoftheworldandoftheIslamictraditionisareminderofcoursethatcritiqueisnotaninherentlysecularphenomenonnordoesitnecessitateasecularframeworkAsTalalAsad(2008)hasobservedgivenawidevarietyofldquopossibleinstancesofcritiquecriticismwhatwehaveisafamilyconceptforwhichitisnotpossibletoprovideasingletheorybecausethepracticesthatconstitutethemdifferradicallyrdquo(alsocfMahmood2008Taylor2008)NorshouldourviewingIs-lamism as a politically motivated critique suggest that other competing orientations inmodernIslamcannotalsobeseenascritiquesofparticularpracticesparticularformsofknowledgeWhatdoesdistinguishanIslamistorientationfromothersisonceagainboththedegreetowhichIslamistcritiquesbreakwiththeirpastandpresentandtheiraspirationto remake theworld in accordancewith their understandingof immutable divine com-mandsThisismarkedlydifferentfromhowthelsquoulamamightcritiqueparticularaspectsoftheirscholarlytraditionintheinterestofastrongersenseofcontinuitywiththattraditionorinordertomakeitmorereceptivetowhattheyseeasthecommunityrsquoschangingneedsItisalsoverydifferentfromhowMuslimmodernistsoftenbreakwiththescholarlytradi-tioninordertoadaptMuslimnormsandinstitutionstothedominantpoliticalandculturalinstitutionsoftheircontemporaryworld

15

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

novationinmattersofreligionSuchaviewofIslamjettisonsmuchofwhatwouldnormallycountasitshistoryandcivilizationldquoThehistoryoflsquoIslamrsquordquoQutbtellshisreadersldquoisthehistoryofthetrueapplicationofIslammdashinpeoplersquosconceptionsandtheirpracticesintheirlivesandtheirsocialsystemsIslamisthefixedaxisaroundwhichpeoplersquoslivesrevolveinafixedframeWhentheygooutofthisframeorwhentheycategorically abandon this axis what then do they have to do withIslamrdquo (Qutb 1967a vol 2 part 4 169 quotation marks aroundldquoIslamrdquoinoriginal)ItisforthefixedaxistheplainIslammdashandinoppo-sition to much of its historymdashthat the Islamist professes to stand (cfGrunebaum1962251ndash52)

Qutbhoweverisfarfromconsistentinhisattitudetowardtheschol-arlytraditionorinhowheseekstoarticulatehisownauthorityinrela-tiontoitHisfaithinthetransparencyandthetransformativeimmedi-acyofGodrsquoswordswouldappeartomakeallexegesissuperfluousyethehimselfhadproceededtowriteamajorcommentaryIn the Shade of the QurrsquoanthatwouldexceedfourthousandpagesinprintThejustifi-cationheoffers for it intheopening linesof thecommentary isauda-ciousnotapologetic

LifeintheshadeoftheQurrsquoanisablessingItisablessingunknownto anyonewhohasnrsquot tasted itAll praisebe toGodHehasgrantedmetheopportunitytoliveintheshadeoftheQurrsquoanforaperiodoftimeduringwhichIhavetastedHisblessingsasIneverhadearlierinmylifeIhavelistenedtoGodtheexaltedconvers-ingwithmethroughthisQurrsquoanmdashwithmeasmalllittleslaveIhavelivedintheshadeoftheQurrsquoanlookingfromanelevationatthejahiliyya[paganignorance]raginginthelandandthepettycon-cernsof itspeople [Fromthisvantage] Ihave seen thepride thepeopleofthisjahiliyyatakeintheirchildishknowledgetheirchild-ishideastheirchildishpreoccupations[Ihavelookeduponthem]likeanelderlooksuponthefrivolitiesofchildrenupontheireffortsandupontheirlisps(Qutb1967a13)

Theseresoundingwordsserveinteraliatoexplainwhyanewcom-mentaryshouldhavebeenneededatallthemind-numbingimpactofthejahiliyyahasmadepeopleincapableofrespondingtoeventhemostdi-rectofdivinesummonsandonlysomeonewhohaslivedldquointheshadeoftheQurrsquoanrdquocanunderstandtheirplightandremedyitFromtheper-spectiveQutbadoptshereanyappealtothescholarlytraditionanyef-forttoresthisauthorityonitwouldappearaltogetheroutofplaceYetQutbrsquosclaimstoauthoritydonotderiveexclusivelyfromhisconversingwithGodthroughtheQurrsquoanTosomedegreetheyalsodependonhisbeingseenashavingmasteryovertheveryexegeticaltraditionofwhichheisotherwisefrequentlydismissiveQutbcitesasmallnumberofearliercommentators and other authorities when it suits his purpose to do

16

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

so11justashesidestepstheexegeticaltraditionwhendoingsooffersarhetoricallymoreeffectivewayofarrivingataconclusionMoretradi-tionalexegetespastandpresentalsopickandchooseofcourseButtheyhavetypicallydonesowithinanoverallframeworkthatisdefinedbyacontinuousengagementwiththeexegeticaltraditionasawhole(cfSaleh2004)BycontrastQutbandotherIslamistexegeteswriteoutsideandofteninconsciousoppositiontoanysuchframeworkTheconversa-tionisnotwiththeearlierexegetesbutdirectlywithGodthoughthismightonoccasionbeaidedbyillustrationsfromtheearlierexegeticaltradition

If thereareunacknowledgedambiguities inQutbrsquosrelationshipwiththe Islamic traditionaswehaveobserveda frequentlyacerbic stancedoesnonetheless remain characteristicofhowheviews itmostof thetimeQutbisanythingbutuniqueinthisrespectYetifIslamistssharealmostbydefinitionacriticalstancetowardfacetsofthistraditionthereismuchthatalsoseparatesthemfromoneanotherinpreciselyhowthiscritique and its implications are articulated in different instances Al-thoughthemerepresenceofdisagreementamongIslamist intellectualsandactivistsishardlyremarkablethescopeandimplicationsofsomeofthedisagreementsinasmuchastheyrelatetothescholarlytraditionarenonethelessworthexamininghereFortheysuggestthatwhileIslamistsshare the conviction that particular institutions practices and normsneedtoberefashionedinlightofimmutabledivinecommandsthiscon-victionoftenrestsonquitedifferentviewsofIslamichistoryandciviliza-tionofcontemporaryMuslimsocietiesandnotleastofreligiousau-thorityanditslociNowhereperhapsisthismoreevidentthaninsomeofthewritingsofYusufal-QaradawiLikeQutbQaradawiisamongthemostinfluentialIslamistideologuesintheSunniworldHeisalsooneofQutbrsquosseverestcriticsfromwithintheIslamistcamp(seeespeciallyQa-radawi1994101ndash31)

ThatldquoMuslimrdquosocietieslackedaproperIslamicfoundationmadeitfutileQutbhadarguedtodebatespecificquestionsofIslamiclawand

11TheseincludeinteraliaMuhammadibnIshaq(d767)theauthoroftheSirat rasul AllahoneoftheearliestbiographiesoftheProphetMuhammadal-Tabari(d923)theauthorofJamilsquo alshybayan lishytarsquowil ay alshyQurrsquoanoneofthemostinfluentialcommentariesoftheQurrsquoaneverproducedal-Baghawi(d1117)whosecommentaryistitledMalsquoalim alshytanzilal-Qurtubi(d1273)theauthorofaworkalshyJamilsquo lishyahkam alshyQurrsquoanwhichises-peciallyattentivetothelegalcontentoftheQurrsquoanandIbnKathir(d1373)theauthorofaQurrsquoan commentaryTafsir alshyQurrsquoan alshylsquoazimwhichhasbeenpopular amongmanyMuslimsofaSalafiorientationOnoccasionQutbalsocitesinfluentialfellowIslamistsSeeforexampleQutbFi zilal alshyQurrsquoanvol2part4132(Mawdudi)vol2part525(Nadwi)vol2part6143and150ndash53(lsquoAbdal-QadirlsquoAwdaanEgyptianIslamistandlegalscholarexecutedundertheNasserregimein1954)OccasionallyQutbcitesRidarsquosTafsir alshymanaraswell thoughmoreoftenthannot toregisterhisdisagreementswithRidaandwiththelatterrsquosmentorMuhammadlsquoAbduhForadetailedcomparisonbetweenthecommentariesofRidaandQutbseeCarreacute2003

17

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

howitdealtwithparticularsocialoreconomicissuesThelsquoulamawerepatheticallydeludediftheythoughtthattheinterestsofIslamcouldbefurtheredthroughdisquisitionsonthesharilsquoainsuchconditionsofper-vasiveungodliness(Qutb1967b183ndash90)WhatpeopleneededbeforeanythingelsewasareturntothebasicsofthefaithThetaskofrighteouspreacherswastoinstructtheminthesemattersandtohelpthemrecog-nizewhatthesovereigntyofGoddemandedofthem(Qutb199135cfQaradawi1994102ndash4)Allothermattersincludingthenicetiesofjuris-ticdiscussionwerebestpostponeduntilaproperlyIslamicsocietybasedonthisfoundationhadbeenrealized

Qaradawi vehemently disagrees with Qutb arguing that educatedMuslimsarenotpagansbutbelieversandassuchdonotneedtobetu-toredinthefundamentalsoftheirfaithWhattheyoftendonotunder-standverywellmdashandhereQaradawiconcurswithotherIslamistsmdashisthenatureofIslamasanizam (socialandpoliticalsystem)TheproblemofMuslimsinotherwordsisnotgodlessnessbutsimplyignorance(whichiswhat the term jahiliyya literallymeans)of the teachingsof Islam intheircomprehensiveall-encompassingdimensionsAsQaradawiseesitmanyldquocaptivesofWesternthoughtrdquohavedoubtsnotabouttheessentialsoftheirfaithbutratheraboutIslamasacomprehensivesystemanditistheirunaddressedmisunderstandingstheirignoranceonthelatterscorethatsometimesopens thedoor todoubtsaboutmattersofbelief itself(Qaradawi1994113ndash14)Tocontinuetoexpoundonthesocialpoliti-calandotherteachingsofIslamwhilethesocietyisyetimperfectisnottoendorseorstrengthenthejahiliorderasQutbhadallegedbutonlytohelpordinarypeopleintheirefforttoleadvirtuouslivesevenininiqui-touscircumstances

ThisviewrepresentsanappealtowhatQaradawihasrepeatedlyre-ferredtoasthemoderatepathoralshymadrasa alshywasatiyya(theldquocentristschoolrdquocfQaradawi2006137ndash217)mdashonethatlocatesitselfonaputa-tivemiddlegroundbetweenacompleterejectionoftheworldincludingMuslimsocietiesanditstotalembraceQaradawiisequallyconcernedwithrescuingIslamichistoryandcivilizationfromoutrightdismissalatthehandsofIslamistslikeQutb12TheideathatjahilinormshadbeguntocreepbackintotheMuslimcommunityshortlyafterthedeathoftheProphetandthattheyhaveremainedunchallengedformuchofIslamrsquoshistoryignoresallthoseQaradawisayswhohavecontinuedtorepre-sentthepathofrighteousnessthroughoutthehistoryofIslamContrarytotheconvictionoftheSunnisthatldquothecommunitywillneveragreeonerrorrdquomdashastheProphetissaidtohavepromisedmdashthenotionofaperva-

12AmongleadingfiguresQaradawisinglesoutforcriticisminthisregardarebesidesQutbMawdudiandtheEgyptianIslamistscholarMuhammadal-Ghazali(d1996)SeeQaradawi2005b46ndash64It isworthnotingthatdespitetheseandotherdisagreementsQaradawihaswrittenrespectfullyofallthreedevotinganentirebooktohislongassocia-tionwithMuhammadal-Ghazali(seeQaradawi1995)

18

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INTRODUCTION

sivejahiliyyasuggestsmoreoverthatthecommunitydidindeedagreeonerror13Mostgrievouslyperhaps Islamist critiques tend to suggestthatthesharilsquoahasalmostneverbeenimplementedinMuslimsocietiesaftertheveryfirstyearsofIslamIronicallysaysQaradawisuchindis-criminaterejectionofIslamichistoryinadvertentlyreinforcessecularist argumentsthatthesharilsquoaisunsuitedtopracticalapplication(Qaradawi2005b46)QaradawirsquoscritiqueofQutbandotherIslamistsisfinallyanargumentforthecontinuingcentralityofthelsquoulamatothetaskofpro-viding authoritative guidance to the communityHisunderstandingofwhoconstitutesthelsquoulamaisfarmoreexpansivethanthatofmostDeo-bandilsquoulamaofSouthAsiaButlikethemheisinnodoubtthatseriousreligiousscholarsasdistinguishedfromamateurishautodidactsarecru-cialtothetaskofprovidingauthoritativereligiousandmoralguidancetothecommunity

AlthoughwehavesoughttoillustratecertainfacetsoftheIslamistcri-tiqueof the scholarly traditionandof theworldas somekey IslamistthinkershavearticulateditwedonotwishtosuggestofcoursethatIslamists are necessarily ldquointellectualsrdquo Whatever Qutb KhomeiniMawdudiandQaradawimightthinkofotherscholarsandintellectualsorofthemselvesinrelationtothemtheformerobviouslyarereligiousintellectualsThesameishardlytrueofmanyotherIslamistsYeteventhosewithlittleornointellectualpretensionsareoftenrecognizableas IslamistsnotonlyfortheircommitmenttothepublicimplementationofIslamicnormsgroundedinthefoundationaltextsbutalsomdashandasacor-ollaryoftheformermdashfortheiroftenself-consciouscritiqueofanddisen-gagementfromthenormsandmorestheyseearoundthemIncontempo-raryLebanonforinstanceShilsquoiIslamistshaveoftenseentheirtext-basedreligiouscommitmentsasmarkingacleardeparturefromearlierandex-isting religious practicesAs anthropologist LaraDeeb (2006 20) ob-servesldquoTheyvieweditasnewanddifferentmdashdifferentfromwhattheyoftenreferredtoenigmaticallyaslsquobeforersquoorlsquohowwewerersquoanddifferentfromwhattheycalledalshytaqalid(traditions)Inlieuofpracticesandbeliefscastastraditionaltheyespoused [an] lsquoauthenticatedrsquoIslamexpressedinpublicpietyrdquo14ManyIslamists living inrefugeecampsinGazahavehadasimilarviewTothemldquoPalestinianshadeitherbe-comelostinforeignideologiesortheyhadbecomelsquoMuslimsbycon-

13Theconvictionthatthecommunityatlargeisdivinelyprotectedfromerrorisanim-portantbasisoftheauthorityofldquoconsensusrdquoasamajorsourceofjuridicalnormsinSunniIslamFormoderndebateson consensus and someof the literatureon this subject seeZaman2006

14Theldquotraditionsrdquohereprimarilyrefer tocustomarynormsanddevotionalpracticesratherthantothecenturies-olddiscursivetraditionfromwhichthelsquoulamabothShilsquoiandSunniderivetheirauthorityIslamistcritiquesareoftendirectedasmuchhoweverattra-ditionsinthesenseofldquoinauthenticrdquoculturallyrootedreligiouspracticesastheyareatthescholarlytraditionofthelsquoulamawhichtothemisequallyinauthenticinhavingobscuredthesimpleandfundamentalteachingsofthefoundationaltexts

19

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

ventionrsquowhowentalongwiththefastorprayednowandthenbecausethiswaslsquocustomandtraditionrsquo(lsquoada wa taqlid)ThislackofconsciouszealousadherencetoIslamhadresultedinsocialweaknessleadingtode-featatthehandsofIsraelrdquo(Lybarger2007211)ThereismuchthatsuchanalysessharewiththewritingsandpronouncementsoftheleadingIs-lamistintellectuals

Islamists and Salafi s

JustasitisnotalwayseasytodifferentiatelsquoulamafromIslamistsorIs-lamists frommodernists it is sometimesdifficult to clearlydistinguishbetweenIslamistsandtheSalafisThelatterderivethisself-designationfromclaimsofstrictadherencetothenormativepracticeofalshysalaf alshysalih(thepiousforbears)usuallyunderstoodastheMuslimsofthefirstgenerations of Islam The guiding Salafi assumption is that these firstMuslims inbeingcontemporariesof theProphetMuhammadandtheimmediatesuccessorsofthosecontemporariesexemplifymostperfectlywhatitmeanstobeavirtuousMuslimandthatlatergenerationscandonobetterthanemulatetheexampleofthesefirstgenerationsSomever-sionofthisviewwouldfindbroadresonanceamongIslamistsbutalsoordinary believers though the Shilsquoa of various doctrinal orientationshavealwayshada farmore restrictiveviewofpreciselywho isworthemulating Again like the Islamists the Salafis insist on deriving theirnormsdirectlyfromtheIslamicfoundationaltextstheQurrsquoanandtheexampleoftheProphetMuhammadunmediatedbythemedievalschoolsoflawThismeansdoingawaywiththesortofhistoricallyarticulatedscholarlytraditionfromwhichthelsquoulamahavetendedtodrawmuchoftheirauthorityTheSalafisdohavetheirownlsquoulamamdashQaradawiisano-tableinstanceasaremembersoftheSaudireligiousestablishmentmdashbuteventheirauthorityisbasedfarmoreondirectlyinterpretingthefounda-tional texts than it is on any systematic engagement with the Islamicscholarlytradition

AllthissoundsagooddealnotjustliketheIslamistsbutalsolikethemodernistsThisshouldnotbesurprisingfortheSalafiorientationisanimportantpartofthegenealogyofbothmodernismandIslamismTheSalafi reformer Muhammad lsquoAbduh though a traditionally educatedscholarwhoservedtowardtheendofhislifeasthegrandmuftiofEgyptwasakeyinfluenceinthedevelopmentofIslamicmodernismButwhilesomeoflsquoAbduhrsquosdisciplesdevelopedhisideasinthedirectionofsecularnationalismothersmdashnotablytheSalafijournalistandQurrsquoancommenta-torRashidRidamdasheventuallytookthemdespitehismodernistproclivi-tiesinadecidedlyconservativedirection(Hourani1983alsocfDallal2000)Hasan al-Banna the founder of the MuslimBrotherhoodwasclose to many Egyptian Salafis Muhibb al-din al-Khatib (d 1969) aleadingSalafiofthetimeandtheowneroftheSalafiPublishingHousein

20

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

CairowasinchargeofoneoftheBrotherhoodrsquosfirstjournals(Mitchell1993185)andafterRidarsquosdeathin1935itwasatBannarsquosinitiativethatRidarsquosinfluentialjournalalshyManarwouldcontinuetobepublishedforsomeyears(RMitchell1993186)

ForalltheiraffinitieshoweverSalafiscannotsimplybesubsumedwiththeIslamistsanymorethantheycanwiththemodernistsUnliketheearlySalafisandothermodernists Islamistshavealmost invariablysought toaddressthemselvestoawidepopularaudienceratherthantotheintellec-tualelite(cfRMitchell1993211)TheSalafishavealsobeenfarmorepreoccupiedwithmattersofcorrectbeliefthenuancesofdoctrinethanhaveeither the Islamistsor themodernists (cfHaykel2009 [forthcom-ing])BythesametokenwhilemanyIslamistshavehadasomewhatam-bivalentrelationshipwithSufismSalafishaveusuallybeenunrelentinglyhostile to devotional Sufi practices But if it is useful to distinguish theSalafisfromothercompetingorientationsinmodernIslamitisimportantalsotorecognizethatthereismuchonwhichSalafisthemselveshavedis-agreedsometimessharplyInquestionintheseldquointernalrdquodifferencesisnottheiroverallorientationmdashtowardtheIslamicfoundational textsandthepristinenormsofIslamrsquosfirstgenerationsmdashbutratherthepreciseimplica-tionsofthisorientationforbeliefandconductinthepresentAconsider-ationofsomeofthesedifferencesshouldinturnfurtherillustratehowtheSalafisoughttobedistinguishedfromothercompetingcamps

WheremanySalafisseetheschoolsoflawasobstructingandindeeddistortingthesimplemessageofthefoundationaltextsothersviewthelegaltraditionasrepresentingIslamrsquosrichintellectuallegacyfromwhichMuslimsought todrawboth inspirationandguidanceQaradawi forinstance has been critical not just of the Muslimmodernists but alsooffellowSalafisfortheirirreverencetowardtherichesofthelegaltradi-tiontheiruneducatedproclivitytosetitasidealltoocallouslyOnthisviewarejectionofthetaqlid-boundlsquoulamashouldnotleadtotheotherextrememdashexemplifiedbynotafewSalafismdashofjettisoningthescholarlytraditionaltogether SalafisalsodifferamongthemselvesintheirattitudestowardmodernWesterninstitutionsandpracticesInthelatenineteenthandearlytwen-tieth centuries Salafi reformers like Muhammad lsquoAbduh and RashidRidainEgyptandJamalal-dinal-Qasimi(d1914)inSyriahadcalledforareorientationtowardthefoundationaltextsasawayofjustifyingnotresistingchangesinlawandeducationaswellasotherfacetsofso-cialreform(cfHourani1983Commins1990)OnthisviewadirectrecoursetotheQurrsquoanandthesunnaofferedthebestwayofdemonstrat-ing the accord between their teachings and the reformist project15 In

15SymptomaticofotherdisagreementsamongtheSalafisistheveryquestionofpreciselywhothesalafarewhoseexampleoughttobeemulatedThenarrowerviewslimitthesalaftothefirstthreegenerationsofIslammdashtheageoftheProphetMuhammadandhiscompan-ionstheirsuccessorsandthelatterrsquosimmediatesuccessorsmdashbuteventhesenarrowviews

21

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

contemporaryEuropeTariqRamadananinfluentialSwissArabphilos-opherhasarguedthatMuslimslivinginWesternsocietiesoughttofeelathomeinandcontributetoward thosesocietieswhileretainingandcultivatingtheirdistinctIslamicidentityHetooappearstoseehimselfinthegenealogyofwhathecharacterizesasldquoSalafireformismrdquo(onthischaracterization see Ramadan 2004 26ndash27) and he has echoed Qa-radawiinsomeofhisviews(cfRamadan199993ndash99) Other Salafis have remained staunchly opposed to institutions andpracticesofaWesternprovenanceAnespeciallyinfluentialfigureinthegenealogyofthelatterpositionistheeighteenth-centurypuritanicalre-former Muhammad ibn lsquoAbd al-Wahhab (d 1792) whose alliance in1744 with Muhammad ibn Salsquoud contributed to the establishment ofthefirstSaudistateinthelateeighteenthcenturyIbnlsquoAbdal-WahhabwashostilenotonlytoShilsquoismandtoSufidevotionalismbutalsotoany-thinghedeemednottobeinstrictconformitywiththeteachingsofthefoundationaltextsTherewasmuchthatseemedtohimtofailthisstan-dardallofwhichhebrandedasoneoranotherformofunbeliefTheWahhabismdashas the followers of Ibn lsquoAbd al-Wahhab are oftenknownthoughtheyprefertothinkofthemselvessimplyasgoodMuslimsoratbestasSalafismdashoftenadheretothelegalnormsoftheHanbalischooloflawthoughitistheteachingsofthefoundationaltextsirrespectiveofthisoranyotherschooldoctrinethattheyprofesstofollowThemoststringentoftheSaudiSalafisaswellasotherselsewhereareaveryfarcryindeedfromwhatQaradawiwouldcharacterizeasldquocentristrdquoSalafireformersletalonefromtheearlytwentieth-centurySalafimodernists

ThepoliticalviewsoftheWahhabisandmorebroadlyoftheSalafisare likewiseanythingbutuniformInSaudiArabiaWahhabireligiousscholarshavelongaffirmedaquietistpoliticalstancewhichhasmeantleavingmattersofthestatetotherulingfamilyFormuchofthehistoryofmodernSaudiArabiatherulingelitefor itsparthas imposedfewconstraintsontheSaudilsquoulamainmattersofreligiouslifetheregulationofsocialnormsandjudicialadministration(cfVogel2000)Onseveraloccasions however this relationship has come under severe strain In1979agroupofWahhabiswhorejectedthelegitimacyoftheSaudistateyethadtieswithsomeprominentreligiousscholarsmdashincludinglsquoAbdal-

feelconstrainedtomakeroomforsuchreveredfiguresasAhmadibnHanbaltheputativefounderoftheHanbalischooloflawandthefourteenth-centuryDamascenescholarIbnTaymiyya(d1328)OtherviewsarerathermoreexpansivenotjustinchronologicalbutalsoandcruciallyinintellectualtermsThusMuhammadlsquoAbduhthoughtthesalaftoalsoincludesuchtheologiansasal-Ashlsquoari(d935)al-Baqillani(d1013)andal-Maturidi(d944)SeeHourani1983149SuchaviewobviouslyopensthedoorforpreciselythesortoftheologicaldebatesthatotherSalafisaswellasIslamistsoftenfrownuponfortakingthebelieversveryfarfromthesimpleanddirectwordsofGod lsquoAbduhrsquosdiscipleRidaagaintookanarrowerviewofthesalafandlaterinhiscareerbecameastrongdefenderoftheWahhabisCfHourani1983230ndash32

22

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

lsquoAzizBinBaz(d1999)laterthegrandmuftiofSaudiArabiamdashtookoverthesacredprecinctsoftheKalsquobainMeccainashort-livedbutextremelyembarrassingchallenge toSaudi royalauthority (cfHegghammerandLacroix2007)In1990KingFahdrsquosdecisiontoinviteAmericantroopstodefendthekingdomagainstthethreatofanIraqiinvasioncreatedwide-spreadresentmentamongSaudis theeffectsofwhichcontinue to thisdayThestationingofnon-MuslimmilitarypersonnelinIslamrsquosholiestlandwasdeemedbythekingrsquoscriticstobescandalousandevensacrile-giousAnumberofprominentSaudiSalafispubliclycriticizedthekingrsquosdecisiononthisoccasioncallinguponhimaswellasonBinBazandoth-ersatthehelmoftheSaudireligiousestablishmenttoreorienttheSaudipolitytowarditstruereligiousfoundationsManyofthesedissidentsmdashwhowerealsojoinedbyldquosecularrdquoSaudicriticsoftheroyalfamilymdashwereandhaveremainedrestrainedintheircriticismevenastheycalledforstricterconformitytoIslamicnormsasthepanaceaforallills(cfFandy1999)OthershoweverhavedenouncedtheroyalfamilyanditsWesternalliesinnouncertaintermsBinLadenisonlythemostnotoriousofthosewhobrokewiththeroyalfamilyinthewakeofKingFahdrsquosdecisiontoinviteWesterntroopsin1990andwhocalledfortheoverthrowoftheroyal familyand for jihadagainstWesternpowers Such strident callshavebeencontinuedbyotherSalafisbothbeforeandaftertheterroristattacksofSeptember112001aswellasintheaftermathoftheUS-ledinvasionofIraq(al-Rasheed2007)

ItshouldbeclearinlightoftheforegoingthatanyunderstandingofthedifferencesbetweenIslamistsandtheSalafismustrestontakingac-countofthediversityamongtheSalafisSalafiswhooftenrejectmuchoftheIslamicscholarlytraditioninfavorofadirectrecoursetothefoun-dationaltextsarenotnecessarilyrenderedldquoIslamistrdquosimplybyvirtueofthisstanceForasnotedmanyoftheseSalafiscontinuetoprofessareso-lutelyquietiststancewhichinthecaseoftheSaudiSalafismeansaf-firmingallegiancetotheSaudiroyalfamilyThispositionisrepresentedforinstancebyBinBaztheerstwhilegrandmuftiaswellasbyotherleading members of the Saudi religious establishment A pro-regimestanceoroneindifferenttopoliticsisnolessldquopoliticalrdquoofcoursethana position of strident hostility to the established order at home andabroadForourpurposeshoweveritisonlywhentheSalafisrejecttheexistingdispensationandbeginstrivingmdashthoughnotnecessarilythroughmilitantmeansmdashforanewreligio-politicalorderthattheycanbesaidtojointheranksoftheIslamists

ItisworthnotingfinallythatSalafipositionsamongSaudisandelse-wherearemarkednotonlybydiversitybutalsobyconsiderablefluidity(al-Rasheed 2007) The same activist or intellectual might at varioustimesmoveamongavarietyofseeminglyincompatiblepositionsmdashap-pearingtobemoreldquomoderaterdquoonsomeissuesthanonothersForallhiscriticismofradicalIslamistsQaradawiforinstancehashimselfwrittenin justificationofsuicidebombingsbyPalestiniansagainst Israelis (see

23

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

chapter 9 on Qaradawi) And Saudi Salafis like Safar al-Hawali andSalmanal-lsquoAwdamdashwhocame toprominence in the early1990smdashhavealternatedbetweencriticismoftheSaudipoliciesanddenunciationsofradicalSalaficallstojihadagainsttheSaudiregime(seeal-Rasheed200759ndash101onal-HawalialsoseeReichmuth2006)Theirshiftingviewsreflect changes in their relations with the Saudi regime but they alsopointtothebroadspectrumofpositionswhichSalafishavetakenatdif-ferenttimesindifferentcontextsandbeforedifferentaudiencesThusevenasal-Hawaliandal-lsquoAwdahavecondemnedterroristactsdirectedagainstSaudiArabiaandadvisedSaudisnottofightAmericantroopsinpostndashSaddamHusseinIraqtheyhavecalledupontheIraqisthemselvestoresistAmericantroopsandhavecharacterizedthateffortasaldquodefen-sivejihadrdquo(al-Rasheed200794ndash95)

Sufi s and Islamists

ItseemsmuchsimpleronthefaceofittodistinguishbetweenIslamistsandSufisThecharacteristicSuficonvictionthattherearelevelsofmean-ingintheQurrsquoanthatgobeyondtheliteralandtheobviousandthataselectfewmdashtheldquofriendsofGodrdquomdashareendowedwiththeuniqueabilityto discern them is anathema to all those who insist that God intendsHisteachingstobeequallyintelligibletoallDespitetheirtendencytoviewthemselvesasbearersof true Islam Islamists typicallyregard theSufi idea that somepeoplehaveaprivileged relationshipwithGodassuspectthebasisnotonlyforsanctioninginterpretationsofIslamthatlackwarrantintheplainteachingsofGodandtheProphetbutalsoforpracticallyldquoworshipingrdquothesefriendsofGodIslamists(andmodernists)havefrequentlyalsobeencriticalofthewaySufidevotionalismcanyieldaturningawayfromtheworldratherthananefforttochangeitaswellasapreoccupationwithpersonalspiritualtransformationattheexpenseofconcernsforthewelfareofthecommunityatlarge SufipracticesandtheteachingsoftheSufimastershavevariedenor-mouslythroughoutthehistoryofIslamyetIslamistcritiquesofSufismareseldomattentivetoitsnuancesortothecomplexwaysithasrelatedtootherfacetsofIslamNorhaveIslamiststakenmuchaccountofthefactthatmanyleadingfiguresofearliertimeswerebesidesmuchelseSufisaswellThisistrueevenofIbnTaymiyya(d1328)whoseprestigeinIslamistandSalaficirclesismatchedbyfewothersandwhowasinhisdayamemberoftheQadiriSufiorder(Makdisi1974)EvenifonearguesmdashasanIslamistmightbeinclinedtomdashthatldquogoodrdquoSufismisnoth-ingbutproperIslamitselftheveryfactthatsuchfigureshadaSufiiden-tityatallnecessarilycomplicateswhatissupposedtobethepristinesim-plicityofafaithsharedequallybyallbelievers

Complicatingthingsstillfurtheristhevarietyofwaysinwhichsomeleading Islamists relate to Sufism Ayatollah Khomeini was a lifelongstudentofIslamicmysticismandtheinfluenceofthemedievalSpanish

24

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

Sufi Ibn lsquoArabi loomed especially large in his thought To Khomeinimysticismmdashoften referred to as lsquoirfan (gnosis) especially when inter-twinedwithIslamicphilosophyandtheology(Knysh1992632)mdashwascrucialtoaproperunderstandingofGodrsquosrelationshipwiththeworldandwiththehumanbeingItwasalsoessentialforonersquosethicalforma-tionforamasteryovertheselfandultimatelyforrealizinginoneselftheattributesofwhat Ibn lsquoArabihadcalledldquotheperfectmanrdquo (cfKnysh1992 635 also Mottahedeh 1985 180ndash85) Some of the austerity ofKhomeinirsquospersonallifeprobablyalsoderivedfromSufiasceticismAndthoughheanchoredhisconceptionofIslamicgovernmentinanexposi-tionofShilsquoijuridicalthoughtratherthaninIslamicmysticismthesortofreligiousauthorityhecametoenjoyonthebasisofhisreformulationofShilsquoipoliticaltheologyseemstoechomysticalideasoftheperfectmanwho embodies and upholds the moral order as the microcosm of theuniverse

UnlikeKhomeiniQutbwasnotaSufiandhegivesnoindicationofsharinganyofKhomeinirsquosenthusiasmforthegreatSufithinkersofear-liertimesEvensoechoesofamysticrsquosdirectencounterwiththefoun-tainheadoftruthandknowledgearehardtomissinQutbrsquoswritingses-peciallyinhiscommentaryontheQurrsquoan(cfCarreacute200395ndash97)TheveryfirstsentenceofhiscommentarymdashldquolifeintheshadeoftheQurrsquoanisablessingunknowntoanyonewhohasnrsquottasteditrdquomdashevokesthefa-miliarSufiideathatincontrovertibleknowledgeofRealityisultimatelyacquired only through direct personal experience (dhawq that is theldquotasterdquooftheTruth)ThegreatmedievalSufial-Ghazali(d1111)hadauthoredafamousautobiographicalaccountofhowitwasonlythroughthe immediacyofhispersonalmysticalexperience thathewasable toovercomehisdebilitatingepistemologicaldoubtsandreassurehimselfofthenecessarytruths(Watt199857)QutbdoesnotmentionGhazaliinthiscontextbutitisdifficultnottobestruckbythemysticalresonanceofsomeofhislanguageHereisoneexamplewhichoccursinhiscom-mentaryonsura(chapter)53oftheQurrsquoan16

16TheearlyversesinthissuraoftheQurrsquoanhavebeenunderstoodbyMuslimexegetesasreferringtotheProphetrsquosrevelatoryexperienceaswellastohisldquonightjourneyrdquoandhisascensiontoheavenormilsquoraj inthecourseofonenighthewastransportedfirstfromMeccatoJerusalemandthentothepresenceofGodbeforebeingreturnedtoMecca

UnrelatedtothenightjourneybutrelatedtohisrevelatoryexperiencestheexegeticalsignificanceofthisQurrsquoanicsuraalsoliesinitsconnectionwiththeso-calledSatanicVersesAccordingtocertainexegeticalreportsMuhammadwasinthecourseofreceivingarevela-tionwhenSataninterpolatedsomeversesintoitmdashversespraisingthreegoddessesreveredbythepolytheistsofMeccaItwasnotuntilsometimelaterthatMuhammadrealizedhiserrorwhereupontheversesinterpolatedbySatanwereremovedTheepisodeoftheldquoSa-tanicVersesrdquohasbeenacontroversialoneinIslamichistorylongbeforeSalmanRushdiersquosnovelofthatnameandKhomeinirsquosjuridicalruling(fatwa)callingforRushdiersquosdeathMostMuslimscholarshavefoundittooshockingtobelievethattheProphetcouldhavemadesuchagrievouserrorandhavedeniedthatanysuch incidentever tookplaceYetsome

25

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INTRODUCTION

IwaschattingoneeveningwithsomecompanionswhentoourearscamethesoundofsomeonerecitingtheQurrsquoannearbyrecitingtheSuraoftheStar[al-Najm]andweinterruptedourconversationtolistentotheNobleQurrsquoanLittlebylittlemyheartenteredintowhatwasbeing recited into theheartofMuhammadashe jour-neyedtotheHeavenlyHostIwaswithhimashesawGabrielintheangelicforminwhichGodhadcreatedhimIwaswithhiminhis loftyandfree-flying journey to theLoteTreeof theBoundaryandtheGardenoftheRefugeIwaswithhimtotheextentthatmyimaginationcouldformavisionofitandtotheextentthatmyfeelings couldbear itThen came the final cry andmywholebeingshookatthefearfulreproachldquoDoyoumarvelatthisdiscourseanddoyoulaughandnotweepandmakemerryrdquo[Q5359ndash61]WhenIheardldquoBowdownbeforeGodandserveHimrdquo[Q5362]thetremblinginmyhearthadbecomeaphysicalandvisibletremblingthroughoutmybodythatIcouldnotresistMybodykeptshakingandIcouldnotcontrolitNorcouldIholdbackthetearsthatwerepouringforthhowevermuchItried(QutbZilalvol7part2774ndash75quotedfromCarreacute2003333ndash34withminorchanges)

TheQurrsquoanrsquosprofoundimpactontheaestheticsensibilitiesofitslisten-ersisafamiliarmotifindiscussionsofitsliteraryqualities(cfGrahamandKermani2006)AssomeonewhoseearlywritingswereconcernedwithArabicliterarycriticismandspecificallywiththeliteraryexcellenceoftheIslamicscripture(Qutb1949b)QutbwasespeciallyreceptivetothisaspectoftheQurrsquoanThesenseofbeingtransportedbacktothetimeoftheProphetandtowitnessingtheProphetrsquosascension(milsquoraj)tothepresence of Godmdashwhich is how the passage being commented on byQutbherehascommonlybeeninterpretedbytheexegetesmdashcanlikewisebeseenasanillustrationoftheoverpoweringimpactthewordsoftheQurrsquoancanhaveonthebelieverQutbrsquosaccountofconversingwithGodthrough the Qurrsquoan (cited earlier) is again something he may havewantedtoseeallbelieversdoYetallbelieverscanscarcelydosoany-morethanallaspirantsevenontheSufipathcanexperiencethetransfor-mativemysticalldquostatesrdquothatGodbestowsonHisspecialfriends(awlshyiya)IrrespectiveofwhetherhesawitinquitethiswayQutbrsquosassertionthatheisabletoenterldquointotheheartofMuhammadrdquoandtoseeGabrielasMuhammad sawhimsurelygiveshimaperspective thatothers en-counteringthewordofGoddonothave

ThepointisnotofcoursethatQutbwaseverrecognizedbyhisfol-lowersasaSufimasterbutthatsomeofthehermeneuticalauthorityheclaimshasadistinctiveSufiringtoitMorebroadlythesortofunques-

leadingscholarsofearlyandmedievalIslammdashincludingIbnTaymiyyamdashacceptedthehisto-ricityofthisincidentSeeSAhmed1998

26

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INTRODUCTION

tioningreligio-politicalauthorityIslamistleadershaveoftenenjoyedovertheirfollowersisnotunlikethatoftheSufimasteroverhisfollowersBe-ginningwithHasanal-BannathefounderoftheMuslimBrotherhoodandoncehimselfamemberofaSufiordertheleaderofthisorganizationis formally referred to as themurshid (guide)ormore specificallyalshymurshid alshylsquoam (thegeneralguide[RMitchell1993165])whichisafamiliartermforthemasterinSuficontextsForhispartAbdessalamYassine the founder and leader of lsquoAdl warsquol-Ihsan Party of Morocco(oftenreferredtoastheJusticeandSpiritualityAssociationorJSA)haslike Khomeini gone well beyond simply echoing Sufi conceptions ofauthorityinhisowndiscoursesHetoowasonceamemberofaMoroc-canSufiorderandhehascontinuedtodrawonSufithemesinhiswrit-ingsTheverynameofYassinersquospoliticalorganizationevokesacentralSufiideanamelyihsanThisisaQurrsquoanicterm(cfQ756)thattrans-latedliterallymeansldquotodogoodrdquothoughSufishaveunderstoodittomeanmuchmore thanthatFollowingawell-knownstatementattrib-uted to theProphetMuhammad theyhaveoften interpreted ihsan tomeangoingbeyondtheexternalsofIslamicritualpracticestoldquoworshipGodasifyouseeHimrdquo(Schimmel197529)thatiscultivatingasenseof personal communion and intimacy with God Even as Yassine hassoughttodistancehimselffromwhathedeemstobetheexcessesofSu-fismthereislittledoubtthathispoliticalappealowesmuchtocarefullycalibratedeffortstocombinedistinctiveSufiideaswithhisownbrandofIslamism(cfLauziegravere2005seealsochapter12onNadiaYassineinthisvolume)

FinallyMawdudirsquosJamalsquoat-iIslamimdashoneoftheearliestIslamistorga-nizations in the Sunni worldmdashillustrates both the Islamistsrsquo complexrelationshipwith Sufismand their pragmatic recognitionof its appealinmanyMuslimsocietiesMawdudihadoncebeenaharshcriticofSu-fismblamingitformanyillsafflictingMuslimsocietiesYettheJama-lsquoat-iIslamigraduallycametosoftenitsstanceonSufipracticesconsider-ablynodoubtintheinterestofbroadeningsomeofitssupportbaseinPakistanwheresaintsandSufishrinesareanimportantpartofthereli-giousandpoliticallandscapeAlreadyinMawdudirsquoslifetimeMianTufaylMuhammadhissuccessorastheheadoftheJamalsquoat-iIslamihadtakentheextraordinaryinitiativeoftranslatinganearlySuficlassictheKashf alshymahjub into Urdu The author of this work Shaykh lsquoAli Hujwiri(d1072)isburiedinLahoreinPakistanandhismuch-frequentedshrineishometoprecisely thesortofdevotionalpractices that Islamistsandmodernist reformers letaloneSalafishaveoften frownedupon (Nasr1996124)

ThesediverseexamplesarenotintendedtoobscuretherealdifferencesbetweenthegeneralityofIslamistsandmostSufisTheirsignificanceliesratherinillustratingthedifficultyofdistinguishingbetweenIslamismandotherreligiousintellectualandpoliticaltrendsintermsofneatcharac-

27

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INTRODUCTION

terizationsofgrandtranslocalgeneralizationsAstheforegoingsuggeststhesameistrueandmoresowhenitcomestocharacterizingIslamistsinrelationtothelsquoulamatheMuslimmodernistsandtheSalafisIndeedasLorenLybargerhasarguedwithreferencetothoseusuallycharacter-izedasldquosecularnationalistrdquoorldquoIslamistrdquoPalestiniansintheWestBankandGazadifferenceswithintheranksofyoungsecularnationalistsandIslamistscansometimesalsoshadeintosignificantsimilaritiesbetweenthesesupposedlyrivalorientations(Lybarger2007)ManyIslamistshavesoughttodistancethemselvesfromwhattheyseeastherigidityandau-thoritarianismofotherIslamistsandtoarguenotjustfortheimplemen-tationofthesharilsquoabutalsofordemocracyandpluralismConverselynot a few of the younger secular nationalists have ldquoadopted IslamisttheodiciesthatexplainedthefailuretoovercomeIsraelastheresultoffallingawayfrompietytheirconclusionsmirroredIslamistonestootheroadbackfromthebrinkhadtotraceitscoursethrougharenewedcom-mitmenttoIslambutnotnecessarilyinthemannerthattheIslamistmove-mentsmighthaveintendedrdquo(Lybarger2007237ndash38quotationat238)

Yet ifneatcategoriesremainelusiveacombinationoftheIslamistsrsquoself-consciouslypoliticalgoalstheirmultifacetedifnotalwaysexplicitpoliticalcritiquesofmanypastandpresentwaysofunderstandingandlivingIslamandanunshakeableconfidenceintheirownabilitytodis-cern Godrsquos will from the foundational texts do often provide enoughgrounds tobroadlydistinguish themfromotheractivists intellectualsand orientations in the Muslim public sphere What this combinationamountstovariesfromonesocialpoliticalreligiousandculturalcon-texttoanotherandsothereforedothewaysinwhichIslamistsrelatetooneanotherorcompeteandoverlapwithothergroupsandorientations

The Politics of Islamism

FromAeneasrsquosmythicalfoundingofRometothedeathandresurrectionofJesusChristtoMuhammadrsquosmigrationtoMedinafoundationalnar-rativesareascommontocollectivelifeasthemovementsthatperiodi-callyarisetorevivethemandclaimantstothemantleoflegitimacytheyconferSounderstoodIslamistsrsquopoliticalaspirationstorestorefounda-tionslocatedinamythicalpastarefarfromuniqueNorareIslamistsaloneintheirconvictionthatscripturalauthorityisguaranteedbyitsdi-vineauthormdashforinthatallMuslimsagreeRatherthechaptersinthisvolumesuggest thatwhatmakes Islamistpoliticsdistinctive (ifnotsui generis)istheclaimtorecuperateanldquoauthenticIslamrdquocomprisedofself-evidenttruthspurgedofalienandcorruptinginfluencesalongwithaninsistenceonremakingthefoundationsofthestateinitsimageGiventhelimitsofhumanunderstandingrelativetoGodrsquosknowledgeIslamistssimultaneouslydepictsuchfidelitytotheunadulteratedwordofAllahas

28

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INTRODUCTION

theultimateexpressionofdeferencetodivineomniscienceandportrayhumilityasaconstitutivefeatureofthehumanconditionAspirationstofullyknowandmasterthenaturalandsocialworldsthusentailnotonlyahumanhubrisdeaftotheQurrsquoanicadmonitionthatldquoAllahknowsbutandyoudonotknowrdquo(Q366)butalsoatransgressionagainstadi-vinely-ordainedontologicalorder

ItisnotablehoweverthattheIslamistemphasisonthelimitsofhumanknowledgerequireshumilityonlyinrelationtoAllahitrarelyyieldshu-milityinregardtotheirownclaimstospeakinHisnameortowardotherhumanbeingswhodissentfromthepremiseofdivineomnipotenceandIslamistaccountsofwhat it requiresThis suggests thatwhile IslamistchallengestostatepowerareobviouslypoliticaltheIslamistclaimtoau-thenticityisalsopolitical inthecoercivepoweritroutinelyenactsandjustifiesmostnotablybywayofthesilencesitimposesandthedebatesitforeclosesAzizal-Azmehpointsoutthatldquothenotionofauthenticityisnotsomuchadeterminateconceptasitisanodeofassociationsandin-terpellationsatropebymeansofwhichthehistoricalworldisreducedtoaparticularorderandatokenwhichmarksoffsocialandpoliticalgroupsandforgesandreconstituteshistoricalidentitiesrdquo(al-Azmeh199341)WhetherintheserviceofArabnationalismChristianfundamental-ismEuropeanromanticismorMuslimmodernismtheclaimofauthen-ticityisanactofpowerthatfunctionsnotjusttoreflecttheworldbuttoconstructitbydeterminingwhoisincludedandexcludedwhomayandmaynotspeakauthoritativelywhatistheproperrealmofdebateandwhatisbeyondcontestation

ItiscertainlythecasethatasingleldquoIslamrdquocapturesandorganizestheperspectivesofmillionswhoself-identifyasMuslim(amongotherthings)yetwhattravelsunderitsrubricisinescapablydiversemultiethnicanddefined asmuchbydisagreement as consensus Just as theTorah andBible lend themselves toat times radicallydivergent interpretationsofwhatitmeanstobeJewishorChristiantheQurrsquoanandhaditharecom-plexandsusceptibletomanydifferentandattimescontradictoryenact-mentsSounderstoodIslamislessafixedessencethanalivingtraditionthatcaptureswhatisimaginedascontinuousandunitaryindialecticalrelationshiptothoseconcretearticulationsandpracticesbywhichitistransformedandadaptedindifferentcontextsforpluralpurposesItispreciselythisunderstandingofreligionthatisanathematoIslamistswhoseek tofix theparametersof Islamicauthenticityonceandforallandtherebyarrogateforthemselvestherighttodeterminewhoqualifiesasagood Muslim to discredit those lsquoulama unable or unwilling to purgeIslamofpurportedimpietiestodeclarenominallyMuslimrulersapos-tatesunfittogovernandtocharacterizeallwhodisagreeascorrupthe-reticalguiltyofunbelieforvictimsoffalseconsciousness

Thesegeneralpoliticaltendencieshowevermustbecarefullysituatedwithinadialecticoftheglobalandthevernacularunderstoodtoreflect

29

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INTRODUCTION

thewaysinwhichunifyingmacrohistoricaldynamicsinformandareinturntransformedbydiversecontingentandfluidlocalcircumstancesInaworldstampedbyWesterndominanceandtheconsolidationofpostco-lonial authoritarian regimes Islamists confront a common set of con-straintsandchallengesInasmuchassuchconstraintsandchallengeshavemade Islamist thinkers (often reluctant) participants in conversationsacrossbothcultureandhistorytheireffortstoremakethefoundationsofcollectiveliferevealasharedinterpretiveframeworkandcommonreli-gio-political grammar At the same time this frame and grammar arecontinuallybeingreworkedinrelationtothedistinctpublicspheresinwhichIslamistsoperateandtowhichtheycarefullycalibratetheirpoliti-calcommitments

Attention to this complex dynamic suggests that the Islamist move-mentcannotsimplybecharacterizedasviolentantidemocraticandop-pressiveofwomenlabelsinvokedsofrequentlyinscholarlyandpopularliterature on the subject that they have become virtually synonymouswithIslamistpoliticsSuchcharacterizationsdocapturecrucialdimen-sionsofIslamistpoliticsyettheyalsosidesteptheparadoxesitsvarie-gatedandoftencontradictoryexpressionspresentInsteadwearguethatIslamistpoliticscanbeproductivelyreadin terms ofandagainst the grain ofsuchbroadcategorizationsasantidemocraticantiwomanorviolentmdashthat is as commitments that at different moments in various localesbothencourageandconstrainbroad-basedpoliticalparticipationdisruptandratifyhierarchicalgendernormsresistandreproducestate-sanctionedbrutalityThepointofreadingIslamistpoliticsinthiswayisnottosug-gestthatIslamistsaresecretlydemocraticfeministandopposedtovio-lenceRatherthepointistodrawattentiontothecomplexityandcon-tradictionserasedbyeasygeneralizationsontheonehandandtheoftenunacknowledgedfluidityandculturaladaptabilityofotherwisefamiliarpoliticalcategoriesontheother

Islamism and Democracy

DespiteimportantdifferencesamongIslamistthinkerstheyhaveincom-monatendencytoviewhumansovereigntyastransgressiveofdivinelawandsharetheaspirationtoestablishsharilsquoaastheprimaryorsolesourceofauthorityAsisoftennotedsuchpremisesandaspirationsrunafoulofassumptionsaboutpopularruleattheheartofdemocracynamelythathumanbeingshavetherighttolegislaterulesforcollectivebehaviorandarecapableofthewisdomrequiredtodevisejustlawsInrecentyearspolicymakersandcommentatorshaveevincedaparticularpreoccupa-tionwiththewaysinwhichIslamistnotionsofdivineauthoritythrottlethespiritandpracticeofpopularsovereigntySomehaveevengonesofarastocharacterizeIslamistsasldquoIslamo-fascistsrdquoanimatedbyhatredoftheldquodemocratic Westrdquo psychologically unable to contend with the fluidity

30

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INTRODUCTION

andindeterminacythatmarkpopularruleandeagertoconvertelectionsintoaldquoone-manone-voteone-timerdquomechanismforestablishinganIs-lamicstate(Murdock2002MRubin2005Kramer1993)

SuchviewsareechoedbythoseIslamistskeentoportraydemocracynotonlyasantitheticaltothesupremacyofdivinelawbutasaTrojanhorseforWesternimperialismFormanyIslamistsincludingseveralinthis volumedemocracy is justone symptomofametastasizingmoralandspiritualbankruptcywherebymoraltransgressionsaretransfiguredintonaturalurgescrassself-interestbecomesthebedrockofcollectivelifeandthedivineplanfortheuniverseandallthingsinitisreducedtoa system of physical causality just waiting to be mastered by way ofhumaningenuity(REuben2007)Qutbcallsthisdiseasedviewoftheworldjahiliyyaanditsignalsnotonlyhumanarrogancebutatransgres-sionagainstdivineauthoritythescopeofwhichencompassesbothpub-licandprivatedomainsofhumanaffairsaswellasbothvisibleandun-seendimensionsoftheuniverseFormanyIslamistssuchtransgressionisattherootofmuchofwhatpassesforMuslimruleinthecontemporaryworldmdashnationalistdemocraticandmonarchicalalikeSucharroganceisalsosaidtobethepatternunderlyingalonghistoryofunrelievedWest-ernaggressionagainstIslaminwhichtheChristianCrusadesEuropeancolonialismIsraelitreatmentofPalestiniansethniccleansinginBosniaGermananti-TurkishviolencetheAmericaninvasionofIraqandDutchcartoonsofMuhammadarebutafewexamples

YetthereisarangeofviewsamongIslamistsaboutboththesubstanceofdemocracyanditscompatibilitywiththereligio-politicalrenewaltheyadvocateAccordingtoQaradawiforexampleldquotheessenceofdemoc-racyisthatpeoplechoosewhorulesoverthemandmanagestheiraf-fairsthatnorulerorregimetheydislikeisforceduponthemthattheyhavetherighttocalltherulertoaccountifheerrsandtoremovehimfromofficeincaseofmisconductandthatpeoplearenotforcedineco-nomicsocialculturalorpoliticaldirectionsthattheyneitherrecognizenor acceptrdquo (Qaradawi1997132 also chapter9 in this volume)TohimthereisnoheavierburdenoppressingMuslimsinthecontemporaryworld thandespotism indeed it is throughdespoticgovernments thatMuslimshavebeenforcedtosubmittootherillsincludingtheneglectofthesharilsquoaandthecoerciveimpositionofsecularismandwesternizationDemocracy then recommends itself to Qaradawi as the most effectiveavailableantidotetodespotismandtheafflictionsofwhichitservesasavehicle

WheremanyamongtheIslamistsandthelsquoulamahaveseenconsider-able tensionbetween IslamanddemocracyQaradawiprofesses to seenoneAswesuggestedearlierbyfarthemostcommonoftheIslamistreservationsaboutademocraticsystemrelatestothesovereigntyofthepeoplewhichistakentocontravenetheideathatGodaloneissovereignQaradawi however is unperturbedby such concernsThe rule of the

31

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INTRODUCTION

peopleoughttobeseenhearguesnotinoppositiontotheruleofGodbutratherinoppositiontotheruleofthedespotMorefundamentallyQaradawirsquos view of democracy does not necessarily require that thepeopleshouldbeabletooverturndivinelyinstitutednormsRatherhisassumptionisthatpeopleexercisetheirsovereigntywithinconstitutionalboundsandMuslimslivinginapredominantlyMuslimdemocraticpol-itywouldlikewisenotwishtotransgresstheparametersoflegitimatehumanactionlaiddownintheIslamicfoundationaltexts(seeQaradawichapter9inthisvolumeandcfFeldman2007)

NadiaYassineofMoroccorsquosJusticeandSpiritualityAssociationisan-othercaseinpointWhilecriticalofthedemocraticgesturesembracedbyamonarchythatshedepictsasallergictogenuinelypopularsovereigntyYassineinsiststhatthemodelofMuslimruleadumbratedintheummafoundedbytheProphetMuhammadandinparticulartheConstitutionofMedina17isnothingshortofdemocratic(NYassine2005d2005e)UnliketheMuslimdynastiesthatarosetousurpitYassinecontendsthiscommunity was participatory egalitarian committed to freedom andexpressiveofGodrsquosmercyMostimportantitwasgovernedalwaysbytheQurrsquoanicprincipleofshura (consultation)bywhichYassinemeansaphilosophy of power that places sovereignty in the community ratherthaninanyindividuallinksvirtuetodeliberationratherthanobedienceandexhortsbelieverstocontinuallyadaptQurrsquoanicprinciplesthroughijtihad rather than adhere reflexively to precedent (N Yassine 2006a182ndash862005d)ManyscholarsandjournalistsremainskepticaloftheJSArsquosasyetuntestedcommitment toproceduraldemocracyandworrythatNadiaandher fatherAbdessalamultimatelyseektoestablishanIslamic state inhospitable to tolerance pluralism and civil liberties(Maghraoui2001Brandon2007Whitlock2006)YetothersarguethattheJSAisagenuinelypopulistorganizationthatrepresentstheunrepre-sentedtendstothewelfareofthedispossessedandbothexpressesandcontributestoanincreasinglyvibrantcivilsocietyinMorocco(Cavatorta2006Entelis2002)

QaradawirsquosandYassinersquosargumentstogethersuggestthatdemocracycanandhasservedaseitheracosmeticcoverfordespotismoranauthen-ticallyIslamiccheckuponcorruptandarbitraryruleAtissueinIslamistargumentsforandagainstdemocracythenarenotonlywhatcountsasldquoauthenticIslamrdquoandtheintentionsofthosewhoclaimtoknowitbutalsothecontentandcharacterofdemocracyitselfParadoxicallybothIslamistsopposedtodemocracyandthosewhotakeIslamismasinher-entlyantidemocraticregardthisasasimplematterwithanobviousan-swerdemocracyisanexpressionofandevensynonymouswithliberal-ismcapitalismandtheWestYetdemocracyisbothmorecapaciousand

17TheConstitutionofMedinawasanagreementtheProphethadenteredintowiththelocalcommunitiesincludingJewishtribesuponhisemigrationfromMeccatoMedina

32

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INTRODUCTION

moredistinctthanthispresumptionsuggestsTheworditselfofcoursederivesfromtheancientGreekdemokratiawhichmeansrule(kratos)ofthepeople(demos)andmanyderivetheequationofdemocracyandtheWestfromthisassociationwithclassicalGreeceYetancientGreekphi-losopherssuchasPlatosawindemocracythespecterofmobrulepartic-ularly vulnerable to demagoguery and despotism (a suspicion notablyechoedbyAmerican founder JamesMadison)Contrary to thedemo-cratic idealof inclusivenessmoreover citizenship inGreekdemocracyexcludedasubstantialpartofthepopulationincludingwomenslavesandforeignersFinallytheextenttowhichtheancientGreeksmayevenbecalledWesternisamatterofgreatdisputeparticularlyastheldquoWestrdquoisacategoryofrelativelyrecentprovenancethroughwhichhistoryandgeographyhavebeenretroactivelyorganized18DespitedepictionsoftheHellenicworldasWesternancientGreeksdidnotinfactviewthem-selvesintheseterms19

TheequationofdemocracywiththeWestalsopresupposestheexis-tenceofacoherentldquoWesterncivilizationrdquowitheitherculturallyhomoge-neousrootsorclearlydelineatedhistoricalandcontemporarybounda-riesorbothYetwhatiscalledtheWestisanamalgamationofmultipletraditionsincludingtheGreekRomanJudaicChristianandIslamicmdashtraditionsthatarethemselvespolyvalentratherthanhomogeneousmdashandistodaycharacterizedbyporousbordershybridsubculturesandmyriaddebtstodiversecivilizationspastandpresent20AsageographicmarkeritisvirtuallyimpossibletopinpointexactlywheretheWestbeginsandendsandthisisespeciallysonowthatpeoplesinformationandmate-rial goods crisscross cultural andnational borders atwill creating allkindsoftransnationalsubnationalandmultipleidentitiesthatshiftandreconstitutethemselvesinunpredictablewaysEventhosevaluesidenti-fiedasWesternoftenappearelsewhereinotherguisesIndeedscholarssuggestthatavarietyoftheldquostandardsexportedbytheWestanditscul-turalindustriesthemselvesturnouttobeofculturallymixedcharacterifweexaminetheirculturallineagesrdquo(Pieterse199553)

Manyalsoarguethatdemocracyisnotonlydistinctfrombutinten-sionwithboththetheoryandpracticeofpoliticsinldquoWesternrdquosocieties

18MichaelGillespie(19997ndash10)arguesthattherereadingofhistorygeographyandculturethroughtheprismofthissenseofldquotheWestrdquobegannoearlierthanthenineteenthcenturyTheideaofatimelessandbrightlinebetweenWestandEastisalsochallengedbyJeremyBrottonrsquosstudy(19989096ndash97)ofthediplomaticandintellectualexchangesbe-tweenEuropeandtheOttomanEmpireintheearlymodernperiodBrottonshowsnotonlytheextentandamityofsuchexchangesbutapersistentuncertaintyaboutwherepreciselyEuropeldquoendedrdquoandAsialdquobeganrdquo

19AncientGreeksunderstoodthemselvesasgeographicallywestofthebarbariansbutnotWesterninthecontemporarysensethatisasbothaculturalandhistoricalcategory

20StevenRuncimanrsquoswork(19543480)ontheCrusadesforexampledemonstratesaldquolongsequenceofinteractionandfusionbetweenOrientandOccidentoutofwhichourcivilizationhasgrownrdquo

33

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INTRODUCTION

many of which are more accurately classified as liberal and capitalist(Wood1994Wolin2001BallandDagger1999)Whileitisnowcom-monplacetospeakofldquoliberaldemocracyrdquoinasinglebreathliberalismanddemocracyareconceptsandpracticeswithverydifferenthistoriesandpresuppositionsUnlikedemocracyforexampleliberalismemergedfromthecrucibleofChristianreligiouswarsandintandemwiththeas-cendanceofamiddleclassthatpresagedtheendofEuropeanfeudalismTheliberalnation-statecanthusbeviewedasbothanexpressionandaconsolidationofcapitalismontheonehandandtheprincipleofasepa-rationbetweenchurchandstateontheotherBycontrastthereisnoth-ingaboutdemocracyeitherasasystemofgovernanceoracultureofpar-ticipationthatisinherentlysecularIndeedAlexisdeTocquevillefamouslyinsistedthatAmericandemocracycannotandshouldnotbesecularasreligionhelpsshiftattentionawayfromimmediatematerialpreoccupa-tionstolargerconcernsofcommunitycooperationandmoralityInfactmanydemocratictheoristsarguethatgenuinelyinclusivepopularsover-eignty is antithetical to the sharp inequalities of wealth and politicalpowerthatcapitalismoftenproducesandlegitimates

SuchongoingdefinitionalandsubstantivedebatessuggestthatthereismuchmoreatstakeindemocraticpoliticsthanprocedurespertainingtogovernmentauthorityandorderandpointtoawidespreadifelusiveunderstandingofdemocracynotjustasasetofinstitutionsbutasTocque-villesuggestsawayoflifeSeveralpoliticaltheoristshavecharacterizedthiselusiveunderstandingintermsofaldquodemocraticethosrdquoBythistheymeanbothanidealandanargumentforacultureofparticipationactivepowersharingmutualaccountabilityinclusivenessanddeliberationinwhichcitizensmayroutinelyandsafelychallengenotonlyspecificpoli-ciesandpolitical institutionsbutalso thevalues thatgoverncollectivelifeprinciplesofinclusionandexclusionandthepremisesofauthorityitself(Connolly1995JPEuben2003Sadiki2004)AdemocraticethosismuchmoredifficulttomeasureorquantifythanforexampleSamuelHuntingtonrsquosparsimoniousdefinitionofdemocracyasapolityinwhichtherehavebeentwoconsecutivepeacefulchangesofgovernmentbywayof freeand fairelections (Huntington1991)21Yetademocraticethosmakesitpossibletobothrecognizeanddisaggregatethepreconditionsaspirations mechanisms and institutions bundled into ldquodemocracyrdquotherebybringingintofocusforexamplethefrequentlyantidemocratic

21Manypoliticalscientistsprefertodefinedemocracyintermsofproceduresdesignedtorealizepopularruleincludingfreecompetitiveandfairelectionsalongwithstateprotec-tionofcertainrightsandlibertiesSuchaformalminimalistdefinitionhastheadvantageofdetachingdemocracyfromquestionsoforiginsandofferingastandardtowhichallgov-ernmentsmaybeheldregardlessofcultureandplaceAsKeithTopper(2005205ndash7)ar-gueshoweveritalsotendstosidestepknottyquestionsaboutthesubstanceofrepresenta-tion power responsiveness and accountability that are arguably central to democraticpolitics

34

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INTRODUCTION

casttoelectionsimposedbyelitesorforeignpowersthefeltimpotenceofmanycitizensinestablisheddemocraciesandthosehighlyparticipa-torycivilsocietiesthatflourishevenundermonarchicortheocraticrule

Forourpurposes inparticularademocraticethosmakesvisible theparadoxofanIslamistmovementthatseekstomobilizeordinaryMus-limsagainstcoercivepowerbutinthenameofareligio-politicalorderlargelyimmunizedfromchallengeQutbisanaptillustrationhereashistendencytogroundhisownspecialauthorityandinsightintheunsulliedwisdomofordinarybelieversmakesitpossibletoreadhisworkaseitherabriefagainstdemocracy(amongotherthings)oranenactmentofitIn-asmuchasdemocracyasaformofgovernanceisidentifiedwithpopularsovereigntyQutbrsquosbasicpremisethat thefoundationof legitimateau-thoritymustbedivineratherthanhumansuggeststhatheisunambigu-ouslyantidemocraticMoreoverQutbrsquoseffortstopluralizereligiousandpolitical authority express not a confidence in common wisdom butratheradesiretoclaimforhimselfthestatureofareligiousexpertwhodespitehislackofIslamicacademiccredentialscanclearlyseewhatoth-erscannotQutbcharacterizestherealIslamasself-evidentbuthealsoassumesthatonlyasmallvanguardofbelieversbesideshimselfwillhavetheabilitytorecognizeitandactdecisivelytoremaketheworldinitsimageSounderstoodthesignofldquochosennessrdquoisunyieldingcommitmenttoestablishingareligio-politicalorderthatsimultaneouslypresumesthesupremacyofthefewcapableoftrueknowledgeandpromisesaworldinwhichdissentitselfwillbecomebothunnecessaryandillegitimate

Yetifdemocracyrefersnotonlytoasystemofgovernanceorsetofprocedurestorealizepopularsovereigntybutalsotopracticesthatdis-ruptthoseforceswhichconcentratepowerandestablishpoliticalexclu-sionthecharacterizationofQutbrsquosworkassimplyantidemocraticmissesa crucial dimensionof its significance and appealAs the sacred textscontaintherulesandregulationsmeanttogovernbothpublicandpri-vateaffairsQutbrsquosinsistencethatordinaryuntrainedMuslimsmusten-gagethemdirectlyisinmanywaysademocratizationofaccesstoau-thoritySuchaccesscandisruptdeeplyentrenchedpatternsofpowerandpowerlessness particularlywhen conjoined to Islamist arguments thatarbitrarypowerisun-Islamicthatreligiousknowledgedependsoncom-mitmentratherthantrainingorexpertise thatMuslimshavetherightandobligationtodeterminewhenrulersareillegitimateandthatthosewhopreferordertojusticesecuritytofreedomandmoneytopietyhaveforfeitedanyclaimtoauthority

ThisaspectofIslamismhasfrequentlybeencomparedtotheProtestantReformationandmorespecificallytoCalvinistsrsquoattemptstotransferldquore-ligiousauthorityawayfromofficiallysanctionedindividualswhointer-prettextstoordinarycitizensrdquo(EGoldberg19913alsocfLoimeier2005)Suchaparallelhassparkedagreatdealofscholarlyspeculation

35

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

regardingapossibleldquoIslamicReformationrdquo22andarangeofargumentsaboutwhetherandhowIslamismmightfacilitatethedemocratizationofMuslim societies much as the Protestant Reformation is said to haveheralded the emergence of European ldquoliberal democracyrdquo While suchcomparisonsareevocativeafullerunderstandingof IslamismrequiresfirstsituatingitinrelationtoahistoricalshiftinthenatureandlocusofreligiousauthorityinIslambeginninginthenineteenthcenturyAsschol-arsofMuslimsocietieshavepointedouttheimpactofmasseducationnewtechnologiesfordisseminatingknowledgeandinformationanddra-matically changed social economic and political contexts have madeavailabletoamateurswhathadpreviouslybeenthepurviewofreligiousexpertsAtthesametimeithasinauguratedafragmentationofauthor-itywithintheveryranksofthelsquoulamathatcontinuestothepresentday23

InthiscontexttheascendanceandinfluenceofautodidactssuchasQutbHasanal-BannalsquoAbdal-SalamFarajandBinLadensimultaneouslyex-pressandaccelerateanongoingrenegotiationofauthorityoverwhomayspeakforIslamandonwhatbasisthepathofwhichisstillunfoldingandtheoutcomeasyetuncertain

Islamism and Gender

One already apparent consequence of this ongoing renegotiation overwhomayspeakforIslamandonwhatbasisistheentryofwomenintothe interpretive fray This development is increasingly unsettling thoseunwrittengendernormsarguablyattheveryheartofIslamistthoughtdisruptingthestandardsofmasculinityandfemininitythatreflecthowparticularculturesorganizehumanbeingsrsquosocialandreproductiveactiv-itiesintorolesthatareinturnthoughttoexpresstheldquonaturerdquoofmenand women Such norms are frequently considered tangential to theknottyproblemsofdefiningIslamismandadumbratingitscentralideasyetarangeofscholarshiponculturespastandpresenthasshownthatgenderisconsistentlytheterrainoverwhichbattlesforpoliticalcontrolandculturalidentityarefoughtMorespecificallyresearchindisciplinessuchasanthropologyhistoryclassicsandpostcolonialstudieshasdem-onstratedthatculturesinwhichfemalebodiesandbehaviorareregardedas indicesofmoralpurity tend to symbolically transformwomen intoconduitsof cultural corruption in timesof internal crisis and externalthreat(Papenek1994Chatterjee1990Tavakoli-Targhi1991Just1989Cohen1991Welter1966Bloch1978)Thisisespeciallytrueofcontem-

22Foralatenineteenth-centuryassessmentoftheprospectsforaldquoMuhammadanRefor-mationrdquoseeBlunt1882132ndash73

23EickelmanandPiscatori199637ndash39131ndash35Zaman2006Suchfragmentationhasinmanywaysbeenacceleratedbytheexplosionofdigitalcultureswhichpromoteamongotherthingsaldquoformofempoweredamateurismrdquo(Mirzoeff20026)

36

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

poraryreligio-politicalmovementswhosememberstendtoldquoidealizepa-triarchalstructuresofauthorityandmoralityrdquoendorsegenderdualismasgod-givenornaturalandcondemnvigorouslyrecentchangesingen-derrelationsasasymptomandsymbolofsecularistmoralbankruptcy(Riesebrodt1993Moghadam1992Hawley1994)

SeveralchaptersinthisvolumeilluminateIslamistgendernormsbyre-vealing thecharacterandcontentof Islamistconcernsabout theplaceandpurityofMuslimwomenmdashpreoccupationsFatimaMernissi(199199)hasgonesofarastocharacterizeasanobsessionDespiteimportantdifferences among Islamists thinkers many endorse gender norms inwhichthefairlyconventionalinsistencethatfemalenatureisdefinedinand through reproduction undergirds an understanding of women assymbolsofmoralvirtueandvesselsofculturalpurityThisviewsustainstheclaimthatmenandwomenareequalinreligiousbeliefbutperformfundamentallydifferentandcomplementaryfunctionsinsocietyWhilemenarenaturallymadetoruleinboththepublicandprivatedomainawomanbelongsinthedomesticrealmwhereherprimaryroleistobeawifeandmotheraswellastoinsuretheintegrityofthefamilythefirstschoolofmoraleducationAssuchfunctionsarerootedinaninescap-ablehumannaturefashionedbyGodawomanrsquosinabilityorunwilling-nesstoperformherdutiessignalsadisobediencetothedivinewillandpresages the corruption of the Muslim family from within From thisvantagepointtheWesterninsistenceonfullequalitybetweenthesexesisdoubly pernicious it at once liberates women from basic moral con-straintsandenslavesthemtomutuallyreinforcingsexualandcapitalistexploitationAsMurtazaMutahhari(1998xxxi)arguescapitalismmakesuseofwomentomarket itsgoodsldquoby trading inhonourandrespectthrough[their]powertoenticerdquotherebyldquotransform[ing]manintoaninvoluntaryagentofconsumptionrdquoInasmuchaswomenareresponsiblefor producing the next generation of Muslim men destined to restoreIslamtoitsformergloryitisnotonlythevirtueofwomenortheinteg-rityofthefamilythathangsinthebalancebutthefutureofIslamiccivili-zationitself

Zaynab al-Ghazali andMutahharimake several of these argumentsexplicitlyandindetail(seechapters10and11)butinmuchofIslamistrhetoricthenatureandsignificanceofwomenareestablishedindirectlyandsymbolicallyandthroughthreerecurrentimagesinparticularThefirstisofwomenassilentsymbolsofculturalmoralandsexualvulnera-bilityvoicelessfiguresinneedofmasculineprotectionorwhenitistoolatedefiledbodiesthatmutelydemandvengeanceSoforexamplelsquoAb-dallahlsquoAzzam(oneofBinLadenrsquosmentorsseechapter18)graphicallydetailstheagonizinghumiliationofyoungmenunabletoactwhentheAfghanwoman isldquocryingout forhelpher childrenarebeing slaugh-tered her women are being raped the innocent are killed and theircorpsesscatteredrdquo(lsquoAzzam1987a)Inthesecondimagewomenfunction

37

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

muchlikeachorusthatspeaksinpermittedcadencestoratifymasculineendeavorsSuchisthecaseforexampleinBinLadenrsquos1996ldquoDeclara-tionofWaragainsttheAmericansOccupyingtheLandoftheTwoHolyPlacesrdquo(seechapter18)wherethewomenexhortmentojihadinthefollowing way ldquoPrepare yourself like a struggler the matter is biggerthanwordsAreyougoingtoleaveusforthewolvesofKufr[unbe-lief]eatingourwingsWherearethefreemendefendingfreewomenbyarmsDeath isbetter than life inhumiliation Some scandals andshameswillneverbeotherwiseeradicatedrdquo24InthethirdimagewomenarecreaturesnotofthisworldbutofanothervirginalrewardsforthecourageousmartyrintheafterlifeThisisevidentinthefinalinstructionsforthe911hijackersforexamplewhereMuslimldquobrothersrdquoareurgedto purify their carnal impulses sharpen their knives for the dhabh (slaughter)andheedthecallofthehur lsquoayn (theblack-eyedones)await-ingtheminParadise(seechapter19)

Such rhetoric primarily registers women as an extensionmirror ormeasure of masculinity and together with explicit Islamist argumentsabouthumannatureandthefamilyarticulatesIslamistgendernormsinwhichmenandwomeneachhaveaproperlocationandpurposeinadi-vinely ordained social hierarchy Deviance from this gendered scriptthussignalsdisruptionofamuchbroaderreligio-politicalorderitbothpresumes and seeks to bring into existence The disruption caused byforeign aggression in particular exacerbates the tendency to translateconflict into an assault on Muslim masculinity and to conceptualizewomenaspotentialvehiclesforWesterncorruptioninneedofguidingand guarding Women such as Zaynab al-Ghazali and Nadia Yassinewho seek a prominent place and voice within the Islamist movementhavehadlittlechoicebuttocontendwiththisgenderedscriptDoingsohasentailedamongotherthingsnavigatingcarefullybetweenIslamistcharacterizations of womenrsquos visibility and agency as symptomatic ofthe new jahiliyya on the one hand and essentializing arguments thatequateIslamwithveilingfemalegenitalmutilationandhonorkillingsontheother

AsthechaptersonGhazaliandYassinesuggestIslamistwomenhavenegotiatedbetweensuchconstraintsandpressuresandtheirownambi-tionsindifferentwaysApioneeringdalsquoiya(onewhoinvitesMuslimstogreater piety)Ghazalirsquos own life reveals a fierce resistance to conven-tionalnormsofdomesticityevenasmuchofher(earlier)workappearsto embrace an Islamist gender ideology that defines women as wivesmothers andldquobuilders ofmenrdquo (al-Hashimi 1990 118)By contrastYassineisawifeandmotherwhoembracesanldquoIslamicfeminismrdquothatrequiresldquoreappropriatingtheinstrumentsofclassicaltheologyrdquoanden-

24TheIslamistjournalSawt alshyJihadhasgonesofarastofeatureldquowomenrsquosvoicesrdquointheformofrolemodelsnamedforexampleumm alshyshahid(motherofthemartyr)al-thoughitisunclearthattheseldquovoicesrdquoareactuallywomenrsquos(SUsher2004)

38

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INTRODUCTION

gaging the textsdirectly through ijtihad (NYassine2003) In this re-spect Yassine must be understood as part of a broader effort amongMuslimwomenwithdifferentpoliticalcommitmentstosimultaneouslyadvocateandenacttheirrighttorecuperatetheldquooriginalintentrdquooftheIslamictextsIfwomenandmendoinfacthavedistinctperspectivesontheworldYassinesuggestswomenhaveaspecialobligationtoexcavatewhattheyseeasthegenderparityoftheQurrsquoanburiedbeneaththoseldquomachointerpretationsrdquoofIslamuponwhichmenhavebuilttheirprivi-legeandpower(Khalaf2006)25

ManyAnglo-AmericanandEuropean feministsworry that Islamistsseekonly to secureor restorepatriarchalpowerConverselymany Is-lamist women view feminism as a term and a movement inescapablyWesterninoriginfreightedwiththelegacyofcolonialismanduneasilyimplicatedinculturalimperialismThisapplieseventoYassinewhoisunwillingtoadoptwithoutqualificationalabelsheassociateswithagen-dasopposedtoherowntheWesttheMoroccanstateMaghribi(North-westAfrican)elitesYetfeminismitselfisahighlycontestedtermwithin theso-calledWestitisthebearerofmultiplemeaningssomeofwhichareevenopposedandischaracterizedbydeepdisagreementsaboutwhowomenarewhatwomenneedwhoisauthorizedtoworkonwomenrsquosbehalf andbywhatmeans Inasmuch as these various feminismsmayshareonlyastatedconcernforwomenrsquoswelfarethereisnothinginco-herentinmodifyingldquofeminismrdquowithldquoIslamicrdquoldquoMuslimrdquoorevenldquoIs-lamistrdquounlessone iscommitted toarguing thatfirst Islam isanun-changingessencebeyondhistorypoliticsandculturesecondthereisaneutralobjectivevantagefromwhichtoidentifythisessenceonceandforallandfinallytheIslamicessencesoidentifiedisfundamentallyin-compatiblewitheffortstoimprovetheconditionsandqualityofwomenrsquoslivesBythesametokenIslamistwomenwhorejectthetermfeminismcanbe(althoughnotalwaysare)deeplycommittedtoimprovingwom-enrsquoswelfareaswellasactivelyresistanttoeffortsthatreduceortrans-formthemintosilentaccessoriesofmalepower

YassineandGhazalidifferaboutwhatwomenareandshouldbeyetbroadlyspeakingbothmaybeconsideredpartofarecenttrendtowardthe feminizationofdalsquowa Dalsquowa literallymeanscallappealor sum-monsbutthetermhascometosignifyavarietyofpracticesandargu-mentsmeanttoexhortinviteandguideMuslimstowhatisregardedasproperconductandmoraldevotionWomenrsquosparticipationindalsquowais

25WomenrsquosparticipationintheldquoproductionofofficialIslamicknowledgerdquohasalonghistoryalthoughtheyhaveoftendonesoinrelativeobscurityandwithoutthebenefitofeducation in the Islamicsciences thathas legitimateddirectengagementwith thesacredtexts (Cooke 2001 xiv Badran and Cooke 2004) Pioneering attempts to read genderequalityinIslamarealsonotconfinedtowritingbywomenasevincedbyQasimAminrsquosTahrir alshymarrsquoa [TheLiberationofWoman] (1899)andMumtaz lsquoAlirsquosHuquqshye niswan [TheRightsofWomen](1898)

39

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

notabrandnewphenomenonasisevidentinGhazalirsquosworkwiththeEgyptianSocietyofMuslimLadiesinthe1930sYetfromEgypttoPaki-stantoSaudiArabiatotheUnitedStatesthenumberoffemaledalsquoiyashasproliferatedexponentially inrecentyears(Cooke2001Mahmood2005Hirschkind2006)Thisreflectsinpartcurrentdoctrinalempha-sesondalsquowaasincumbentuponbothmenandwomenanddependentlessupontechnicalknowledgethanmoralvirtueandpracticalfamiliaritywiththeIslamictradition(Mahmood200565ndash66)It isalsoaconse-quenceofrecentpoliticalandsocioeconomictransformationsinMuslimsocietiesincludingtheexpansionofmasseducationthathasnotonlyin-creasedwomenrsquosliteracyandsocialmobilitybutalsomadeIslamictextsmoreaccessibletheproliferationoftechnologiesmdashfromthecassettetapetotheInternetmdashthatfacilitatethecirculationofreligiousknowledgeevenamongthosewhocannotreadortraveltheprecedentsetbythevigorousparticipationof IranianwomeninpostrevolutiondebatesaboutIslamandthemodeloflegalactivismevidentintheIslamistmovementrsquosownchallenge to the lsquoulamarsquos status as gatekeepers of religious knowledge(Singerman2005Mir-Hosseini1999)

If Ghazali and Yassine exemplify the feminization of dalsquowa amongelitesthemosquemovementinEgyptillustratesthegrowingparticipa-tionofwomenfromdiversesocialbackgroundsinreligiousclassesde-votedtostudyinganddebatingwhatIslamrequiresforawomantobeldquomorallyuprightrdquointhecontemporaryworld(Mahmood2005)Con-ceptualizingpiety in termsof adeepandholistic commitment to self-transformationparticipantsinthemosquemovementareconcernedlesswithmattersofsovereigntyandpoliticsconventionallyunderstoodandmorewiththeldquomoralcultivationrdquoofthosedailypracticesseenascrucialtobecomingclosertoGod(Mahmood2005)SomeIslamistshavecriti-cizedthis focusonpracticesofworshipasapoliticalandoverlypriva-tizedyetsuchcriticismmissestheforceofIslamistsrsquoowninsistenceondin(religion)asawayoflifeinwhichthedomainsofpublicandprivateare inextricably linked26AsSabaMahmood (2005193194) showsthesewomenrsquosintenseeffortsatldquoretrainingethicalsensibilitiesrdquohavealdquosociopoliticalforcerdquothatextendswellbeyondmattersofgovernancefacilitatingnolessthantheemergenceofaldquonewsocialandmoralorderrdquoEvidenceofitstransformativepowermaybefoundnotonlyinthesheernumbersandvarietyofwomenmdashwealthyandpoor literateand illiter-atemdashparticipatinginthemosquemovementbutalsointherhetoricalandpoliticaleffortsbythestateandsomeIslamiststocurtailcontrolordis-creditit(Mahmood200571194)

26ParticipantsinthemosquemovementinturnareoftencriticalofwhattheyseeasthereductionofIslamtotokensofculturalauthenticityorofitsinstrumentalizationbybothnationalistsandIslamiststheycharacterizeasmoreinterestedinpoliticalmaneuveringthanreligiouspiety

40

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

Understoodtoincludebothwrittenandembodiedpracticesthefemi-nizationof dalsquowa illustrates theways inwhichwomen fromdifferentperspectivesandsocialclassesareinsistingonengagingthesacredtextsdirectly for and with one another without the mediating authority ofmenwhohavetraditionallyheldthemonopolyonsuchactivitiesAsSu-danese Islamist Lubabah al-Fadl argues ldquoAs an insan [human being]whohappenstobeawomanIhavearighttorejectthemanipulativeexegesesofoursharilsquoa thatthreatenmyexistenceinawaythat isnotconsistentwiththeGodlywayandtoapplymyownijtihadtorectifyer-roneoustendenciesbysomeshuyukh[pluralofshaykh]rdquo(Sadiki2004290)DespitetheproliferationofvoicesintentonclaimingforthemselvestheauthoritytodemarcatewhatisauthenticallyIslamicandun-Islamiconceandforallcontestationoveritsscopeandmeaningproceedsapacefacilitatedatleastinpartbywomenformerlyexcludedfromtheconver-sationAtthesametimeIslamistwomenrsquosagencyandclaimstoauthorityarefrequentlystillpredicatedonawillingnesstofollowfairlypatriarchalrulesaboutwherehowandwithwhomtheymaypracticetheirvocation(Hirschkind2003Sadiki2004283)

Islamism and Violence

IfgenderisfrequentlyanimplicitpreoccupationamongIslamistsjihadisarguably Islamistsrsquomost consistently explicit concern Jihad is derivedfromtheArabicverbthatmeanstostruggleortostriveyetitisaparticu-larkindofstruggle that isofconcern tomanyof thefigurescollectedheretheoftenviolentstruggleagainstapostatesandinfidelsbothathomeandabroadtowhicheveryindividualMuslimmustcontributeTheclaimthatfightingunbelieversisthepreeminentenactmentofindividualMus-limpiety seems to justify characterizationsof Islam ingeneral and Is-lamisminparticularassanctioningevenencouragingviolenceYetwhatIslamistsrepresentasjihadtout courtisahistoricallyspecificunderstand-ingderivedfromahighlyselectiveuseoftextsandprecedentsprominentamongthemaformerlyobscureclaimbytheinfluentialfourteenth-cen-tury jurist IbnTaymiyya thatMongol rulerswhohad contravened Is-lamiclawcouldbesubjecttoforcibleremovalFarfromadefinitiveex-pressionof Islamldquoproperlyunderstoodrdquo such Islamist argumentsnotonlymarkasignificantdeparturefrommuchofantecedentdoctrineandpractice but also diminish the importance of ongoing disagreementsamongMuslimsabouttheformandpurposesofjihad

TobeginwithMuslimscholarshavetendedtoconsiderjihadagainstforeignenemiesafard kifaya(collectiveobligation)thatisadutyagroupofpeoplewithinthecommunitymayperformonbehalfoftherestandonethatpresupposesalegitimateMuslimleadertodeclareorleadthechargeJuristshavedistinguishedthisfromthefard lsquoayn(individualduty)thatmustbefulfilledbyeverysingleMuslimincasesofdefensivejihad

41

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

thatiswhentheummaisunderattackManyIslamistsincludedheretakeamuchlessnuancedviewofjihadAsamodeofpoliticalactionQutbarguesjihadmustberegardedasaldquopermanentconditionnotanocca-sionalconcernrdquoonethatincurrentcircumstancesrequiresdeedsratherthanwordsstruggleratherthancontemplationrevolutionathomeaswellasresistanceabroad(Qutb199167ndash6882)lsquoAbdal-SalamFarajarguesalongsimilarlinesthatthenatureoftheattackonIslammakespolitical authorization by a caliph (ldquodeputyrdquo referring to a legitimatesuccessortotheProphetrsquosleadership)unnecessaryafterallldquoleadershipovertheMuslimsis(always)intheirownhandsifonlytheymakethismanifestIfthereissomethinglackingintheleadershipwellthereisnothingthatcannotbeacquiredrdquo(Jansen1986asec93)

SuchargumentsareadeliberaterejectionofearlyMuslimmodernistswhohademphasizedthelargelydefensivecharacterofjihadandsoughttoshowthatrelationsbetweenMuslimsandnon-MuslimswerenormallypeacefulratherthanantagonisticMahmudShaltut(d1963)therectorof al-Azhar from 1958 to 1963 had argued for example that theQurrsquoanicversesonfightingldquoprohibittheprovocationofhostilityandthisprohibitionisreinforcedbyGodrsquosrepugnancetoaggressionandbyhisdislikeofthosewhoprovokehostilityrdquo(Peters199674onShaltutseeZebiri1993)ConversionbyforceisanathematoIslamShaltutaversandfightingiscommandedonlyindefenseinresponsetoaggressionini-tiatedbyothersEvendefensivejihadmustaimatldquotheterminationoftheaggressionandtheestablishmentofreligiouslibertydevotedtoGodandfreefromanypressureorforcerdquo(Peters199675)

ManyIslamistsexplicitlydismisssuchargumentsasasymptomoffalseconsciousnessoneamongmanydestructiveeffectsofcolonialdomina-tionMawdudiargues for example thatwhile imperialists ravage theworld to satisfy their greed jihad alone ldquoconjures up the vision of amarching band of religious fanatics with savage beards and fiery eyesbrandishingdrawnswordsandattackingtheinfidelswherevertheymeetthemrdquoHavinginternalizedthis imageMuslimsrushtoapologizeandrenouncearmedstruggleInthiswayhelamentscolonialistsretaintheexclusiverighttoldquofightwitharmsandammunitionwhilewearecon-tented with our pen and our tonguerdquo (Mawdudi 1948 1ndash3) SayyidQutbforhispartagreedthatIslamdoesnotcountenancespreadingitsmessagebyforceandcoercionyethehadlittlepatiencewiththosewhosoughttopresentjihadaslegitimateonlyinself-defense

IfweinsistoncallingIslamicjihadadefensivemovementthenwemustchangethemeaningofthewordldquodefenserdquoandmeanbyitldquothedefenseofmanrdquoagainstallthoseforcesthatlimithisfreedomWhenwetakethisbroadmeaningofthewordldquodefenserdquoweunder-standthetruecharacterofIslaminthatitproclaimstheuniversalfreedomofeverypersonandcommunityfromservitudetoanyother

42

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

individualorsocietytheendofmanrsquosarroganceandselfishnesstheestablishmentofthesovereigntyofAllahandHisLordshipthrough-outtheworldandtheruleofthedivinesharilsquoainhumanaffairs(Qutb199050)

Qutbdoesnotnameanynamesincastigatingtheldquowriterswithdefeatistandapologeticmentalities[who]writeaboutlsquojihadinIslamrsquoandtrytoremovethislsquoblotrsquofromIslamrdquo(Qutb199046)buthecouldverywellhavehadhisdistinguishedfellowEgyptianMahmudShaltutinmind

These arguments about jihad may be said to constitute a commongrammarandframeworkofanalysisformanyIslamistsalthoughseveralthinkers in this volume carefully calibrate such claims to suit variouspurposesanddifferentpublicspheresInhisjustificationfortheassassi-nationofEgyptianpresidentAnwaral-SadatforexamplelsquoAbdal-SalamFarajdepictsthestruggletoreclaimthemoralfoundationsoftheEgyp-tianstateasafightagainstjahiliyyafromwithinarguingthatthejihadagainstacorruptnationalistregimeathomemusttakeprecedenceoverfightingenemieselsewhereTheCharterofHamas(seechapter15)how-everinsiststhatallMuslimsrecognizetheprimacyofthejihadforJeru-salemweldingIslamistrhetorictothatofnationalistresistanceinanef-fortbothtofightIsraelioccupationandtocompeteforadherentswiththePalestinianLiberationOrganization(PLO)IncontrasttobothFarajandHamasBinLadenembracesaglobaljihadthatessentiallycollapsesdistinctionsbetweennationalandinternationaloffensiveanddefensivefightingenemiesathomeandthosefromafar

Yet despite such differences these arguments tend to presume thatviolent jihad is a necessary response to the pervasive power of thosewithdemonstratedhostilitytoMuslimliveslandspietiesandsensibili-tiesaformofretaliationwhoseurgencyandlegitimacyderivefromtheviolencemdashpsychologicalandeconomicaswellasphysicalmdashoftheinitialassaultThisviewofjihadsubsumesindividualsintoarchetypesofldquoin-fidelsrdquoandldquobelieversrdquoandinsodoingvitiatesmoreconventionaldis-tinctionsbetweenforexamplesoldierandcivilianorcollectiveandin-dividual responsibility It is far from inevitable that thosewhoharborsuchviewswillautomaticallyactuponthemyetthecarnagewroughtbytheattacksontheWorldTradeCenterandthePentagonin2001aBalinightclub in 2002 Madrid commuter trains in 2004 and throughoutIraqonadailybasissuggestjusthowlethalsuchclaimscanbegiventheright circumstances The fact that such violence does not discriminateamongvictimsonlyfurtherfuelsrhetoriccharacterizingIslamistsasirra-tional fanatics ldquoin love with deathrdquo terrorists animated by a religioncharacterizedbyapropensityforviolenceandauthoritarianism27

27AnxietiesabouttheparticularsusceptibilityofMuslimstoirrationalityinsularityandfanaticismhavealonganddistinguishedpedigreeinEuro-AmericanhistoryandpoliticalthoughtSeeforexampleRenan18833

43

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

AsinsomanyothermattershoweverIslamistsarehardlyofonemindonthesubjectofjihadindeedthereareIslamistswhoexplicitlyrejectthereductionof struggle toviolenceAcase inpoint isNadiaYassine(20032005c)whoinsiststhatjihadisthededicatedstruggleagainstisshytikbar(arrogance)particularlyinitscommonformasthelustforpoweranddominationAsjihadagainstistikbarisbothafinalgoalandapre-scriptionforactionYassinesuggestsitisantitheticaltoviolentpracticesthataimatdominationTheprimaryinstrumentsofjihadarenotbombsbutwords particularly thosedeployed in the art of persuasion (Fara-marzi2005NYassine2006a)WhenIslamistssuchaslsquoAbdal-SalamFarajandlsquoUmarlsquoAbdal-RahmanseektolegitimizeviolentrevolutionbyrecoursetoIslamictextsshearguestheycontravenethetruemeaningofjihadtoservetheirownarrogantendsBythesametokenBinLadenrsquosdecisiontoldquofightevilwithevilandbarbaritywithbarbarityrdquonotonlyviolatesspecificIslamicprohibitionsagainstharmingcivilianswomenandchildrenbutalsobetraystheethicalimperativetoembodythemes-sageofamercifulGodwhocautionsbelieversthat(Q8822)ldquoYouhavenopoweroverthemrdquo(NYassine2005cDaily Excelsior2002)

SuchpersistentdisagreementsamongMuslimspastandpresentsug-gest that Islam isnomore inherently violent andbloody-minded thanitmdashorChristianityor Judaism for thatmattermdashis inherentlypeacefulIslamists often claim to speak for an unchanging authentic Islam thatexistsoutsideoftimeandspaceyetthepoliticalpurchaseoftheirper-spective derives from the ways it assembles disparate yet recognizablecontemporaryexperiencesofsufferingfrustrationandlossintoanex-planationthatresonateswithMuslimswholiveincommunitiescultur-allylinguisticallyandgeographicallydistantfromoneanotherTheex-tenttowhichIslamistargumentsresonatebroadlyacrossMuslimsocie-tiesthusdependsuponasetofexperiencesandphenomenathatmarkthisparticularmomentinhistoryincludingthewaysinwhichcontempo-raryglobalinequalitiescompoundalegacyofhistoricalasymmetriestocontinuallyreproduceasenseofMuslimpowerlessnessmdashbothrealandimaginedmdashrelativetotheWestcontinuingEuro-Americanpoliticalandfinancialsupportofcorruptautocratsmanyofwhompresideoverna-tion-statesbrutallystitchedtogetherbyWesternfiat thepersistenceofauthoritarian regimes eager to control domestic unrest by catalyzingldquoMuslimragerdquotowardexternaltargetsthesenseofemasculationpro-ducedbydecadesofpoliticalrepressionandeconomicfrustrationandthecontinualflowofimagesofbloodiedMuslimbodiesdeliveredbyaburgeoningarrayofvideosatelliteandelectronicmedia

It is notable that the understanding of jihad many Islamists proffermirrorstheverystate-sanctionedviolenceagainstwhichtheyhavestrug-gledforalmostacenturyAlongwiththousandsofMuslimscaughtinthemachineryoftwentieth-centurystateviolenceprominentIslamistsfromQutbtoGhazalitoAymanal-Zawahirimdashal-Qalsquoidarsquossecondincommandmdash

44

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

arewellknowntohavebeenradicalizedbyextendedandoftenbrutaltermsofincarcerationinEgyptSyriaIraqJordanIsraelAlgeriaandelsewhere(onal-ZawahiriandprisoncfKepelandMilelli2008152ndash54)ItisthusfarfromsurprisingthatIslamistsforgedbyinterrogationtortureinprisoncampswouldconcludethatthepreeminentenactmentofMuslimpietyisviolentstruggleldquoPrisonrdquoasPalestinianKhaledAbuHilalhassaidldquoismyuniversityrdquo(Erlanger2007)anargumentmadeingreaterdetailinadifferenttimeandplacebyRussianwriterandrevolu-tionaryMaximGorky(1868ndash1936)

Apeoplebroughtupinaschoolthatremindsoneofthetormentsofhellonasmallscaleapeopleaccustomedtotheclenched-fistprisonandthewhipwillnotbeblestwithatenderheartApeoplethatthepoliceagentshaveriddenoverwillbecapableintheirturnofwalk-ingoverthebodiesofothersInacountrywhereunresthasreignedsolongit isdifficultforthepeopletorealizefromonedaytothenextthepowerofrightOnecannotdemandfromamanwhohasneverknownjusticethatheshouldbejust(Gorky1920)

InthiscontextasTimothyMitchell(1990195ndash96199207ndash8)suggestsIslamistviewsoftheworldcanbecharacterizedasbothamodeofresis-tancetostatemechanismsofcoercionandanexpressionofthemSuchisthedynamic evident inGhazalirsquosmemoirs for examplewhen shede-scribeshowtheldquodarknessofprisonsthebladesoftortureandthevi-ciousbeatingsonly increasetheenduranceandresolveofthefaithfulrdquo(Ghazali19786)

There is no doubt a great deal of pragmatism at work in IslamistargumentsaboutviolenceAsQutb(19916447ndash48)drylynotesthepathtofreedommustoccasionallybehewnbywayoftheswordbecausetyrants are not reasoned out of power and ldquojahiliyya is not lsquoabstracttheoryrsquo[it]consciouslyorunconsciouslystrivestopreserveitsownexistence to defend its essence to annihilate dangerous elementswhichthreatenitsverybeingrdquoYetitisalsothecasethatformanyoftheseIslamistsjihadisbothameansandanendanefforttoeradicatethoseobstacles torestoringa justcommunityonearththatsimultane-ouslybringshumanaction intoaccordwithGodrsquosplansandpurposes(Haddad198321)While theQurrsquoan (2256) states thatldquothere isnocompulsioninreligionrdquoIslamistscontendthatonlyinastateinwhichIslamiclawreignssupremearehumanbeingsfreefromenslavementtooneanotherrsquosruleandallareequalbyvirtueoftheircommonsubmissiontoGodAsQutb(1991107ndash8)argues

WhenthehighestauthorityinsocietyisGodalonemdashexpressedintheruleofdivinelawmdashonlythenishumanitytrulyandcompletelyliber-atedfromslaverytomenOnlythisisldquohumancivilizationrdquobecausetheessentialfoundationofhumancivilizationisthetrueandcom-

45

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

pletefreedomofhumanityandtheabsolutedignityofeveryindivid-ualinsocietyThereisnotruefreedomanddignityforhumanityortheindividualinasocietywheresomepeoplearelordswholegislateandothersareslaveswhoobey

From this perspective the realization of justice liberty equality andchoiceitselfnecessitatestheforcibleremovaloftheconstraintsimposedbyjahiliyyaalongwiththosewhoaidandabetitno matter the costAsMawdudi(1954160ndash61)writes

[W]hyisitthatinreligionsuchimportanceisgiventojihadthattheQurrsquoanpronouncesthejudgmentofhypocrisyuponthosewhoshirkandevadeitJihadisbutanothernamefortheattempttoerectthesystemoftruthandtheQurrsquoandeclaresjihadtobeatouchstoneonthesamefootingwithamanrsquosfaithInotherwordshewhohasfaithinhisheartwillneitherbecontentwiththedominationofthesystemofevilnorwillhegrudgetheexpenditureoflifeandwealthinthestruggleforerectingthesystemoftruthIfoneshowsweaknessinthismatterhisfaithitselfisdoubtfulWhatcananythingelsebesidethenprofithimThemanwhoprofesses faith in this religioncannotfulfillhisdutyonlybytryingasfaraspossibletopatternhislifeonIslamThenatureofhisfaithitselfrequiresthatheshouldconcentrateallhiseffortuponwrestingleadershipfromunbelievingandcorruptmentoentrustittotherighteousanduponerectingthesystemoftruththathasbeenordainedfortheconductoftheworldaccordingtothewillofGodBecausethisendisunattainablewith-out thehighestdegreeofcollectiveeffort theremustexistarigh-teouscommunitycommittedtotheprincipleoftruthanddevotedtothesolepurposeintheworldoferectingmaintainingandproperlyrealizingthesystemoftruth

ThefactthatsomeIslamistthinkerssanctifyviolentstruggleinsuchtermsdoesnotmeanofcoursethatallthosewhoadvocateorengageinjihadendorseviolence28NordoesitimplythatthosewhoclaimtokillforIslamareentirelywithoutulteriormotivesthosemanipulativepur-poses andpsychologicalmotivations that even themost rarified scrip-turalargumentscanexpressorserveWhattheprecedinganalysisdoessuggesthoweveristhatthereductionofthisviewofjihadtoirrationalbloodlusttheself-interestedgrabfortemporalpoweroradoorthroughwhichtopassintothehereaftermissesacrucialdimensionofitssignifi-canceandappealfortruebelieversjihadisnolessthananenactmentof

28EvenashespokeofaneweraofjahiliyyaandofjihadMawdudihimselfstoppedwellshortof recommendingor condoning the actual resort to violence in themannermanyotherIslamistsdidAsNasr(199670)observesMawdudirsquosorganizationtheJamalsquoat-iIs-lamildquohasavoidedviolentsocialchangeandhasinsteadviewedthepathtotheIslamicstateaslyingwithintheexistingsociopoliticalorderrdquoAlsoseethechapters5and3onQutbandMawdudiinthisvolume

46

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

adivineimperativetoremakethefoundationsofcollectivelifeInthisre-spectIslamistviewsofjihadcanbeseenaspartofalong-standingasso-ciationbetweenviolenceandpoliticalfoundingsuponwhichnoparticu-larcultureorhistoricalepochhasamonopolyThisassociationandtheldquolegacyofviolencerdquoitbequeathstofuturegenerationsarenolessappar-entinthoseradicalrevolutionsofrenewalthatmovebywayoftheswordfromthemarginstothecenterthanthosepoliticalfoundingsthatclaimtocreatesomethingoutofnothing(Connolly1995251)Ineithercasethetollofsuchbrutalitycanbeimmeasurableforinadditiontothevic-timswhosufferdirectlytheldquopracticeofviolencelikeallactionchangestheworldbutthemostprobablechangeistoamoreviolentworldrdquo(Ar-endt1972177)

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Page 4: Chapter 1 INTRODUCTION - assets.press.princeton.eduassets.press.princeton.edu/chapters/s9067.pdf · Chapter 1 INTRODUCTION This volume is intended as a broad introduction to the evolution

4

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

presentareneitherreligiousnorMuslim(Bloom2005Gambetta2005Pape2005)andIslamiststhemselvesaredividedaboutthelegitimacyofterroristtacticstheterminologyofldquoIslamistterrorismrdquotakesapartforthewholewhileimplicitlycollapsingdiverseIslamistperspectivesaboutretaliatoryactionintoanargumentforviolenceagainstnoncombatantsWhilesuchequationsandassumptionshaverecentlygatheredsteamtheyare structuredbybroader culturaldiscourses thatpredate theUS-ledldquoWaronTerrorrdquobydecadesandevencenturiesAsRichardJacksonshowsthefieldofterrorismstudiesOrientalistscholarshipontheMiddleEastandlong-standingEuro-AmericansuspicionsaboutIslamnowinteractandreinforceoneanothertoproduceadiscourseonIslamistterrorismthatisldquohighlypoliticizedintellectuallycontestabledamagingtocommunityre-lationsandlargelycounter-productiveinthestruggletocontrolsubalternviolenceinthelongrunrdquo(RJackson2007395397ndash400)

Incontrasttomanyofthesedesignationsandtheassumptionsanimat-ing them we prefer ldquoIslamismrdquo perhaps the most widely used termamongscholarsofMuslimsocieties3WetakeIslamismtorefertocon-temporarymovements thatattempt toreturn to thescriptural founda-tionsoftheMuslimcommunityexcavatingandreinterpretingthemforapplicationtothepresent-daysocialandpoliticalworldSuchfounda-tionsconsistof theQurrsquoanandthenormativeexampleof theProphetMuhammad(sunnahadith)whichconstitutethesourcesofGodrsquosguid-anceinmatterspertainingtobothworshipandhumanrelationsIngen-eralIslamistsaimatrestoringtheprimacyofthenormsderivedfromthesefoundationaltextsincollectiveliferegardingthemnotonlyasanexpres-sionofGodrsquoswillbutasanantidotetothemoralbankruptcyinauguratedbyWesternculturaldominancefromabroadaidedandabettedbycorruptMuslimrulersfromwithintheumma(Islamiccommunity)

IncontrasttothoseMuslimswhoprimarilyseektocultivateamysticalunderstandingofthedivine(whichisnotitselfdevoidofpoliticalimpli-cations)orwhostrivetocarryontheirdevotionalpracticesandscholarlypursuitsindifferenttotheirpoliticalsurroundingsIslamistsmaybechar-acterizedasexplicitlyandintentionallypoliticalandasengaginginmulti-facetedcritiquesofallthosepeopleinstitutionspracticesandorienta-tionsthatdonotmeettheirstandardsofthisdivinelymandatedpoliticalengagementUsingMaxWeberrsquosterminologyIslamismisnotdefinedbyanldquoother-worldlyrdquoorientationinwhichsalvationrequireswithdrawalfromworldlyaffairsbutratherisdefinedasamovementinwhichsalva-tionispossibleonlythroughparticipationintheworldormorepreciselyldquowithintheinstitutionsoftheworldbutinoppositiontothemrdquo(Weber1964166)

3ldquoIslamismrdquoisnothoweveruniversallyacceptedandisfrequentlyinvokedwithcautionandcaveatsAnAlgerianwriterhasarguedforexamplethatIslamismwronglyimpliesthatthosewhoclaimthenamehavecapturedtheessenceofIslamandthusitsuseisnomoreap-propriatethancallingDavidKoreshaChristianist(citedinBennoune199437n1)

5

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

InthefollowingpageswerefinethispreliminarydefinitionfurtherbydelineatingseveralaspectsofIslamismthatshouldbeconsideredbroadtendenciesandldquofamilyresemblancesrdquoratherthanfixedattributeschar-acteristicsofIslamismthatnoteveryIslamistexhibitsallofthetimeyetwhichinterweavetoformaldquocomplicatednetworkofsimilaritiesover-lappingandcriss-crossingsometimesoverallsimilaritiessometimessim-ilaritiesofdetailrdquo (Wittgenstein1953sect66)Webring such tendenciesandresemblancesintosharpreliefbywayofcontrastwithseveralotherMuslimorientationsandgroupscrucialtomodernandcontemporaryIs-lamicthoughtmodernistslsquoulama(traditionallyeducatedreligiousschol-ars)SalafisandSufisThiswayofsituatingIslamismisbothanargu-mentandaheuristicdevicedesignedfirsttoidentifythecommonalitiesamongIslamistthinkerssecondtomakevisibletheheterogeneityofIs-lamistargumentsandideasandthirdtosuggestthattherelationshipbetweenIslamistandnon-Islamistreligio-politicalorientationspastandpresentismarkedasmuchbycontinuitiescomplexoverlapsandsubtledifferentiationsasbyradicalbreaks

Situating Islamism

The Muslim Modernists and the lsquoUlama

TheonsetofEuropeancolonialruleacrossMuslimsocietiesinauguratedagreatdealofsoulsearchingonthenatureandcausesofMuslimpoliti-caldeclineandwhatcouldbedonetoreverseitManyMuslimreformersofthenineteenthcenturyinsistedthatthepoliticalsubjugationofMus-limstoforeignnon-Muslimrulerswastheresultofafallingawayfromadherence to their authoritative religious norms The best indeed theonlywayMuslimscouldhopetoremedytheircircumstanceswasthrougharenewedadherencetoGodrsquoscommandsThiswouldentitlethemonceagaintoGodrsquosfavortheargumentwentnotjustbeyondthegravebutinthisworldThisperspectivewasnotnewLongbeforetheadventofEu-ropeancolonialismreformersandmujaddidun(renewers)hadperiodi-callyarisentoguidethecommunityoutofwhattheysawasitsmoralan-archyNot infrequentlysuchreformershadmadecommoncausewithmembersofthepoliticalandmilitaryeliteineffortstosetthingsrightastheythoughtGodhadintended

YetifneitherthediagnosisnortheremedywasnewcallsforarevivedIslamicpietydid come to carry anewburden in colonial societies InSouthAsiaadecadeorsoaftertheformalestablishmentofBritishcolo-nialrulein1857someMuslimreligiousscholarsbegancallingforare-invigoratedadherence to Islam in lightof theQurrsquoanhadithand thenormsoftheHanafischooloflawdominantinIndiaembarkingonsus-tained efforts to educate members of the Muslim community in these

6

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INTRODUCTION

norms4This reformist effort centeredon amadrasamdasha school of ad-vancedIslamiclearningmdashfoundedatDeobandinnorthernIndiain1867whichgraduallybecamethenucleusofnumerousmadrasassharingthesamereformistorientationandspreadthroughoutSouthAsiaandeven-tuallybeyondtheIndiansubcontinent(Metcalf1982Zaman2002)TheconvictionthatguidedthesereligiousscholarsthelsquoulamawasnotjustthatthesorrystateoftheirfellowMuslimsreflectedalaxityinadheringtoGodrsquoscommandsbutalsothatintheabsenceofMuslimpoliticalrulereligiousknowledge anchored in the foundational andother religioustextswasthebestguaranteeforthepreservationofadistinctMuslimidentity

SuchlsquoulamahavehadtheiranaloguesacrossmodernMuslimsocieties(cfZeghal1995Zaman2002144ndash80HefnerandZaman2007)TheyhavealsohadtheiropponentsManyoftheopponentsarewhatmightbecharacterizedasinternalthatisotherlsquoulamacommittedtoarivaldoc-trinalorientationortodifferentbeliefsaboutsayhowthememoryofasaintoroftheProphetMuhammadoughttobeveneratedorwhatcus-tomary norms might be accommodated into legitimate ways of beingMuslim But other Muslim reformersmdashwhom scholars have often re-ferredtoastheldquomodernistsrdquomdashhavehadverydifferentideasaboutwhathadgonewrongwiththeMuslimworldandhowtoremedyit5Tothemodernists the sort of institutions and practices represented by thelsquoulamaandtheremediesproposedbythempointednottoasolutionoftheproblemsMuslimshadcometofaceinthecolonialcontextbuttotheirperpetuationModernistreformersalsoprofessedfirmcommitmenttoIslamicnormsbutwithsomecrucialdifferencesTheyarguedthatitwasnolongerenoughforMuslimssimplytoholdfirmtotheteachingsoftheirfaithasconventionallyunderstoodThetimeshadchangeddras-ticallyMuslimsneededtoacquiremodernWesternformsofknowledgeandtoaccommodatethemselvestoEuropeanpracticestechnologiesandinstitutionsiftheyweretoimprovetheirlotandindeedtosurviveatallasacommunityTheearlymodernistsalsoinsistedmdashashavetheirsucces-sorstothisdaymdashthatIslamitselfneededtobereinterpretedinorderto

4MostSunniMuslimshave longbelonged tooneof fourmadhhabs (schoolsof law)whosebeginningsareattributedtoscholarswholivedintheeighthandtheninthcenturiesTheHanafischooloflawisnamedafterAbuHanifa(d767)theMalikischoolafterMalikbAnas(d795)theShafilsquoischoolafterMuhammadbIdrisal-Shafilsquoi(d820)andtheHanbalischoolafterAhmadibnHanbal(d855)AmongtheShilsquoathereareseveralsectar-iandivisionsOfthesethelargestcommunitymdashtheImamisortheIthnalsquoasharis(ldquoTwelversrdquo)mdashadheretoalegalsystemwhoseearlyarticulationisattributedtothesixthShilsquoiimamJalsquofaral-Sadiq(d765)

5ThescholarlyliteratureonMuslimmodernismissubstantialbutunevenNotablestud-iesincludeHourani1983(firstpublishedin1962)Ahmad1967Troll1978Brown1996Khalid1998andHefner2000ThespectrumofmodernistthoughtmayusefullybeseenintwoanthologieseditedbyKurzmanLiberal Islam(1998)andModernist Islam(2002)andinKamrava2006

7

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

meetthenewchallengesthatconfrontedMuslimsItwasnotIslamthatboretheresponsibilityforthepoliticalandintellectualweaknessesafflict-ingMuslimsocietiesmdashasmanyaEuropeanobserverofIslamsuggestedmdashbutthefailureofMuslimstoproperlyinterprettheirfoundationaltextsinaccordancewithchangingneeds

While many among the lsquoulama have long affirmed the authority oftheirmadhhabs(schoolsoflaw)andtheneedforstrictadherence(taqlid)toschooldoctrinesinordertomaintainthecontinuityandcoherenceoftheirscholarlyandespeciallytheirjuridicaltraditionmodernistshavesel-domseenanythingredeeminginsuchconceptionsofauthority6TaqlidtothemisldquoblindimitationrdquooflongdeadmastersandoftheiranachronisticviewswhichhasstoodinthewayofpeoplersquosabilitytoadaptthemselvestonewchallengesThemodernistshavealsoallegedthatinholdingfirmtotheiroutmodedwaysthelsquoulamawereinterestedneitherinthewelfareofIslamnor inthatofthecommunity theywereonlydefendingtheirownprivilegesastheguardiansandauthoritativeinterpretersofthereli-gioustraditionandtheconsiderablesocialstandingthatoftenwentwithitAs themodernist reformers have understood it there is nothing inIslamtostoppeoplefrominterpretingitsnormsaccordingtotheneedsofchangingtimesIndeedtheQurrsquoaninvitespeopletoreflectonit(ldquoWilltheynotthinkaboutthisQurrsquoanrdquoQ482)whichistheveryoppositeofthelsquoulamarsquosinsistenceonfirmadherencetoearlierauthoritiesAsMu-hammadRashidRida(d1935) theeditorof theEgyptian journalalshyManar(1898ndash1935)andadiscipleofthefamousreformerMuhammadlsquoAbduh(d1905)wroteinhiscommentaryonQurrsquoan482

Theonlyunavoidablerequisite[tobeabletoreflectontheQurrsquoan]isknowledgeof the languageof theQurrsquoan itswordsand its stylewhich[inanycase]isthesortofthingrequiredofanyonewhobe-comes aMuslimTaqlid signifiespreventing [people] from re-flectingontheQurrsquoanYetGodhimselfhascommandedustoreflectonHisbookandtoreasonwithitandnoonefromamongHiscreaturescanforbidwhatHehasmadeobligatoryBytherejectionoftaqlidwedonotmeanthateveryMuslimcanpossiblybecomeaMalik[d795]oraShafilsquoi[d820]inderivingthejuristicrulesrelatingtothecommunityorthateveryoneoughttodosoWemeanonlythateveryMuslimisobligatedtoreflectontheQurrsquoanandtobeguidedbyitinaccordancewithhisabilitiesItisneverper-missible foraMuslimtoabandon[theQurrsquoan]andto turnawayfromitortoprefermdashoverwhatheunderstandsofitsguidancemdashthewordsofanyoneelsebeitamujtahid[apractitionerofijtihadieofindependentlegalreasoning]oronecommittedtotaqlid(muqalshylid)AMuslimrsquosreligionislifelesswithouttheQurrsquoanThereisno

6On the lsquoulamarsquos conception of tradition see Zaman 2002 especially 3ndash16 2007b63ndash70

8

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

bookbyamastermujtahidorbyamuqallidthatcanmakeupfor[direct]reflectionontheBookofGodIfMuslimshadstoodfirminreflectingontheQurrsquoanandinbeingguidedbyitineveryagetheirmoralsandmannerswouldnothavebeenruinedtheirrulerswouldnothavebeenunjustanddespotictheirauthoritywouldnothavedeclinedandtheywouldnothavebecomedependentonothersfortheirlivelihood(Rida1947ndash545296ndash97)7

AsthispassageillustratescentraltomodernistdiscoursesacrossMus-limsocieties istheideaof ijtihad(cfKurzman20029ndash14)bywhichtheyhaveoftenmeantnotonlytheefforttoformulateIslamiclegalrul-ingsonmattersthefoundationaltextshadleftunregulatedbutalsothereinterpretationofmattersonwhichthegeneralityofearlierscholarsandeventhefoundationaltextsthemselveshadhadareasonablyclearviewManyamongthelsquoulamahaveinsistedthattheirschooldoctrinesprovidesufficient resources to meet all contingencies and what remains to bedoneistofindaparticularnormordoctrinethatmatchesthequestionorproblemathandNotall lsquoulamaofmoderntimeshavebeenaversetoparticularformsofijtihadindeedthecontinuingnecessityofijtihadinatleastsomeofitsformshascometobeincreasinglyrecognizedbymanyamongthem(cfZaman200816ndash1764126)Stilltheideathatspe-cificlegalrulingsenunciatedinthefoundationaltextsmightthemselvesbesetasideinthenameofdarura(necessity)orsubordinatedtoconsid-erationsofmaslaha (commongood) is tothemtantamounttotakinglibertieswithGodrsquoseternalword(cfZaman2004133ndash39)

Needlesstosaymodernistreformershaveneverthoughtoftheirinitia-tivesastakinglibertieswithGodrsquoscommandsTheyhaveofteninsistedhoweverthattheliteralwordofGodmustalwaysbeunderstoodinlightoftheoverallldquospiritrdquoofthedivineinjunctionstakenbothintheiren-tiretyandintheiroriginalhistoricalcontext8Modernistdiscourseson

7ThiscommentarytheTafsir alshyManarreflectstheviewsofbothMuhammadlsquoAbduhandRashidRidathoughitwaslargelywrittenbyRida

8InvocationsoftheldquospiritrdquooftheQurrsquoanoftheProphetrsquosexampleorofIslamatlargeareacommonmotifinmodernist(andsomeIslamist)writingsSyedAmeerAli(d1928)aShilsquoimodernistscholarandjudgeincolonialIndiahadcharacteristicallytitledhisbest-knownbookThe Spirit of IslamForsomeotherinstancesoftheappealtothespiritofIslamandtheQurrsquoanandrelatedformulationscfIqbal1934149156Kurzman200260256Ramadan2007xiThemedieval juridical ideaof theoverarchingldquopurposesrdquounderlyingthesacredlaw(maqasid alshysharilsquoa)anunderstandingofwhichoughttoguidethejuristinallhisendeavorsmightbethoughttohavesomethingincommonwithmod-ernistappealstothespiritofIslamAndit isnoaccidentthattheworkofthemedievalSpanishjuristal-Shatibi(d1388)whoisamongthosemostcloselyassociatedwiththeelaborationofthisideahasremainedespeciallypopularinmodernistcirclesMedievalju-ristsunderstoodtheideaofthemaqasidal-sharilsquoatomeanthatthesharilsquoawasconcernedaboveallwiththepreservationoflifereligionrationalityprogenyandpropertyandthatnolegalrulingsshouldviolatethesefundamentalconcernsInmarkedcontrasthowevertothecarefulexegeticalandlegalargumentationthatwentintodemonstratingwhatthepur-

9

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

polygamyofferanillustrationoftheirapproachTheQurrsquoanallowspo-lygamyldquoIfyoufearthatyouwillnotdealfairlywithorphangirlsyoumaymarrywhicheverwomenseemgoodtoyoutwothreeorfourIfyoufearthatyoucannotbeequitable[tothem]thenmarryonlyoneoryourslave(s)thatismorelikelytomakeyouavoidbiasrdquo(Q43)TheQurrsquoanthuspermitspolygamybutsimultaneously insistsonequityasthenecessaryconditionforapolygamoushouseholdaqualificationsup-plementedbyQurrsquoan4129ldquoYouwillneverbeabletotreatyourwiveswithequalfairnesshowevermuchyoumaydesiretodosobutdonotignore one wife altogether leaving her suspendedrdquo Modernist re-formershaveoftenseentheQurrsquoanicsanctionforpolygamynotjustasbeingspecifictoextraordinarycircumstancesmdashasawayofprovidingforgirlsmadeorphanbywarmdashbutaseffectivelyruledoutbytheQurrsquoanicstatementthatmencanneverreallybeequitabletowardmorethanonewife(cfRahman198947ndash48)TothelsquoulamathisisspeciousreasoningforifGodhadreallywantedtoprohibitpolygamyHecouldsimplyhavesaid so (cf Shafilsquo 2005ndash7 2313ndash14 592ndash93) That medieval juristsandexegetesarepracticallyunanimousinallowingpolygamyisfortheirlatter-daysuccessorsfurtherconfirmationofthecorrectnessoftheirownunderstandingoftheQurrsquoanonthismatter

Asthisexamplesuggestsatissuebetweenmodernistsandthelsquoulamaisnotonlyhowparticularnormsareviewedbutalsohowtheyareaf-firmedanddefendedThelsquoulamarsquosscholarlytraditionisconstitutedbyalongandcomplexhistoryofcommentarydebateagreementsanddis-agreementsaboutthefoundationaltextsandaboutallmattersIslamicAstheyseeitthistraditionisnotclosedfrozenormonolithicyetitiswith reference to the scholarly tradition that anygiven readingof thefoundational or other texts finds meaning and legitimacy in their dis-coursesModernistreformersfortheirparthaveusuallyseenthistradi-tionpreciselyasclosedandanachronisticasoccludingthetruespiritofIslamic teachings and therefore as unworthy of serious and sustainedengagement

Modernists Islamists and the lsquoUlama

ThecontestationbetweenthemodernistsandthelsquoulamaprovidesawayofsituatingtheIslamistswithinabroadspectrumofcompetingbutalsooverlappingorientationsintheMuslimpublicsphereLikethemodern-istswhothemselvesholdvariedpositionsontherelationshipbetweenIslamandpoliticsmanyamongthe IslamistsareproductsofmodernWesterninstitutionsoflearningSayyidQutb(d1966)wasnottrained

posesofthelawwerehowoneknewwhattheywereandhowthelawwastobeinter-pretedwithreferencetothem(cfHallaq1997esp162ndash206Weiss199878ndash87145ndash71)modernistappealstothespiritoressenceofIslamareoftenextremelyvague

10

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

asareligiousscholarNorwasHasanal-Banna(d1949)thefounderoftheMuslimBrotherhoodofEgypttheoldestandoneofthemostinflu-entialof Islamistorganizations in theSunniMuslimworldBothwereeducatedattheDaral-lsquoUluminCairoaninstitutionfoundedinthelatenineteenthcenturytoestablishsomethingofamiddlegroundbetweenal-AzharUniversityinCairoandmodernseculareducationalthoughitgradually veered toward the latter and in 1946 became part of CairoUniversity (cfReid1990139ndash49)Abursquol-AlsquolaMawdudi (d 1979)ofPakistandidreceivean intermittentmadrasaeducationbut itwasthevocationof a journalist not that of an lsquoalim (plural lsquoulama) that headoptedThanksinparttothisbroadlysimilareducationalbackgroundIslamistsalsosharewithmodernistsasupremeconfidenceintheirownabilitytodiscernthetruemeaningorspiritofIslamthroughamoreorlessdirectencounterwiththefoundationaltextsAsCharlesJAdams(1966396)hasobservedincomparingMawdudiwithMuslimmodern-istsldquoBothhaveclaimedtheabilitytodisengagethespiritoressentialsofGodrsquosguidancetoliberatethemselvesfromtheauthorityofthecu-mulativeMuslimpastand toundercut thepositionof theulamawhorepresentthatauthorityrdquoMuchthesamemightbesaidofSayyidQutbaswellasofmanycontemporaryIslamists

Despitesuchcommonalities IslamistsfrequentlypositionthemselvesinoppositiontothemodernistsAstheIslamistssee it themodernistshavemadeIslamitselfsubservienttotheprojectofestablishingitscom-patibilitywithWesternnorms and institutions rejectingor explainingawayanythingthatdoesnotconformtothesenormsMawdudiputitthisway inderidingmodernistdiscomfortwith the implementationofpunishmentsmandatedbyIslamiclaw

Iwouldliketoputastraightquestiontothesevotariesofldquomoder-nityrdquoldquoWhatarethevaluesthatyoubelieveinDoyoubelieveintheIslamicvaluesoflifeandstandardsofmoralityorthoseofthemoderncivilizationrdquoIfyouhavemadeyourchoiceandacceptedsomeothervaluesandsomedifferentstandardofrightandwrongofvirtueandviceofthepermissibleandtheprohibitedasagainstthoseenvisagedbyIslamitisthenadifferenceofaveryfundamen-talnatureItmeansthatyoudifferwithanddisbelieveintheIslamicideologyitselfInthiscaseyoushouldhavethecouragetodeclarethatyourejectIslamoutrightIsitnotfoolishtoallegefaithinaGodwhose laws you consider as barbarous Anyhow nobody can re-maininsidethepaleofIslamafterholdingsuchanopinionaboutthelawofGod(Mawdudi[Maududi]196067)

PolemicsofthissortnotonlysuggesttheIslamistsrsquosenseofwhatsepa-ratesthemfromthemodernistsbutalsopointtointermittentIslamistef-forts to make common cause with the lsquoulama Such efforts are oftenpredicated on both the rhetorical claim that all sincere Muslims fully

11

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

concurintheirconceptionofthesharilsquoa(Islamiclaw)andtheIslamistsrsquoastuterecognitionofthelsquoulamarsquosconsiderablestandinginsocietyUnsur-prisinglysomeleadingIslamistshavesoughttoblurdistinctionsbetweenthemselves and the lsquoulama to enhance their own authority Usama binLaden(b1957)styledhisfamous1996ldquoDeclarationofWaragainsttheAmericansOccupyingtheLandoftheTwoHolyPlacesrdquoasafatwathatisajuridicalopiniontherebyrhetoricallyobscuringthehistoricalfactthatfatwashavetypicallybeenthepreserveofthe lsquoulamaandmorespecifi-callyofthefuqahaormuftis(jurists)amongthemBinLadenhoweverhasnoformalscholarlycredentialsinmattersIslamicMawdudiwascom-monly styledasmawlana a commonhonorific for the lsquoulama inSouthAsiaAdeliberateblurringofdistinctionsislikewiseevidentinthestate-ment of the Sudanese Islamist Hasan al-Turabi (b 1932) ldquoBecause allknowledgeisdivineandreligiousachemistanengineeraneconomistorajuristarealllsquoulamardquo(Turabi1983245alsochapter8inthisvolume) YetthereareleadingIslamistsmdashinthisvolumeKhomeiniMutahhariBaqiral-SadrFadlallah lsquoAliNadwi lsquoUmar lsquoAbdal-RahmanandQa-radawimdashwhoweretrainedaslsquoulamawhichmeansthatporousbounda-riesbetweenIslamistsandthelsquoulamaarenotjustamatterofself-servingrhetoricbyautodidactsGiventhisfactthedistinctionbetweenIslamistsandlsquoulamaturnslessonstarkdifferencesineducationalbackgroundandmoreonthecharacterandcontentoftheirpoliticalcommitmentsMorethananythingelseIslamistsseektoimplementIslamiclawthroughtheagencyofthestateNotallarewillingtoresorttoviolentmeansinpur-suitofthisendManysuchasYusufal-Qaradawi(b1926)ahighlyin-fluentialIslamistandoneofthemostprominentlsquoulamaofcontemporaryIslam(Skovgaard-Petersen2004Kraumlmer2006)professdemocraticcom-mitmentsButwhateverthestancetowardeitherdemocracyorviolencethepublicimplementationofthesharilsquoaisattheheartofallIslamisminbothitsShilsquoiandSunniformsThissuggestsanimportantcontrastwithmanyamongthelsquoulama

SincethefirstcenturiesofIslamthelsquoulamahaveoftensoughttomain-tainacarefuldistancefromtherulingelitejealouslyguardingtheirinsti-tutionsandpracticesfromgovernmentalinterferenceThelsquoulamagener-allyrecognizedthatthefunctioningoflegalandotherIslamicinstitutionspresupposedtheexistenceofaMuslimgovernmentandtheydefinedalegitimategovernmentasonethatoversawtheimplementationofsharilsquoanormsButtheyhavetypicallyunderstoodthegovernmentrsquoscommitmenttothesharilsquoatomeanthattherulerdefendedthebordersofthepolityregulatedpublicmoralitysuppressedhereticsandappointedthosepro-ficientinlegalmatterstoimplementthelaw(cfCrone2004286ndash314)TheyhavenotunderstoodanyofthistomeaneitherthattherulershouldbeabletoofferabsoluteinterpretationsofGodrsquoslaworthattherealmofpoliticsandstatecraftshouldbecomesynonymouswithIslamitselfYetthis ispreciselyhowIslamistshaveoftenconceivedof therelationship

12

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

betweenIslamandpoliticsandmorespecificallybetweenIslamandthestatenocallingishigherthanstrivingtowardtheestablishmentofanIs-lamicstateandoncebroughtaboutallwillbeinaccordancewithGodrsquospurposesMawdudi(1960177)claimedthatldquothestruggleforobtainingcontrolovertheorgansofthestatewhenmotivatedbytheurgetoestab-lishthedin[religion]andtheIslamicSharilsquoahandtoenforcetheIslamicinjunctionsisnotonlypermissiblebutpositivelydesirableandassuchobligatoryrdquo

Tomanylsquoulamathisamountstonothinglessthanmakingreligiousnorms subservient topolitical goalsAsMuftiMuhammadTaqi lsquoUth-manialeadingDeobandischolarofPakistannotesinhisrejoindertoviewssuchasMawdudirsquos

Intheirzealtorefutesecularismsomewritersandthinkersofthepresentagehavegonesofarastocharacterizepoliticsandgovern-ment as the true objective of Islam the reason why the prophetsweresent[byGodtothepeople]indeedtheveryreasonforthecre-ationofthehumanbeingAndtheyhavenotonlygivenotherIs-lamiccommandmentsmdashforinstanceonmattersofworshipmdashasec-ondarypositiontheyhaveevendeemedthemtobemeremeansforpoliticalendsjustawayoftrainingpeople[towardpoliticalmobili-zation](lsquoUthmani199825ndash26cfZaman2008116ndash18)

NotalllsquoulamasharesuchmisgivingsaboutthesubordinationofIslamtopoliticsthoughitshouldbenotedthattheywouldseethisintermsnotofanysuchsubordinationbutratheroftheutterinseparabilityofthere-ligiousandthepoliticalByfarthemostnotableoftheseamongtheShilsquoaisAyatollahKhomeini(d1989)ofIranAgainstalong-standingtradi-tionofShilsquoipoliticalquietismintheabsenceofthehiddenShilsquoiimamKhomeiniarguedthattheShilsquoi lsquoulamaoughttoassumedirectpoliticalleadershipandhethenproceededtospearheadthemovementthatcul-minatedinthefalloftheIranianmonarchyandtheestablishmentoftheIslamicRepublicofIran9Hisdoctrineofthevelayatshye faqih(guardian-shipofthejurist)isaradicalrethinkingofShilsquoipoliticaltheologyblur-ringanymeaningfulboundarybetweenreligiousandpoliticalauthority(seechapter6)ItispreciselyKhomeinirsquoscommitmenttoestablishinganIslamic statealong these lines thatwarrantshis classificationasan Is-

9TheImamiorIthnalsquoashariShilsquoabelievethatthetwelfthandlastoftheirimamswentintoghayba(hiding)in874andthathewilleventuallyreturnasthemahdimdashamessianicfigurewhoalonecanrestoreproperordertotheworldinaugurateaneraofunalloyedjus-ticeandreclaimfortheShilsquoatherightsofwhichtheyhavebeendispossessedbytheSunnisandbycorruptrulersformuchofthehistoryofIslamShilsquoischolarshavelongdebatedthequestionofwhatsortofauthoritytheleadingreligiousscholarsoughttohaveinofficiatingintheimamrsquosabsenceKhomeinirsquosviewdisputedbymanyotherscholarswasthatthelead-ingscholar(s)oughttodischargethefullrangeoftheimamrsquosfunctionsincludingthepoliti-calheadshipofthecommunity

13

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

lamistnotwithstandinghiswell-recognizedstatusasoneoftheleadingShilsquoilsquoulamaofhisgeneration

The Azhar-educated Yusuf al-Qaradawi has for his part criticizedmanyfellowIslamistsonseveralissuesbutnotonthefundamentalques-tion of their political orientation Just as Khomeini had chastised theldquopropagandainstitutionsofimperialism[fortrying]topersuadeusthatthereligiousleadersmustnotinterfereinsocialmattersandthatthefuqaha[jurists]donothavethedutyofoverseeingthedestinyoftheIslamicnationrdquo(Algar1981141)Qaradawiinsiststhatdenyingthepo-liticalorientationofIslamamountstoitswillfuldistortion

Amongtheinterpretationswithwhichthesecularists[lsquoalmaniyyun]andthemodernists[alshyhadathiyyun]calumniate[Islamproperlyun-derstood and those committed to it] is the notion of ldquopoliticalIslamrdquowhichwithoutdoubtisanideaalientoourIslamicsocietyBy[politicalIslam]theymeananIslamthatconcernsitselfwiththeinternalandexternalaffairsoftheMuslimcommunity[Theymeanbyit]actionsaimedatfreeingthecommunityfromtheforeignpowerthatdirects [Muslim]affairsphysicallyandmorallyas itpleases[Theyalsomeanbyit]actionsseekingtocleansethecommunityofthecultural socialand legalsedimentsofWesterncolonialismsothatthecommunitycanreturnonceagaintosubmissiontoGodrsquoslawindifferentareasoflifeTheyusethischaracterizationofldquopoliticalIslamrdquoinordertoalienatepeoplefromits[aforementioned]contentandto frighten themawayfromthosecalling toacomprehensiveconceptionofIslammdashonethatisinclusiveofbeliefandlawworshipandsocialinteractionproselytismandthestate(Qaradawi200793)

Islamistpoliticalcommitmentsareoftenintertwinedwithcritiquesofthescholarlytraditionanditsattendant institutionsandpracticesandthiscriticismprovidesusacrucialwayof thinkingfurtherbothaboutwhatdistinguishesIslamistsfromthelsquoulamaandabouthowtoviewIs-lamismitselfWhatthelsquoulamacannotbutseeasacavalierattitudeto-wardtheirscholarlytraditioniswesuggestbetterviewedaspartofalargerIslamistcritiqueonethatgoestotheheartofhowIslamismoughttobeunderstoodasaphenomenonItisacritiqueofparticularMuslimbeliefspracticesmoresandinstitutionsthataredeemedtohaveonlyatenuousbasis inldquotruerdquoandldquoauthenticrdquo Islamof the repeatedwrongturnsMuslimshavetakenthroughouttheirlonghistoryofthecorrupt-ingldquoforeignrdquoinfluencesmdashfromSufismtoGreekphilosophytothelureofmodernWesternculturesmdashbywhichMuslimshaveallowedthemselvestobeseducedandoftheirunwillingnesstodowhateverittakestoestab-lish thehakimiyya (sovereignty)ofGodonearthThat it is the sover-eigntyofGodthatIslamistsseekultimatelytoaffirmintheirindividualandpubliclivesremindsusthattheircritiqueofthepastandthepresentisapoliticalcritiqueanchoredinanddrivenbyaspirationstoinstitutea

14

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

newreligio-politicalorderWhetherthiscritiqueisarticulatedinconcreteor vague terms in a seeminglymoderateorplainlymilitant languagethere is no mistaking either its principal targetmdashfacets of the Islamictraditionmdashoritsfundamentallypoliticalorientation10

IslamistshaveofteninsistedthatthewordofGodcanandshouldbeapproacheddirectlywithoutthemediationofpresentorpastscholarsandwithoutanyneedfortheedifyingtalesthephilologicaldebatesandthelong-windedtheologicaldisquisitionssooftenfoundinmedievalexe-geticalliteratureamajorfacetoftheIslamicscholarlytradition(cfCarreacute200318)ShukriMustafaanEgyptianIslamistexecutedin1977forthemurderousactivitiesofhisSocietyofMuslims(popularlyknownastheSociety of Excommunication and Emigration) had famously assertedthatalloneneededtoresolveuncertaintiesinonersquosunderstandingofthewordofGodwasadictionary(Kepel199379)SayyidQutbdidnotgoquite that farButhe tooaffirmed that the fundamental teachingsofIslamwereentirelytransparentldquoWhatwearesayingaboutIslamisnoinventionofoursoranynewinterpretationofitsessenceIt issimplyplainIslamasitwasunderstoodbyitsfirstadherentMuhammadandhissincereCompanionsandthoseclosetoitsauthenticsourcerdquo(Qutb19969withminorchange)

TheimplicationofQutbrsquosstrikingassertionistwofoldFirstbehindarhetoric of humility in relation to divine knowledge Qutb implicitlyclaimsthefullbackingofGodandHisProphetfortheldquoplainIslamrdquohesetsforthMorespecificallyheessentiallydepictshisownunderstandingofIslamassynonymouswithGodrsquoseternalintentmuchasKhomeinirsquospronouncementsasthevalishyye faqih(guardianjurist)presumedtoarticu-latewhatIslamitselfstoodfororrequiredonanygivenmatterSecondthestatementimpliesnotonlythatviewsotherthanhisaremereinter-pretationsbutthattheyarethemorereprehensibleforbeingldquonovelrdquomdashasuggestionthatevokesthenotionofbidlsquoathatisofillicitcapriciousin-

10ThatIslamismshouldbeseenasawide-rangingcritiqueoftheworldandoftheIslamictraditionisareminderofcoursethatcritiqueisnotaninherentlysecularphenomenonnordoesitnecessitateasecularframeworkAsTalalAsad(2008)hasobservedgivenawidevarietyofldquopossibleinstancesofcritiquecriticismwhatwehaveisafamilyconceptforwhichitisnotpossibletoprovideasingletheorybecausethepracticesthatconstitutethemdifferradicallyrdquo(alsocfMahmood2008Taylor2008)NorshouldourviewingIs-lamism as a politically motivated critique suggest that other competing orientations inmodernIslamcannotalsobeseenascritiquesofparticularpracticesparticularformsofknowledgeWhatdoesdistinguishanIslamistorientationfromothersisonceagainboththedegreetowhichIslamistcritiquesbreakwiththeirpastandpresentandtheiraspirationto remake theworld in accordancewith their understandingof immutable divine com-mandsThisismarkedlydifferentfromhowthelsquoulamamightcritiqueparticularaspectsoftheirscholarlytraditionintheinterestofastrongersenseofcontinuitywiththattraditionorinordertomakeitmorereceptivetowhattheyseeasthecommunityrsquoschangingneedsItisalsoverydifferentfromhowMuslimmodernistsoftenbreakwiththescholarlytradi-tioninordertoadaptMuslimnormsandinstitutionstothedominantpoliticalandculturalinstitutionsoftheircontemporaryworld

15

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

novationinmattersofreligionSuchaviewofIslamjettisonsmuchofwhatwouldnormallycountasitshistoryandcivilizationldquoThehistoryoflsquoIslamrsquordquoQutbtellshisreadersldquoisthehistoryofthetrueapplicationofIslammdashinpeoplersquosconceptionsandtheirpracticesintheirlivesandtheirsocialsystemsIslamisthefixedaxisaroundwhichpeoplersquoslivesrevolveinafixedframeWhentheygooutofthisframeorwhentheycategorically abandon this axis what then do they have to do withIslamrdquo (Qutb 1967a vol 2 part 4 169 quotation marks aroundldquoIslamrdquoinoriginal)ItisforthefixedaxistheplainIslammdashandinoppo-sition to much of its historymdashthat the Islamist professes to stand (cfGrunebaum1962251ndash52)

Qutbhoweverisfarfromconsistentinhisattitudetowardtheschol-arlytraditionorinhowheseekstoarticulatehisownauthorityinrela-tiontoitHisfaithinthetransparencyandthetransformativeimmedi-acyofGodrsquoswordswouldappeartomakeallexegesissuperfluousyethehimselfhadproceededtowriteamajorcommentaryIn the Shade of the QurrsquoanthatwouldexceedfourthousandpagesinprintThejustifi-cationheoffers for it intheopening linesof thecommentary isauda-ciousnotapologetic

LifeintheshadeoftheQurrsquoanisablessingItisablessingunknownto anyonewhohasnrsquot tasted itAll praisebe toGodHehasgrantedmetheopportunitytoliveintheshadeoftheQurrsquoanforaperiodoftimeduringwhichIhavetastedHisblessingsasIneverhadearlierinmylifeIhavelistenedtoGodtheexaltedconvers-ingwithmethroughthisQurrsquoanmdashwithmeasmalllittleslaveIhavelivedintheshadeoftheQurrsquoanlookingfromanelevationatthejahiliyya[paganignorance]raginginthelandandthepettycon-cernsof itspeople [Fromthisvantage] Ihave seen thepride thepeopleofthisjahiliyyatakeintheirchildishknowledgetheirchild-ishideastheirchildishpreoccupations[Ihavelookeduponthem]likeanelderlooksuponthefrivolitiesofchildrenupontheireffortsandupontheirlisps(Qutb1967a13)

Theseresoundingwordsserveinteraliatoexplainwhyanewcom-mentaryshouldhavebeenneededatallthemind-numbingimpactofthejahiliyyahasmadepeopleincapableofrespondingtoeventhemostdi-rectofdivinesummonsandonlysomeonewhohaslivedldquointheshadeoftheQurrsquoanrdquocanunderstandtheirplightandremedyitFromtheper-spectiveQutbadoptshereanyappealtothescholarlytraditionanyef-forttoresthisauthorityonitwouldappearaltogetheroutofplaceYetQutbrsquosclaimstoauthoritydonotderiveexclusivelyfromhisconversingwithGodthroughtheQurrsquoanTosomedegreetheyalsodependonhisbeingseenashavingmasteryovertheveryexegeticaltraditionofwhichheisotherwisefrequentlydismissiveQutbcitesasmallnumberofearliercommentators and other authorities when it suits his purpose to do

16

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

so11justashesidestepstheexegeticaltraditionwhendoingsooffersarhetoricallymoreeffectivewayofarrivingataconclusionMoretradi-tionalexegetespastandpresentalsopickandchooseofcourseButtheyhavetypicallydonesowithinanoverallframeworkthatisdefinedbyacontinuousengagementwiththeexegeticaltraditionasawhole(cfSaleh2004)BycontrastQutbandotherIslamistexegeteswriteoutsideandofteninconsciousoppositiontoanysuchframeworkTheconversa-tionisnotwiththeearlierexegetesbutdirectlywithGodthoughthismightonoccasionbeaidedbyillustrationsfromtheearlierexegeticaltradition

If thereareunacknowledgedambiguities inQutbrsquosrelationshipwiththe Islamic traditionaswehaveobserveda frequentlyacerbic stancedoesnonetheless remain characteristicofhowheviews itmostof thetimeQutbisanythingbutuniqueinthisrespectYetifIslamistssharealmostbydefinitionacriticalstancetowardfacetsofthistraditionthereismuchthatalsoseparatesthemfromoneanotherinpreciselyhowthiscritique and its implications are articulated in different instances Al-thoughthemerepresenceofdisagreementamongIslamist intellectualsandactivistsishardlyremarkablethescopeandimplicationsofsomeofthedisagreementsinasmuchastheyrelatetothescholarlytraditionarenonethelessworthexamininghereFortheysuggestthatwhileIslamistsshare the conviction that particular institutions practices and normsneedtoberefashionedinlightofimmutabledivinecommandsthiscon-victionoftenrestsonquitedifferentviewsofIslamichistoryandciviliza-tionofcontemporaryMuslimsocietiesandnotleastofreligiousau-thorityanditslociNowhereperhapsisthismoreevidentthaninsomeofthewritingsofYusufal-QaradawiLikeQutbQaradawiisamongthemostinfluentialIslamistideologuesintheSunniworldHeisalsooneofQutbrsquosseverestcriticsfromwithintheIslamistcamp(seeespeciallyQa-radawi1994101ndash31)

ThatldquoMuslimrdquosocietieslackedaproperIslamicfoundationmadeitfutileQutbhadarguedtodebatespecificquestionsofIslamiclawand

11TheseincludeinteraliaMuhammadibnIshaq(d767)theauthoroftheSirat rasul AllahoneoftheearliestbiographiesoftheProphetMuhammadal-Tabari(d923)theauthorofJamilsquo alshybayan lishytarsquowil ay alshyQurrsquoanoneofthemostinfluentialcommentariesoftheQurrsquoaneverproducedal-Baghawi(d1117)whosecommentaryistitledMalsquoalim alshytanzilal-Qurtubi(d1273)theauthorofaworkalshyJamilsquo lishyahkam alshyQurrsquoanwhichises-peciallyattentivetothelegalcontentoftheQurrsquoanandIbnKathir(d1373)theauthorofaQurrsquoan commentaryTafsir alshyQurrsquoan alshylsquoazimwhichhasbeenpopular amongmanyMuslimsofaSalafiorientationOnoccasionQutbalsocitesinfluentialfellowIslamistsSeeforexampleQutbFi zilal alshyQurrsquoanvol2part4132(Mawdudi)vol2part525(Nadwi)vol2part6143and150ndash53(lsquoAbdal-QadirlsquoAwdaanEgyptianIslamistandlegalscholarexecutedundertheNasserregimein1954)OccasionallyQutbcitesRidarsquosTafsir alshymanaraswell thoughmoreoftenthannot toregisterhisdisagreementswithRidaandwiththelatterrsquosmentorMuhammadlsquoAbduhForadetailedcomparisonbetweenthecommentariesofRidaandQutbseeCarreacute2003

17

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

howitdealtwithparticularsocialoreconomicissuesThelsquoulamawerepatheticallydeludediftheythoughtthattheinterestsofIslamcouldbefurtheredthroughdisquisitionsonthesharilsquoainsuchconditionsofper-vasiveungodliness(Qutb1967b183ndash90)WhatpeopleneededbeforeanythingelsewasareturntothebasicsofthefaithThetaskofrighteouspreacherswastoinstructtheminthesemattersandtohelpthemrecog-nizewhatthesovereigntyofGoddemandedofthem(Qutb199135cfQaradawi1994102ndash4)Allothermattersincludingthenicetiesofjuris-ticdiscussionwerebestpostponeduntilaproperlyIslamicsocietybasedonthisfoundationhadbeenrealized

Qaradawi vehemently disagrees with Qutb arguing that educatedMuslimsarenotpagansbutbelieversandassuchdonotneedtobetu-toredinthefundamentalsoftheirfaithWhattheyoftendonotunder-standverywellmdashandhereQaradawiconcurswithotherIslamistsmdashisthenatureofIslamasanizam (socialandpoliticalsystem)TheproblemofMuslimsinotherwordsisnotgodlessnessbutsimplyignorance(whichiswhat the term jahiliyya literallymeans)of the teachingsof Islam intheircomprehensiveall-encompassingdimensionsAsQaradawiseesitmanyldquocaptivesofWesternthoughtrdquohavedoubtsnotabouttheessentialsoftheirfaithbutratheraboutIslamasacomprehensivesystemanditistheirunaddressedmisunderstandingstheirignoranceonthelatterscorethatsometimesopens thedoor todoubtsaboutmattersofbelief itself(Qaradawi1994113ndash14)Tocontinuetoexpoundonthesocialpoliti-calandotherteachingsofIslamwhilethesocietyisyetimperfectisnottoendorseorstrengthenthejahiliorderasQutbhadallegedbutonlytohelpordinarypeopleintheirefforttoleadvirtuouslivesevenininiqui-touscircumstances

ThisviewrepresentsanappealtowhatQaradawihasrepeatedlyre-ferredtoasthemoderatepathoralshymadrasa alshywasatiyya(theldquocentristschoolrdquocfQaradawi2006137ndash217)mdashonethatlocatesitselfonaputa-tivemiddlegroundbetweenacompleterejectionoftheworldincludingMuslimsocietiesanditstotalembraceQaradawiisequallyconcernedwithrescuingIslamichistoryandcivilizationfromoutrightdismissalatthehandsofIslamistslikeQutb12TheideathatjahilinormshadbeguntocreepbackintotheMuslimcommunityshortlyafterthedeathoftheProphetandthattheyhaveremainedunchallengedformuchofIslamrsquoshistoryignoresallthoseQaradawisayswhohavecontinuedtorepre-sentthepathofrighteousnessthroughoutthehistoryofIslamContrarytotheconvictionoftheSunnisthatldquothecommunitywillneveragreeonerrorrdquomdashastheProphetissaidtohavepromisedmdashthenotionofaperva-

12AmongleadingfiguresQaradawisinglesoutforcriticisminthisregardarebesidesQutbMawdudiandtheEgyptianIslamistscholarMuhammadal-Ghazali(d1996)SeeQaradawi2005b46ndash64It isworthnotingthatdespitetheseandotherdisagreementsQaradawihaswrittenrespectfullyofallthreedevotinganentirebooktohislongassocia-tionwithMuhammadal-Ghazali(seeQaradawi1995)

18

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INTRODUCTION

sivejahiliyyasuggestsmoreoverthatthecommunitydidindeedagreeonerror13Mostgrievouslyperhaps Islamist critiques tend to suggestthatthesharilsquoahasalmostneverbeenimplementedinMuslimsocietiesaftertheveryfirstyearsofIslamIronicallysaysQaradawisuchindis-criminaterejectionofIslamichistoryinadvertentlyreinforcessecularist argumentsthatthesharilsquoaisunsuitedtopracticalapplication(Qaradawi2005b46)QaradawirsquoscritiqueofQutbandotherIslamistsisfinallyanargumentforthecontinuingcentralityofthelsquoulamatothetaskofpro-viding authoritative guidance to the communityHisunderstandingofwhoconstitutesthelsquoulamaisfarmoreexpansivethanthatofmostDeo-bandilsquoulamaofSouthAsiaButlikethemheisinnodoubtthatseriousreligiousscholarsasdistinguishedfromamateurishautodidactsarecru-cialtothetaskofprovidingauthoritativereligiousandmoralguidancetothecommunity

AlthoughwehavesoughttoillustratecertainfacetsoftheIslamistcri-tiqueof the scholarly traditionandof theworldas somekey IslamistthinkershavearticulateditwedonotwishtosuggestofcoursethatIslamists are necessarily ldquointellectualsrdquo Whatever Qutb KhomeiniMawdudiandQaradawimightthinkofotherscholarsandintellectualsorofthemselvesinrelationtothemtheformerobviouslyarereligiousintellectualsThesameishardlytrueofmanyotherIslamistsYeteventhosewithlittleornointellectualpretensionsareoftenrecognizableas IslamistsnotonlyfortheircommitmenttothepublicimplementationofIslamicnormsgroundedinthefoundationaltextsbutalsomdashandasacor-ollaryoftheformermdashfortheiroftenself-consciouscritiqueofanddisen-gagementfromthenormsandmorestheyseearoundthemIncontempo-raryLebanonforinstanceShilsquoiIslamistshaveoftenseentheirtext-basedreligiouscommitmentsasmarkingacleardeparturefromearlierandex-isting religious practicesAs anthropologist LaraDeeb (2006 20) ob-servesldquoTheyvieweditasnewanddifferentmdashdifferentfromwhattheyoftenreferredtoenigmaticallyaslsquobeforersquoorlsquohowwewerersquoanddifferentfromwhattheycalledalshytaqalid(traditions)Inlieuofpracticesandbeliefscastastraditionaltheyespoused [an] lsquoauthenticatedrsquoIslamexpressedinpublicpietyrdquo14ManyIslamists living inrefugeecampsinGazahavehadasimilarviewTothemldquoPalestinianshadeitherbe-comelostinforeignideologiesortheyhadbecomelsquoMuslimsbycon-

13Theconvictionthatthecommunityatlargeisdivinelyprotectedfromerrorisanim-portantbasisoftheauthorityofldquoconsensusrdquoasamajorsourceofjuridicalnormsinSunniIslamFormoderndebateson consensus and someof the literatureon this subject seeZaman2006

14Theldquotraditionsrdquohereprimarilyrefer tocustomarynormsanddevotionalpracticesratherthantothecenturies-olddiscursivetraditionfromwhichthelsquoulamabothShilsquoiandSunniderivetheirauthorityIslamistcritiquesareoftendirectedasmuchhoweverattra-ditionsinthesenseofldquoinauthenticrdquoculturallyrootedreligiouspracticesastheyareatthescholarlytraditionofthelsquoulamawhichtothemisequallyinauthenticinhavingobscuredthesimpleandfundamentalteachingsofthefoundationaltexts

19

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

ventionrsquowhowentalongwiththefastorprayednowandthenbecausethiswaslsquocustomandtraditionrsquo(lsquoada wa taqlid)ThislackofconsciouszealousadherencetoIslamhadresultedinsocialweaknessleadingtode-featatthehandsofIsraelrdquo(Lybarger2007211)ThereismuchthatsuchanalysessharewiththewritingsandpronouncementsoftheleadingIs-lamistintellectuals

Islamists and Salafi s

JustasitisnotalwayseasytodifferentiatelsquoulamafromIslamistsorIs-lamists frommodernists it is sometimesdifficult to clearlydistinguishbetweenIslamistsandtheSalafisThelatterderivethisself-designationfromclaimsofstrictadherencetothenormativepracticeofalshysalaf alshysalih(thepiousforbears)usuallyunderstoodastheMuslimsofthefirstgenerations of Islam The guiding Salafi assumption is that these firstMuslims inbeingcontemporariesof theProphetMuhammadandtheimmediatesuccessorsofthosecontemporariesexemplifymostperfectlywhatitmeanstobeavirtuousMuslimandthatlatergenerationscandonobetterthanemulatetheexampleofthesefirstgenerationsSomever-sionofthisviewwouldfindbroadresonanceamongIslamistsbutalsoordinary believers though the Shilsquoa of various doctrinal orientationshavealwayshada farmore restrictiveviewofpreciselywho isworthemulating Again like the Islamists the Salafis insist on deriving theirnormsdirectlyfromtheIslamicfoundationaltextstheQurrsquoanandtheexampleoftheProphetMuhammadunmediatedbythemedievalschoolsoflawThismeansdoingawaywiththesortofhistoricallyarticulatedscholarlytraditionfromwhichthelsquoulamahavetendedtodrawmuchoftheirauthorityTheSalafisdohavetheirownlsquoulamamdashQaradawiisano-tableinstanceasaremembersoftheSaudireligiousestablishmentmdashbuteventheirauthorityisbasedfarmoreondirectlyinterpretingthefounda-tional texts than it is on any systematic engagement with the Islamicscholarlytradition

AllthissoundsagooddealnotjustliketheIslamistsbutalsolikethemodernistsThisshouldnotbesurprisingfortheSalafiorientationisanimportantpartofthegenealogyofbothmodernismandIslamismTheSalafi reformer Muhammad lsquoAbduh though a traditionally educatedscholarwhoservedtowardtheendofhislifeasthegrandmuftiofEgyptwasakeyinfluenceinthedevelopmentofIslamicmodernismButwhilesomeoflsquoAbduhrsquosdisciplesdevelopedhisideasinthedirectionofsecularnationalismothersmdashnotablytheSalafijournalistandQurrsquoancommenta-torRashidRidamdasheventuallytookthemdespitehismodernistproclivi-tiesinadecidedlyconservativedirection(Hourani1983alsocfDallal2000)Hasan al-Banna the founder of the MuslimBrotherhoodwasclose to many Egyptian Salafis Muhibb al-din al-Khatib (d 1969) aleadingSalafiofthetimeandtheowneroftheSalafiPublishingHousein

20

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

CairowasinchargeofoneoftheBrotherhoodrsquosfirstjournals(Mitchell1993185)andafterRidarsquosdeathin1935itwasatBannarsquosinitiativethatRidarsquosinfluentialjournalalshyManarwouldcontinuetobepublishedforsomeyears(RMitchell1993186)

ForalltheiraffinitieshoweverSalafiscannotsimplybesubsumedwiththeIslamistsanymorethantheycanwiththemodernistsUnliketheearlySalafisandothermodernists Islamistshavealmost invariablysought toaddressthemselvestoawidepopularaudienceratherthantotheintellec-tualelite(cfRMitchell1993211)TheSalafishavealsobeenfarmorepreoccupiedwithmattersofcorrectbeliefthenuancesofdoctrinethanhaveeither the Islamistsor themodernists (cfHaykel2009 [forthcom-ing])BythesametokenwhilemanyIslamistshavehadasomewhatam-bivalentrelationshipwithSufismSalafishaveusuallybeenunrelentinglyhostile to devotional Sufi practices But if it is useful to distinguish theSalafisfromothercompetingorientationsinmodernIslamitisimportantalsotorecognizethatthereismuchonwhichSalafisthemselveshavedis-agreedsometimessharplyInquestionintheseldquointernalrdquodifferencesisnottheiroverallorientationmdashtowardtheIslamicfoundational textsandthepristinenormsofIslamrsquosfirstgenerationsmdashbutratherthepreciseimplica-tionsofthisorientationforbeliefandconductinthepresentAconsider-ationofsomeofthesedifferencesshouldinturnfurtherillustratehowtheSalafisoughttobedistinguishedfromothercompetingcamps

WheremanySalafisseetheschoolsoflawasobstructingandindeeddistortingthesimplemessageofthefoundationaltextsothersviewthelegaltraditionasrepresentingIslamrsquosrichintellectuallegacyfromwhichMuslimsought todrawboth inspirationandguidanceQaradawi forinstance has been critical not just of the Muslimmodernists but alsooffellowSalafisfortheirirreverencetowardtherichesofthelegaltradi-tiontheiruneducatedproclivitytosetitasidealltoocallouslyOnthisviewarejectionofthetaqlid-boundlsquoulamashouldnotleadtotheotherextrememdashexemplifiedbynotafewSalafismdashofjettisoningthescholarlytraditionaltogether SalafisalsodifferamongthemselvesintheirattitudestowardmodernWesterninstitutionsandpracticesInthelatenineteenthandearlytwen-tieth centuries Salafi reformers like Muhammad lsquoAbduh and RashidRidainEgyptandJamalal-dinal-Qasimi(d1914)inSyriahadcalledforareorientationtowardthefoundationaltextsasawayofjustifyingnotresistingchangesinlawandeducationaswellasotherfacetsofso-cialreform(cfHourani1983Commins1990)OnthisviewadirectrecoursetotheQurrsquoanandthesunnaofferedthebestwayofdemonstrat-ing the accord between their teachings and the reformist project15 In

15SymptomaticofotherdisagreementsamongtheSalafisistheveryquestionofpreciselywhothesalafarewhoseexampleoughttobeemulatedThenarrowerviewslimitthesalaftothefirstthreegenerationsofIslammdashtheageoftheProphetMuhammadandhiscompan-ionstheirsuccessorsandthelatterrsquosimmediatesuccessorsmdashbuteventhesenarrowviews

21

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

contemporaryEuropeTariqRamadananinfluentialSwissArabphilos-opherhasarguedthatMuslimslivinginWesternsocietiesoughttofeelathomeinandcontributetoward thosesocietieswhileretainingandcultivatingtheirdistinctIslamicidentityHetooappearstoseehimselfinthegenealogyofwhathecharacterizesasldquoSalafireformismrdquo(onthischaracterization see Ramadan 2004 26ndash27) and he has echoed Qa-radawiinsomeofhisviews(cfRamadan199993ndash99) Other Salafis have remained staunchly opposed to institutions andpracticesofaWesternprovenanceAnespeciallyinfluentialfigureinthegenealogyofthelatterpositionistheeighteenth-centurypuritanicalre-former Muhammad ibn lsquoAbd al-Wahhab (d 1792) whose alliance in1744 with Muhammad ibn Salsquoud contributed to the establishment ofthefirstSaudistateinthelateeighteenthcenturyIbnlsquoAbdal-WahhabwashostilenotonlytoShilsquoismandtoSufidevotionalismbutalsotoany-thinghedeemednottobeinstrictconformitywiththeteachingsofthefoundationaltextsTherewasmuchthatseemedtohimtofailthisstan-dardallofwhichhebrandedasoneoranotherformofunbeliefTheWahhabismdashas the followers of Ibn lsquoAbd al-Wahhab are oftenknownthoughtheyprefertothinkofthemselvessimplyasgoodMuslimsoratbestasSalafismdashoftenadheretothelegalnormsoftheHanbalischooloflawthoughitistheteachingsofthefoundationaltextsirrespectiveofthisoranyotherschooldoctrinethattheyprofesstofollowThemoststringentoftheSaudiSalafisaswellasotherselsewhereareaveryfarcryindeedfromwhatQaradawiwouldcharacterizeasldquocentristrdquoSalafireformersletalonefromtheearlytwentieth-centurySalafimodernists

ThepoliticalviewsoftheWahhabisandmorebroadlyoftheSalafisare likewiseanythingbutuniformInSaudiArabiaWahhabireligiousscholarshavelongaffirmedaquietistpoliticalstancewhichhasmeantleavingmattersofthestatetotherulingfamilyFormuchofthehistoryofmodernSaudiArabiatherulingelitefor itsparthas imposedfewconstraintsontheSaudilsquoulamainmattersofreligiouslifetheregulationofsocialnormsandjudicialadministration(cfVogel2000)Onseveraloccasions however this relationship has come under severe strain In1979agroupofWahhabiswhorejectedthelegitimacyoftheSaudistateyethadtieswithsomeprominentreligiousscholarsmdashincludinglsquoAbdal-

feelconstrainedtomakeroomforsuchreveredfiguresasAhmadibnHanbaltheputativefounderoftheHanbalischooloflawandthefourteenth-centuryDamascenescholarIbnTaymiyya(d1328)OtherviewsarerathermoreexpansivenotjustinchronologicalbutalsoandcruciallyinintellectualtermsThusMuhammadlsquoAbduhthoughtthesalaftoalsoincludesuchtheologiansasal-Ashlsquoari(d935)al-Baqillani(d1013)andal-Maturidi(d944)SeeHourani1983149SuchaviewobviouslyopensthedoorforpreciselythesortoftheologicaldebatesthatotherSalafisaswellasIslamistsoftenfrownuponfortakingthebelieversveryfarfromthesimpleanddirectwordsofGod lsquoAbduhrsquosdiscipleRidaagaintookanarrowerviewofthesalafandlaterinhiscareerbecameastrongdefenderoftheWahhabisCfHourani1983230ndash32

22

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

lsquoAzizBinBaz(d1999)laterthegrandmuftiofSaudiArabiamdashtookoverthesacredprecinctsoftheKalsquobainMeccainashort-livedbutextremelyembarrassingchallenge toSaudi royalauthority (cfHegghammerandLacroix2007)In1990KingFahdrsquosdecisiontoinviteAmericantroopstodefendthekingdomagainstthethreatofanIraqiinvasioncreatedwide-spreadresentmentamongSaudis theeffectsofwhichcontinue to thisdayThestationingofnon-MuslimmilitarypersonnelinIslamrsquosholiestlandwasdeemedbythekingrsquoscriticstobescandalousandevensacrile-giousAnumberofprominentSaudiSalafispubliclycriticizedthekingrsquosdecisiononthisoccasioncallinguponhimaswellasonBinBazandoth-ersatthehelmoftheSaudireligiousestablishmenttoreorienttheSaudipolitytowarditstruereligiousfoundationsManyofthesedissidentsmdashwhowerealsojoinedbyldquosecularrdquoSaudicriticsoftheroyalfamilymdashwereandhaveremainedrestrainedintheircriticismevenastheycalledforstricterconformitytoIslamicnormsasthepanaceaforallills(cfFandy1999)OthershoweverhavedenouncedtheroyalfamilyanditsWesternalliesinnouncertaintermsBinLadenisonlythemostnotoriousofthosewhobrokewiththeroyalfamilyinthewakeofKingFahdrsquosdecisiontoinviteWesterntroopsin1990andwhocalledfortheoverthrowoftheroyal familyand for jihadagainstWesternpowers Such strident callshavebeencontinuedbyotherSalafisbothbeforeandaftertheterroristattacksofSeptember112001aswellasintheaftermathoftheUS-ledinvasionofIraq(al-Rasheed2007)

ItshouldbeclearinlightoftheforegoingthatanyunderstandingofthedifferencesbetweenIslamistsandtheSalafismustrestontakingac-countofthediversityamongtheSalafisSalafiswhooftenrejectmuchoftheIslamicscholarlytraditioninfavorofadirectrecoursetothefoun-dationaltextsarenotnecessarilyrenderedldquoIslamistrdquosimplybyvirtueofthisstanceForasnotedmanyoftheseSalafiscontinuetoprofessareso-lutelyquietiststancewhichinthecaseoftheSaudiSalafismeansaf-firmingallegiancetotheSaudiroyalfamilyThispositionisrepresentedforinstancebyBinBaztheerstwhilegrandmuftiaswellasbyotherleading members of the Saudi religious establishment A pro-regimestanceoroneindifferenttopoliticsisnolessldquopoliticalrdquoofcoursethana position of strident hostility to the established order at home andabroadForourpurposeshoweveritisonlywhentheSalafisrejecttheexistingdispensationandbeginstrivingmdashthoughnotnecessarilythroughmilitantmeansmdashforanewreligio-politicalorderthattheycanbesaidtojointheranksoftheIslamists

ItisworthnotingfinallythatSalafipositionsamongSaudisandelse-wherearemarkednotonlybydiversitybutalsobyconsiderablefluidity(al-Rasheed 2007) The same activist or intellectual might at varioustimesmoveamongavarietyofseeminglyincompatiblepositionsmdashap-pearingtobemoreldquomoderaterdquoonsomeissuesthanonothersForallhiscriticismofradicalIslamistsQaradawiforinstancehashimselfwrittenin justificationofsuicidebombingsbyPalestiniansagainst Israelis (see

23

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

chapter 9 on Qaradawi) And Saudi Salafis like Safar al-Hawali andSalmanal-lsquoAwdamdashwhocame toprominence in the early1990smdashhavealternatedbetweencriticismoftheSaudipoliciesanddenunciationsofradicalSalaficallstojihadagainsttheSaudiregime(seeal-Rasheed200759ndash101onal-HawalialsoseeReichmuth2006)Theirshiftingviewsreflect changes in their relations with the Saudi regime but they alsopointtothebroadspectrumofpositionswhichSalafishavetakenatdif-ferenttimesindifferentcontextsandbeforedifferentaudiencesThusevenasal-Hawaliandal-lsquoAwdahavecondemnedterroristactsdirectedagainstSaudiArabiaandadvisedSaudisnottofightAmericantroopsinpostndashSaddamHusseinIraqtheyhavecalledupontheIraqisthemselvestoresistAmericantroopsandhavecharacterizedthateffortasaldquodefen-sivejihadrdquo(al-Rasheed200794ndash95)

Sufi s and Islamists

ItseemsmuchsimpleronthefaceofittodistinguishbetweenIslamistsandSufisThecharacteristicSuficonvictionthattherearelevelsofmean-ingintheQurrsquoanthatgobeyondtheliteralandtheobviousandthataselectfewmdashtheldquofriendsofGodrdquomdashareendowedwiththeuniqueabilityto discern them is anathema to all those who insist that God intendsHisteachingstobeequallyintelligibletoallDespitetheirtendencytoviewthemselvesasbearersof true Islam Islamists typicallyregard theSufi idea that somepeoplehaveaprivileged relationshipwithGodassuspectthebasisnotonlyforsanctioninginterpretationsofIslamthatlackwarrantintheplainteachingsofGodandtheProphetbutalsoforpracticallyldquoworshipingrdquothesefriendsofGodIslamists(andmodernists)havefrequentlyalsobeencriticalofthewaySufidevotionalismcanyieldaturningawayfromtheworldratherthananefforttochangeitaswellasapreoccupationwithpersonalspiritualtransformationattheexpenseofconcernsforthewelfareofthecommunityatlarge SufipracticesandtheteachingsoftheSufimastershavevariedenor-mouslythroughoutthehistoryofIslamyetIslamistcritiquesofSufismareseldomattentivetoitsnuancesortothecomplexwaysithasrelatedtootherfacetsofIslamNorhaveIslamiststakenmuchaccountofthefactthatmanyleadingfiguresofearliertimeswerebesidesmuchelseSufisaswellThisistrueevenofIbnTaymiyya(d1328)whoseprestigeinIslamistandSalaficirclesismatchedbyfewothersandwhowasinhisdayamemberoftheQadiriSufiorder(Makdisi1974)EvenifonearguesmdashasanIslamistmightbeinclinedtomdashthatldquogoodrdquoSufismisnoth-ingbutproperIslamitselftheveryfactthatsuchfigureshadaSufiiden-tityatallnecessarilycomplicateswhatissupposedtobethepristinesim-plicityofafaithsharedequallybyallbelievers

Complicatingthingsstillfurtheristhevarietyofwaysinwhichsomeleading Islamists relate to Sufism Ayatollah Khomeini was a lifelongstudentofIslamicmysticismandtheinfluenceofthemedievalSpanish

24

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

Sufi Ibn lsquoArabi loomed especially large in his thought To Khomeinimysticismmdashoften referred to as lsquoirfan (gnosis) especially when inter-twinedwithIslamicphilosophyandtheology(Knysh1992632)mdashwascrucialtoaproperunderstandingofGodrsquosrelationshipwiththeworldandwiththehumanbeingItwasalsoessentialforonersquosethicalforma-tionforamasteryovertheselfandultimatelyforrealizinginoneselftheattributesofwhat Ibn lsquoArabihadcalledldquotheperfectmanrdquo (cfKnysh1992 635 also Mottahedeh 1985 180ndash85) Some of the austerity ofKhomeinirsquospersonallifeprobablyalsoderivedfromSufiasceticismAndthoughheanchoredhisconceptionofIslamicgovernmentinanexposi-tionofShilsquoijuridicalthoughtratherthaninIslamicmysticismthesortofreligiousauthorityhecametoenjoyonthebasisofhisreformulationofShilsquoipoliticaltheologyseemstoechomysticalideasoftheperfectmanwho embodies and upholds the moral order as the microcosm of theuniverse

UnlikeKhomeiniQutbwasnotaSufiandhegivesnoindicationofsharinganyofKhomeinirsquosenthusiasmforthegreatSufithinkersofear-liertimesEvensoechoesofamysticrsquosdirectencounterwiththefoun-tainheadoftruthandknowledgearehardtomissinQutbrsquoswritingses-peciallyinhiscommentaryontheQurrsquoan(cfCarreacute200395ndash97)TheveryfirstsentenceofhiscommentarymdashldquolifeintheshadeoftheQurrsquoanisablessingunknowntoanyonewhohasnrsquottasteditrdquomdashevokesthefa-miliarSufiideathatincontrovertibleknowledgeofRealityisultimatelyacquired only through direct personal experience (dhawq that is theldquotasterdquooftheTruth)ThegreatmedievalSufial-Ghazali(d1111)hadauthoredafamousautobiographicalaccountofhowitwasonlythroughthe immediacyofhispersonalmysticalexperience thathewasable toovercomehisdebilitatingepistemologicaldoubtsandreassurehimselfofthenecessarytruths(Watt199857)QutbdoesnotmentionGhazaliinthiscontextbutitisdifficultnottobestruckbythemysticalresonanceofsomeofhislanguageHereisoneexamplewhichoccursinhiscom-mentaryonsura(chapter)53oftheQurrsquoan16

16TheearlyversesinthissuraoftheQurrsquoanhavebeenunderstoodbyMuslimexegetesasreferringtotheProphetrsquosrevelatoryexperienceaswellastohisldquonightjourneyrdquoandhisascensiontoheavenormilsquoraj inthecourseofonenighthewastransportedfirstfromMeccatoJerusalemandthentothepresenceofGodbeforebeingreturnedtoMecca

UnrelatedtothenightjourneybutrelatedtohisrevelatoryexperiencestheexegeticalsignificanceofthisQurrsquoanicsuraalsoliesinitsconnectionwiththeso-calledSatanicVersesAccordingtocertainexegeticalreportsMuhammadwasinthecourseofreceivingarevela-tionwhenSataninterpolatedsomeversesintoitmdashversespraisingthreegoddessesreveredbythepolytheistsofMeccaItwasnotuntilsometimelaterthatMuhammadrealizedhiserrorwhereupontheversesinterpolatedbySatanwereremovedTheepisodeoftheldquoSa-tanicVersesrdquohasbeenacontroversialoneinIslamichistorylongbeforeSalmanRushdiersquosnovelofthatnameandKhomeinirsquosjuridicalruling(fatwa)callingforRushdiersquosdeathMostMuslimscholarshavefoundittooshockingtobelievethattheProphetcouldhavemadesuchagrievouserrorandhavedeniedthatanysuch incidentever tookplaceYetsome

25

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INTRODUCTION

IwaschattingoneeveningwithsomecompanionswhentoourearscamethesoundofsomeonerecitingtheQurrsquoannearbyrecitingtheSuraoftheStar[al-Najm]andweinterruptedourconversationtolistentotheNobleQurrsquoanLittlebylittlemyheartenteredintowhatwasbeing recited into theheartofMuhammadashe jour-neyedtotheHeavenlyHostIwaswithhimashesawGabrielintheangelicforminwhichGodhadcreatedhimIwaswithhiminhis loftyandfree-flying journey to theLoteTreeof theBoundaryandtheGardenoftheRefugeIwaswithhimtotheextentthatmyimaginationcouldformavisionofitandtotheextentthatmyfeelings couldbear itThen came the final cry andmywholebeingshookatthefearfulreproachldquoDoyoumarvelatthisdiscourseanddoyoulaughandnotweepandmakemerryrdquo[Q5359ndash61]WhenIheardldquoBowdownbeforeGodandserveHimrdquo[Q5362]thetremblinginmyhearthadbecomeaphysicalandvisibletremblingthroughoutmybodythatIcouldnotresistMybodykeptshakingandIcouldnotcontrolitNorcouldIholdbackthetearsthatwerepouringforthhowevermuchItried(QutbZilalvol7part2774ndash75quotedfromCarreacute2003333ndash34withminorchanges)

TheQurrsquoanrsquosprofoundimpactontheaestheticsensibilitiesofitslisten-ersisafamiliarmotifindiscussionsofitsliteraryqualities(cfGrahamandKermani2006)AssomeonewhoseearlywritingswereconcernedwithArabicliterarycriticismandspecificallywiththeliteraryexcellenceoftheIslamicscripture(Qutb1949b)QutbwasespeciallyreceptivetothisaspectoftheQurrsquoanThesenseofbeingtransportedbacktothetimeoftheProphetandtowitnessingtheProphetrsquosascension(milsquoraj)tothepresence of Godmdashwhich is how the passage being commented on byQutbherehascommonlybeeninterpretedbytheexegetesmdashcanlikewisebeseenasanillustrationoftheoverpoweringimpactthewordsoftheQurrsquoancanhaveonthebelieverQutbrsquosaccountofconversingwithGodthrough the Qurrsquoan (cited earlier) is again something he may havewantedtoseeallbelieversdoYetallbelieverscanscarcelydosoany-morethanallaspirantsevenontheSufipathcanexperiencethetransfor-mativemysticalldquostatesrdquothatGodbestowsonHisspecialfriends(awlshyiya)IrrespectiveofwhetherhesawitinquitethiswayQutbrsquosassertionthatheisabletoenterldquointotheheartofMuhammadrdquoandtoseeGabrielasMuhammad sawhimsurelygiveshimaperspective thatothers en-counteringthewordofGoddonothave

ThepointisnotofcoursethatQutbwaseverrecognizedbyhisfol-lowersasaSufimasterbutthatsomeofthehermeneuticalauthorityheclaimshasadistinctiveSufiringtoitMorebroadlythesortofunques-

leadingscholarsofearlyandmedievalIslammdashincludingIbnTaymiyyamdashacceptedthehisto-ricityofthisincidentSeeSAhmed1998

26

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INTRODUCTION

tioningreligio-politicalauthorityIslamistleadershaveoftenenjoyedovertheirfollowersisnotunlikethatoftheSufimasteroverhisfollowersBe-ginningwithHasanal-BannathefounderoftheMuslimBrotherhoodandoncehimselfamemberofaSufiordertheleaderofthisorganizationis formally referred to as themurshid (guide)ormore specificallyalshymurshid alshylsquoam (thegeneralguide[RMitchell1993165])whichisafamiliartermforthemasterinSuficontextsForhispartAbdessalamYassine the founder and leader of lsquoAdl warsquol-Ihsan Party of Morocco(oftenreferredtoastheJusticeandSpiritualityAssociationorJSA)haslike Khomeini gone well beyond simply echoing Sufi conceptions ofauthorityinhisowndiscoursesHetoowasonceamemberofaMoroc-canSufiorderandhehascontinuedtodrawonSufithemesinhiswrit-ingsTheverynameofYassinersquospoliticalorganizationevokesacentralSufiideanamelyihsanThisisaQurrsquoanicterm(cfQ756)thattrans-latedliterallymeansldquotodogoodrdquothoughSufishaveunderstoodittomeanmuchmore thanthatFollowingawell-knownstatementattrib-uted to theProphetMuhammad theyhaveoften interpreted ihsan tomeangoingbeyondtheexternalsofIslamicritualpracticestoldquoworshipGodasifyouseeHimrdquo(Schimmel197529)thatiscultivatingasenseof personal communion and intimacy with God Even as Yassine hassoughttodistancehimselffromwhathedeemstobetheexcessesofSu-fismthereislittledoubtthathispoliticalappealowesmuchtocarefullycalibratedeffortstocombinedistinctiveSufiideaswithhisownbrandofIslamism(cfLauziegravere2005seealsochapter12onNadiaYassineinthisvolume)

FinallyMawdudirsquosJamalsquoat-iIslamimdashoneoftheearliestIslamistorga-nizations in the Sunni worldmdashillustrates both the Islamistsrsquo complexrelationshipwith Sufismand their pragmatic recognitionof its appealinmanyMuslimsocietiesMawdudihadoncebeenaharshcriticofSu-fismblamingitformanyillsafflictingMuslimsocietiesYettheJama-lsquoat-iIslamigraduallycametosoftenitsstanceonSufipracticesconsider-ablynodoubtintheinterestofbroadeningsomeofitssupportbaseinPakistanwheresaintsandSufishrinesareanimportantpartofthereli-giousandpoliticallandscapeAlreadyinMawdudirsquoslifetimeMianTufaylMuhammadhissuccessorastheheadoftheJamalsquoat-iIslamihadtakentheextraordinaryinitiativeoftranslatinganearlySuficlassictheKashf alshymahjub into Urdu The author of this work Shaykh lsquoAli Hujwiri(d1072)isburiedinLahoreinPakistanandhismuch-frequentedshrineishometoprecisely thesortofdevotionalpractices that Islamistsandmodernist reformers letaloneSalafishaveoften frownedupon (Nasr1996124)

ThesediverseexamplesarenotintendedtoobscuretherealdifferencesbetweenthegeneralityofIslamistsandmostSufisTheirsignificanceliesratherinillustratingthedifficultyofdistinguishingbetweenIslamismandotherreligiousintellectualandpoliticaltrendsintermsofneatcharac-

27

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INTRODUCTION

terizationsofgrandtranslocalgeneralizationsAstheforegoingsuggeststhesameistrueandmoresowhenitcomestocharacterizingIslamistsinrelationtothelsquoulamatheMuslimmodernistsandtheSalafisIndeedasLorenLybargerhasarguedwithreferencetothoseusuallycharacter-izedasldquosecularnationalistrdquoorldquoIslamistrdquoPalestiniansintheWestBankandGazadifferenceswithintheranksofyoungsecularnationalistsandIslamistscansometimesalsoshadeintosignificantsimilaritiesbetweenthesesupposedlyrivalorientations(Lybarger2007)ManyIslamistshavesoughttodistancethemselvesfromwhattheyseeastherigidityandau-thoritarianismofotherIslamistsandtoarguenotjustfortheimplemen-tationofthesharilsquoabutalsofordemocracyandpluralismConverselynot a few of the younger secular nationalists have ldquoadopted IslamisttheodiciesthatexplainedthefailuretoovercomeIsraelastheresultoffallingawayfrompietytheirconclusionsmirroredIslamistonestootheroadbackfromthebrinkhadtotraceitscoursethrougharenewedcom-mitmenttoIslambutnotnecessarilyinthemannerthattheIslamistmove-mentsmighthaveintendedrdquo(Lybarger2007237ndash38quotationat238)

Yet ifneatcategoriesremainelusiveacombinationoftheIslamistsrsquoself-consciouslypoliticalgoalstheirmultifacetedifnotalwaysexplicitpoliticalcritiquesofmanypastandpresentwaysofunderstandingandlivingIslamandanunshakeableconfidenceintheirownabilitytodis-cern Godrsquos will from the foundational texts do often provide enoughgrounds tobroadlydistinguish themfromotheractivists intellectualsand orientations in the Muslim public sphere What this combinationamountstovariesfromonesocialpoliticalreligiousandculturalcon-texttoanotherandsothereforedothewaysinwhichIslamistsrelatetooneanotherorcompeteandoverlapwithothergroupsandorientations

The Politics of Islamism

FromAeneasrsquosmythicalfoundingofRometothedeathandresurrectionofJesusChristtoMuhammadrsquosmigrationtoMedinafoundationalnar-rativesareascommontocollectivelifeasthemovementsthatperiodi-callyarisetorevivethemandclaimantstothemantleoflegitimacytheyconferSounderstoodIslamistsrsquopoliticalaspirationstorestorefounda-tionslocatedinamythicalpastarefarfromuniqueNorareIslamistsaloneintheirconvictionthatscripturalauthorityisguaranteedbyitsdi-vineauthormdashforinthatallMuslimsagreeRatherthechaptersinthisvolumesuggest thatwhatmakes Islamistpoliticsdistinctive (ifnotsui generis)istheclaimtorecuperateanldquoauthenticIslamrdquocomprisedofself-evidenttruthspurgedofalienandcorruptinginfluencesalongwithaninsistenceonremakingthefoundationsofthestateinitsimageGiventhelimitsofhumanunderstandingrelativetoGodrsquosknowledgeIslamistssimultaneouslydepictsuchfidelitytotheunadulteratedwordofAllahas

28

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INTRODUCTION

theultimateexpressionofdeferencetodivineomniscienceandportrayhumilityasaconstitutivefeatureofthehumanconditionAspirationstofullyknowandmasterthenaturalandsocialworldsthusentailnotonlyahumanhubrisdeaftotheQurrsquoanicadmonitionthatldquoAllahknowsbutandyoudonotknowrdquo(Q366)butalsoatransgressionagainstadi-vinely-ordainedontologicalorder

ItisnotablehoweverthattheIslamistemphasisonthelimitsofhumanknowledgerequireshumilityonlyinrelationtoAllahitrarelyyieldshu-milityinregardtotheirownclaimstospeakinHisnameortowardotherhumanbeingswhodissentfromthepremiseofdivineomnipotenceandIslamistaccountsofwhat it requiresThis suggests thatwhile IslamistchallengestostatepowerareobviouslypoliticaltheIslamistclaimtoau-thenticityisalsopolitical inthecoercivepoweritroutinelyenactsandjustifiesmostnotablybywayofthesilencesitimposesandthedebatesitforeclosesAzizal-Azmehpointsoutthatldquothenotionofauthenticityisnotsomuchadeterminateconceptasitisanodeofassociationsandin-terpellationsatropebymeansofwhichthehistoricalworldisreducedtoaparticularorderandatokenwhichmarksoffsocialandpoliticalgroupsandforgesandreconstituteshistoricalidentitiesrdquo(al-Azmeh199341)WhetherintheserviceofArabnationalismChristianfundamental-ismEuropeanromanticismorMuslimmodernismtheclaimofauthen-ticityisanactofpowerthatfunctionsnotjusttoreflecttheworldbuttoconstructitbydeterminingwhoisincludedandexcludedwhomayandmaynotspeakauthoritativelywhatistheproperrealmofdebateandwhatisbeyondcontestation

ItiscertainlythecasethatasingleldquoIslamrdquocapturesandorganizestheperspectivesofmillionswhoself-identifyasMuslim(amongotherthings)yetwhattravelsunderitsrubricisinescapablydiversemultiethnicanddefined asmuchbydisagreement as consensus Just as theTorah andBible lend themselves toat times radicallydivergent interpretationsofwhatitmeanstobeJewishorChristiantheQurrsquoanandhaditharecom-plexandsusceptibletomanydifferentandattimescontradictoryenact-mentsSounderstoodIslamislessafixedessencethanalivingtraditionthatcaptureswhatisimaginedascontinuousandunitaryindialecticalrelationshiptothoseconcretearticulationsandpracticesbywhichitistransformedandadaptedindifferentcontextsforpluralpurposesItispreciselythisunderstandingofreligionthatisanathematoIslamistswhoseek tofix theparametersof Islamicauthenticityonceandforallandtherebyarrogateforthemselvestherighttodeterminewhoqualifiesasagood Muslim to discredit those lsquoulama unable or unwilling to purgeIslamofpurportedimpietiestodeclarenominallyMuslimrulersapos-tatesunfittogovernandtocharacterizeallwhodisagreeascorrupthe-reticalguiltyofunbelieforvictimsoffalseconsciousness

Thesegeneralpoliticaltendencieshowevermustbecarefullysituatedwithinadialecticoftheglobalandthevernacularunderstoodtoreflect

29

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INTRODUCTION

thewaysinwhichunifyingmacrohistoricaldynamicsinformandareinturntransformedbydiversecontingentandfluidlocalcircumstancesInaworldstampedbyWesterndominanceandtheconsolidationofpostco-lonial authoritarian regimes Islamists confront a common set of con-straintsandchallengesInasmuchassuchconstraintsandchallengeshavemade Islamist thinkers (often reluctant) participants in conversationsacrossbothcultureandhistorytheireffortstoremakethefoundationsofcollectiveliferevealasharedinterpretiveframeworkandcommonreli-gio-political grammar At the same time this frame and grammar arecontinuallybeingreworkedinrelationtothedistinctpublicspheresinwhichIslamistsoperateandtowhichtheycarefullycalibratetheirpoliti-calcommitments

Attention to this complex dynamic suggests that the Islamist move-mentcannotsimplybecharacterizedasviolentantidemocraticandop-pressiveofwomenlabelsinvokedsofrequentlyinscholarlyandpopularliterature on the subject that they have become virtually synonymouswithIslamistpoliticsSuchcharacterizationsdocapturecrucialdimen-sionsofIslamistpoliticsyettheyalsosidesteptheparadoxesitsvarie-gatedandoftencontradictoryexpressionspresentInsteadwearguethatIslamistpoliticscanbeproductivelyreadin terms ofandagainst the grain ofsuchbroadcategorizationsasantidemocraticantiwomanorviolentmdashthat is as commitments that at different moments in various localesbothencourageandconstrainbroad-basedpoliticalparticipationdisruptandratifyhierarchicalgendernormsresistandreproducestate-sanctionedbrutalityThepointofreadingIslamistpoliticsinthiswayisnottosug-gestthatIslamistsaresecretlydemocraticfeministandopposedtovio-lenceRatherthepointistodrawattentiontothecomplexityandcon-tradictionserasedbyeasygeneralizationsontheonehandandtheoftenunacknowledgedfluidityandculturaladaptabilityofotherwisefamiliarpoliticalcategoriesontheother

Islamism and Democracy

DespiteimportantdifferencesamongIslamistthinkerstheyhaveincom-monatendencytoviewhumansovereigntyastransgressiveofdivinelawandsharetheaspirationtoestablishsharilsquoaastheprimaryorsolesourceofauthorityAsisoftennotedsuchpremisesandaspirationsrunafoulofassumptionsaboutpopularruleattheheartofdemocracynamelythathumanbeingshavetherighttolegislaterulesforcollectivebehaviorandarecapableofthewisdomrequiredtodevisejustlawsInrecentyearspolicymakersandcommentatorshaveevincedaparticularpreoccupa-tionwiththewaysinwhichIslamistnotionsofdivineauthoritythrottlethespiritandpracticeofpopularsovereigntySomehaveevengonesofarastocharacterizeIslamistsasldquoIslamo-fascistsrdquoanimatedbyhatredoftheldquodemocratic Westrdquo psychologically unable to contend with the fluidity

30

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INTRODUCTION

andindeterminacythatmarkpopularruleandeagertoconvertelectionsintoaldquoone-manone-voteone-timerdquomechanismforestablishinganIs-lamicstate(Murdock2002MRubin2005Kramer1993)

SuchviewsareechoedbythoseIslamistskeentoportraydemocracynotonlyasantitheticaltothesupremacyofdivinelawbutasaTrojanhorseforWesternimperialismFormanyIslamistsincludingseveralinthis volumedemocracy is justone symptomofametastasizingmoralandspiritualbankruptcywherebymoraltransgressionsaretransfiguredintonaturalurgescrassself-interestbecomesthebedrockofcollectivelifeandthedivineplanfortheuniverseandallthingsinitisreducedtoa system of physical causality just waiting to be mastered by way ofhumaningenuity(REuben2007)Qutbcallsthisdiseasedviewoftheworldjahiliyyaanditsignalsnotonlyhumanarrogancebutatransgres-sionagainstdivineauthoritythescopeofwhichencompassesbothpub-licandprivatedomainsofhumanaffairsaswellasbothvisibleandun-seendimensionsoftheuniverseFormanyIslamistssuchtransgressionisattherootofmuchofwhatpassesforMuslimruleinthecontemporaryworldmdashnationalistdemocraticandmonarchicalalikeSucharroganceisalsosaidtobethepatternunderlyingalonghistoryofunrelievedWest-ernaggressionagainstIslaminwhichtheChristianCrusadesEuropeancolonialismIsraelitreatmentofPalestiniansethniccleansinginBosniaGermananti-TurkishviolencetheAmericaninvasionofIraqandDutchcartoonsofMuhammadarebutafewexamples

YetthereisarangeofviewsamongIslamistsaboutboththesubstanceofdemocracyanditscompatibilitywiththereligio-politicalrenewaltheyadvocateAccordingtoQaradawiforexampleldquotheessenceofdemoc-racyisthatpeoplechoosewhorulesoverthemandmanagestheiraf-fairsthatnorulerorregimetheydislikeisforceduponthemthattheyhavetherighttocalltherulertoaccountifheerrsandtoremovehimfromofficeincaseofmisconductandthatpeoplearenotforcedineco-nomicsocialculturalorpoliticaldirectionsthattheyneitherrecognizenor acceptrdquo (Qaradawi1997132 also chapter9 in this volume)TohimthereisnoheavierburdenoppressingMuslimsinthecontemporaryworld thandespotism indeed it is throughdespoticgovernments thatMuslimshavebeenforcedtosubmittootherillsincludingtheneglectofthesharilsquoaandthecoerciveimpositionofsecularismandwesternizationDemocracy then recommends itself to Qaradawi as the most effectiveavailableantidotetodespotismandtheafflictionsofwhichitservesasavehicle

WheremanyamongtheIslamistsandthelsquoulamahaveseenconsider-able tensionbetween IslamanddemocracyQaradawiprofesses to seenoneAswesuggestedearlierbyfarthemostcommonoftheIslamistreservationsaboutademocraticsystemrelatestothesovereigntyofthepeoplewhichistakentocontravenetheideathatGodaloneissovereignQaradawi however is unperturbedby such concernsThe rule of the

31

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INTRODUCTION

peopleoughttobeseenhearguesnotinoppositiontotheruleofGodbutratherinoppositiontotheruleofthedespotMorefundamentallyQaradawirsquos view of democracy does not necessarily require that thepeopleshouldbeabletooverturndivinelyinstitutednormsRatherhisassumptionisthatpeopleexercisetheirsovereigntywithinconstitutionalboundsandMuslimslivinginapredominantlyMuslimdemocraticpol-itywouldlikewisenotwishtotransgresstheparametersoflegitimatehumanactionlaiddownintheIslamicfoundationaltexts(seeQaradawichapter9inthisvolumeandcfFeldman2007)

NadiaYassineofMoroccorsquosJusticeandSpiritualityAssociationisan-othercaseinpointWhilecriticalofthedemocraticgesturesembracedbyamonarchythatshedepictsasallergictogenuinelypopularsovereigntyYassineinsiststhatthemodelofMuslimruleadumbratedintheummafoundedbytheProphetMuhammadandinparticulartheConstitutionofMedina17isnothingshortofdemocratic(NYassine2005d2005e)UnliketheMuslimdynastiesthatarosetousurpitYassinecontendsthiscommunity was participatory egalitarian committed to freedom andexpressiveofGodrsquosmercyMostimportantitwasgovernedalwaysbytheQurrsquoanicprincipleofshura (consultation)bywhichYassinemeansaphilosophy of power that places sovereignty in the community ratherthaninanyindividuallinksvirtuetodeliberationratherthanobedienceandexhortsbelieverstocontinuallyadaptQurrsquoanicprinciplesthroughijtihad rather than adhere reflexively to precedent (N Yassine 2006a182ndash862005d)ManyscholarsandjournalistsremainskepticaloftheJSArsquosasyetuntestedcommitment toproceduraldemocracyandworrythatNadiaandher fatherAbdessalamultimatelyseektoestablishanIslamic state inhospitable to tolerance pluralism and civil liberties(Maghraoui2001Brandon2007Whitlock2006)YetothersarguethattheJSAisagenuinelypopulistorganizationthatrepresentstheunrepre-sentedtendstothewelfareofthedispossessedandbothexpressesandcontributestoanincreasinglyvibrantcivilsocietyinMorocco(Cavatorta2006Entelis2002)

QaradawirsquosandYassinersquosargumentstogethersuggestthatdemocracycanandhasservedaseitheracosmeticcoverfordespotismoranauthen-ticallyIslamiccheckuponcorruptandarbitraryruleAtissueinIslamistargumentsforandagainstdemocracythenarenotonlywhatcountsasldquoauthenticIslamrdquoandtheintentionsofthosewhoclaimtoknowitbutalsothecontentandcharacterofdemocracyitselfParadoxicallybothIslamistsopposedtodemocracyandthosewhotakeIslamismasinher-entlyantidemocraticregardthisasasimplematterwithanobviousan-swerdemocracyisanexpressionofandevensynonymouswithliberal-ismcapitalismandtheWestYetdemocracyisbothmorecapaciousand

17TheConstitutionofMedinawasanagreementtheProphethadenteredintowiththelocalcommunitiesincludingJewishtribesuponhisemigrationfromMeccatoMedina

32

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INTRODUCTION

moredistinctthanthispresumptionsuggestsTheworditselfofcoursederivesfromtheancientGreekdemokratiawhichmeansrule(kratos)ofthepeople(demos)andmanyderivetheequationofdemocracyandtheWestfromthisassociationwithclassicalGreeceYetancientGreekphi-losopherssuchasPlatosawindemocracythespecterofmobrulepartic-ularly vulnerable to demagoguery and despotism (a suspicion notablyechoedbyAmerican founder JamesMadison)Contrary to thedemo-cratic idealof inclusivenessmoreover citizenship inGreekdemocracyexcludedasubstantialpartofthepopulationincludingwomenslavesandforeignersFinallytheextenttowhichtheancientGreeksmayevenbecalledWesternisamatterofgreatdisputeparticularlyastheldquoWestrdquoisacategoryofrelativelyrecentprovenancethroughwhichhistoryandgeographyhavebeenretroactivelyorganized18DespitedepictionsoftheHellenicworldasWesternancientGreeksdidnotinfactviewthem-selvesintheseterms19

TheequationofdemocracywiththeWestalsopresupposestheexis-tenceofacoherentldquoWesterncivilizationrdquowitheitherculturallyhomoge-neousrootsorclearlydelineatedhistoricalandcontemporarybounda-riesorbothYetwhatiscalledtheWestisanamalgamationofmultipletraditionsincludingtheGreekRomanJudaicChristianandIslamicmdashtraditionsthatarethemselvespolyvalentratherthanhomogeneousmdashandistodaycharacterizedbyporousbordershybridsubculturesandmyriaddebtstodiversecivilizationspastandpresent20AsageographicmarkeritisvirtuallyimpossibletopinpointexactlywheretheWestbeginsandendsandthisisespeciallysonowthatpeoplesinformationandmate-rial goods crisscross cultural andnational borders atwill creating allkindsoftransnationalsubnationalandmultipleidentitiesthatshiftandreconstitutethemselvesinunpredictablewaysEventhosevaluesidenti-fiedasWesternoftenappearelsewhereinotherguisesIndeedscholarssuggestthatavarietyoftheldquostandardsexportedbytheWestanditscul-turalindustriesthemselvesturnouttobeofculturallymixedcharacterifweexaminetheirculturallineagesrdquo(Pieterse199553)

Manyalsoarguethatdemocracyisnotonlydistinctfrombutinten-sionwithboththetheoryandpracticeofpoliticsinldquoWesternrdquosocieties

18MichaelGillespie(19997ndash10)arguesthattherereadingofhistorygeographyandculturethroughtheprismofthissenseofldquotheWestrdquobegannoearlierthanthenineteenthcenturyTheideaofatimelessandbrightlinebetweenWestandEastisalsochallengedbyJeremyBrottonrsquosstudy(19989096ndash97)ofthediplomaticandintellectualexchangesbe-tweenEuropeandtheOttomanEmpireintheearlymodernperiodBrottonshowsnotonlytheextentandamityofsuchexchangesbutapersistentuncertaintyaboutwherepreciselyEuropeldquoendedrdquoandAsialdquobeganrdquo

19AncientGreeksunderstoodthemselvesasgeographicallywestofthebarbariansbutnotWesterninthecontemporarysensethatisasbothaculturalandhistoricalcategory

20StevenRuncimanrsquoswork(19543480)ontheCrusadesforexampledemonstratesaldquolongsequenceofinteractionandfusionbetweenOrientandOccidentoutofwhichourcivilizationhasgrownrdquo

33

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INTRODUCTION

many of which are more accurately classified as liberal and capitalist(Wood1994Wolin2001BallandDagger1999)Whileitisnowcom-monplacetospeakofldquoliberaldemocracyrdquoinasinglebreathliberalismanddemocracyareconceptsandpracticeswithverydifferenthistoriesandpresuppositionsUnlikedemocracyforexampleliberalismemergedfromthecrucibleofChristianreligiouswarsandintandemwiththeas-cendanceofamiddleclassthatpresagedtheendofEuropeanfeudalismTheliberalnation-statecanthusbeviewedasbothanexpressionandaconsolidationofcapitalismontheonehandandtheprincipleofasepa-rationbetweenchurchandstateontheotherBycontrastthereisnoth-ingaboutdemocracyeitherasasystemofgovernanceoracultureofpar-ticipationthatisinherentlysecularIndeedAlexisdeTocquevillefamouslyinsistedthatAmericandemocracycannotandshouldnotbesecularasreligionhelpsshiftattentionawayfromimmediatematerialpreoccupa-tionstolargerconcernsofcommunitycooperationandmoralityInfactmanydemocratictheoristsarguethatgenuinelyinclusivepopularsover-eignty is antithetical to the sharp inequalities of wealth and politicalpowerthatcapitalismoftenproducesandlegitimates

SuchongoingdefinitionalandsubstantivedebatessuggestthatthereismuchmoreatstakeindemocraticpoliticsthanprocedurespertainingtogovernmentauthorityandorderandpointtoawidespreadifelusiveunderstandingofdemocracynotjustasasetofinstitutionsbutasTocque-villesuggestsawayoflifeSeveralpoliticaltheoristshavecharacterizedthiselusiveunderstandingintermsofaldquodemocraticethosrdquoBythistheymeanbothanidealandanargumentforacultureofparticipationactivepowersharingmutualaccountabilityinclusivenessanddeliberationinwhichcitizensmayroutinelyandsafelychallengenotonlyspecificpoli-ciesandpolitical institutionsbutalso thevalues thatgoverncollectivelifeprinciplesofinclusionandexclusionandthepremisesofauthorityitself(Connolly1995JPEuben2003Sadiki2004)AdemocraticethosismuchmoredifficulttomeasureorquantifythanforexampleSamuelHuntingtonrsquosparsimoniousdefinitionofdemocracyasapolityinwhichtherehavebeentwoconsecutivepeacefulchangesofgovernmentbywayof freeand fairelections (Huntington1991)21Yetademocraticethosmakesitpossibletobothrecognizeanddisaggregatethepreconditionsaspirations mechanisms and institutions bundled into ldquodemocracyrdquotherebybringingintofocusforexamplethefrequentlyantidemocratic

21Manypoliticalscientistsprefertodefinedemocracyintermsofproceduresdesignedtorealizepopularruleincludingfreecompetitiveandfairelectionsalongwithstateprotec-tionofcertainrightsandlibertiesSuchaformalminimalistdefinitionhastheadvantageofdetachingdemocracyfromquestionsoforiginsandofferingastandardtowhichallgov-ernmentsmaybeheldregardlessofcultureandplaceAsKeithTopper(2005205ndash7)ar-gueshoweveritalsotendstosidestepknottyquestionsaboutthesubstanceofrepresenta-tion power responsiveness and accountability that are arguably central to democraticpolitics

34

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INTRODUCTION

casttoelectionsimposedbyelitesorforeignpowersthefeltimpotenceofmanycitizensinestablisheddemocraciesandthosehighlyparticipa-torycivilsocietiesthatflourishevenundermonarchicortheocraticrule

Forourpurposes inparticularademocraticethosmakesvisible theparadoxofanIslamistmovementthatseekstomobilizeordinaryMus-limsagainstcoercivepowerbutinthenameofareligio-politicalorderlargelyimmunizedfromchallengeQutbisanaptillustrationhereashistendencytogroundhisownspecialauthorityandinsightintheunsulliedwisdomofordinarybelieversmakesitpossibletoreadhisworkaseitherabriefagainstdemocracy(amongotherthings)oranenactmentofitIn-asmuchasdemocracyasaformofgovernanceisidentifiedwithpopularsovereigntyQutbrsquosbasicpremisethat thefoundationof legitimateau-thoritymustbedivineratherthanhumansuggeststhatheisunambigu-ouslyantidemocraticMoreoverQutbrsquoseffortstopluralizereligiousandpolitical authority express not a confidence in common wisdom butratheradesiretoclaimforhimselfthestatureofareligiousexpertwhodespitehislackofIslamicacademiccredentialscanclearlyseewhatoth-erscannotQutbcharacterizestherealIslamasself-evidentbuthealsoassumesthatonlyasmallvanguardofbelieversbesideshimselfwillhavetheabilitytorecognizeitandactdecisivelytoremaketheworldinitsimageSounderstoodthesignofldquochosennessrdquoisunyieldingcommitmenttoestablishingareligio-politicalorderthatsimultaneouslypresumesthesupremacyofthefewcapableoftrueknowledgeandpromisesaworldinwhichdissentitselfwillbecomebothunnecessaryandillegitimate

Yetifdemocracyrefersnotonlytoasystemofgovernanceorsetofprocedurestorealizepopularsovereigntybutalsotopracticesthatdis-ruptthoseforceswhichconcentratepowerandestablishpoliticalexclu-sionthecharacterizationofQutbrsquosworkassimplyantidemocraticmissesa crucial dimensionof its significance and appealAs the sacred textscontaintherulesandregulationsmeanttogovernbothpublicandpri-vateaffairsQutbrsquosinsistencethatordinaryuntrainedMuslimsmusten-gagethemdirectlyisinmanywaysademocratizationofaccesstoau-thoritySuchaccesscandisruptdeeplyentrenchedpatternsofpowerandpowerlessness particularlywhen conjoined to Islamist arguments thatarbitrarypowerisun-Islamicthatreligiousknowledgedependsoncom-mitmentratherthantrainingorexpertise thatMuslimshavetherightandobligationtodeterminewhenrulersareillegitimateandthatthosewhopreferordertojusticesecuritytofreedomandmoneytopietyhaveforfeitedanyclaimtoauthority

ThisaspectofIslamismhasfrequentlybeencomparedtotheProtestantReformationandmorespecificallytoCalvinistsrsquoattemptstotransferldquore-ligiousauthorityawayfromofficiallysanctionedindividualswhointer-prettextstoordinarycitizensrdquo(EGoldberg19913alsocfLoimeier2005)Suchaparallelhassparkedagreatdealofscholarlyspeculation

35

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

regardingapossibleldquoIslamicReformationrdquo22andarangeofargumentsaboutwhetherandhowIslamismmightfacilitatethedemocratizationofMuslim societies much as the Protestant Reformation is said to haveheralded the emergence of European ldquoliberal democracyrdquo While suchcomparisonsareevocativeafullerunderstandingof IslamismrequiresfirstsituatingitinrelationtoahistoricalshiftinthenatureandlocusofreligiousauthorityinIslambeginninginthenineteenthcenturyAsschol-arsofMuslimsocietieshavepointedouttheimpactofmasseducationnewtechnologiesfordisseminatingknowledgeandinformationanddra-matically changed social economic and political contexts have madeavailabletoamateurswhathadpreviouslybeenthepurviewofreligiousexpertsAtthesametimeithasinauguratedafragmentationofauthor-itywithintheveryranksofthelsquoulamathatcontinuestothepresentday23

InthiscontexttheascendanceandinfluenceofautodidactssuchasQutbHasanal-BannalsquoAbdal-SalamFarajandBinLadensimultaneouslyex-pressandaccelerateanongoingrenegotiationofauthorityoverwhomayspeakforIslamandonwhatbasisthepathofwhichisstillunfoldingandtheoutcomeasyetuncertain

Islamism and Gender

One already apparent consequence of this ongoing renegotiation overwhomayspeakforIslamandonwhatbasisistheentryofwomenintothe interpretive fray This development is increasingly unsettling thoseunwrittengendernormsarguablyattheveryheartofIslamistthoughtdisruptingthestandardsofmasculinityandfemininitythatreflecthowparticularculturesorganizehumanbeingsrsquosocialandreproductiveactiv-itiesintorolesthatareinturnthoughttoexpresstheldquonaturerdquoofmenand women Such norms are frequently considered tangential to theknottyproblemsofdefiningIslamismandadumbratingitscentralideasyetarangeofscholarshiponculturespastandpresenthasshownthatgenderisconsistentlytheterrainoverwhichbattlesforpoliticalcontrolandculturalidentityarefoughtMorespecificallyresearchindisciplinessuchasanthropologyhistoryclassicsandpostcolonialstudieshasdem-onstratedthatculturesinwhichfemalebodiesandbehaviorareregardedas indicesofmoralpurity tend to symbolically transformwomen intoconduitsof cultural corruption in timesof internal crisis and externalthreat(Papenek1994Chatterjee1990Tavakoli-Targhi1991Just1989Cohen1991Welter1966Bloch1978)Thisisespeciallytrueofcontem-

22Foralatenineteenth-centuryassessmentoftheprospectsforaldquoMuhammadanRefor-mationrdquoseeBlunt1882132ndash73

23EickelmanandPiscatori199637ndash39131ndash35Zaman2006Suchfragmentationhasinmanywaysbeenacceleratedbytheexplosionofdigitalcultureswhichpromoteamongotherthingsaldquoformofempoweredamateurismrdquo(Mirzoeff20026)

36

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

poraryreligio-politicalmovementswhosememberstendtoldquoidealizepa-triarchalstructuresofauthorityandmoralityrdquoendorsegenderdualismasgod-givenornaturalandcondemnvigorouslyrecentchangesingen-derrelationsasasymptomandsymbolofsecularistmoralbankruptcy(Riesebrodt1993Moghadam1992Hawley1994)

SeveralchaptersinthisvolumeilluminateIslamistgendernormsbyre-vealing thecharacterandcontentof Islamistconcernsabout theplaceandpurityofMuslimwomenmdashpreoccupationsFatimaMernissi(199199)hasgonesofarastocharacterizeasanobsessionDespiteimportantdifferences among Islamists thinkers many endorse gender norms inwhichthefairlyconventionalinsistencethatfemalenatureisdefinedinand through reproduction undergirds an understanding of women assymbolsofmoralvirtueandvesselsofculturalpurityThisviewsustainstheclaimthatmenandwomenareequalinreligiousbeliefbutperformfundamentallydifferentandcomplementaryfunctionsinsocietyWhilemenarenaturallymadetoruleinboththepublicandprivatedomainawomanbelongsinthedomesticrealmwhereherprimaryroleistobeawifeandmotheraswellastoinsuretheintegrityofthefamilythefirstschoolofmoraleducationAssuchfunctionsarerootedinaninescap-ablehumannaturefashionedbyGodawomanrsquosinabilityorunwilling-nesstoperformherdutiessignalsadisobediencetothedivinewillandpresages the corruption of the Muslim family from within From thisvantagepointtheWesterninsistenceonfullequalitybetweenthesexesisdoubly pernicious it at once liberates women from basic moral con-straintsandenslavesthemtomutuallyreinforcingsexualandcapitalistexploitationAsMurtazaMutahhari(1998xxxi)arguescapitalismmakesuseofwomentomarket itsgoodsldquoby trading inhonourandrespectthrough[their]powertoenticerdquotherebyldquotransform[ing]manintoaninvoluntaryagentofconsumptionrdquoInasmuchaswomenareresponsiblefor producing the next generation of Muslim men destined to restoreIslamtoitsformergloryitisnotonlythevirtueofwomenortheinteg-rityofthefamilythathangsinthebalancebutthefutureofIslamiccivili-zationitself

Zaynab al-Ghazali andMutahharimake several of these argumentsexplicitlyandindetail(seechapters10and11)butinmuchofIslamistrhetoricthenatureandsignificanceofwomenareestablishedindirectlyandsymbolicallyandthroughthreerecurrentimagesinparticularThefirstisofwomenassilentsymbolsofculturalmoralandsexualvulnera-bilityvoicelessfiguresinneedofmasculineprotectionorwhenitistoolatedefiledbodiesthatmutelydemandvengeanceSoforexamplelsquoAb-dallahlsquoAzzam(oneofBinLadenrsquosmentorsseechapter18)graphicallydetailstheagonizinghumiliationofyoungmenunabletoactwhentheAfghanwoman isldquocryingout forhelpher childrenarebeing slaugh-tered her women are being raped the innocent are killed and theircorpsesscatteredrdquo(lsquoAzzam1987a)Inthesecondimagewomenfunction

37

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

muchlikeachorusthatspeaksinpermittedcadencestoratifymasculineendeavorsSuchisthecaseforexampleinBinLadenrsquos1996ldquoDeclara-tionofWaragainsttheAmericansOccupyingtheLandoftheTwoHolyPlacesrdquo(seechapter18)wherethewomenexhortmentojihadinthefollowing way ldquoPrepare yourself like a struggler the matter is biggerthanwordsAreyougoingtoleaveusforthewolvesofKufr[unbe-lief]eatingourwingsWherearethefreemendefendingfreewomenbyarmsDeath isbetter than life inhumiliation Some scandals andshameswillneverbeotherwiseeradicatedrdquo24InthethirdimagewomenarecreaturesnotofthisworldbutofanothervirginalrewardsforthecourageousmartyrintheafterlifeThisisevidentinthefinalinstructionsforthe911hijackersforexamplewhereMuslimldquobrothersrdquoareurgedto purify their carnal impulses sharpen their knives for the dhabh (slaughter)andheedthecallofthehur lsquoayn (theblack-eyedones)await-ingtheminParadise(seechapter19)

Such rhetoric primarily registers women as an extensionmirror ormeasure of masculinity and together with explicit Islamist argumentsabouthumannatureandthefamilyarticulatesIslamistgendernormsinwhichmenandwomeneachhaveaproperlocationandpurposeinadi-vinely ordained social hierarchy Deviance from this gendered scriptthussignalsdisruptionofamuchbroaderreligio-politicalorderitbothpresumes and seeks to bring into existence The disruption caused byforeign aggression in particular exacerbates the tendency to translateconflict into an assault on Muslim masculinity and to conceptualizewomenaspotentialvehiclesforWesterncorruptioninneedofguidingand guarding Women such as Zaynab al-Ghazali and Nadia Yassinewho seek a prominent place and voice within the Islamist movementhavehadlittlechoicebuttocontendwiththisgenderedscriptDoingsohasentailedamongotherthingsnavigatingcarefullybetweenIslamistcharacterizations of womenrsquos visibility and agency as symptomatic ofthe new jahiliyya on the one hand and essentializing arguments thatequateIslamwithveilingfemalegenitalmutilationandhonorkillingsontheother

AsthechaptersonGhazaliandYassinesuggestIslamistwomenhavenegotiatedbetweensuchconstraintsandpressuresandtheirownambi-tionsindifferentwaysApioneeringdalsquoiya(onewhoinvitesMuslimstogreater piety)Ghazalirsquos own life reveals a fierce resistance to conven-tionalnormsofdomesticityevenasmuchofher(earlier)workappearsto embrace an Islamist gender ideology that defines women as wivesmothers andldquobuilders ofmenrdquo (al-Hashimi 1990 118)By contrastYassineisawifeandmotherwhoembracesanldquoIslamicfeminismrdquothatrequiresldquoreappropriatingtheinstrumentsofclassicaltheologyrdquoanden-

24TheIslamistjournalSawt alshyJihadhasgonesofarastofeatureldquowomenrsquosvoicesrdquointheformofrolemodelsnamedforexampleumm alshyshahid(motherofthemartyr)al-thoughitisunclearthattheseldquovoicesrdquoareactuallywomenrsquos(SUsher2004)

38

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INTRODUCTION

gaging the textsdirectly through ijtihad (NYassine2003) In this re-spect Yassine must be understood as part of a broader effort amongMuslimwomenwithdifferentpoliticalcommitmentstosimultaneouslyadvocateandenacttheirrighttorecuperatetheldquooriginalintentrdquooftheIslamictextsIfwomenandmendoinfacthavedistinctperspectivesontheworldYassinesuggestswomenhaveaspecialobligationtoexcavatewhattheyseeasthegenderparityoftheQurrsquoanburiedbeneaththoseldquomachointerpretationsrdquoofIslamuponwhichmenhavebuilttheirprivi-legeandpower(Khalaf2006)25

ManyAnglo-AmericanandEuropean feministsworry that Islamistsseekonly to secureor restorepatriarchalpowerConverselymany Is-lamist women view feminism as a term and a movement inescapablyWesterninoriginfreightedwiththelegacyofcolonialismanduneasilyimplicatedinculturalimperialismThisapplieseventoYassinewhoisunwillingtoadoptwithoutqualificationalabelsheassociateswithagen-dasopposedtoherowntheWesttheMoroccanstateMaghribi(North-westAfrican)elitesYetfeminismitselfisahighlycontestedtermwithin theso-calledWestitisthebearerofmultiplemeaningssomeofwhichareevenopposedandischaracterizedbydeepdisagreementsaboutwhowomenarewhatwomenneedwhoisauthorizedtoworkonwomenrsquosbehalf andbywhatmeans Inasmuch as these various feminismsmayshareonlyastatedconcernforwomenrsquoswelfarethereisnothinginco-herentinmodifyingldquofeminismrdquowithldquoIslamicrdquoldquoMuslimrdquoorevenldquoIs-lamistrdquounlessone iscommitted toarguing thatfirst Islam isanun-changingessencebeyondhistorypoliticsandculturesecondthereisaneutralobjectivevantagefromwhichtoidentifythisessenceonceandforallandfinallytheIslamicessencesoidentifiedisfundamentallyin-compatiblewitheffortstoimprovetheconditionsandqualityofwomenrsquoslivesBythesametokenIslamistwomenwhorejectthetermfeminismcanbe(althoughnotalwaysare)deeplycommittedtoimprovingwom-enrsquoswelfareaswellasactivelyresistanttoeffortsthatreduceortrans-formthemintosilentaccessoriesofmalepower

YassineandGhazalidifferaboutwhatwomenareandshouldbeyetbroadlyspeakingbothmaybeconsideredpartofarecenttrendtowardthe feminizationofdalsquowa Dalsquowa literallymeanscallappealor sum-monsbutthetermhascometosignifyavarietyofpracticesandargu-mentsmeanttoexhortinviteandguideMuslimstowhatisregardedasproperconductandmoraldevotionWomenrsquosparticipationindalsquowais

25WomenrsquosparticipationintheldquoproductionofofficialIslamicknowledgerdquohasalonghistoryalthoughtheyhaveoftendonesoinrelativeobscurityandwithoutthebenefitofeducation in the Islamicsciences thathas legitimateddirectengagementwith thesacredtexts (Cooke 2001 xiv Badran and Cooke 2004) Pioneering attempts to read genderequalityinIslamarealsonotconfinedtowritingbywomenasevincedbyQasimAminrsquosTahrir alshymarrsquoa [TheLiberationofWoman] (1899)andMumtaz lsquoAlirsquosHuquqshye niswan [TheRightsofWomen](1898)

39

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

notabrandnewphenomenonasisevidentinGhazalirsquosworkwiththeEgyptianSocietyofMuslimLadiesinthe1930sYetfromEgypttoPaki-stantoSaudiArabiatotheUnitedStatesthenumberoffemaledalsquoiyashasproliferatedexponentially inrecentyears(Cooke2001Mahmood2005Hirschkind2006)Thisreflectsinpartcurrentdoctrinalempha-sesondalsquowaasincumbentuponbothmenandwomenanddependentlessupontechnicalknowledgethanmoralvirtueandpracticalfamiliaritywiththeIslamictradition(Mahmood200565ndash66)It isalsoaconse-quenceofrecentpoliticalandsocioeconomictransformationsinMuslimsocietiesincludingtheexpansionofmasseducationthathasnotonlyin-creasedwomenrsquosliteracyandsocialmobilitybutalsomadeIslamictextsmoreaccessibletheproliferationoftechnologiesmdashfromthecassettetapetotheInternetmdashthatfacilitatethecirculationofreligiousknowledgeevenamongthosewhocannotreadortraveltheprecedentsetbythevigorousparticipationof IranianwomeninpostrevolutiondebatesaboutIslamandthemodeloflegalactivismevidentintheIslamistmovementrsquosownchallenge to the lsquoulamarsquos status as gatekeepers of religious knowledge(Singerman2005Mir-Hosseini1999)

If Ghazali and Yassine exemplify the feminization of dalsquowa amongelitesthemosquemovementinEgyptillustratesthegrowingparticipa-tionofwomenfromdiversesocialbackgroundsinreligiousclassesde-votedtostudyinganddebatingwhatIslamrequiresforawomantobeldquomorallyuprightrdquointhecontemporaryworld(Mahmood2005)Con-ceptualizingpiety in termsof adeepandholistic commitment to self-transformationparticipantsinthemosquemovementareconcernedlesswithmattersofsovereigntyandpoliticsconventionallyunderstoodandmorewiththeldquomoralcultivationrdquoofthosedailypracticesseenascrucialtobecomingclosertoGod(Mahmood2005)SomeIslamistshavecriti-cizedthis focusonpracticesofworshipasapoliticalandoverlypriva-tizedyetsuchcriticismmissestheforceofIslamistsrsquoowninsistenceondin(religion)asawayoflifeinwhichthedomainsofpublicandprivateare inextricably linked26AsSabaMahmood (2005193194) showsthesewomenrsquosintenseeffortsatldquoretrainingethicalsensibilitiesrdquohavealdquosociopoliticalforcerdquothatextendswellbeyondmattersofgovernancefacilitatingnolessthantheemergenceofaldquonewsocialandmoralorderrdquoEvidenceofitstransformativepowermaybefoundnotonlyinthesheernumbersandvarietyofwomenmdashwealthyandpoor literateand illiter-atemdashparticipatinginthemosquemovementbutalsointherhetoricalandpoliticaleffortsbythestateandsomeIslamiststocurtailcontrolordis-creditit(Mahmood200571194)

26ParticipantsinthemosquemovementinturnareoftencriticalofwhattheyseeasthereductionofIslamtotokensofculturalauthenticityorofitsinstrumentalizationbybothnationalistsandIslamiststheycharacterizeasmoreinterestedinpoliticalmaneuveringthanreligiouspiety

40

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

Understoodtoincludebothwrittenandembodiedpracticesthefemi-nizationof dalsquowa illustrates theways inwhichwomen fromdifferentperspectivesandsocialclassesareinsistingonengagingthesacredtextsdirectly for and with one another without the mediating authority ofmenwhohavetraditionallyheldthemonopolyonsuchactivitiesAsSu-danese Islamist Lubabah al-Fadl argues ldquoAs an insan [human being]whohappenstobeawomanIhavearighttorejectthemanipulativeexegesesofoursharilsquoa thatthreatenmyexistenceinawaythat isnotconsistentwiththeGodlywayandtoapplymyownijtihadtorectifyer-roneoustendenciesbysomeshuyukh[pluralofshaykh]rdquo(Sadiki2004290)DespitetheproliferationofvoicesintentonclaimingforthemselvestheauthoritytodemarcatewhatisauthenticallyIslamicandun-Islamiconceandforallcontestationoveritsscopeandmeaningproceedsapacefacilitatedatleastinpartbywomenformerlyexcludedfromtheconver-sationAtthesametimeIslamistwomenrsquosagencyandclaimstoauthorityarefrequentlystillpredicatedonawillingnesstofollowfairlypatriarchalrulesaboutwherehowandwithwhomtheymaypracticetheirvocation(Hirschkind2003Sadiki2004283)

Islamism and Violence

IfgenderisfrequentlyanimplicitpreoccupationamongIslamistsjihadisarguably Islamistsrsquomost consistently explicit concern Jihad is derivedfromtheArabicverbthatmeanstostruggleortostriveyetitisaparticu-larkindofstruggle that isofconcern tomanyof thefigurescollectedheretheoftenviolentstruggleagainstapostatesandinfidelsbothathomeandabroadtowhicheveryindividualMuslimmustcontributeTheclaimthatfightingunbelieversisthepreeminentenactmentofindividualMus-limpiety seems to justify characterizationsof Islam ingeneral and Is-lamisminparticularassanctioningevenencouragingviolenceYetwhatIslamistsrepresentasjihadtout courtisahistoricallyspecificunderstand-ingderivedfromahighlyselectiveuseoftextsandprecedentsprominentamongthemaformerlyobscureclaimbytheinfluentialfourteenth-cen-tury jurist IbnTaymiyya thatMongol rulerswhohad contravened Is-lamiclawcouldbesubjecttoforcibleremovalFarfromadefinitiveex-pressionof Islamldquoproperlyunderstoodrdquo such Islamist argumentsnotonlymarkasignificantdeparturefrommuchofantecedentdoctrineandpractice but also diminish the importance of ongoing disagreementsamongMuslimsabouttheformandpurposesofjihad

TobeginwithMuslimscholarshavetendedtoconsiderjihadagainstforeignenemiesafard kifaya(collectiveobligation)thatisadutyagroupofpeoplewithinthecommunitymayperformonbehalfoftherestandonethatpresupposesalegitimateMuslimleadertodeclareorleadthechargeJuristshavedistinguishedthisfromthefard lsquoayn(individualduty)thatmustbefulfilledbyeverysingleMuslimincasesofdefensivejihad

41

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

thatiswhentheummaisunderattackManyIslamistsincludedheretakeamuchlessnuancedviewofjihadAsamodeofpoliticalactionQutbarguesjihadmustberegardedasaldquopermanentconditionnotanocca-sionalconcernrdquoonethatincurrentcircumstancesrequiresdeedsratherthanwordsstruggleratherthancontemplationrevolutionathomeaswellasresistanceabroad(Qutb199167ndash6882)lsquoAbdal-SalamFarajarguesalongsimilarlinesthatthenatureoftheattackonIslammakespolitical authorization by a caliph (ldquodeputyrdquo referring to a legitimatesuccessortotheProphetrsquosleadership)unnecessaryafterallldquoleadershipovertheMuslimsis(always)intheirownhandsifonlytheymakethismanifestIfthereissomethinglackingintheleadershipwellthereisnothingthatcannotbeacquiredrdquo(Jansen1986asec93)

SuchargumentsareadeliberaterejectionofearlyMuslimmodernistswhohademphasizedthelargelydefensivecharacterofjihadandsoughttoshowthatrelationsbetweenMuslimsandnon-MuslimswerenormallypeacefulratherthanantagonisticMahmudShaltut(d1963)therectorof al-Azhar from 1958 to 1963 had argued for example that theQurrsquoanicversesonfightingldquoprohibittheprovocationofhostilityandthisprohibitionisreinforcedbyGodrsquosrepugnancetoaggressionandbyhisdislikeofthosewhoprovokehostilityrdquo(Peters199674onShaltutseeZebiri1993)ConversionbyforceisanathematoIslamShaltutaversandfightingiscommandedonlyindefenseinresponsetoaggressionini-tiatedbyothersEvendefensivejihadmustaimatldquotheterminationoftheaggressionandtheestablishmentofreligiouslibertydevotedtoGodandfreefromanypressureorforcerdquo(Peters199675)

ManyIslamistsexplicitlydismisssuchargumentsasasymptomoffalseconsciousnessoneamongmanydestructiveeffectsofcolonialdomina-tionMawdudiargues for example thatwhile imperialists ravage theworld to satisfy their greed jihad alone ldquoconjures up the vision of amarching band of religious fanatics with savage beards and fiery eyesbrandishingdrawnswordsandattackingtheinfidelswherevertheymeetthemrdquoHavinginternalizedthis imageMuslimsrushtoapologizeandrenouncearmedstruggleInthiswayhelamentscolonialistsretaintheexclusiverighttoldquofightwitharmsandammunitionwhilewearecon-tented with our pen and our tonguerdquo (Mawdudi 1948 1ndash3) SayyidQutbforhispartagreedthatIslamdoesnotcountenancespreadingitsmessagebyforceandcoercionyethehadlittlepatiencewiththosewhosoughttopresentjihadaslegitimateonlyinself-defense

IfweinsistoncallingIslamicjihadadefensivemovementthenwemustchangethemeaningofthewordldquodefenserdquoandmeanbyitldquothedefenseofmanrdquoagainstallthoseforcesthatlimithisfreedomWhenwetakethisbroadmeaningofthewordldquodefenserdquoweunder-standthetruecharacterofIslaminthatitproclaimstheuniversalfreedomofeverypersonandcommunityfromservitudetoanyother

42

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

individualorsocietytheendofmanrsquosarroganceandselfishnesstheestablishmentofthesovereigntyofAllahandHisLordshipthrough-outtheworldandtheruleofthedivinesharilsquoainhumanaffairs(Qutb199050)

Qutbdoesnotnameanynamesincastigatingtheldquowriterswithdefeatistandapologeticmentalities[who]writeaboutlsquojihadinIslamrsquoandtrytoremovethislsquoblotrsquofromIslamrdquo(Qutb199046)buthecouldverywellhavehadhisdistinguishedfellowEgyptianMahmudShaltutinmind

These arguments about jihad may be said to constitute a commongrammarandframeworkofanalysisformanyIslamistsalthoughseveralthinkers in this volume carefully calibrate such claims to suit variouspurposesanddifferentpublicspheresInhisjustificationfortheassassi-nationofEgyptianpresidentAnwaral-SadatforexamplelsquoAbdal-SalamFarajdepictsthestruggletoreclaimthemoralfoundationsoftheEgyp-tianstateasafightagainstjahiliyyafromwithinarguingthatthejihadagainstacorruptnationalistregimeathomemusttakeprecedenceoverfightingenemieselsewhereTheCharterofHamas(seechapter15)how-everinsiststhatallMuslimsrecognizetheprimacyofthejihadforJeru-salemweldingIslamistrhetorictothatofnationalistresistanceinanef-fortbothtofightIsraelioccupationandtocompeteforadherentswiththePalestinianLiberationOrganization(PLO)IncontrasttobothFarajandHamasBinLadenembracesaglobaljihadthatessentiallycollapsesdistinctionsbetweennationalandinternationaloffensiveanddefensivefightingenemiesathomeandthosefromafar

Yet despite such differences these arguments tend to presume thatviolent jihad is a necessary response to the pervasive power of thosewithdemonstratedhostilitytoMuslimliveslandspietiesandsensibili-tiesaformofretaliationwhoseurgencyandlegitimacyderivefromtheviolencemdashpsychologicalandeconomicaswellasphysicalmdashoftheinitialassaultThisviewofjihadsubsumesindividualsintoarchetypesofldquoin-fidelsrdquoandldquobelieversrdquoandinsodoingvitiatesmoreconventionaldis-tinctionsbetweenforexamplesoldierandcivilianorcollectiveandin-dividual responsibility It is far from inevitable that thosewhoharborsuchviewswillautomaticallyactuponthemyetthecarnagewroughtbytheattacksontheWorldTradeCenterandthePentagonin2001aBalinightclub in 2002 Madrid commuter trains in 2004 and throughoutIraqonadailybasissuggestjusthowlethalsuchclaimscanbegiventheright circumstances The fact that such violence does not discriminateamongvictimsonlyfurtherfuelsrhetoriccharacterizingIslamistsasirra-tional fanatics ldquoin love with deathrdquo terrorists animated by a religioncharacterizedbyapropensityforviolenceandauthoritarianism27

27AnxietiesabouttheparticularsusceptibilityofMuslimstoirrationalityinsularityandfanaticismhavealonganddistinguishedpedigreeinEuro-AmericanhistoryandpoliticalthoughtSeeforexampleRenan18833

43

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

AsinsomanyothermattershoweverIslamistsarehardlyofonemindonthesubjectofjihadindeedthereareIslamistswhoexplicitlyrejectthereductionof struggle toviolenceAcase inpoint isNadiaYassine(20032005c)whoinsiststhatjihadisthededicatedstruggleagainstisshytikbar(arrogance)particularlyinitscommonformasthelustforpoweranddominationAsjihadagainstistikbarisbothafinalgoalandapre-scriptionforactionYassinesuggestsitisantitheticaltoviolentpracticesthataimatdominationTheprimaryinstrumentsofjihadarenotbombsbutwords particularly thosedeployed in the art of persuasion (Fara-marzi2005NYassine2006a)WhenIslamistssuchaslsquoAbdal-SalamFarajandlsquoUmarlsquoAbdal-RahmanseektolegitimizeviolentrevolutionbyrecoursetoIslamictextsshearguestheycontravenethetruemeaningofjihadtoservetheirownarrogantendsBythesametokenBinLadenrsquosdecisiontoldquofightevilwithevilandbarbaritywithbarbarityrdquonotonlyviolatesspecificIslamicprohibitionsagainstharmingcivilianswomenandchildrenbutalsobetraystheethicalimperativetoembodythemes-sageofamercifulGodwhocautionsbelieversthat(Q8822)ldquoYouhavenopoweroverthemrdquo(NYassine2005cDaily Excelsior2002)

SuchpersistentdisagreementsamongMuslimspastandpresentsug-gest that Islam isnomore inherently violent andbloody-minded thanitmdashorChristianityor Judaism for thatmattermdashis inherentlypeacefulIslamists often claim to speak for an unchanging authentic Islam thatexistsoutsideoftimeandspaceyetthepoliticalpurchaseoftheirper-spective derives from the ways it assembles disparate yet recognizablecontemporaryexperiencesofsufferingfrustrationandlossintoanex-planationthatresonateswithMuslimswholiveincommunitiescultur-allylinguisticallyandgeographicallydistantfromoneanotherTheex-tenttowhichIslamistargumentsresonatebroadlyacrossMuslimsocie-tiesthusdependsuponasetofexperiencesandphenomenathatmarkthisparticularmomentinhistoryincludingthewaysinwhichcontempo-raryglobalinequalitiescompoundalegacyofhistoricalasymmetriestocontinuallyreproduceasenseofMuslimpowerlessnessmdashbothrealandimaginedmdashrelativetotheWestcontinuingEuro-Americanpoliticalandfinancialsupportofcorruptautocratsmanyofwhompresideoverna-tion-statesbrutallystitchedtogetherbyWesternfiat thepersistenceofauthoritarian regimes eager to control domestic unrest by catalyzingldquoMuslimragerdquotowardexternaltargetsthesenseofemasculationpro-ducedbydecadesofpoliticalrepressionandeconomicfrustrationandthecontinualflowofimagesofbloodiedMuslimbodiesdeliveredbyaburgeoningarrayofvideosatelliteandelectronicmedia

It is notable that the understanding of jihad many Islamists proffermirrorstheverystate-sanctionedviolenceagainstwhichtheyhavestrug-gledforalmostacenturyAlongwiththousandsofMuslimscaughtinthemachineryoftwentieth-centurystateviolenceprominentIslamistsfromQutbtoGhazalitoAymanal-Zawahirimdashal-Qalsquoidarsquossecondincommandmdash

44

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

arewellknowntohavebeenradicalizedbyextendedandoftenbrutaltermsofincarcerationinEgyptSyriaIraqJordanIsraelAlgeriaandelsewhere(onal-ZawahiriandprisoncfKepelandMilelli2008152ndash54)ItisthusfarfromsurprisingthatIslamistsforgedbyinterrogationtortureinprisoncampswouldconcludethatthepreeminentenactmentofMuslimpietyisviolentstruggleldquoPrisonrdquoasPalestinianKhaledAbuHilalhassaidldquoismyuniversityrdquo(Erlanger2007)anargumentmadeingreaterdetailinadifferenttimeandplacebyRussianwriterandrevolu-tionaryMaximGorky(1868ndash1936)

Apeoplebroughtupinaschoolthatremindsoneofthetormentsofhellonasmallscaleapeopleaccustomedtotheclenched-fistprisonandthewhipwillnotbeblestwithatenderheartApeoplethatthepoliceagentshaveriddenoverwillbecapableintheirturnofwalk-ingoverthebodiesofothersInacountrywhereunresthasreignedsolongit isdifficultforthepeopletorealizefromonedaytothenextthepowerofrightOnecannotdemandfromamanwhohasneverknownjusticethatheshouldbejust(Gorky1920)

InthiscontextasTimothyMitchell(1990195ndash96199207ndash8)suggestsIslamistviewsoftheworldcanbecharacterizedasbothamodeofresis-tancetostatemechanismsofcoercionandanexpressionofthemSuchisthedynamic evident inGhazalirsquosmemoirs for examplewhen shede-scribeshowtheldquodarknessofprisonsthebladesoftortureandthevi-ciousbeatingsonly increasetheenduranceandresolveofthefaithfulrdquo(Ghazali19786)

There is no doubt a great deal of pragmatism at work in IslamistargumentsaboutviolenceAsQutb(19916447ndash48)drylynotesthepathtofreedommustoccasionallybehewnbywayoftheswordbecausetyrants are not reasoned out of power and ldquojahiliyya is not lsquoabstracttheoryrsquo[it]consciouslyorunconsciouslystrivestopreserveitsownexistence to defend its essence to annihilate dangerous elementswhichthreatenitsverybeingrdquoYetitisalsothecasethatformanyoftheseIslamistsjihadisbothameansandanendanefforttoeradicatethoseobstacles torestoringa justcommunityonearththatsimultane-ouslybringshumanaction intoaccordwithGodrsquosplansandpurposes(Haddad198321)While theQurrsquoan (2256) states thatldquothere isnocompulsioninreligionrdquoIslamistscontendthatonlyinastateinwhichIslamiclawreignssupremearehumanbeingsfreefromenslavementtooneanotherrsquosruleandallareequalbyvirtueoftheircommonsubmissiontoGodAsQutb(1991107ndash8)argues

WhenthehighestauthorityinsocietyisGodalonemdashexpressedintheruleofdivinelawmdashonlythenishumanitytrulyandcompletelyliber-atedfromslaverytomenOnlythisisldquohumancivilizationrdquobecausetheessentialfoundationofhumancivilizationisthetrueandcom-

45

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

pletefreedomofhumanityandtheabsolutedignityofeveryindivid-ualinsocietyThereisnotruefreedomanddignityforhumanityortheindividualinasocietywheresomepeoplearelordswholegislateandothersareslaveswhoobey

From this perspective the realization of justice liberty equality andchoiceitselfnecessitatestheforcibleremovaloftheconstraintsimposedbyjahiliyyaalongwiththosewhoaidandabetitno matter the costAsMawdudi(1954160ndash61)writes

[W]hyisitthatinreligionsuchimportanceisgiventojihadthattheQurrsquoanpronouncesthejudgmentofhypocrisyuponthosewhoshirkandevadeitJihadisbutanothernamefortheattempttoerectthesystemoftruthandtheQurrsquoandeclaresjihadtobeatouchstoneonthesamefootingwithamanrsquosfaithInotherwordshewhohasfaithinhisheartwillneitherbecontentwiththedominationofthesystemofevilnorwillhegrudgetheexpenditureoflifeandwealthinthestruggleforerectingthesystemoftruthIfoneshowsweaknessinthismatterhisfaithitselfisdoubtfulWhatcananythingelsebesidethenprofithimThemanwhoprofesses faith in this religioncannotfulfillhisdutyonlybytryingasfaraspossibletopatternhislifeonIslamThenatureofhisfaithitselfrequiresthatheshouldconcentrateallhiseffortuponwrestingleadershipfromunbelievingandcorruptmentoentrustittotherighteousanduponerectingthesystemoftruththathasbeenordainedfortheconductoftheworldaccordingtothewillofGodBecausethisendisunattainablewith-out thehighestdegreeofcollectiveeffort theremustexistarigh-teouscommunitycommittedtotheprincipleoftruthanddevotedtothesolepurposeintheworldoferectingmaintainingandproperlyrealizingthesystemoftruth

ThefactthatsomeIslamistthinkerssanctifyviolentstruggleinsuchtermsdoesnotmeanofcoursethatallthosewhoadvocateorengageinjihadendorseviolence28NordoesitimplythatthosewhoclaimtokillforIslamareentirelywithoutulteriormotivesthosemanipulativepur-poses andpsychologicalmotivations that even themost rarified scrip-turalargumentscanexpressorserveWhattheprecedinganalysisdoessuggesthoweveristhatthereductionofthisviewofjihadtoirrationalbloodlusttheself-interestedgrabfortemporalpoweroradoorthroughwhichtopassintothehereaftermissesacrucialdimensionofitssignifi-canceandappealfortruebelieversjihadisnolessthananenactmentof

28EvenashespokeofaneweraofjahiliyyaandofjihadMawdudihimselfstoppedwellshortof recommendingor condoning the actual resort to violence in themannermanyotherIslamistsdidAsNasr(199670)observesMawdudirsquosorganizationtheJamalsquoat-iIs-lamildquohasavoidedviolentsocialchangeandhasinsteadviewedthepathtotheIslamicstateaslyingwithintheexistingsociopoliticalorderrdquoAlsoseethechapters5and3onQutbandMawdudiinthisvolume

46

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

adivineimperativetoremakethefoundationsofcollectivelifeInthisre-spectIslamistviewsofjihadcanbeseenaspartofalong-standingasso-ciationbetweenviolenceandpoliticalfoundingsuponwhichnoparticu-larcultureorhistoricalepochhasamonopolyThisassociationandtheldquolegacyofviolencerdquoitbequeathstofuturegenerationsarenolessappar-entinthoseradicalrevolutionsofrenewalthatmovebywayoftheswordfromthemarginstothecenterthanthosepoliticalfoundingsthatclaimtocreatesomethingoutofnothing(Connolly1995251)Ineithercasethetollofsuchbrutalitycanbeimmeasurableforinadditiontothevic-timswhosufferdirectlytheldquopracticeofviolencelikeallactionchangestheworldbutthemostprobablechangeistoamoreviolentworldrdquo(Ar-endt1972177)

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Page 5: Chapter 1 INTRODUCTION - assets.press.princeton.eduassets.press.princeton.edu/chapters/s9067.pdf · Chapter 1 INTRODUCTION This volume is intended as a broad introduction to the evolution

5

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

InthefollowingpageswerefinethispreliminarydefinitionfurtherbydelineatingseveralaspectsofIslamismthatshouldbeconsideredbroadtendenciesandldquofamilyresemblancesrdquoratherthanfixedattributeschar-acteristicsofIslamismthatnoteveryIslamistexhibitsallofthetimeyetwhichinterweavetoformaldquocomplicatednetworkofsimilaritiesover-lappingandcriss-crossingsometimesoverallsimilaritiessometimessim-ilaritiesofdetailrdquo (Wittgenstein1953sect66)Webring such tendenciesandresemblancesintosharpreliefbywayofcontrastwithseveralotherMuslimorientationsandgroupscrucialtomodernandcontemporaryIs-lamicthoughtmodernistslsquoulama(traditionallyeducatedreligiousschol-ars)SalafisandSufisThiswayofsituatingIslamismisbothanargu-mentandaheuristicdevicedesignedfirsttoidentifythecommonalitiesamongIslamistthinkerssecondtomakevisibletheheterogeneityofIs-lamistargumentsandideasandthirdtosuggestthattherelationshipbetweenIslamistandnon-Islamistreligio-politicalorientationspastandpresentismarkedasmuchbycontinuitiescomplexoverlapsandsubtledifferentiationsasbyradicalbreaks

Situating Islamism

The Muslim Modernists and the lsquoUlama

TheonsetofEuropeancolonialruleacrossMuslimsocietiesinauguratedagreatdealofsoulsearchingonthenatureandcausesofMuslimpoliti-caldeclineandwhatcouldbedonetoreverseitManyMuslimreformersofthenineteenthcenturyinsistedthatthepoliticalsubjugationofMus-limstoforeignnon-Muslimrulerswastheresultofafallingawayfromadherence to their authoritative religious norms The best indeed theonlywayMuslimscouldhopetoremedytheircircumstanceswasthrougharenewedadherencetoGodrsquoscommandsThiswouldentitlethemonceagaintoGodrsquosfavortheargumentwentnotjustbeyondthegravebutinthisworldThisperspectivewasnotnewLongbeforetheadventofEu-ropeancolonialismreformersandmujaddidun(renewers)hadperiodi-callyarisentoguidethecommunityoutofwhattheysawasitsmoralan-archyNot infrequentlysuchreformershadmadecommoncausewithmembersofthepoliticalandmilitaryeliteineffortstosetthingsrightastheythoughtGodhadintended

YetifneitherthediagnosisnortheremedywasnewcallsforarevivedIslamicpietydid come to carry anewburden in colonial societies InSouthAsiaadecadeorsoaftertheformalestablishmentofBritishcolo-nialrulein1857someMuslimreligiousscholarsbegancallingforare-invigoratedadherence to Islam in lightof theQurrsquoanhadithand thenormsoftheHanafischooloflawdominantinIndiaembarkingonsus-tained efforts to educate members of the Muslim community in these

6

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

norms4This reformist effort centeredon amadrasamdasha school of ad-vancedIslamiclearningmdashfoundedatDeobandinnorthernIndiain1867whichgraduallybecamethenucleusofnumerousmadrasassharingthesamereformistorientationandspreadthroughoutSouthAsiaandeven-tuallybeyondtheIndiansubcontinent(Metcalf1982Zaman2002)TheconvictionthatguidedthesereligiousscholarsthelsquoulamawasnotjustthatthesorrystateoftheirfellowMuslimsreflectedalaxityinadheringtoGodrsquoscommandsbutalsothatintheabsenceofMuslimpoliticalrulereligiousknowledge anchored in the foundational andother religioustextswasthebestguaranteeforthepreservationofadistinctMuslimidentity

SuchlsquoulamahavehadtheiranaloguesacrossmodernMuslimsocieties(cfZeghal1995Zaman2002144ndash80HefnerandZaman2007)TheyhavealsohadtheiropponentsManyoftheopponentsarewhatmightbecharacterizedasinternalthatisotherlsquoulamacommittedtoarivaldoc-trinalorientationortodifferentbeliefsaboutsayhowthememoryofasaintoroftheProphetMuhammadoughttobeveneratedorwhatcus-tomary norms might be accommodated into legitimate ways of beingMuslim But other Muslim reformersmdashwhom scholars have often re-ferredtoastheldquomodernistsrdquomdashhavehadverydifferentideasaboutwhathadgonewrongwiththeMuslimworldandhowtoremedyit5Tothemodernists the sort of institutions and practices represented by thelsquoulamaandtheremediesproposedbythempointednottoasolutionoftheproblemsMuslimshadcometofaceinthecolonialcontextbuttotheirperpetuationModernistreformersalsoprofessedfirmcommitmenttoIslamicnormsbutwithsomecrucialdifferencesTheyarguedthatitwasnolongerenoughforMuslimssimplytoholdfirmtotheteachingsoftheirfaithasconventionallyunderstoodThetimeshadchangeddras-ticallyMuslimsneededtoacquiremodernWesternformsofknowledgeandtoaccommodatethemselvestoEuropeanpracticestechnologiesandinstitutionsiftheyweretoimprovetheirlotandindeedtosurviveatallasacommunityTheearlymodernistsalsoinsistedmdashashavetheirsucces-sorstothisdaymdashthatIslamitselfneededtobereinterpretedinorderto

4MostSunniMuslimshave longbelonged tooneof fourmadhhabs (schoolsof law)whosebeginningsareattributedtoscholarswholivedintheeighthandtheninthcenturiesTheHanafischooloflawisnamedafterAbuHanifa(d767)theMalikischoolafterMalikbAnas(d795)theShafilsquoischoolafterMuhammadbIdrisal-Shafilsquoi(d820)andtheHanbalischoolafterAhmadibnHanbal(d855)AmongtheShilsquoathereareseveralsectar-iandivisionsOfthesethelargestcommunitymdashtheImamisortheIthnalsquoasharis(ldquoTwelversrdquo)mdashadheretoalegalsystemwhoseearlyarticulationisattributedtothesixthShilsquoiimamJalsquofaral-Sadiq(d765)

5ThescholarlyliteratureonMuslimmodernismissubstantialbutunevenNotablestud-iesincludeHourani1983(firstpublishedin1962)Ahmad1967Troll1978Brown1996Khalid1998andHefner2000ThespectrumofmodernistthoughtmayusefullybeseenintwoanthologieseditedbyKurzmanLiberal Islam(1998)andModernist Islam(2002)andinKamrava2006

7

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INTRODUCTION

meetthenewchallengesthatconfrontedMuslimsItwasnotIslamthatboretheresponsibilityforthepoliticalandintellectualweaknessesafflict-ingMuslimsocietiesmdashasmanyaEuropeanobserverofIslamsuggestedmdashbutthefailureofMuslimstoproperlyinterprettheirfoundationaltextsinaccordancewithchangingneeds

While many among the lsquoulama have long affirmed the authority oftheirmadhhabs(schoolsoflaw)andtheneedforstrictadherence(taqlid)toschooldoctrinesinordertomaintainthecontinuityandcoherenceoftheirscholarlyandespeciallytheirjuridicaltraditionmodernistshavesel-domseenanythingredeeminginsuchconceptionsofauthority6TaqlidtothemisldquoblindimitationrdquooflongdeadmastersandoftheiranachronisticviewswhichhasstoodinthewayofpeoplersquosabilitytoadaptthemselvestonewchallengesThemodernistshavealsoallegedthatinholdingfirmtotheiroutmodedwaysthelsquoulamawereinterestedneitherinthewelfareofIslamnor inthatofthecommunity theywereonlydefendingtheirownprivilegesastheguardiansandauthoritativeinterpretersofthereli-gioustraditionandtheconsiderablesocialstandingthatoftenwentwithitAs themodernist reformers have understood it there is nothing inIslamtostoppeoplefrominterpretingitsnormsaccordingtotheneedsofchangingtimesIndeedtheQurrsquoaninvitespeopletoreflectonit(ldquoWilltheynotthinkaboutthisQurrsquoanrdquoQ482)whichistheveryoppositeofthelsquoulamarsquosinsistenceonfirmadherencetoearlierauthoritiesAsMu-hammadRashidRida(d1935) theeditorof theEgyptian journalalshyManar(1898ndash1935)andadiscipleofthefamousreformerMuhammadlsquoAbduh(d1905)wroteinhiscommentaryonQurrsquoan482

Theonlyunavoidablerequisite[tobeabletoreflectontheQurrsquoan]isknowledgeof the languageof theQurrsquoan itswordsand its stylewhich[inanycase]isthesortofthingrequiredofanyonewhobe-comes aMuslimTaqlid signifiespreventing [people] from re-flectingontheQurrsquoanYetGodhimselfhascommandedustoreflectonHisbookandtoreasonwithitandnoonefromamongHiscreaturescanforbidwhatHehasmadeobligatoryBytherejectionoftaqlidwedonotmeanthateveryMuslimcanpossiblybecomeaMalik[d795]oraShafilsquoi[d820]inderivingthejuristicrulesrelatingtothecommunityorthateveryoneoughttodosoWemeanonlythateveryMuslimisobligatedtoreflectontheQurrsquoanandtobeguidedbyitinaccordancewithhisabilitiesItisneverper-missible foraMuslimtoabandon[theQurrsquoan]andto turnawayfromitortoprefermdashoverwhatheunderstandsofitsguidancemdashthewordsofanyoneelsebeitamujtahid[apractitionerofijtihadieofindependentlegalreasoning]oronecommittedtotaqlid(muqalshylid)AMuslimrsquosreligionislifelesswithouttheQurrsquoanThereisno

6On the lsquoulamarsquos conception of tradition see Zaman 2002 especially 3ndash16 2007b63ndash70

8

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INTRODUCTION

bookbyamastermujtahidorbyamuqallidthatcanmakeupfor[direct]reflectionontheBookofGodIfMuslimshadstoodfirminreflectingontheQurrsquoanandinbeingguidedbyitineveryagetheirmoralsandmannerswouldnothavebeenruinedtheirrulerswouldnothavebeenunjustanddespotictheirauthoritywouldnothavedeclinedandtheywouldnothavebecomedependentonothersfortheirlivelihood(Rida1947ndash545296ndash97)7

AsthispassageillustratescentraltomodernistdiscoursesacrossMus-limsocieties istheideaof ijtihad(cfKurzman20029ndash14)bywhichtheyhaveoftenmeantnotonlytheefforttoformulateIslamiclegalrul-ingsonmattersthefoundationaltextshadleftunregulatedbutalsothereinterpretationofmattersonwhichthegeneralityofearlierscholarsandeventhefoundationaltextsthemselveshadhadareasonablyclearviewManyamongthelsquoulamahaveinsistedthattheirschooldoctrinesprovidesufficient resources to meet all contingencies and what remains to bedoneistofindaparticularnormordoctrinethatmatchesthequestionorproblemathandNotall lsquoulamaofmoderntimeshavebeenaversetoparticularformsofijtihadindeedthecontinuingnecessityofijtihadinatleastsomeofitsformshascometobeincreasinglyrecognizedbymanyamongthem(cfZaman200816ndash1764126)Stilltheideathatspe-cificlegalrulingsenunciatedinthefoundationaltextsmightthemselvesbesetasideinthenameofdarura(necessity)orsubordinatedtoconsid-erationsofmaslaha (commongood) is tothemtantamounttotakinglibertieswithGodrsquoseternalword(cfZaman2004133ndash39)

Needlesstosaymodernistreformershaveneverthoughtoftheirinitia-tivesastakinglibertieswithGodrsquoscommandsTheyhaveofteninsistedhoweverthattheliteralwordofGodmustalwaysbeunderstoodinlightoftheoverallldquospiritrdquoofthedivineinjunctionstakenbothintheiren-tiretyandintheiroriginalhistoricalcontext8Modernistdiscourseson

7ThiscommentarytheTafsir alshyManarreflectstheviewsofbothMuhammadlsquoAbduhandRashidRidathoughitwaslargelywrittenbyRida

8InvocationsoftheldquospiritrdquooftheQurrsquoanoftheProphetrsquosexampleorofIslamatlargeareacommonmotifinmodernist(andsomeIslamist)writingsSyedAmeerAli(d1928)aShilsquoimodernistscholarandjudgeincolonialIndiahadcharacteristicallytitledhisbest-knownbookThe Spirit of IslamForsomeotherinstancesoftheappealtothespiritofIslamandtheQurrsquoanandrelatedformulationscfIqbal1934149156Kurzman200260256Ramadan2007xiThemedieval juridical ideaof theoverarchingldquopurposesrdquounderlyingthesacredlaw(maqasid alshysharilsquoa)anunderstandingofwhichoughttoguidethejuristinallhisendeavorsmightbethoughttohavesomethingincommonwithmod-ernistappealstothespiritofIslamAndit isnoaccidentthattheworkofthemedievalSpanishjuristal-Shatibi(d1388)whoisamongthosemostcloselyassociatedwiththeelaborationofthisideahasremainedespeciallypopularinmodernistcirclesMedievalju-ristsunderstoodtheideaofthemaqasidal-sharilsquoatomeanthatthesharilsquoawasconcernedaboveallwiththepreservationoflifereligionrationalityprogenyandpropertyandthatnolegalrulingsshouldviolatethesefundamentalconcernsInmarkedcontrasthowevertothecarefulexegeticalandlegalargumentationthatwentintodemonstratingwhatthepur-

9

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INTRODUCTION

polygamyofferanillustrationoftheirapproachTheQurrsquoanallowspo-lygamyldquoIfyoufearthatyouwillnotdealfairlywithorphangirlsyoumaymarrywhicheverwomenseemgoodtoyoutwothreeorfourIfyoufearthatyoucannotbeequitable[tothem]thenmarryonlyoneoryourslave(s)thatismorelikelytomakeyouavoidbiasrdquo(Q43)TheQurrsquoanthuspermitspolygamybutsimultaneously insistsonequityasthenecessaryconditionforapolygamoushouseholdaqualificationsup-plementedbyQurrsquoan4129ldquoYouwillneverbeabletotreatyourwiveswithequalfairnesshowevermuchyoumaydesiretodosobutdonotignore one wife altogether leaving her suspendedrdquo Modernist re-formershaveoftenseentheQurrsquoanicsanctionforpolygamynotjustasbeingspecifictoextraordinarycircumstancesmdashasawayofprovidingforgirlsmadeorphanbywarmdashbutaseffectivelyruledoutbytheQurrsquoanicstatementthatmencanneverreallybeequitabletowardmorethanonewife(cfRahman198947ndash48)TothelsquoulamathisisspeciousreasoningforifGodhadreallywantedtoprohibitpolygamyHecouldsimplyhavesaid so (cf Shafilsquo 2005ndash7 2313ndash14 592ndash93) That medieval juristsandexegetesarepracticallyunanimousinallowingpolygamyisfortheirlatter-daysuccessorsfurtherconfirmationofthecorrectnessoftheirownunderstandingoftheQurrsquoanonthismatter

Asthisexamplesuggestsatissuebetweenmodernistsandthelsquoulamaisnotonlyhowparticularnormsareviewedbutalsohowtheyareaf-firmedanddefendedThelsquoulamarsquosscholarlytraditionisconstitutedbyalongandcomplexhistoryofcommentarydebateagreementsanddis-agreementsaboutthefoundationaltextsandaboutallmattersIslamicAstheyseeitthistraditionisnotclosedfrozenormonolithicyetitiswith reference to the scholarly tradition that anygiven readingof thefoundational or other texts finds meaning and legitimacy in their dis-coursesModernistreformersfortheirparthaveusuallyseenthistradi-tionpreciselyasclosedandanachronisticasoccludingthetruespiritofIslamic teachings and therefore as unworthy of serious and sustainedengagement

Modernists Islamists and the lsquoUlama

ThecontestationbetweenthemodernistsandthelsquoulamaprovidesawayofsituatingtheIslamistswithinabroadspectrumofcompetingbutalsooverlappingorientationsintheMuslimpublicsphereLikethemodern-istswhothemselvesholdvariedpositionsontherelationshipbetweenIslamandpoliticsmanyamongthe IslamistsareproductsofmodernWesterninstitutionsoflearningSayyidQutb(d1966)wasnottrained

posesofthelawwerehowoneknewwhattheywereandhowthelawwastobeinter-pretedwithreferencetothem(cfHallaq1997esp162ndash206Weiss199878ndash87145ndash71)modernistappealstothespiritoressenceofIslamareoftenextremelyvague

10

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INTRODUCTION

asareligiousscholarNorwasHasanal-Banna(d1949)thefounderoftheMuslimBrotherhoodofEgypttheoldestandoneofthemostinflu-entialof Islamistorganizations in theSunniMuslimworldBothwereeducatedattheDaral-lsquoUluminCairoaninstitutionfoundedinthelatenineteenthcenturytoestablishsomethingofamiddlegroundbetweenal-AzharUniversityinCairoandmodernseculareducationalthoughitgradually veered toward the latter and in 1946 became part of CairoUniversity (cfReid1990139ndash49)Abursquol-AlsquolaMawdudi (d 1979)ofPakistandidreceivean intermittentmadrasaeducationbut itwasthevocationof a journalist not that of an lsquoalim (plural lsquoulama) that headoptedThanksinparttothisbroadlysimilareducationalbackgroundIslamistsalsosharewithmodernistsasupremeconfidenceintheirownabilitytodiscernthetruemeaningorspiritofIslamthroughamoreorlessdirectencounterwiththefoundationaltextsAsCharlesJAdams(1966396)hasobservedincomparingMawdudiwithMuslimmodern-istsldquoBothhaveclaimedtheabilitytodisengagethespiritoressentialsofGodrsquosguidancetoliberatethemselvesfromtheauthorityofthecu-mulativeMuslimpastand toundercut thepositionof theulamawhorepresentthatauthorityrdquoMuchthesamemightbesaidofSayyidQutbaswellasofmanycontemporaryIslamists

Despitesuchcommonalities IslamistsfrequentlypositionthemselvesinoppositiontothemodernistsAstheIslamistssee it themodernistshavemadeIslamitselfsubservienttotheprojectofestablishingitscom-patibilitywithWesternnorms and institutions rejectingor explainingawayanythingthatdoesnotconformtothesenormsMawdudiputitthisway inderidingmodernistdiscomfortwith the implementationofpunishmentsmandatedbyIslamiclaw

Iwouldliketoputastraightquestiontothesevotariesofldquomoder-nityrdquoldquoWhatarethevaluesthatyoubelieveinDoyoubelieveintheIslamicvaluesoflifeandstandardsofmoralityorthoseofthemoderncivilizationrdquoIfyouhavemadeyourchoiceandacceptedsomeothervaluesandsomedifferentstandardofrightandwrongofvirtueandviceofthepermissibleandtheprohibitedasagainstthoseenvisagedbyIslamitisthenadifferenceofaveryfundamen-talnatureItmeansthatyoudifferwithanddisbelieveintheIslamicideologyitselfInthiscaseyoushouldhavethecouragetodeclarethatyourejectIslamoutrightIsitnotfoolishtoallegefaithinaGodwhose laws you consider as barbarous Anyhow nobody can re-maininsidethepaleofIslamafterholdingsuchanopinionaboutthelawofGod(Mawdudi[Maududi]196067)

PolemicsofthissortnotonlysuggesttheIslamistsrsquosenseofwhatsepa-ratesthemfromthemodernistsbutalsopointtointermittentIslamistef-forts to make common cause with the lsquoulama Such efforts are oftenpredicated on both the rhetorical claim that all sincere Muslims fully

11

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INTRODUCTION

concurintheirconceptionofthesharilsquoa(Islamiclaw)andtheIslamistsrsquoastuterecognitionofthelsquoulamarsquosconsiderablestandinginsocietyUnsur-prisinglysomeleadingIslamistshavesoughttoblurdistinctionsbetweenthemselves and the lsquoulama to enhance their own authority Usama binLaden(b1957)styledhisfamous1996ldquoDeclarationofWaragainsttheAmericansOccupyingtheLandoftheTwoHolyPlacesrdquoasafatwathatisajuridicalopiniontherebyrhetoricallyobscuringthehistoricalfactthatfatwashavetypicallybeenthepreserveofthe lsquoulamaandmorespecifi-callyofthefuqahaormuftis(jurists)amongthemBinLadenhoweverhasnoformalscholarlycredentialsinmattersIslamicMawdudiwascom-monly styledasmawlana a commonhonorific for the lsquoulama inSouthAsiaAdeliberateblurringofdistinctionsislikewiseevidentinthestate-ment of the Sudanese Islamist Hasan al-Turabi (b 1932) ldquoBecause allknowledgeisdivineandreligiousachemistanengineeraneconomistorajuristarealllsquoulamardquo(Turabi1983245alsochapter8inthisvolume) YetthereareleadingIslamistsmdashinthisvolumeKhomeiniMutahhariBaqiral-SadrFadlallah lsquoAliNadwi lsquoUmar lsquoAbdal-RahmanandQa-radawimdashwhoweretrainedaslsquoulamawhichmeansthatporousbounda-riesbetweenIslamistsandthelsquoulamaarenotjustamatterofself-servingrhetoricbyautodidactsGiventhisfactthedistinctionbetweenIslamistsandlsquoulamaturnslessonstarkdifferencesineducationalbackgroundandmoreonthecharacterandcontentoftheirpoliticalcommitmentsMorethananythingelseIslamistsseektoimplementIslamiclawthroughtheagencyofthestateNotallarewillingtoresorttoviolentmeansinpur-suitofthisendManysuchasYusufal-Qaradawi(b1926)ahighlyin-fluentialIslamistandoneofthemostprominentlsquoulamaofcontemporaryIslam(Skovgaard-Petersen2004Kraumlmer2006)professdemocraticcom-mitmentsButwhateverthestancetowardeitherdemocracyorviolencethepublicimplementationofthesharilsquoaisattheheartofallIslamisminbothitsShilsquoiandSunniformsThissuggestsanimportantcontrastwithmanyamongthelsquoulama

SincethefirstcenturiesofIslamthelsquoulamahaveoftensoughttomain-tainacarefuldistancefromtherulingelitejealouslyguardingtheirinsti-tutionsandpracticesfromgovernmentalinterferenceThelsquoulamagener-allyrecognizedthatthefunctioningoflegalandotherIslamicinstitutionspresupposedtheexistenceofaMuslimgovernmentandtheydefinedalegitimategovernmentasonethatoversawtheimplementationofsharilsquoanormsButtheyhavetypicallyunderstoodthegovernmentrsquoscommitmenttothesharilsquoatomeanthattherulerdefendedthebordersofthepolityregulatedpublicmoralitysuppressedhereticsandappointedthosepro-ficientinlegalmatterstoimplementthelaw(cfCrone2004286ndash314)TheyhavenotunderstoodanyofthistomeaneitherthattherulershouldbeabletoofferabsoluteinterpretationsofGodrsquoslaworthattherealmofpoliticsandstatecraftshouldbecomesynonymouswithIslamitselfYetthis ispreciselyhowIslamistshaveoftenconceivedof therelationship

12

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INTRODUCTION

betweenIslamandpoliticsandmorespecificallybetweenIslamandthestatenocallingishigherthanstrivingtowardtheestablishmentofanIs-lamicstateandoncebroughtaboutallwillbeinaccordancewithGodrsquospurposesMawdudi(1960177)claimedthatldquothestruggleforobtainingcontrolovertheorgansofthestatewhenmotivatedbytheurgetoestab-lishthedin[religion]andtheIslamicSharilsquoahandtoenforcetheIslamicinjunctionsisnotonlypermissiblebutpositivelydesirableandassuchobligatoryrdquo

Tomanylsquoulamathisamountstonothinglessthanmakingreligiousnorms subservient topolitical goalsAsMuftiMuhammadTaqi lsquoUth-manialeadingDeobandischolarofPakistannotesinhisrejoindertoviewssuchasMawdudirsquos

Intheirzealtorefutesecularismsomewritersandthinkersofthepresentagehavegonesofarastocharacterizepoliticsandgovern-ment as the true objective of Islam the reason why the prophetsweresent[byGodtothepeople]indeedtheveryreasonforthecre-ationofthehumanbeingAndtheyhavenotonlygivenotherIs-lamiccommandmentsmdashforinstanceonmattersofworshipmdashasec-ondarypositiontheyhaveevendeemedthemtobemeremeansforpoliticalendsjustawayoftrainingpeople[towardpoliticalmobili-zation](lsquoUthmani199825ndash26cfZaman2008116ndash18)

NotalllsquoulamasharesuchmisgivingsaboutthesubordinationofIslamtopoliticsthoughitshouldbenotedthattheywouldseethisintermsnotofanysuchsubordinationbutratheroftheutterinseparabilityofthere-ligiousandthepoliticalByfarthemostnotableoftheseamongtheShilsquoaisAyatollahKhomeini(d1989)ofIranAgainstalong-standingtradi-tionofShilsquoipoliticalquietismintheabsenceofthehiddenShilsquoiimamKhomeiniarguedthattheShilsquoi lsquoulamaoughttoassumedirectpoliticalleadershipandhethenproceededtospearheadthemovementthatcul-minatedinthefalloftheIranianmonarchyandtheestablishmentoftheIslamicRepublicofIran9Hisdoctrineofthevelayatshye faqih(guardian-shipofthejurist)isaradicalrethinkingofShilsquoipoliticaltheologyblur-ringanymeaningfulboundarybetweenreligiousandpoliticalauthority(seechapter6)ItispreciselyKhomeinirsquoscommitmenttoestablishinganIslamic statealong these lines thatwarrantshis classificationasan Is-

9TheImamiorIthnalsquoashariShilsquoabelievethatthetwelfthandlastoftheirimamswentintoghayba(hiding)in874andthathewilleventuallyreturnasthemahdimdashamessianicfigurewhoalonecanrestoreproperordertotheworldinaugurateaneraofunalloyedjus-ticeandreclaimfortheShilsquoatherightsofwhichtheyhavebeendispossessedbytheSunnisandbycorruptrulersformuchofthehistoryofIslamShilsquoischolarshavelongdebatedthequestionofwhatsortofauthoritytheleadingreligiousscholarsoughttohaveinofficiatingintheimamrsquosabsenceKhomeinirsquosviewdisputedbymanyotherscholarswasthatthelead-ingscholar(s)oughttodischargethefullrangeoftheimamrsquosfunctionsincludingthepoliti-calheadshipofthecommunity

13

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INTRODUCTION

lamistnotwithstandinghiswell-recognizedstatusasoneoftheleadingShilsquoilsquoulamaofhisgeneration

The Azhar-educated Yusuf al-Qaradawi has for his part criticizedmanyfellowIslamistsonseveralissuesbutnotonthefundamentalques-tion of their political orientation Just as Khomeini had chastised theldquopropagandainstitutionsofimperialism[fortrying]topersuadeusthatthereligiousleadersmustnotinterfereinsocialmattersandthatthefuqaha[jurists]donothavethedutyofoverseeingthedestinyoftheIslamicnationrdquo(Algar1981141)Qaradawiinsiststhatdenyingthepo-liticalorientationofIslamamountstoitswillfuldistortion

Amongtheinterpretationswithwhichthesecularists[lsquoalmaniyyun]andthemodernists[alshyhadathiyyun]calumniate[Islamproperlyun-derstood and those committed to it] is the notion of ldquopoliticalIslamrdquowhichwithoutdoubtisanideaalientoourIslamicsocietyBy[politicalIslam]theymeananIslamthatconcernsitselfwiththeinternalandexternalaffairsoftheMuslimcommunity[Theymeanbyit]actionsaimedatfreeingthecommunityfromtheforeignpowerthatdirects [Muslim]affairsphysicallyandmorallyas itpleases[Theyalsomeanbyit]actionsseekingtocleansethecommunityofthecultural socialand legalsedimentsofWesterncolonialismsothatthecommunitycanreturnonceagaintosubmissiontoGodrsquoslawindifferentareasoflifeTheyusethischaracterizationofldquopoliticalIslamrdquoinordertoalienatepeoplefromits[aforementioned]contentandto frighten themawayfromthosecalling toacomprehensiveconceptionofIslammdashonethatisinclusiveofbeliefandlawworshipandsocialinteractionproselytismandthestate(Qaradawi200793)

Islamistpoliticalcommitmentsareoftenintertwinedwithcritiquesofthescholarlytraditionanditsattendant institutionsandpracticesandthiscriticismprovidesusacrucialwayof thinkingfurtherbothaboutwhatdistinguishesIslamistsfromthelsquoulamaandabouthowtoviewIs-lamismitselfWhatthelsquoulamacannotbutseeasacavalierattitudeto-wardtheirscholarlytraditioniswesuggestbetterviewedaspartofalargerIslamistcritiqueonethatgoestotheheartofhowIslamismoughttobeunderstoodasaphenomenonItisacritiqueofparticularMuslimbeliefspracticesmoresandinstitutionsthataredeemedtohaveonlyatenuousbasis inldquotruerdquoandldquoauthenticrdquo Islamof the repeatedwrongturnsMuslimshavetakenthroughouttheirlonghistoryofthecorrupt-ingldquoforeignrdquoinfluencesmdashfromSufismtoGreekphilosophytothelureofmodernWesternculturesmdashbywhichMuslimshaveallowedthemselvestobeseducedandoftheirunwillingnesstodowhateverittakestoestab-lish thehakimiyya (sovereignty)ofGodonearthThat it is the sover-eigntyofGodthatIslamistsseekultimatelytoaffirmintheirindividualandpubliclivesremindsusthattheircritiqueofthepastandthepresentisapoliticalcritiqueanchoredinanddrivenbyaspirationstoinstitutea

14

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

newreligio-politicalorderWhetherthiscritiqueisarticulatedinconcreteor vague terms in a seeminglymoderateorplainlymilitant languagethere is no mistaking either its principal targetmdashfacets of the Islamictraditionmdashoritsfundamentallypoliticalorientation10

IslamistshaveofteninsistedthatthewordofGodcanandshouldbeapproacheddirectlywithoutthemediationofpresentorpastscholarsandwithoutanyneedfortheedifyingtalesthephilologicaldebatesandthelong-windedtheologicaldisquisitionssooftenfoundinmedievalexe-geticalliteratureamajorfacetoftheIslamicscholarlytradition(cfCarreacute200318)ShukriMustafaanEgyptianIslamistexecutedin1977forthemurderousactivitiesofhisSocietyofMuslims(popularlyknownastheSociety of Excommunication and Emigration) had famously assertedthatalloneneededtoresolveuncertaintiesinonersquosunderstandingofthewordofGodwasadictionary(Kepel199379)SayyidQutbdidnotgoquite that farButhe tooaffirmed that the fundamental teachingsofIslamwereentirelytransparentldquoWhatwearesayingaboutIslamisnoinventionofoursoranynewinterpretationofitsessenceIt issimplyplainIslamasitwasunderstoodbyitsfirstadherentMuhammadandhissincereCompanionsandthoseclosetoitsauthenticsourcerdquo(Qutb19969withminorchange)

TheimplicationofQutbrsquosstrikingassertionistwofoldFirstbehindarhetoric of humility in relation to divine knowledge Qutb implicitlyclaimsthefullbackingofGodandHisProphetfortheldquoplainIslamrdquohesetsforthMorespecificallyheessentiallydepictshisownunderstandingofIslamassynonymouswithGodrsquoseternalintentmuchasKhomeinirsquospronouncementsasthevalishyye faqih(guardianjurist)presumedtoarticu-latewhatIslamitselfstoodfororrequiredonanygivenmatterSecondthestatementimpliesnotonlythatviewsotherthanhisaremereinter-pretationsbutthattheyarethemorereprehensibleforbeingldquonovelrdquomdashasuggestionthatevokesthenotionofbidlsquoathatisofillicitcapriciousin-

10ThatIslamismshouldbeseenasawide-rangingcritiqueoftheworldandoftheIslamictraditionisareminderofcoursethatcritiqueisnotaninherentlysecularphenomenonnordoesitnecessitateasecularframeworkAsTalalAsad(2008)hasobservedgivenawidevarietyofldquopossibleinstancesofcritiquecriticismwhatwehaveisafamilyconceptforwhichitisnotpossibletoprovideasingletheorybecausethepracticesthatconstitutethemdifferradicallyrdquo(alsocfMahmood2008Taylor2008)NorshouldourviewingIs-lamism as a politically motivated critique suggest that other competing orientations inmodernIslamcannotalsobeseenascritiquesofparticularpracticesparticularformsofknowledgeWhatdoesdistinguishanIslamistorientationfromothersisonceagainboththedegreetowhichIslamistcritiquesbreakwiththeirpastandpresentandtheiraspirationto remake theworld in accordancewith their understandingof immutable divine com-mandsThisismarkedlydifferentfromhowthelsquoulamamightcritiqueparticularaspectsoftheirscholarlytraditionintheinterestofastrongersenseofcontinuitywiththattraditionorinordertomakeitmorereceptivetowhattheyseeasthecommunityrsquoschangingneedsItisalsoverydifferentfromhowMuslimmodernistsoftenbreakwiththescholarlytradi-tioninordertoadaptMuslimnormsandinstitutionstothedominantpoliticalandculturalinstitutionsoftheircontemporaryworld

15

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

novationinmattersofreligionSuchaviewofIslamjettisonsmuchofwhatwouldnormallycountasitshistoryandcivilizationldquoThehistoryoflsquoIslamrsquordquoQutbtellshisreadersldquoisthehistoryofthetrueapplicationofIslammdashinpeoplersquosconceptionsandtheirpracticesintheirlivesandtheirsocialsystemsIslamisthefixedaxisaroundwhichpeoplersquoslivesrevolveinafixedframeWhentheygooutofthisframeorwhentheycategorically abandon this axis what then do they have to do withIslamrdquo (Qutb 1967a vol 2 part 4 169 quotation marks aroundldquoIslamrdquoinoriginal)ItisforthefixedaxistheplainIslammdashandinoppo-sition to much of its historymdashthat the Islamist professes to stand (cfGrunebaum1962251ndash52)

Qutbhoweverisfarfromconsistentinhisattitudetowardtheschol-arlytraditionorinhowheseekstoarticulatehisownauthorityinrela-tiontoitHisfaithinthetransparencyandthetransformativeimmedi-acyofGodrsquoswordswouldappeartomakeallexegesissuperfluousyethehimselfhadproceededtowriteamajorcommentaryIn the Shade of the QurrsquoanthatwouldexceedfourthousandpagesinprintThejustifi-cationheoffers for it intheopening linesof thecommentary isauda-ciousnotapologetic

LifeintheshadeoftheQurrsquoanisablessingItisablessingunknownto anyonewhohasnrsquot tasted itAll praisebe toGodHehasgrantedmetheopportunitytoliveintheshadeoftheQurrsquoanforaperiodoftimeduringwhichIhavetastedHisblessingsasIneverhadearlierinmylifeIhavelistenedtoGodtheexaltedconvers-ingwithmethroughthisQurrsquoanmdashwithmeasmalllittleslaveIhavelivedintheshadeoftheQurrsquoanlookingfromanelevationatthejahiliyya[paganignorance]raginginthelandandthepettycon-cernsof itspeople [Fromthisvantage] Ihave seen thepride thepeopleofthisjahiliyyatakeintheirchildishknowledgetheirchild-ishideastheirchildishpreoccupations[Ihavelookeduponthem]likeanelderlooksuponthefrivolitiesofchildrenupontheireffortsandupontheirlisps(Qutb1967a13)

Theseresoundingwordsserveinteraliatoexplainwhyanewcom-mentaryshouldhavebeenneededatallthemind-numbingimpactofthejahiliyyahasmadepeopleincapableofrespondingtoeventhemostdi-rectofdivinesummonsandonlysomeonewhohaslivedldquointheshadeoftheQurrsquoanrdquocanunderstandtheirplightandremedyitFromtheper-spectiveQutbadoptshereanyappealtothescholarlytraditionanyef-forttoresthisauthorityonitwouldappearaltogetheroutofplaceYetQutbrsquosclaimstoauthoritydonotderiveexclusivelyfromhisconversingwithGodthroughtheQurrsquoanTosomedegreetheyalsodependonhisbeingseenashavingmasteryovertheveryexegeticaltraditionofwhichheisotherwisefrequentlydismissiveQutbcitesasmallnumberofearliercommentators and other authorities when it suits his purpose to do

16

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

so11justashesidestepstheexegeticaltraditionwhendoingsooffersarhetoricallymoreeffectivewayofarrivingataconclusionMoretradi-tionalexegetespastandpresentalsopickandchooseofcourseButtheyhavetypicallydonesowithinanoverallframeworkthatisdefinedbyacontinuousengagementwiththeexegeticaltraditionasawhole(cfSaleh2004)BycontrastQutbandotherIslamistexegeteswriteoutsideandofteninconsciousoppositiontoanysuchframeworkTheconversa-tionisnotwiththeearlierexegetesbutdirectlywithGodthoughthismightonoccasionbeaidedbyillustrationsfromtheearlierexegeticaltradition

If thereareunacknowledgedambiguities inQutbrsquosrelationshipwiththe Islamic traditionaswehaveobserveda frequentlyacerbic stancedoesnonetheless remain characteristicofhowheviews itmostof thetimeQutbisanythingbutuniqueinthisrespectYetifIslamistssharealmostbydefinitionacriticalstancetowardfacetsofthistraditionthereismuchthatalsoseparatesthemfromoneanotherinpreciselyhowthiscritique and its implications are articulated in different instances Al-thoughthemerepresenceofdisagreementamongIslamist intellectualsandactivistsishardlyremarkablethescopeandimplicationsofsomeofthedisagreementsinasmuchastheyrelatetothescholarlytraditionarenonethelessworthexamininghereFortheysuggestthatwhileIslamistsshare the conviction that particular institutions practices and normsneedtoberefashionedinlightofimmutabledivinecommandsthiscon-victionoftenrestsonquitedifferentviewsofIslamichistoryandciviliza-tionofcontemporaryMuslimsocietiesandnotleastofreligiousau-thorityanditslociNowhereperhapsisthismoreevidentthaninsomeofthewritingsofYusufal-QaradawiLikeQutbQaradawiisamongthemostinfluentialIslamistideologuesintheSunniworldHeisalsooneofQutbrsquosseverestcriticsfromwithintheIslamistcamp(seeespeciallyQa-radawi1994101ndash31)

ThatldquoMuslimrdquosocietieslackedaproperIslamicfoundationmadeitfutileQutbhadarguedtodebatespecificquestionsofIslamiclawand

11TheseincludeinteraliaMuhammadibnIshaq(d767)theauthoroftheSirat rasul AllahoneoftheearliestbiographiesoftheProphetMuhammadal-Tabari(d923)theauthorofJamilsquo alshybayan lishytarsquowil ay alshyQurrsquoanoneofthemostinfluentialcommentariesoftheQurrsquoaneverproducedal-Baghawi(d1117)whosecommentaryistitledMalsquoalim alshytanzilal-Qurtubi(d1273)theauthorofaworkalshyJamilsquo lishyahkam alshyQurrsquoanwhichises-peciallyattentivetothelegalcontentoftheQurrsquoanandIbnKathir(d1373)theauthorofaQurrsquoan commentaryTafsir alshyQurrsquoan alshylsquoazimwhichhasbeenpopular amongmanyMuslimsofaSalafiorientationOnoccasionQutbalsocitesinfluentialfellowIslamistsSeeforexampleQutbFi zilal alshyQurrsquoanvol2part4132(Mawdudi)vol2part525(Nadwi)vol2part6143and150ndash53(lsquoAbdal-QadirlsquoAwdaanEgyptianIslamistandlegalscholarexecutedundertheNasserregimein1954)OccasionallyQutbcitesRidarsquosTafsir alshymanaraswell thoughmoreoftenthannot toregisterhisdisagreementswithRidaandwiththelatterrsquosmentorMuhammadlsquoAbduhForadetailedcomparisonbetweenthecommentariesofRidaandQutbseeCarreacute2003

17

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

howitdealtwithparticularsocialoreconomicissuesThelsquoulamawerepatheticallydeludediftheythoughtthattheinterestsofIslamcouldbefurtheredthroughdisquisitionsonthesharilsquoainsuchconditionsofper-vasiveungodliness(Qutb1967b183ndash90)WhatpeopleneededbeforeanythingelsewasareturntothebasicsofthefaithThetaskofrighteouspreacherswastoinstructtheminthesemattersandtohelpthemrecog-nizewhatthesovereigntyofGoddemandedofthem(Qutb199135cfQaradawi1994102ndash4)Allothermattersincludingthenicetiesofjuris-ticdiscussionwerebestpostponeduntilaproperlyIslamicsocietybasedonthisfoundationhadbeenrealized

Qaradawi vehemently disagrees with Qutb arguing that educatedMuslimsarenotpagansbutbelieversandassuchdonotneedtobetu-toredinthefundamentalsoftheirfaithWhattheyoftendonotunder-standverywellmdashandhereQaradawiconcurswithotherIslamistsmdashisthenatureofIslamasanizam (socialandpoliticalsystem)TheproblemofMuslimsinotherwordsisnotgodlessnessbutsimplyignorance(whichiswhat the term jahiliyya literallymeans)of the teachingsof Islam intheircomprehensiveall-encompassingdimensionsAsQaradawiseesitmanyldquocaptivesofWesternthoughtrdquohavedoubtsnotabouttheessentialsoftheirfaithbutratheraboutIslamasacomprehensivesystemanditistheirunaddressedmisunderstandingstheirignoranceonthelatterscorethatsometimesopens thedoor todoubtsaboutmattersofbelief itself(Qaradawi1994113ndash14)Tocontinuetoexpoundonthesocialpoliti-calandotherteachingsofIslamwhilethesocietyisyetimperfectisnottoendorseorstrengthenthejahiliorderasQutbhadallegedbutonlytohelpordinarypeopleintheirefforttoleadvirtuouslivesevenininiqui-touscircumstances

ThisviewrepresentsanappealtowhatQaradawihasrepeatedlyre-ferredtoasthemoderatepathoralshymadrasa alshywasatiyya(theldquocentristschoolrdquocfQaradawi2006137ndash217)mdashonethatlocatesitselfonaputa-tivemiddlegroundbetweenacompleterejectionoftheworldincludingMuslimsocietiesanditstotalembraceQaradawiisequallyconcernedwithrescuingIslamichistoryandcivilizationfromoutrightdismissalatthehandsofIslamistslikeQutb12TheideathatjahilinormshadbeguntocreepbackintotheMuslimcommunityshortlyafterthedeathoftheProphetandthattheyhaveremainedunchallengedformuchofIslamrsquoshistoryignoresallthoseQaradawisayswhohavecontinuedtorepre-sentthepathofrighteousnessthroughoutthehistoryofIslamContrarytotheconvictionoftheSunnisthatldquothecommunitywillneveragreeonerrorrdquomdashastheProphetissaidtohavepromisedmdashthenotionofaperva-

12AmongleadingfiguresQaradawisinglesoutforcriticisminthisregardarebesidesQutbMawdudiandtheEgyptianIslamistscholarMuhammadal-Ghazali(d1996)SeeQaradawi2005b46ndash64It isworthnotingthatdespitetheseandotherdisagreementsQaradawihaswrittenrespectfullyofallthreedevotinganentirebooktohislongassocia-tionwithMuhammadal-Ghazali(seeQaradawi1995)

18

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INTRODUCTION

sivejahiliyyasuggestsmoreoverthatthecommunitydidindeedagreeonerror13Mostgrievouslyperhaps Islamist critiques tend to suggestthatthesharilsquoahasalmostneverbeenimplementedinMuslimsocietiesaftertheveryfirstyearsofIslamIronicallysaysQaradawisuchindis-criminaterejectionofIslamichistoryinadvertentlyreinforcessecularist argumentsthatthesharilsquoaisunsuitedtopracticalapplication(Qaradawi2005b46)QaradawirsquoscritiqueofQutbandotherIslamistsisfinallyanargumentforthecontinuingcentralityofthelsquoulamatothetaskofpro-viding authoritative guidance to the communityHisunderstandingofwhoconstitutesthelsquoulamaisfarmoreexpansivethanthatofmostDeo-bandilsquoulamaofSouthAsiaButlikethemheisinnodoubtthatseriousreligiousscholarsasdistinguishedfromamateurishautodidactsarecru-cialtothetaskofprovidingauthoritativereligiousandmoralguidancetothecommunity

AlthoughwehavesoughttoillustratecertainfacetsoftheIslamistcri-tiqueof the scholarly traditionandof theworldas somekey IslamistthinkershavearticulateditwedonotwishtosuggestofcoursethatIslamists are necessarily ldquointellectualsrdquo Whatever Qutb KhomeiniMawdudiandQaradawimightthinkofotherscholarsandintellectualsorofthemselvesinrelationtothemtheformerobviouslyarereligiousintellectualsThesameishardlytrueofmanyotherIslamistsYeteventhosewithlittleornointellectualpretensionsareoftenrecognizableas IslamistsnotonlyfortheircommitmenttothepublicimplementationofIslamicnormsgroundedinthefoundationaltextsbutalsomdashandasacor-ollaryoftheformermdashfortheiroftenself-consciouscritiqueofanddisen-gagementfromthenormsandmorestheyseearoundthemIncontempo-raryLebanonforinstanceShilsquoiIslamistshaveoftenseentheirtext-basedreligiouscommitmentsasmarkingacleardeparturefromearlierandex-isting religious practicesAs anthropologist LaraDeeb (2006 20) ob-servesldquoTheyvieweditasnewanddifferentmdashdifferentfromwhattheyoftenreferredtoenigmaticallyaslsquobeforersquoorlsquohowwewerersquoanddifferentfromwhattheycalledalshytaqalid(traditions)Inlieuofpracticesandbeliefscastastraditionaltheyespoused [an] lsquoauthenticatedrsquoIslamexpressedinpublicpietyrdquo14ManyIslamists living inrefugeecampsinGazahavehadasimilarviewTothemldquoPalestinianshadeitherbe-comelostinforeignideologiesortheyhadbecomelsquoMuslimsbycon-

13Theconvictionthatthecommunityatlargeisdivinelyprotectedfromerrorisanim-portantbasisoftheauthorityofldquoconsensusrdquoasamajorsourceofjuridicalnormsinSunniIslamFormoderndebateson consensus and someof the literatureon this subject seeZaman2006

14Theldquotraditionsrdquohereprimarilyrefer tocustomarynormsanddevotionalpracticesratherthantothecenturies-olddiscursivetraditionfromwhichthelsquoulamabothShilsquoiandSunniderivetheirauthorityIslamistcritiquesareoftendirectedasmuchhoweverattra-ditionsinthesenseofldquoinauthenticrdquoculturallyrootedreligiouspracticesastheyareatthescholarlytraditionofthelsquoulamawhichtothemisequallyinauthenticinhavingobscuredthesimpleandfundamentalteachingsofthefoundationaltexts

19

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

ventionrsquowhowentalongwiththefastorprayednowandthenbecausethiswaslsquocustomandtraditionrsquo(lsquoada wa taqlid)ThislackofconsciouszealousadherencetoIslamhadresultedinsocialweaknessleadingtode-featatthehandsofIsraelrdquo(Lybarger2007211)ThereismuchthatsuchanalysessharewiththewritingsandpronouncementsoftheleadingIs-lamistintellectuals

Islamists and Salafi s

JustasitisnotalwayseasytodifferentiatelsquoulamafromIslamistsorIs-lamists frommodernists it is sometimesdifficult to clearlydistinguishbetweenIslamistsandtheSalafisThelatterderivethisself-designationfromclaimsofstrictadherencetothenormativepracticeofalshysalaf alshysalih(thepiousforbears)usuallyunderstoodastheMuslimsofthefirstgenerations of Islam The guiding Salafi assumption is that these firstMuslims inbeingcontemporariesof theProphetMuhammadandtheimmediatesuccessorsofthosecontemporariesexemplifymostperfectlywhatitmeanstobeavirtuousMuslimandthatlatergenerationscandonobetterthanemulatetheexampleofthesefirstgenerationsSomever-sionofthisviewwouldfindbroadresonanceamongIslamistsbutalsoordinary believers though the Shilsquoa of various doctrinal orientationshavealwayshada farmore restrictiveviewofpreciselywho isworthemulating Again like the Islamists the Salafis insist on deriving theirnormsdirectlyfromtheIslamicfoundationaltextstheQurrsquoanandtheexampleoftheProphetMuhammadunmediatedbythemedievalschoolsoflawThismeansdoingawaywiththesortofhistoricallyarticulatedscholarlytraditionfromwhichthelsquoulamahavetendedtodrawmuchoftheirauthorityTheSalafisdohavetheirownlsquoulamamdashQaradawiisano-tableinstanceasaremembersoftheSaudireligiousestablishmentmdashbuteventheirauthorityisbasedfarmoreondirectlyinterpretingthefounda-tional texts than it is on any systematic engagement with the Islamicscholarlytradition

AllthissoundsagooddealnotjustliketheIslamistsbutalsolikethemodernistsThisshouldnotbesurprisingfortheSalafiorientationisanimportantpartofthegenealogyofbothmodernismandIslamismTheSalafi reformer Muhammad lsquoAbduh though a traditionally educatedscholarwhoservedtowardtheendofhislifeasthegrandmuftiofEgyptwasakeyinfluenceinthedevelopmentofIslamicmodernismButwhilesomeoflsquoAbduhrsquosdisciplesdevelopedhisideasinthedirectionofsecularnationalismothersmdashnotablytheSalafijournalistandQurrsquoancommenta-torRashidRidamdasheventuallytookthemdespitehismodernistproclivi-tiesinadecidedlyconservativedirection(Hourani1983alsocfDallal2000)Hasan al-Banna the founder of the MuslimBrotherhoodwasclose to many Egyptian Salafis Muhibb al-din al-Khatib (d 1969) aleadingSalafiofthetimeandtheowneroftheSalafiPublishingHousein

20

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

CairowasinchargeofoneoftheBrotherhoodrsquosfirstjournals(Mitchell1993185)andafterRidarsquosdeathin1935itwasatBannarsquosinitiativethatRidarsquosinfluentialjournalalshyManarwouldcontinuetobepublishedforsomeyears(RMitchell1993186)

ForalltheiraffinitieshoweverSalafiscannotsimplybesubsumedwiththeIslamistsanymorethantheycanwiththemodernistsUnliketheearlySalafisandothermodernists Islamistshavealmost invariablysought toaddressthemselvestoawidepopularaudienceratherthantotheintellec-tualelite(cfRMitchell1993211)TheSalafishavealsobeenfarmorepreoccupiedwithmattersofcorrectbeliefthenuancesofdoctrinethanhaveeither the Islamistsor themodernists (cfHaykel2009 [forthcom-ing])BythesametokenwhilemanyIslamistshavehadasomewhatam-bivalentrelationshipwithSufismSalafishaveusuallybeenunrelentinglyhostile to devotional Sufi practices But if it is useful to distinguish theSalafisfromothercompetingorientationsinmodernIslamitisimportantalsotorecognizethatthereismuchonwhichSalafisthemselveshavedis-agreedsometimessharplyInquestionintheseldquointernalrdquodifferencesisnottheiroverallorientationmdashtowardtheIslamicfoundational textsandthepristinenormsofIslamrsquosfirstgenerationsmdashbutratherthepreciseimplica-tionsofthisorientationforbeliefandconductinthepresentAconsider-ationofsomeofthesedifferencesshouldinturnfurtherillustratehowtheSalafisoughttobedistinguishedfromothercompetingcamps

WheremanySalafisseetheschoolsoflawasobstructingandindeeddistortingthesimplemessageofthefoundationaltextsothersviewthelegaltraditionasrepresentingIslamrsquosrichintellectuallegacyfromwhichMuslimsought todrawboth inspirationandguidanceQaradawi forinstance has been critical not just of the Muslimmodernists but alsooffellowSalafisfortheirirreverencetowardtherichesofthelegaltradi-tiontheiruneducatedproclivitytosetitasidealltoocallouslyOnthisviewarejectionofthetaqlid-boundlsquoulamashouldnotleadtotheotherextrememdashexemplifiedbynotafewSalafismdashofjettisoningthescholarlytraditionaltogether SalafisalsodifferamongthemselvesintheirattitudestowardmodernWesterninstitutionsandpracticesInthelatenineteenthandearlytwen-tieth centuries Salafi reformers like Muhammad lsquoAbduh and RashidRidainEgyptandJamalal-dinal-Qasimi(d1914)inSyriahadcalledforareorientationtowardthefoundationaltextsasawayofjustifyingnotresistingchangesinlawandeducationaswellasotherfacetsofso-cialreform(cfHourani1983Commins1990)OnthisviewadirectrecoursetotheQurrsquoanandthesunnaofferedthebestwayofdemonstrat-ing the accord between their teachings and the reformist project15 In

15SymptomaticofotherdisagreementsamongtheSalafisistheveryquestionofpreciselywhothesalafarewhoseexampleoughttobeemulatedThenarrowerviewslimitthesalaftothefirstthreegenerationsofIslammdashtheageoftheProphetMuhammadandhiscompan-ionstheirsuccessorsandthelatterrsquosimmediatesuccessorsmdashbuteventhesenarrowviews

21

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

contemporaryEuropeTariqRamadananinfluentialSwissArabphilos-opherhasarguedthatMuslimslivinginWesternsocietiesoughttofeelathomeinandcontributetoward thosesocietieswhileretainingandcultivatingtheirdistinctIslamicidentityHetooappearstoseehimselfinthegenealogyofwhathecharacterizesasldquoSalafireformismrdquo(onthischaracterization see Ramadan 2004 26ndash27) and he has echoed Qa-radawiinsomeofhisviews(cfRamadan199993ndash99) Other Salafis have remained staunchly opposed to institutions andpracticesofaWesternprovenanceAnespeciallyinfluentialfigureinthegenealogyofthelatterpositionistheeighteenth-centurypuritanicalre-former Muhammad ibn lsquoAbd al-Wahhab (d 1792) whose alliance in1744 with Muhammad ibn Salsquoud contributed to the establishment ofthefirstSaudistateinthelateeighteenthcenturyIbnlsquoAbdal-WahhabwashostilenotonlytoShilsquoismandtoSufidevotionalismbutalsotoany-thinghedeemednottobeinstrictconformitywiththeteachingsofthefoundationaltextsTherewasmuchthatseemedtohimtofailthisstan-dardallofwhichhebrandedasoneoranotherformofunbeliefTheWahhabismdashas the followers of Ibn lsquoAbd al-Wahhab are oftenknownthoughtheyprefertothinkofthemselvessimplyasgoodMuslimsoratbestasSalafismdashoftenadheretothelegalnormsoftheHanbalischooloflawthoughitistheteachingsofthefoundationaltextsirrespectiveofthisoranyotherschooldoctrinethattheyprofesstofollowThemoststringentoftheSaudiSalafisaswellasotherselsewhereareaveryfarcryindeedfromwhatQaradawiwouldcharacterizeasldquocentristrdquoSalafireformersletalonefromtheearlytwentieth-centurySalafimodernists

ThepoliticalviewsoftheWahhabisandmorebroadlyoftheSalafisare likewiseanythingbutuniformInSaudiArabiaWahhabireligiousscholarshavelongaffirmedaquietistpoliticalstancewhichhasmeantleavingmattersofthestatetotherulingfamilyFormuchofthehistoryofmodernSaudiArabiatherulingelitefor itsparthas imposedfewconstraintsontheSaudilsquoulamainmattersofreligiouslifetheregulationofsocialnormsandjudicialadministration(cfVogel2000)Onseveraloccasions however this relationship has come under severe strain In1979agroupofWahhabiswhorejectedthelegitimacyoftheSaudistateyethadtieswithsomeprominentreligiousscholarsmdashincludinglsquoAbdal-

feelconstrainedtomakeroomforsuchreveredfiguresasAhmadibnHanbaltheputativefounderoftheHanbalischooloflawandthefourteenth-centuryDamascenescholarIbnTaymiyya(d1328)OtherviewsarerathermoreexpansivenotjustinchronologicalbutalsoandcruciallyinintellectualtermsThusMuhammadlsquoAbduhthoughtthesalaftoalsoincludesuchtheologiansasal-Ashlsquoari(d935)al-Baqillani(d1013)andal-Maturidi(d944)SeeHourani1983149SuchaviewobviouslyopensthedoorforpreciselythesortoftheologicaldebatesthatotherSalafisaswellasIslamistsoftenfrownuponfortakingthebelieversveryfarfromthesimpleanddirectwordsofGod lsquoAbduhrsquosdiscipleRidaagaintookanarrowerviewofthesalafandlaterinhiscareerbecameastrongdefenderoftheWahhabisCfHourani1983230ndash32

22

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

lsquoAzizBinBaz(d1999)laterthegrandmuftiofSaudiArabiamdashtookoverthesacredprecinctsoftheKalsquobainMeccainashort-livedbutextremelyembarrassingchallenge toSaudi royalauthority (cfHegghammerandLacroix2007)In1990KingFahdrsquosdecisiontoinviteAmericantroopstodefendthekingdomagainstthethreatofanIraqiinvasioncreatedwide-spreadresentmentamongSaudis theeffectsofwhichcontinue to thisdayThestationingofnon-MuslimmilitarypersonnelinIslamrsquosholiestlandwasdeemedbythekingrsquoscriticstobescandalousandevensacrile-giousAnumberofprominentSaudiSalafispubliclycriticizedthekingrsquosdecisiononthisoccasioncallinguponhimaswellasonBinBazandoth-ersatthehelmoftheSaudireligiousestablishmenttoreorienttheSaudipolitytowarditstruereligiousfoundationsManyofthesedissidentsmdashwhowerealsojoinedbyldquosecularrdquoSaudicriticsoftheroyalfamilymdashwereandhaveremainedrestrainedintheircriticismevenastheycalledforstricterconformitytoIslamicnormsasthepanaceaforallills(cfFandy1999)OthershoweverhavedenouncedtheroyalfamilyanditsWesternalliesinnouncertaintermsBinLadenisonlythemostnotoriousofthosewhobrokewiththeroyalfamilyinthewakeofKingFahdrsquosdecisiontoinviteWesterntroopsin1990andwhocalledfortheoverthrowoftheroyal familyand for jihadagainstWesternpowers Such strident callshavebeencontinuedbyotherSalafisbothbeforeandaftertheterroristattacksofSeptember112001aswellasintheaftermathoftheUS-ledinvasionofIraq(al-Rasheed2007)

ItshouldbeclearinlightoftheforegoingthatanyunderstandingofthedifferencesbetweenIslamistsandtheSalafismustrestontakingac-countofthediversityamongtheSalafisSalafiswhooftenrejectmuchoftheIslamicscholarlytraditioninfavorofadirectrecoursetothefoun-dationaltextsarenotnecessarilyrenderedldquoIslamistrdquosimplybyvirtueofthisstanceForasnotedmanyoftheseSalafiscontinuetoprofessareso-lutelyquietiststancewhichinthecaseoftheSaudiSalafismeansaf-firmingallegiancetotheSaudiroyalfamilyThispositionisrepresentedforinstancebyBinBaztheerstwhilegrandmuftiaswellasbyotherleading members of the Saudi religious establishment A pro-regimestanceoroneindifferenttopoliticsisnolessldquopoliticalrdquoofcoursethana position of strident hostility to the established order at home andabroadForourpurposeshoweveritisonlywhentheSalafisrejecttheexistingdispensationandbeginstrivingmdashthoughnotnecessarilythroughmilitantmeansmdashforanewreligio-politicalorderthattheycanbesaidtojointheranksoftheIslamists

ItisworthnotingfinallythatSalafipositionsamongSaudisandelse-wherearemarkednotonlybydiversitybutalsobyconsiderablefluidity(al-Rasheed 2007) The same activist or intellectual might at varioustimesmoveamongavarietyofseeminglyincompatiblepositionsmdashap-pearingtobemoreldquomoderaterdquoonsomeissuesthanonothersForallhiscriticismofradicalIslamistsQaradawiforinstancehashimselfwrittenin justificationofsuicidebombingsbyPalestiniansagainst Israelis (see

23

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

chapter 9 on Qaradawi) And Saudi Salafis like Safar al-Hawali andSalmanal-lsquoAwdamdashwhocame toprominence in the early1990smdashhavealternatedbetweencriticismoftheSaudipoliciesanddenunciationsofradicalSalaficallstojihadagainsttheSaudiregime(seeal-Rasheed200759ndash101onal-HawalialsoseeReichmuth2006)Theirshiftingviewsreflect changes in their relations with the Saudi regime but they alsopointtothebroadspectrumofpositionswhichSalafishavetakenatdif-ferenttimesindifferentcontextsandbeforedifferentaudiencesThusevenasal-Hawaliandal-lsquoAwdahavecondemnedterroristactsdirectedagainstSaudiArabiaandadvisedSaudisnottofightAmericantroopsinpostndashSaddamHusseinIraqtheyhavecalledupontheIraqisthemselvestoresistAmericantroopsandhavecharacterizedthateffortasaldquodefen-sivejihadrdquo(al-Rasheed200794ndash95)

Sufi s and Islamists

ItseemsmuchsimpleronthefaceofittodistinguishbetweenIslamistsandSufisThecharacteristicSuficonvictionthattherearelevelsofmean-ingintheQurrsquoanthatgobeyondtheliteralandtheobviousandthataselectfewmdashtheldquofriendsofGodrdquomdashareendowedwiththeuniqueabilityto discern them is anathema to all those who insist that God intendsHisteachingstobeequallyintelligibletoallDespitetheirtendencytoviewthemselvesasbearersof true Islam Islamists typicallyregard theSufi idea that somepeoplehaveaprivileged relationshipwithGodassuspectthebasisnotonlyforsanctioninginterpretationsofIslamthatlackwarrantintheplainteachingsofGodandtheProphetbutalsoforpracticallyldquoworshipingrdquothesefriendsofGodIslamists(andmodernists)havefrequentlyalsobeencriticalofthewaySufidevotionalismcanyieldaturningawayfromtheworldratherthananefforttochangeitaswellasapreoccupationwithpersonalspiritualtransformationattheexpenseofconcernsforthewelfareofthecommunityatlarge SufipracticesandtheteachingsoftheSufimastershavevariedenor-mouslythroughoutthehistoryofIslamyetIslamistcritiquesofSufismareseldomattentivetoitsnuancesortothecomplexwaysithasrelatedtootherfacetsofIslamNorhaveIslamiststakenmuchaccountofthefactthatmanyleadingfiguresofearliertimeswerebesidesmuchelseSufisaswellThisistrueevenofIbnTaymiyya(d1328)whoseprestigeinIslamistandSalaficirclesismatchedbyfewothersandwhowasinhisdayamemberoftheQadiriSufiorder(Makdisi1974)EvenifonearguesmdashasanIslamistmightbeinclinedtomdashthatldquogoodrdquoSufismisnoth-ingbutproperIslamitselftheveryfactthatsuchfigureshadaSufiiden-tityatallnecessarilycomplicateswhatissupposedtobethepristinesim-plicityofafaithsharedequallybyallbelievers

Complicatingthingsstillfurtheristhevarietyofwaysinwhichsomeleading Islamists relate to Sufism Ayatollah Khomeini was a lifelongstudentofIslamicmysticismandtheinfluenceofthemedievalSpanish

24

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

Sufi Ibn lsquoArabi loomed especially large in his thought To Khomeinimysticismmdashoften referred to as lsquoirfan (gnosis) especially when inter-twinedwithIslamicphilosophyandtheology(Knysh1992632)mdashwascrucialtoaproperunderstandingofGodrsquosrelationshipwiththeworldandwiththehumanbeingItwasalsoessentialforonersquosethicalforma-tionforamasteryovertheselfandultimatelyforrealizinginoneselftheattributesofwhat Ibn lsquoArabihadcalledldquotheperfectmanrdquo (cfKnysh1992 635 also Mottahedeh 1985 180ndash85) Some of the austerity ofKhomeinirsquospersonallifeprobablyalsoderivedfromSufiasceticismAndthoughheanchoredhisconceptionofIslamicgovernmentinanexposi-tionofShilsquoijuridicalthoughtratherthaninIslamicmysticismthesortofreligiousauthorityhecametoenjoyonthebasisofhisreformulationofShilsquoipoliticaltheologyseemstoechomysticalideasoftheperfectmanwho embodies and upholds the moral order as the microcosm of theuniverse

UnlikeKhomeiniQutbwasnotaSufiandhegivesnoindicationofsharinganyofKhomeinirsquosenthusiasmforthegreatSufithinkersofear-liertimesEvensoechoesofamysticrsquosdirectencounterwiththefoun-tainheadoftruthandknowledgearehardtomissinQutbrsquoswritingses-peciallyinhiscommentaryontheQurrsquoan(cfCarreacute200395ndash97)TheveryfirstsentenceofhiscommentarymdashldquolifeintheshadeoftheQurrsquoanisablessingunknowntoanyonewhohasnrsquottasteditrdquomdashevokesthefa-miliarSufiideathatincontrovertibleknowledgeofRealityisultimatelyacquired only through direct personal experience (dhawq that is theldquotasterdquooftheTruth)ThegreatmedievalSufial-Ghazali(d1111)hadauthoredafamousautobiographicalaccountofhowitwasonlythroughthe immediacyofhispersonalmysticalexperience thathewasable toovercomehisdebilitatingepistemologicaldoubtsandreassurehimselfofthenecessarytruths(Watt199857)QutbdoesnotmentionGhazaliinthiscontextbutitisdifficultnottobestruckbythemysticalresonanceofsomeofhislanguageHereisoneexamplewhichoccursinhiscom-mentaryonsura(chapter)53oftheQurrsquoan16

16TheearlyversesinthissuraoftheQurrsquoanhavebeenunderstoodbyMuslimexegetesasreferringtotheProphetrsquosrevelatoryexperienceaswellastohisldquonightjourneyrdquoandhisascensiontoheavenormilsquoraj inthecourseofonenighthewastransportedfirstfromMeccatoJerusalemandthentothepresenceofGodbeforebeingreturnedtoMecca

UnrelatedtothenightjourneybutrelatedtohisrevelatoryexperiencestheexegeticalsignificanceofthisQurrsquoanicsuraalsoliesinitsconnectionwiththeso-calledSatanicVersesAccordingtocertainexegeticalreportsMuhammadwasinthecourseofreceivingarevela-tionwhenSataninterpolatedsomeversesintoitmdashversespraisingthreegoddessesreveredbythepolytheistsofMeccaItwasnotuntilsometimelaterthatMuhammadrealizedhiserrorwhereupontheversesinterpolatedbySatanwereremovedTheepisodeoftheldquoSa-tanicVersesrdquohasbeenacontroversialoneinIslamichistorylongbeforeSalmanRushdiersquosnovelofthatnameandKhomeinirsquosjuridicalruling(fatwa)callingforRushdiersquosdeathMostMuslimscholarshavefoundittooshockingtobelievethattheProphetcouldhavemadesuchagrievouserrorandhavedeniedthatanysuch incidentever tookplaceYetsome

25

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INTRODUCTION

IwaschattingoneeveningwithsomecompanionswhentoourearscamethesoundofsomeonerecitingtheQurrsquoannearbyrecitingtheSuraoftheStar[al-Najm]andweinterruptedourconversationtolistentotheNobleQurrsquoanLittlebylittlemyheartenteredintowhatwasbeing recited into theheartofMuhammadashe jour-neyedtotheHeavenlyHostIwaswithhimashesawGabrielintheangelicforminwhichGodhadcreatedhimIwaswithhiminhis loftyandfree-flying journey to theLoteTreeof theBoundaryandtheGardenoftheRefugeIwaswithhimtotheextentthatmyimaginationcouldformavisionofitandtotheextentthatmyfeelings couldbear itThen came the final cry andmywholebeingshookatthefearfulreproachldquoDoyoumarvelatthisdiscourseanddoyoulaughandnotweepandmakemerryrdquo[Q5359ndash61]WhenIheardldquoBowdownbeforeGodandserveHimrdquo[Q5362]thetremblinginmyhearthadbecomeaphysicalandvisibletremblingthroughoutmybodythatIcouldnotresistMybodykeptshakingandIcouldnotcontrolitNorcouldIholdbackthetearsthatwerepouringforthhowevermuchItried(QutbZilalvol7part2774ndash75quotedfromCarreacute2003333ndash34withminorchanges)

TheQurrsquoanrsquosprofoundimpactontheaestheticsensibilitiesofitslisten-ersisafamiliarmotifindiscussionsofitsliteraryqualities(cfGrahamandKermani2006)AssomeonewhoseearlywritingswereconcernedwithArabicliterarycriticismandspecificallywiththeliteraryexcellenceoftheIslamicscripture(Qutb1949b)QutbwasespeciallyreceptivetothisaspectoftheQurrsquoanThesenseofbeingtransportedbacktothetimeoftheProphetandtowitnessingtheProphetrsquosascension(milsquoraj)tothepresence of Godmdashwhich is how the passage being commented on byQutbherehascommonlybeeninterpretedbytheexegetesmdashcanlikewisebeseenasanillustrationoftheoverpoweringimpactthewordsoftheQurrsquoancanhaveonthebelieverQutbrsquosaccountofconversingwithGodthrough the Qurrsquoan (cited earlier) is again something he may havewantedtoseeallbelieversdoYetallbelieverscanscarcelydosoany-morethanallaspirantsevenontheSufipathcanexperiencethetransfor-mativemysticalldquostatesrdquothatGodbestowsonHisspecialfriends(awlshyiya)IrrespectiveofwhetherhesawitinquitethiswayQutbrsquosassertionthatheisabletoenterldquointotheheartofMuhammadrdquoandtoseeGabrielasMuhammad sawhimsurelygiveshimaperspective thatothers en-counteringthewordofGoddonothave

ThepointisnotofcoursethatQutbwaseverrecognizedbyhisfol-lowersasaSufimasterbutthatsomeofthehermeneuticalauthorityheclaimshasadistinctiveSufiringtoitMorebroadlythesortofunques-

leadingscholarsofearlyandmedievalIslammdashincludingIbnTaymiyyamdashacceptedthehisto-ricityofthisincidentSeeSAhmed1998

26

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INTRODUCTION

tioningreligio-politicalauthorityIslamistleadershaveoftenenjoyedovertheirfollowersisnotunlikethatoftheSufimasteroverhisfollowersBe-ginningwithHasanal-BannathefounderoftheMuslimBrotherhoodandoncehimselfamemberofaSufiordertheleaderofthisorganizationis formally referred to as themurshid (guide)ormore specificallyalshymurshid alshylsquoam (thegeneralguide[RMitchell1993165])whichisafamiliartermforthemasterinSuficontextsForhispartAbdessalamYassine the founder and leader of lsquoAdl warsquol-Ihsan Party of Morocco(oftenreferredtoastheJusticeandSpiritualityAssociationorJSA)haslike Khomeini gone well beyond simply echoing Sufi conceptions ofauthorityinhisowndiscoursesHetoowasonceamemberofaMoroc-canSufiorderandhehascontinuedtodrawonSufithemesinhiswrit-ingsTheverynameofYassinersquospoliticalorganizationevokesacentralSufiideanamelyihsanThisisaQurrsquoanicterm(cfQ756)thattrans-latedliterallymeansldquotodogoodrdquothoughSufishaveunderstoodittomeanmuchmore thanthatFollowingawell-knownstatementattrib-uted to theProphetMuhammad theyhaveoften interpreted ihsan tomeangoingbeyondtheexternalsofIslamicritualpracticestoldquoworshipGodasifyouseeHimrdquo(Schimmel197529)thatiscultivatingasenseof personal communion and intimacy with God Even as Yassine hassoughttodistancehimselffromwhathedeemstobetheexcessesofSu-fismthereislittledoubtthathispoliticalappealowesmuchtocarefullycalibratedeffortstocombinedistinctiveSufiideaswithhisownbrandofIslamism(cfLauziegravere2005seealsochapter12onNadiaYassineinthisvolume)

FinallyMawdudirsquosJamalsquoat-iIslamimdashoneoftheearliestIslamistorga-nizations in the Sunni worldmdashillustrates both the Islamistsrsquo complexrelationshipwith Sufismand their pragmatic recognitionof its appealinmanyMuslimsocietiesMawdudihadoncebeenaharshcriticofSu-fismblamingitformanyillsafflictingMuslimsocietiesYettheJama-lsquoat-iIslamigraduallycametosoftenitsstanceonSufipracticesconsider-ablynodoubtintheinterestofbroadeningsomeofitssupportbaseinPakistanwheresaintsandSufishrinesareanimportantpartofthereli-giousandpoliticallandscapeAlreadyinMawdudirsquoslifetimeMianTufaylMuhammadhissuccessorastheheadoftheJamalsquoat-iIslamihadtakentheextraordinaryinitiativeoftranslatinganearlySuficlassictheKashf alshymahjub into Urdu The author of this work Shaykh lsquoAli Hujwiri(d1072)isburiedinLahoreinPakistanandhismuch-frequentedshrineishometoprecisely thesortofdevotionalpractices that Islamistsandmodernist reformers letaloneSalafishaveoften frownedupon (Nasr1996124)

ThesediverseexamplesarenotintendedtoobscuretherealdifferencesbetweenthegeneralityofIslamistsandmostSufisTheirsignificanceliesratherinillustratingthedifficultyofdistinguishingbetweenIslamismandotherreligiousintellectualandpoliticaltrendsintermsofneatcharac-

27

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INTRODUCTION

terizationsofgrandtranslocalgeneralizationsAstheforegoingsuggeststhesameistrueandmoresowhenitcomestocharacterizingIslamistsinrelationtothelsquoulamatheMuslimmodernistsandtheSalafisIndeedasLorenLybargerhasarguedwithreferencetothoseusuallycharacter-izedasldquosecularnationalistrdquoorldquoIslamistrdquoPalestiniansintheWestBankandGazadifferenceswithintheranksofyoungsecularnationalistsandIslamistscansometimesalsoshadeintosignificantsimilaritiesbetweenthesesupposedlyrivalorientations(Lybarger2007)ManyIslamistshavesoughttodistancethemselvesfromwhattheyseeastherigidityandau-thoritarianismofotherIslamistsandtoarguenotjustfortheimplemen-tationofthesharilsquoabutalsofordemocracyandpluralismConverselynot a few of the younger secular nationalists have ldquoadopted IslamisttheodiciesthatexplainedthefailuretoovercomeIsraelastheresultoffallingawayfrompietytheirconclusionsmirroredIslamistonestootheroadbackfromthebrinkhadtotraceitscoursethrougharenewedcom-mitmenttoIslambutnotnecessarilyinthemannerthattheIslamistmove-mentsmighthaveintendedrdquo(Lybarger2007237ndash38quotationat238)

Yet ifneatcategoriesremainelusiveacombinationoftheIslamistsrsquoself-consciouslypoliticalgoalstheirmultifacetedifnotalwaysexplicitpoliticalcritiquesofmanypastandpresentwaysofunderstandingandlivingIslamandanunshakeableconfidenceintheirownabilitytodis-cern Godrsquos will from the foundational texts do often provide enoughgrounds tobroadlydistinguish themfromotheractivists intellectualsand orientations in the Muslim public sphere What this combinationamountstovariesfromonesocialpoliticalreligiousandculturalcon-texttoanotherandsothereforedothewaysinwhichIslamistsrelatetooneanotherorcompeteandoverlapwithothergroupsandorientations

The Politics of Islamism

FromAeneasrsquosmythicalfoundingofRometothedeathandresurrectionofJesusChristtoMuhammadrsquosmigrationtoMedinafoundationalnar-rativesareascommontocollectivelifeasthemovementsthatperiodi-callyarisetorevivethemandclaimantstothemantleoflegitimacytheyconferSounderstoodIslamistsrsquopoliticalaspirationstorestorefounda-tionslocatedinamythicalpastarefarfromuniqueNorareIslamistsaloneintheirconvictionthatscripturalauthorityisguaranteedbyitsdi-vineauthormdashforinthatallMuslimsagreeRatherthechaptersinthisvolumesuggest thatwhatmakes Islamistpoliticsdistinctive (ifnotsui generis)istheclaimtorecuperateanldquoauthenticIslamrdquocomprisedofself-evidenttruthspurgedofalienandcorruptinginfluencesalongwithaninsistenceonremakingthefoundationsofthestateinitsimageGiventhelimitsofhumanunderstandingrelativetoGodrsquosknowledgeIslamistssimultaneouslydepictsuchfidelitytotheunadulteratedwordofAllahas

28

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INTRODUCTION

theultimateexpressionofdeferencetodivineomniscienceandportrayhumilityasaconstitutivefeatureofthehumanconditionAspirationstofullyknowandmasterthenaturalandsocialworldsthusentailnotonlyahumanhubrisdeaftotheQurrsquoanicadmonitionthatldquoAllahknowsbutandyoudonotknowrdquo(Q366)butalsoatransgressionagainstadi-vinely-ordainedontologicalorder

ItisnotablehoweverthattheIslamistemphasisonthelimitsofhumanknowledgerequireshumilityonlyinrelationtoAllahitrarelyyieldshu-milityinregardtotheirownclaimstospeakinHisnameortowardotherhumanbeingswhodissentfromthepremiseofdivineomnipotenceandIslamistaccountsofwhat it requiresThis suggests thatwhile IslamistchallengestostatepowerareobviouslypoliticaltheIslamistclaimtoau-thenticityisalsopolitical inthecoercivepoweritroutinelyenactsandjustifiesmostnotablybywayofthesilencesitimposesandthedebatesitforeclosesAzizal-Azmehpointsoutthatldquothenotionofauthenticityisnotsomuchadeterminateconceptasitisanodeofassociationsandin-terpellationsatropebymeansofwhichthehistoricalworldisreducedtoaparticularorderandatokenwhichmarksoffsocialandpoliticalgroupsandforgesandreconstituteshistoricalidentitiesrdquo(al-Azmeh199341)WhetherintheserviceofArabnationalismChristianfundamental-ismEuropeanromanticismorMuslimmodernismtheclaimofauthen-ticityisanactofpowerthatfunctionsnotjusttoreflecttheworldbuttoconstructitbydeterminingwhoisincludedandexcludedwhomayandmaynotspeakauthoritativelywhatistheproperrealmofdebateandwhatisbeyondcontestation

ItiscertainlythecasethatasingleldquoIslamrdquocapturesandorganizestheperspectivesofmillionswhoself-identifyasMuslim(amongotherthings)yetwhattravelsunderitsrubricisinescapablydiversemultiethnicanddefined asmuchbydisagreement as consensus Just as theTorah andBible lend themselves toat times radicallydivergent interpretationsofwhatitmeanstobeJewishorChristiantheQurrsquoanandhaditharecom-plexandsusceptibletomanydifferentandattimescontradictoryenact-mentsSounderstoodIslamislessafixedessencethanalivingtraditionthatcaptureswhatisimaginedascontinuousandunitaryindialecticalrelationshiptothoseconcretearticulationsandpracticesbywhichitistransformedandadaptedindifferentcontextsforpluralpurposesItispreciselythisunderstandingofreligionthatisanathematoIslamistswhoseek tofix theparametersof Islamicauthenticityonceandforallandtherebyarrogateforthemselvestherighttodeterminewhoqualifiesasagood Muslim to discredit those lsquoulama unable or unwilling to purgeIslamofpurportedimpietiestodeclarenominallyMuslimrulersapos-tatesunfittogovernandtocharacterizeallwhodisagreeascorrupthe-reticalguiltyofunbelieforvictimsoffalseconsciousness

Thesegeneralpoliticaltendencieshowevermustbecarefullysituatedwithinadialecticoftheglobalandthevernacularunderstoodtoreflect

29

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INTRODUCTION

thewaysinwhichunifyingmacrohistoricaldynamicsinformandareinturntransformedbydiversecontingentandfluidlocalcircumstancesInaworldstampedbyWesterndominanceandtheconsolidationofpostco-lonial authoritarian regimes Islamists confront a common set of con-straintsandchallengesInasmuchassuchconstraintsandchallengeshavemade Islamist thinkers (often reluctant) participants in conversationsacrossbothcultureandhistorytheireffortstoremakethefoundationsofcollectiveliferevealasharedinterpretiveframeworkandcommonreli-gio-political grammar At the same time this frame and grammar arecontinuallybeingreworkedinrelationtothedistinctpublicspheresinwhichIslamistsoperateandtowhichtheycarefullycalibratetheirpoliti-calcommitments

Attention to this complex dynamic suggests that the Islamist move-mentcannotsimplybecharacterizedasviolentantidemocraticandop-pressiveofwomenlabelsinvokedsofrequentlyinscholarlyandpopularliterature on the subject that they have become virtually synonymouswithIslamistpoliticsSuchcharacterizationsdocapturecrucialdimen-sionsofIslamistpoliticsyettheyalsosidesteptheparadoxesitsvarie-gatedandoftencontradictoryexpressionspresentInsteadwearguethatIslamistpoliticscanbeproductivelyreadin terms ofandagainst the grain ofsuchbroadcategorizationsasantidemocraticantiwomanorviolentmdashthat is as commitments that at different moments in various localesbothencourageandconstrainbroad-basedpoliticalparticipationdisruptandratifyhierarchicalgendernormsresistandreproducestate-sanctionedbrutalityThepointofreadingIslamistpoliticsinthiswayisnottosug-gestthatIslamistsaresecretlydemocraticfeministandopposedtovio-lenceRatherthepointistodrawattentiontothecomplexityandcon-tradictionserasedbyeasygeneralizationsontheonehandandtheoftenunacknowledgedfluidityandculturaladaptabilityofotherwisefamiliarpoliticalcategoriesontheother

Islamism and Democracy

DespiteimportantdifferencesamongIslamistthinkerstheyhaveincom-monatendencytoviewhumansovereigntyastransgressiveofdivinelawandsharetheaspirationtoestablishsharilsquoaastheprimaryorsolesourceofauthorityAsisoftennotedsuchpremisesandaspirationsrunafoulofassumptionsaboutpopularruleattheheartofdemocracynamelythathumanbeingshavetherighttolegislaterulesforcollectivebehaviorandarecapableofthewisdomrequiredtodevisejustlawsInrecentyearspolicymakersandcommentatorshaveevincedaparticularpreoccupa-tionwiththewaysinwhichIslamistnotionsofdivineauthoritythrottlethespiritandpracticeofpopularsovereigntySomehaveevengonesofarastocharacterizeIslamistsasldquoIslamo-fascistsrdquoanimatedbyhatredoftheldquodemocratic Westrdquo psychologically unable to contend with the fluidity

30

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INTRODUCTION

andindeterminacythatmarkpopularruleandeagertoconvertelectionsintoaldquoone-manone-voteone-timerdquomechanismforestablishinganIs-lamicstate(Murdock2002MRubin2005Kramer1993)

SuchviewsareechoedbythoseIslamistskeentoportraydemocracynotonlyasantitheticaltothesupremacyofdivinelawbutasaTrojanhorseforWesternimperialismFormanyIslamistsincludingseveralinthis volumedemocracy is justone symptomofametastasizingmoralandspiritualbankruptcywherebymoraltransgressionsaretransfiguredintonaturalurgescrassself-interestbecomesthebedrockofcollectivelifeandthedivineplanfortheuniverseandallthingsinitisreducedtoa system of physical causality just waiting to be mastered by way ofhumaningenuity(REuben2007)Qutbcallsthisdiseasedviewoftheworldjahiliyyaanditsignalsnotonlyhumanarrogancebutatransgres-sionagainstdivineauthoritythescopeofwhichencompassesbothpub-licandprivatedomainsofhumanaffairsaswellasbothvisibleandun-seendimensionsoftheuniverseFormanyIslamistssuchtransgressionisattherootofmuchofwhatpassesforMuslimruleinthecontemporaryworldmdashnationalistdemocraticandmonarchicalalikeSucharroganceisalsosaidtobethepatternunderlyingalonghistoryofunrelievedWest-ernaggressionagainstIslaminwhichtheChristianCrusadesEuropeancolonialismIsraelitreatmentofPalestiniansethniccleansinginBosniaGermananti-TurkishviolencetheAmericaninvasionofIraqandDutchcartoonsofMuhammadarebutafewexamples

YetthereisarangeofviewsamongIslamistsaboutboththesubstanceofdemocracyanditscompatibilitywiththereligio-politicalrenewaltheyadvocateAccordingtoQaradawiforexampleldquotheessenceofdemoc-racyisthatpeoplechoosewhorulesoverthemandmanagestheiraf-fairsthatnorulerorregimetheydislikeisforceduponthemthattheyhavetherighttocalltherulertoaccountifheerrsandtoremovehimfromofficeincaseofmisconductandthatpeoplearenotforcedineco-nomicsocialculturalorpoliticaldirectionsthattheyneitherrecognizenor acceptrdquo (Qaradawi1997132 also chapter9 in this volume)TohimthereisnoheavierburdenoppressingMuslimsinthecontemporaryworld thandespotism indeed it is throughdespoticgovernments thatMuslimshavebeenforcedtosubmittootherillsincludingtheneglectofthesharilsquoaandthecoerciveimpositionofsecularismandwesternizationDemocracy then recommends itself to Qaradawi as the most effectiveavailableantidotetodespotismandtheafflictionsofwhichitservesasavehicle

WheremanyamongtheIslamistsandthelsquoulamahaveseenconsider-able tensionbetween IslamanddemocracyQaradawiprofesses to seenoneAswesuggestedearlierbyfarthemostcommonoftheIslamistreservationsaboutademocraticsystemrelatestothesovereigntyofthepeoplewhichistakentocontravenetheideathatGodaloneissovereignQaradawi however is unperturbedby such concernsThe rule of the

31

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INTRODUCTION

peopleoughttobeseenhearguesnotinoppositiontotheruleofGodbutratherinoppositiontotheruleofthedespotMorefundamentallyQaradawirsquos view of democracy does not necessarily require that thepeopleshouldbeabletooverturndivinelyinstitutednormsRatherhisassumptionisthatpeopleexercisetheirsovereigntywithinconstitutionalboundsandMuslimslivinginapredominantlyMuslimdemocraticpol-itywouldlikewisenotwishtotransgresstheparametersoflegitimatehumanactionlaiddownintheIslamicfoundationaltexts(seeQaradawichapter9inthisvolumeandcfFeldman2007)

NadiaYassineofMoroccorsquosJusticeandSpiritualityAssociationisan-othercaseinpointWhilecriticalofthedemocraticgesturesembracedbyamonarchythatshedepictsasallergictogenuinelypopularsovereigntyYassineinsiststhatthemodelofMuslimruleadumbratedintheummafoundedbytheProphetMuhammadandinparticulartheConstitutionofMedina17isnothingshortofdemocratic(NYassine2005d2005e)UnliketheMuslimdynastiesthatarosetousurpitYassinecontendsthiscommunity was participatory egalitarian committed to freedom andexpressiveofGodrsquosmercyMostimportantitwasgovernedalwaysbytheQurrsquoanicprincipleofshura (consultation)bywhichYassinemeansaphilosophy of power that places sovereignty in the community ratherthaninanyindividuallinksvirtuetodeliberationratherthanobedienceandexhortsbelieverstocontinuallyadaptQurrsquoanicprinciplesthroughijtihad rather than adhere reflexively to precedent (N Yassine 2006a182ndash862005d)ManyscholarsandjournalistsremainskepticaloftheJSArsquosasyetuntestedcommitment toproceduraldemocracyandworrythatNadiaandher fatherAbdessalamultimatelyseektoestablishanIslamic state inhospitable to tolerance pluralism and civil liberties(Maghraoui2001Brandon2007Whitlock2006)YetothersarguethattheJSAisagenuinelypopulistorganizationthatrepresentstheunrepre-sentedtendstothewelfareofthedispossessedandbothexpressesandcontributestoanincreasinglyvibrantcivilsocietyinMorocco(Cavatorta2006Entelis2002)

QaradawirsquosandYassinersquosargumentstogethersuggestthatdemocracycanandhasservedaseitheracosmeticcoverfordespotismoranauthen-ticallyIslamiccheckuponcorruptandarbitraryruleAtissueinIslamistargumentsforandagainstdemocracythenarenotonlywhatcountsasldquoauthenticIslamrdquoandtheintentionsofthosewhoclaimtoknowitbutalsothecontentandcharacterofdemocracyitselfParadoxicallybothIslamistsopposedtodemocracyandthosewhotakeIslamismasinher-entlyantidemocraticregardthisasasimplematterwithanobviousan-swerdemocracyisanexpressionofandevensynonymouswithliberal-ismcapitalismandtheWestYetdemocracyisbothmorecapaciousand

17TheConstitutionofMedinawasanagreementtheProphethadenteredintowiththelocalcommunitiesincludingJewishtribesuponhisemigrationfromMeccatoMedina

32

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INTRODUCTION

moredistinctthanthispresumptionsuggestsTheworditselfofcoursederivesfromtheancientGreekdemokratiawhichmeansrule(kratos)ofthepeople(demos)andmanyderivetheequationofdemocracyandtheWestfromthisassociationwithclassicalGreeceYetancientGreekphi-losopherssuchasPlatosawindemocracythespecterofmobrulepartic-ularly vulnerable to demagoguery and despotism (a suspicion notablyechoedbyAmerican founder JamesMadison)Contrary to thedemo-cratic idealof inclusivenessmoreover citizenship inGreekdemocracyexcludedasubstantialpartofthepopulationincludingwomenslavesandforeignersFinallytheextenttowhichtheancientGreeksmayevenbecalledWesternisamatterofgreatdisputeparticularlyastheldquoWestrdquoisacategoryofrelativelyrecentprovenancethroughwhichhistoryandgeographyhavebeenretroactivelyorganized18DespitedepictionsoftheHellenicworldasWesternancientGreeksdidnotinfactviewthem-selvesintheseterms19

TheequationofdemocracywiththeWestalsopresupposestheexis-tenceofacoherentldquoWesterncivilizationrdquowitheitherculturallyhomoge-neousrootsorclearlydelineatedhistoricalandcontemporarybounda-riesorbothYetwhatiscalledtheWestisanamalgamationofmultipletraditionsincludingtheGreekRomanJudaicChristianandIslamicmdashtraditionsthatarethemselvespolyvalentratherthanhomogeneousmdashandistodaycharacterizedbyporousbordershybridsubculturesandmyriaddebtstodiversecivilizationspastandpresent20AsageographicmarkeritisvirtuallyimpossibletopinpointexactlywheretheWestbeginsandendsandthisisespeciallysonowthatpeoplesinformationandmate-rial goods crisscross cultural andnational borders atwill creating allkindsoftransnationalsubnationalandmultipleidentitiesthatshiftandreconstitutethemselvesinunpredictablewaysEventhosevaluesidenti-fiedasWesternoftenappearelsewhereinotherguisesIndeedscholarssuggestthatavarietyoftheldquostandardsexportedbytheWestanditscul-turalindustriesthemselvesturnouttobeofculturallymixedcharacterifweexaminetheirculturallineagesrdquo(Pieterse199553)

Manyalsoarguethatdemocracyisnotonlydistinctfrombutinten-sionwithboththetheoryandpracticeofpoliticsinldquoWesternrdquosocieties

18MichaelGillespie(19997ndash10)arguesthattherereadingofhistorygeographyandculturethroughtheprismofthissenseofldquotheWestrdquobegannoearlierthanthenineteenthcenturyTheideaofatimelessandbrightlinebetweenWestandEastisalsochallengedbyJeremyBrottonrsquosstudy(19989096ndash97)ofthediplomaticandintellectualexchangesbe-tweenEuropeandtheOttomanEmpireintheearlymodernperiodBrottonshowsnotonlytheextentandamityofsuchexchangesbutapersistentuncertaintyaboutwherepreciselyEuropeldquoendedrdquoandAsialdquobeganrdquo

19AncientGreeksunderstoodthemselvesasgeographicallywestofthebarbariansbutnotWesterninthecontemporarysensethatisasbothaculturalandhistoricalcategory

20StevenRuncimanrsquoswork(19543480)ontheCrusadesforexampledemonstratesaldquolongsequenceofinteractionandfusionbetweenOrientandOccidentoutofwhichourcivilizationhasgrownrdquo

33

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INTRODUCTION

many of which are more accurately classified as liberal and capitalist(Wood1994Wolin2001BallandDagger1999)Whileitisnowcom-monplacetospeakofldquoliberaldemocracyrdquoinasinglebreathliberalismanddemocracyareconceptsandpracticeswithverydifferenthistoriesandpresuppositionsUnlikedemocracyforexampleliberalismemergedfromthecrucibleofChristianreligiouswarsandintandemwiththeas-cendanceofamiddleclassthatpresagedtheendofEuropeanfeudalismTheliberalnation-statecanthusbeviewedasbothanexpressionandaconsolidationofcapitalismontheonehandandtheprincipleofasepa-rationbetweenchurchandstateontheotherBycontrastthereisnoth-ingaboutdemocracyeitherasasystemofgovernanceoracultureofpar-ticipationthatisinherentlysecularIndeedAlexisdeTocquevillefamouslyinsistedthatAmericandemocracycannotandshouldnotbesecularasreligionhelpsshiftattentionawayfromimmediatematerialpreoccupa-tionstolargerconcernsofcommunitycooperationandmoralityInfactmanydemocratictheoristsarguethatgenuinelyinclusivepopularsover-eignty is antithetical to the sharp inequalities of wealth and politicalpowerthatcapitalismoftenproducesandlegitimates

SuchongoingdefinitionalandsubstantivedebatessuggestthatthereismuchmoreatstakeindemocraticpoliticsthanprocedurespertainingtogovernmentauthorityandorderandpointtoawidespreadifelusiveunderstandingofdemocracynotjustasasetofinstitutionsbutasTocque-villesuggestsawayoflifeSeveralpoliticaltheoristshavecharacterizedthiselusiveunderstandingintermsofaldquodemocraticethosrdquoBythistheymeanbothanidealandanargumentforacultureofparticipationactivepowersharingmutualaccountabilityinclusivenessanddeliberationinwhichcitizensmayroutinelyandsafelychallengenotonlyspecificpoli-ciesandpolitical institutionsbutalso thevalues thatgoverncollectivelifeprinciplesofinclusionandexclusionandthepremisesofauthorityitself(Connolly1995JPEuben2003Sadiki2004)AdemocraticethosismuchmoredifficulttomeasureorquantifythanforexampleSamuelHuntingtonrsquosparsimoniousdefinitionofdemocracyasapolityinwhichtherehavebeentwoconsecutivepeacefulchangesofgovernmentbywayof freeand fairelections (Huntington1991)21Yetademocraticethosmakesitpossibletobothrecognizeanddisaggregatethepreconditionsaspirations mechanisms and institutions bundled into ldquodemocracyrdquotherebybringingintofocusforexamplethefrequentlyantidemocratic

21Manypoliticalscientistsprefertodefinedemocracyintermsofproceduresdesignedtorealizepopularruleincludingfreecompetitiveandfairelectionsalongwithstateprotec-tionofcertainrightsandlibertiesSuchaformalminimalistdefinitionhastheadvantageofdetachingdemocracyfromquestionsoforiginsandofferingastandardtowhichallgov-ernmentsmaybeheldregardlessofcultureandplaceAsKeithTopper(2005205ndash7)ar-gueshoweveritalsotendstosidestepknottyquestionsaboutthesubstanceofrepresenta-tion power responsiveness and accountability that are arguably central to democraticpolitics

34

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

casttoelectionsimposedbyelitesorforeignpowersthefeltimpotenceofmanycitizensinestablisheddemocraciesandthosehighlyparticipa-torycivilsocietiesthatflourishevenundermonarchicortheocraticrule

Forourpurposes inparticularademocraticethosmakesvisible theparadoxofanIslamistmovementthatseekstomobilizeordinaryMus-limsagainstcoercivepowerbutinthenameofareligio-politicalorderlargelyimmunizedfromchallengeQutbisanaptillustrationhereashistendencytogroundhisownspecialauthorityandinsightintheunsulliedwisdomofordinarybelieversmakesitpossibletoreadhisworkaseitherabriefagainstdemocracy(amongotherthings)oranenactmentofitIn-asmuchasdemocracyasaformofgovernanceisidentifiedwithpopularsovereigntyQutbrsquosbasicpremisethat thefoundationof legitimateau-thoritymustbedivineratherthanhumansuggeststhatheisunambigu-ouslyantidemocraticMoreoverQutbrsquoseffortstopluralizereligiousandpolitical authority express not a confidence in common wisdom butratheradesiretoclaimforhimselfthestatureofareligiousexpertwhodespitehislackofIslamicacademiccredentialscanclearlyseewhatoth-erscannotQutbcharacterizestherealIslamasself-evidentbuthealsoassumesthatonlyasmallvanguardofbelieversbesideshimselfwillhavetheabilitytorecognizeitandactdecisivelytoremaketheworldinitsimageSounderstoodthesignofldquochosennessrdquoisunyieldingcommitmenttoestablishingareligio-politicalorderthatsimultaneouslypresumesthesupremacyofthefewcapableoftrueknowledgeandpromisesaworldinwhichdissentitselfwillbecomebothunnecessaryandillegitimate

Yetifdemocracyrefersnotonlytoasystemofgovernanceorsetofprocedurestorealizepopularsovereigntybutalsotopracticesthatdis-ruptthoseforceswhichconcentratepowerandestablishpoliticalexclu-sionthecharacterizationofQutbrsquosworkassimplyantidemocraticmissesa crucial dimensionof its significance and appealAs the sacred textscontaintherulesandregulationsmeanttogovernbothpublicandpri-vateaffairsQutbrsquosinsistencethatordinaryuntrainedMuslimsmusten-gagethemdirectlyisinmanywaysademocratizationofaccesstoau-thoritySuchaccesscandisruptdeeplyentrenchedpatternsofpowerandpowerlessness particularlywhen conjoined to Islamist arguments thatarbitrarypowerisun-Islamicthatreligiousknowledgedependsoncom-mitmentratherthantrainingorexpertise thatMuslimshavetherightandobligationtodeterminewhenrulersareillegitimateandthatthosewhopreferordertojusticesecuritytofreedomandmoneytopietyhaveforfeitedanyclaimtoauthority

ThisaspectofIslamismhasfrequentlybeencomparedtotheProtestantReformationandmorespecificallytoCalvinistsrsquoattemptstotransferldquore-ligiousauthorityawayfromofficiallysanctionedindividualswhointer-prettextstoordinarycitizensrdquo(EGoldberg19913alsocfLoimeier2005)Suchaparallelhassparkedagreatdealofscholarlyspeculation

35

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

regardingapossibleldquoIslamicReformationrdquo22andarangeofargumentsaboutwhetherandhowIslamismmightfacilitatethedemocratizationofMuslim societies much as the Protestant Reformation is said to haveheralded the emergence of European ldquoliberal democracyrdquo While suchcomparisonsareevocativeafullerunderstandingof IslamismrequiresfirstsituatingitinrelationtoahistoricalshiftinthenatureandlocusofreligiousauthorityinIslambeginninginthenineteenthcenturyAsschol-arsofMuslimsocietieshavepointedouttheimpactofmasseducationnewtechnologiesfordisseminatingknowledgeandinformationanddra-matically changed social economic and political contexts have madeavailabletoamateurswhathadpreviouslybeenthepurviewofreligiousexpertsAtthesametimeithasinauguratedafragmentationofauthor-itywithintheveryranksofthelsquoulamathatcontinuestothepresentday23

InthiscontexttheascendanceandinfluenceofautodidactssuchasQutbHasanal-BannalsquoAbdal-SalamFarajandBinLadensimultaneouslyex-pressandaccelerateanongoingrenegotiationofauthorityoverwhomayspeakforIslamandonwhatbasisthepathofwhichisstillunfoldingandtheoutcomeasyetuncertain

Islamism and Gender

One already apparent consequence of this ongoing renegotiation overwhomayspeakforIslamandonwhatbasisistheentryofwomenintothe interpretive fray This development is increasingly unsettling thoseunwrittengendernormsarguablyattheveryheartofIslamistthoughtdisruptingthestandardsofmasculinityandfemininitythatreflecthowparticularculturesorganizehumanbeingsrsquosocialandreproductiveactiv-itiesintorolesthatareinturnthoughttoexpresstheldquonaturerdquoofmenand women Such norms are frequently considered tangential to theknottyproblemsofdefiningIslamismandadumbratingitscentralideasyetarangeofscholarshiponculturespastandpresenthasshownthatgenderisconsistentlytheterrainoverwhichbattlesforpoliticalcontrolandculturalidentityarefoughtMorespecificallyresearchindisciplinessuchasanthropologyhistoryclassicsandpostcolonialstudieshasdem-onstratedthatculturesinwhichfemalebodiesandbehaviorareregardedas indicesofmoralpurity tend to symbolically transformwomen intoconduitsof cultural corruption in timesof internal crisis and externalthreat(Papenek1994Chatterjee1990Tavakoli-Targhi1991Just1989Cohen1991Welter1966Bloch1978)Thisisespeciallytrueofcontem-

22Foralatenineteenth-centuryassessmentoftheprospectsforaldquoMuhammadanRefor-mationrdquoseeBlunt1882132ndash73

23EickelmanandPiscatori199637ndash39131ndash35Zaman2006Suchfragmentationhasinmanywaysbeenacceleratedbytheexplosionofdigitalcultureswhichpromoteamongotherthingsaldquoformofempoweredamateurismrdquo(Mirzoeff20026)

36

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

poraryreligio-politicalmovementswhosememberstendtoldquoidealizepa-triarchalstructuresofauthorityandmoralityrdquoendorsegenderdualismasgod-givenornaturalandcondemnvigorouslyrecentchangesingen-derrelationsasasymptomandsymbolofsecularistmoralbankruptcy(Riesebrodt1993Moghadam1992Hawley1994)

SeveralchaptersinthisvolumeilluminateIslamistgendernormsbyre-vealing thecharacterandcontentof Islamistconcernsabout theplaceandpurityofMuslimwomenmdashpreoccupationsFatimaMernissi(199199)hasgonesofarastocharacterizeasanobsessionDespiteimportantdifferences among Islamists thinkers many endorse gender norms inwhichthefairlyconventionalinsistencethatfemalenatureisdefinedinand through reproduction undergirds an understanding of women assymbolsofmoralvirtueandvesselsofculturalpurityThisviewsustainstheclaimthatmenandwomenareequalinreligiousbeliefbutperformfundamentallydifferentandcomplementaryfunctionsinsocietyWhilemenarenaturallymadetoruleinboththepublicandprivatedomainawomanbelongsinthedomesticrealmwhereherprimaryroleistobeawifeandmotheraswellastoinsuretheintegrityofthefamilythefirstschoolofmoraleducationAssuchfunctionsarerootedinaninescap-ablehumannaturefashionedbyGodawomanrsquosinabilityorunwilling-nesstoperformherdutiessignalsadisobediencetothedivinewillandpresages the corruption of the Muslim family from within From thisvantagepointtheWesterninsistenceonfullequalitybetweenthesexesisdoubly pernicious it at once liberates women from basic moral con-straintsandenslavesthemtomutuallyreinforcingsexualandcapitalistexploitationAsMurtazaMutahhari(1998xxxi)arguescapitalismmakesuseofwomentomarket itsgoodsldquoby trading inhonourandrespectthrough[their]powertoenticerdquotherebyldquotransform[ing]manintoaninvoluntaryagentofconsumptionrdquoInasmuchaswomenareresponsiblefor producing the next generation of Muslim men destined to restoreIslamtoitsformergloryitisnotonlythevirtueofwomenortheinteg-rityofthefamilythathangsinthebalancebutthefutureofIslamiccivili-zationitself

Zaynab al-Ghazali andMutahharimake several of these argumentsexplicitlyandindetail(seechapters10and11)butinmuchofIslamistrhetoricthenatureandsignificanceofwomenareestablishedindirectlyandsymbolicallyandthroughthreerecurrentimagesinparticularThefirstisofwomenassilentsymbolsofculturalmoralandsexualvulnera-bilityvoicelessfiguresinneedofmasculineprotectionorwhenitistoolatedefiledbodiesthatmutelydemandvengeanceSoforexamplelsquoAb-dallahlsquoAzzam(oneofBinLadenrsquosmentorsseechapter18)graphicallydetailstheagonizinghumiliationofyoungmenunabletoactwhentheAfghanwoman isldquocryingout forhelpher childrenarebeing slaugh-tered her women are being raped the innocent are killed and theircorpsesscatteredrdquo(lsquoAzzam1987a)Inthesecondimagewomenfunction

37

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

muchlikeachorusthatspeaksinpermittedcadencestoratifymasculineendeavorsSuchisthecaseforexampleinBinLadenrsquos1996ldquoDeclara-tionofWaragainsttheAmericansOccupyingtheLandoftheTwoHolyPlacesrdquo(seechapter18)wherethewomenexhortmentojihadinthefollowing way ldquoPrepare yourself like a struggler the matter is biggerthanwordsAreyougoingtoleaveusforthewolvesofKufr[unbe-lief]eatingourwingsWherearethefreemendefendingfreewomenbyarmsDeath isbetter than life inhumiliation Some scandals andshameswillneverbeotherwiseeradicatedrdquo24InthethirdimagewomenarecreaturesnotofthisworldbutofanothervirginalrewardsforthecourageousmartyrintheafterlifeThisisevidentinthefinalinstructionsforthe911hijackersforexamplewhereMuslimldquobrothersrdquoareurgedto purify their carnal impulses sharpen their knives for the dhabh (slaughter)andheedthecallofthehur lsquoayn (theblack-eyedones)await-ingtheminParadise(seechapter19)

Such rhetoric primarily registers women as an extensionmirror ormeasure of masculinity and together with explicit Islamist argumentsabouthumannatureandthefamilyarticulatesIslamistgendernormsinwhichmenandwomeneachhaveaproperlocationandpurposeinadi-vinely ordained social hierarchy Deviance from this gendered scriptthussignalsdisruptionofamuchbroaderreligio-politicalorderitbothpresumes and seeks to bring into existence The disruption caused byforeign aggression in particular exacerbates the tendency to translateconflict into an assault on Muslim masculinity and to conceptualizewomenaspotentialvehiclesforWesterncorruptioninneedofguidingand guarding Women such as Zaynab al-Ghazali and Nadia Yassinewho seek a prominent place and voice within the Islamist movementhavehadlittlechoicebuttocontendwiththisgenderedscriptDoingsohasentailedamongotherthingsnavigatingcarefullybetweenIslamistcharacterizations of womenrsquos visibility and agency as symptomatic ofthe new jahiliyya on the one hand and essentializing arguments thatequateIslamwithveilingfemalegenitalmutilationandhonorkillingsontheother

AsthechaptersonGhazaliandYassinesuggestIslamistwomenhavenegotiatedbetweensuchconstraintsandpressuresandtheirownambi-tionsindifferentwaysApioneeringdalsquoiya(onewhoinvitesMuslimstogreater piety)Ghazalirsquos own life reveals a fierce resistance to conven-tionalnormsofdomesticityevenasmuchofher(earlier)workappearsto embrace an Islamist gender ideology that defines women as wivesmothers andldquobuilders ofmenrdquo (al-Hashimi 1990 118)By contrastYassineisawifeandmotherwhoembracesanldquoIslamicfeminismrdquothatrequiresldquoreappropriatingtheinstrumentsofclassicaltheologyrdquoanden-

24TheIslamistjournalSawt alshyJihadhasgonesofarastofeatureldquowomenrsquosvoicesrdquointheformofrolemodelsnamedforexampleumm alshyshahid(motherofthemartyr)al-thoughitisunclearthattheseldquovoicesrdquoareactuallywomenrsquos(SUsher2004)

38

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INTRODUCTION

gaging the textsdirectly through ijtihad (NYassine2003) In this re-spect Yassine must be understood as part of a broader effort amongMuslimwomenwithdifferentpoliticalcommitmentstosimultaneouslyadvocateandenacttheirrighttorecuperatetheldquooriginalintentrdquooftheIslamictextsIfwomenandmendoinfacthavedistinctperspectivesontheworldYassinesuggestswomenhaveaspecialobligationtoexcavatewhattheyseeasthegenderparityoftheQurrsquoanburiedbeneaththoseldquomachointerpretationsrdquoofIslamuponwhichmenhavebuilttheirprivi-legeandpower(Khalaf2006)25

ManyAnglo-AmericanandEuropean feministsworry that Islamistsseekonly to secureor restorepatriarchalpowerConverselymany Is-lamist women view feminism as a term and a movement inescapablyWesterninoriginfreightedwiththelegacyofcolonialismanduneasilyimplicatedinculturalimperialismThisapplieseventoYassinewhoisunwillingtoadoptwithoutqualificationalabelsheassociateswithagen-dasopposedtoherowntheWesttheMoroccanstateMaghribi(North-westAfrican)elitesYetfeminismitselfisahighlycontestedtermwithin theso-calledWestitisthebearerofmultiplemeaningssomeofwhichareevenopposedandischaracterizedbydeepdisagreementsaboutwhowomenarewhatwomenneedwhoisauthorizedtoworkonwomenrsquosbehalf andbywhatmeans Inasmuch as these various feminismsmayshareonlyastatedconcernforwomenrsquoswelfarethereisnothinginco-herentinmodifyingldquofeminismrdquowithldquoIslamicrdquoldquoMuslimrdquoorevenldquoIs-lamistrdquounlessone iscommitted toarguing thatfirst Islam isanun-changingessencebeyondhistorypoliticsandculturesecondthereisaneutralobjectivevantagefromwhichtoidentifythisessenceonceandforallandfinallytheIslamicessencesoidentifiedisfundamentallyin-compatiblewitheffortstoimprovetheconditionsandqualityofwomenrsquoslivesBythesametokenIslamistwomenwhorejectthetermfeminismcanbe(althoughnotalwaysare)deeplycommittedtoimprovingwom-enrsquoswelfareaswellasactivelyresistanttoeffortsthatreduceortrans-formthemintosilentaccessoriesofmalepower

YassineandGhazalidifferaboutwhatwomenareandshouldbeyetbroadlyspeakingbothmaybeconsideredpartofarecenttrendtowardthe feminizationofdalsquowa Dalsquowa literallymeanscallappealor sum-monsbutthetermhascometosignifyavarietyofpracticesandargu-mentsmeanttoexhortinviteandguideMuslimstowhatisregardedasproperconductandmoraldevotionWomenrsquosparticipationindalsquowais

25WomenrsquosparticipationintheldquoproductionofofficialIslamicknowledgerdquohasalonghistoryalthoughtheyhaveoftendonesoinrelativeobscurityandwithoutthebenefitofeducation in the Islamicsciences thathas legitimateddirectengagementwith thesacredtexts (Cooke 2001 xiv Badran and Cooke 2004) Pioneering attempts to read genderequalityinIslamarealsonotconfinedtowritingbywomenasevincedbyQasimAminrsquosTahrir alshymarrsquoa [TheLiberationofWoman] (1899)andMumtaz lsquoAlirsquosHuquqshye niswan [TheRightsofWomen](1898)

39

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

notabrandnewphenomenonasisevidentinGhazalirsquosworkwiththeEgyptianSocietyofMuslimLadiesinthe1930sYetfromEgypttoPaki-stantoSaudiArabiatotheUnitedStatesthenumberoffemaledalsquoiyashasproliferatedexponentially inrecentyears(Cooke2001Mahmood2005Hirschkind2006)Thisreflectsinpartcurrentdoctrinalempha-sesondalsquowaasincumbentuponbothmenandwomenanddependentlessupontechnicalknowledgethanmoralvirtueandpracticalfamiliaritywiththeIslamictradition(Mahmood200565ndash66)It isalsoaconse-quenceofrecentpoliticalandsocioeconomictransformationsinMuslimsocietiesincludingtheexpansionofmasseducationthathasnotonlyin-creasedwomenrsquosliteracyandsocialmobilitybutalsomadeIslamictextsmoreaccessibletheproliferationoftechnologiesmdashfromthecassettetapetotheInternetmdashthatfacilitatethecirculationofreligiousknowledgeevenamongthosewhocannotreadortraveltheprecedentsetbythevigorousparticipationof IranianwomeninpostrevolutiondebatesaboutIslamandthemodeloflegalactivismevidentintheIslamistmovementrsquosownchallenge to the lsquoulamarsquos status as gatekeepers of religious knowledge(Singerman2005Mir-Hosseini1999)

If Ghazali and Yassine exemplify the feminization of dalsquowa amongelitesthemosquemovementinEgyptillustratesthegrowingparticipa-tionofwomenfromdiversesocialbackgroundsinreligiousclassesde-votedtostudyinganddebatingwhatIslamrequiresforawomantobeldquomorallyuprightrdquointhecontemporaryworld(Mahmood2005)Con-ceptualizingpiety in termsof adeepandholistic commitment to self-transformationparticipantsinthemosquemovementareconcernedlesswithmattersofsovereigntyandpoliticsconventionallyunderstoodandmorewiththeldquomoralcultivationrdquoofthosedailypracticesseenascrucialtobecomingclosertoGod(Mahmood2005)SomeIslamistshavecriti-cizedthis focusonpracticesofworshipasapoliticalandoverlypriva-tizedyetsuchcriticismmissestheforceofIslamistsrsquoowninsistenceondin(religion)asawayoflifeinwhichthedomainsofpublicandprivateare inextricably linked26AsSabaMahmood (2005193194) showsthesewomenrsquosintenseeffortsatldquoretrainingethicalsensibilitiesrdquohavealdquosociopoliticalforcerdquothatextendswellbeyondmattersofgovernancefacilitatingnolessthantheemergenceofaldquonewsocialandmoralorderrdquoEvidenceofitstransformativepowermaybefoundnotonlyinthesheernumbersandvarietyofwomenmdashwealthyandpoor literateand illiter-atemdashparticipatinginthemosquemovementbutalsointherhetoricalandpoliticaleffortsbythestateandsomeIslamiststocurtailcontrolordis-creditit(Mahmood200571194)

26ParticipantsinthemosquemovementinturnareoftencriticalofwhattheyseeasthereductionofIslamtotokensofculturalauthenticityorofitsinstrumentalizationbybothnationalistsandIslamiststheycharacterizeasmoreinterestedinpoliticalmaneuveringthanreligiouspiety

40

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

Understoodtoincludebothwrittenandembodiedpracticesthefemi-nizationof dalsquowa illustrates theways inwhichwomen fromdifferentperspectivesandsocialclassesareinsistingonengagingthesacredtextsdirectly for and with one another without the mediating authority ofmenwhohavetraditionallyheldthemonopolyonsuchactivitiesAsSu-danese Islamist Lubabah al-Fadl argues ldquoAs an insan [human being]whohappenstobeawomanIhavearighttorejectthemanipulativeexegesesofoursharilsquoa thatthreatenmyexistenceinawaythat isnotconsistentwiththeGodlywayandtoapplymyownijtihadtorectifyer-roneoustendenciesbysomeshuyukh[pluralofshaykh]rdquo(Sadiki2004290)DespitetheproliferationofvoicesintentonclaimingforthemselvestheauthoritytodemarcatewhatisauthenticallyIslamicandun-Islamiconceandforallcontestationoveritsscopeandmeaningproceedsapacefacilitatedatleastinpartbywomenformerlyexcludedfromtheconver-sationAtthesametimeIslamistwomenrsquosagencyandclaimstoauthorityarefrequentlystillpredicatedonawillingnesstofollowfairlypatriarchalrulesaboutwherehowandwithwhomtheymaypracticetheirvocation(Hirschkind2003Sadiki2004283)

Islamism and Violence

IfgenderisfrequentlyanimplicitpreoccupationamongIslamistsjihadisarguably Islamistsrsquomost consistently explicit concern Jihad is derivedfromtheArabicverbthatmeanstostruggleortostriveyetitisaparticu-larkindofstruggle that isofconcern tomanyof thefigurescollectedheretheoftenviolentstruggleagainstapostatesandinfidelsbothathomeandabroadtowhicheveryindividualMuslimmustcontributeTheclaimthatfightingunbelieversisthepreeminentenactmentofindividualMus-limpiety seems to justify characterizationsof Islam ingeneral and Is-lamisminparticularassanctioningevenencouragingviolenceYetwhatIslamistsrepresentasjihadtout courtisahistoricallyspecificunderstand-ingderivedfromahighlyselectiveuseoftextsandprecedentsprominentamongthemaformerlyobscureclaimbytheinfluentialfourteenth-cen-tury jurist IbnTaymiyya thatMongol rulerswhohad contravened Is-lamiclawcouldbesubjecttoforcibleremovalFarfromadefinitiveex-pressionof Islamldquoproperlyunderstoodrdquo such Islamist argumentsnotonlymarkasignificantdeparturefrommuchofantecedentdoctrineandpractice but also diminish the importance of ongoing disagreementsamongMuslimsabouttheformandpurposesofjihad

TobeginwithMuslimscholarshavetendedtoconsiderjihadagainstforeignenemiesafard kifaya(collectiveobligation)thatisadutyagroupofpeoplewithinthecommunitymayperformonbehalfoftherestandonethatpresupposesalegitimateMuslimleadertodeclareorleadthechargeJuristshavedistinguishedthisfromthefard lsquoayn(individualduty)thatmustbefulfilledbyeverysingleMuslimincasesofdefensivejihad

41

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

thatiswhentheummaisunderattackManyIslamistsincludedheretakeamuchlessnuancedviewofjihadAsamodeofpoliticalactionQutbarguesjihadmustberegardedasaldquopermanentconditionnotanocca-sionalconcernrdquoonethatincurrentcircumstancesrequiresdeedsratherthanwordsstruggleratherthancontemplationrevolutionathomeaswellasresistanceabroad(Qutb199167ndash6882)lsquoAbdal-SalamFarajarguesalongsimilarlinesthatthenatureoftheattackonIslammakespolitical authorization by a caliph (ldquodeputyrdquo referring to a legitimatesuccessortotheProphetrsquosleadership)unnecessaryafterallldquoleadershipovertheMuslimsis(always)intheirownhandsifonlytheymakethismanifestIfthereissomethinglackingintheleadershipwellthereisnothingthatcannotbeacquiredrdquo(Jansen1986asec93)

SuchargumentsareadeliberaterejectionofearlyMuslimmodernistswhohademphasizedthelargelydefensivecharacterofjihadandsoughttoshowthatrelationsbetweenMuslimsandnon-MuslimswerenormallypeacefulratherthanantagonisticMahmudShaltut(d1963)therectorof al-Azhar from 1958 to 1963 had argued for example that theQurrsquoanicversesonfightingldquoprohibittheprovocationofhostilityandthisprohibitionisreinforcedbyGodrsquosrepugnancetoaggressionandbyhisdislikeofthosewhoprovokehostilityrdquo(Peters199674onShaltutseeZebiri1993)ConversionbyforceisanathematoIslamShaltutaversandfightingiscommandedonlyindefenseinresponsetoaggressionini-tiatedbyothersEvendefensivejihadmustaimatldquotheterminationoftheaggressionandtheestablishmentofreligiouslibertydevotedtoGodandfreefromanypressureorforcerdquo(Peters199675)

ManyIslamistsexplicitlydismisssuchargumentsasasymptomoffalseconsciousnessoneamongmanydestructiveeffectsofcolonialdomina-tionMawdudiargues for example thatwhile imperialists ravage theworld to satisfy their greed jihad alone ldquoconjures up the vision of amarching band of religious fanatics with savage beards and fiery eyesbrandishingdrawnswordsandattackingtheinfidelswherevertheymeetthemrdquoHavinginternalizedthis imageMuslimsrushtoapologizeandrenouncearmedstruggleInthiswayhelamentscolonialistsretaintheexclusiverighttoldquofightwitharmsandammunitionwhilewearecon-tented with our pen and our tonguerdquo (Mawdudi 1948 1ndash3) SayyidQutbforhispartagreedthatIslamdoesnotcountenancespreadingitsmessagebyforceandcoercionyethehadlittlepatiencewiththosewhosoughttopresentjihadaslegitimateonlyinself-defense

IfweinsistoncallingIslamicjihadadefensivemovementthenwemustchangethemeaningofthewordldquodefenserdquoandmeanbyitldquothedefenseofmanrdquoagainstallthoseforcesthatlimithisfreedomWhenwetakethisbroadmeaningofthewordldquodefenserdquoweunder-standthetruecharacterofIslaminthatitproclaimstheuniversalfreedomofeverypersonandcommunityfromservitudetoanyother

42

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

individualorsocietytheendofmanrsquosarroganceandselfishnesstheestablishmentofthesovereigntyofAllahandHisLordshipthrough-outtheworldandtheruleofthedivinesharilsquoainhumanaffairs(Qutb199050)

Qutbdoesnotnameanynamesincastigatingtheldquowriterswithdefeatistandapologeticmentalities[who]writeaboutlsquojihadinIslamrsquoandtrytoremovethislsquoblotrsquofromIslamrdquo(Qutb199046)buthecouldverywellhavehadhisdistinguishedfellowEgyptianMahmudShaltutinmind

These arguments about jihad may be said to constitute a commongrammarandframeworkofanalysisformanyIslamistsalthoughseveralthinkers in this volume carefully calibrate such claims to suit variouspurposesanddifferentpublicspheresInhisjustificationfortheassassi-nationofEgyptianpresidentAnwaral-SadatforexamplelsquoAbdal-SalamFarajdepictsthestruggletoreclaimthemoralfoundationsoftheEgyp-tianstateasafightagainstjahiliyyafromwithinarguingthatthejihadagainstacorruptnationalistregimeathomemusttakeprecedenceoverfightingenemieselsewhereTheCharterofHamas(seechapter15)how-everinsiststhatallMuslimsrecognizetheprimacyofthejihadforJeru-salemweldingIslamistrhetorictothatofnationalistresistanceinanef-fortbothtofightIsraelioccupationandtocompeteforadherentswiththePalestinianLiberationOrganization(PLO)IncontrasttobothFarajandHamasBinLadenembracesaglobaljihadthatessentiallycollapsesdistinctionsbetweennationalandinternationaloffensiveanddefensivefightingenemiesathomeandthosefromafar

Yet despite such differences these arguments tend to presume thatviolent jihad is a necessary response to the pervasive power of thosewithdemonstratedhostilitytoMuslimliveslandspietiesandsensibili-tiesaformofretaliationwhoseurgencyandlegitimacyderivefromtheviolencemdashpsychologicalandeconomicaswellasphysicalmdashoftheinitialassaultThisviewofjihadsubsumesindividualsintoarchetypesofldquoin-fidelsrdquoandldquobelieversrdquoandinsodoingvitiatesmoreconventionaldis-tinctionsbetweenforexamplesoldierandcivilianorcollectiveandin-dividual responsibility It is far from inevitable that thosewhoharborsuchviewswillautomaticallyactuponthemyetthecarnagewroughtbytheattacksontheWorldTradeCenterandthePentagonin2001aBalinightclub in 2002 Madrid commuter trains in 2004 and throughoutIraqonadailybasissuggestjusthowlethalsuchclaimscanbegiventheright circumstances The fact that such violence does not discriminateamongvictimsonlyfurtherfuelsrhetoriccharacterizingIslamistsasirra-tional fanatics ldquoin love with deathrdquo terrorists animated by a religioncharacterizedbyapropensityforviolenceandauthoritarianism27

27AnxietiesabouttheparticularsusceptibilityofMuslimstoirrationalityinsularityandfanaticismhavealonganddistinguishedpedigreeinEuro-AmericanhistoryandpoliticalthoughtSeeforexampleRenan18833

43

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

AsinsomanyothermattershoweverIslamistsarehardlyofonemindonthesubjectofjihadindeedthereareIslamistswhoexplicitlyrejectthereductionof struggle toviolenceAcase inpoint isNadiaYassine(20032005c)whoinsiststhatjihadisthededicatedstruggleagainstisshytikbar(arrogance)particularlyinitscommonformasthelustforpoweranddominationAsjihadagainstistikbarisbothafinalgoalandapre-scriptionforactionYassinesuggestsitisantitheticaltoviolentpracticesthataimatdominationTheprimaryinstrumentsofjihadarenotbombsbutwords particularly thosedeployed in the art of persuasion (Fara-marzi2005NYassine2006a)WhenIslamistssuchaslsquoAbdal-SalamFarajandlsquoUmarlsquoAbdal-RahmanseektolegitimizeviolentrevolutionbyrecoursetoIslamictextsshearguestheycontravenethetruemeaningofjihadtoservetheirownarrogantendsBythesametokenBinLadenrsquosdecisiontoldquofightevilwithevilandbarbaritywithbarbarityrdquonotonlyviolatesspecificIslamicprohibitionsagainstharmingcivilianswomenandchildrenbutalsobetraystheethicalimperativetoembodythemes-sageofamercifulGodwhocautionsbelieversthat(Q8822)ldquoYouhavenopoweroverthemrdquo(NYassine2005cDaily Excelsior2002)

SuchpersistentdisagreementsamongMuslimspastandpresentsug-gest that Islam isnomore inherently violent andbloody-minded thanitmdashorChristianityor Judaism for thatmattermdashis inherentlypeacefulIslamists often claim to speak for an unchanging authentic Islam thatexistsoutsideoftimeandspaceyetthepoliticalpurchaseoftheirper-spective derives from the ways it assembles disparate yet recognizablecontemporaryexperiencesofsufferingfrustrationandlossintoanex-planationthatresonateswithMuslimswholiveincommunitiescultur-allylinguisticallyandgeographicallydistantfromoneanotherTheex-tenttowhichIslamistargumentsresonatebroadlyacrossMuslimsocie-tiesthusdependsuponasetofexperiencesandphenomenathatmarkthisparticularmomentinhistoryincludingthewaysinwhichcontempo-raryglobalinequalitiescompoundalegacyofhistoricalasymmetriestocontinuallyreproduceasenseofMuslimpowerlessnessmdashbothrealandimaginedmdashrelativetotheWestcontinuingEuro-Americanpoliticalandfinancialsupportofcorruptautocratsmanyofwhompresideoverna-tion-statesbrutallystitchedtogetherbyWesternfiat thepersistenceofauthoritarian regimes eager to control domestic unrest by catalyzingldquoMuslimragerdquotowardexternaltargetsthesenseofemasculationpro-ducedbydecadesofpoliticalrepressionandeconomicfrustrationandthecontinualflowofimagesofbloodiedMuslimbodiesdeliveredbyaburgeoningarrayofvideosatelliteandelectronicmedia

It is notable that the understanding of jihad many Islamists proffermirrorstheverystate-sanctionedviolenceagainstwhichtheyhavestrug-gledforalmostacenturyAlongwiththousandsofMuslimscaughtinthemachineryoftwentieth-centurystateviolenceprominentIslamistsfromQutbtoGhazalitoAymanal-Zawahirimdashal-Qalsquoidarsquossecondincommandmdash

44

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

arewellknowntohavebeenradicalizedbyextendedandoftenbrutaltermsofincarcerationinEgyptSyriaIraqJordanIsraelAlgeriaandelsewhere(onal-ZawahiriandprisoncfKepelandMilelli2008152ndash54)ItisthusfarfromsurprisingthatIslamistsforgedbyinterrogationtortureinprisoncampswouldconcludethatthepreeminentenactmentofMuslimpietyisviolentstruggleldquoPrisonrdquoasPalestinianKhaledAbuHilalhassaidldquoismyuniversityrdquo(Erlanger2007)anargumentmadeingreaterdetailinadifferenttimeandplacebyRussianwriterandrevolu-tionaryMaximGorky(1868ndash1936)

Apeoplebroughtupinaschoolthatremindsoneofthetormentsofhellonasmallscaleapeopleaccustomedtotheclenched-fistprisonandthewhipwillnotbeblestwithatenderheartApeoplethatthepoliceagentshaveriddenoverwillbecapableintheirturnofwalk-ingoverthebodiesofothersInacountrywhereunresthasreignedsolongit isdifficultforthepeopletorealizefromonedaytothenextthepowerofrightOnecannotdemandfromamanwhohasneverknownjusticethatheshouldbejust(Gorky1920)

InthiscontextasTimothyMitchell(1990195ndash96199207ndash8)suggestsIslamistviewsoftheworldcanbecharacterizedasbothamodeofresis-tancetostatemechanismsofcoercionandanexpressionofthemSuchisthedynamic evident inGhazalirsquosmemoirs for examplewhen shede-scribeshowtheldquodarknessofprisonsthebladesoftortureandthevi-ciousbeatingsonly increasetheenduranceandresolveofthefaithfulrdquo(Ghazali19786)

There is no doubt a great deal of pragmatism at work in IslamistargumentsaboutviolenceAsQutb(19916447ndash48)drylynotesthepathtofreedommustoccasionallybehewnbywayoftheswordbecausetyrants are not reasoned out of power and ldquojahiliyya is not lsquoabstracttheoryrsquo[it]consciouslyorunconsciouslystrivestopreserveitsownexistence to defend its essence to annihilate dangerous elementswhichthreatenitsverybeingrdquoYetitisalsothecasethatformanyoftheseIslamistsjihadisbothameansandanendanefforttoeradicatethoseobstacles torestoringa justcommunityonearththatsimultane-ouslybringshumanaction intoaccordwithGodrsquosplansandpurposes(Haddad198321)While theQurrsquoan (2256) states thatldquothere isnocompulsioninreligionrdquoIslamistscontendthatonlyinastateinwhichIslamiclawreignssupremearehumanbeingsfreefromenslavementtooneanotherrsquosruleandallareequalbyvirtueoftheircommonsubmissiontoGodAsQutb(1991107ndash8)argues

WhenthehighestauthorityinsocietyisGodalonemdashexpressedintheruleofdivinelawmdashonlythenishumanitytrulyandcompletelyliber-atedfromslaverytomenOnlythisisldquohumancivilizationrdquobecausetheessentialfoundationofhumancivilizationisthetrueandcom-

45

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

pletefreedomofhumanityandtheabsolutedignityofeveryindivid-ualinsocietyThereisnotruefreedomanddignityforhumanityortheindividualinasocietywheresomepeoplearelordswholegislateandothersareslaveswhoobey

From this perspective the realization of justice liberty equality andchoiceitselfnecessitatestheforcibleremovaloftheconstraintsimposedbyjahiliyyaalongwiththosewhoaidandabetitno matter the costAsMawdudi(1954160ndash61)writes

[W]hyisitthatinreligionsuchimportanceisgiventojihadthattheQurrsquoanpronouncesthejudgmentofhypocrisyuponthosewhoshirkandevadeitJihadisbutanothernamefortheattempttoerectthesystemoftruthandtheQurrsquoandeclaresjihadtobeatouchstoneonthesamefootingwithamanrsquosfaithInotherwordshewhohasfaithinhisheartwillneitherbecontentwiththedominationofthesystemofevilnorwillhegrudgetheexpenditureoflifeandwealthinthestruggleforerectingthesystemoftruthIfoneshowsweaknessinthismatterhisfaithitselfisdoubtfulWhatcananythingelsebesidethenprofithimThemanwhoprofesses faith in this religioncannotfulfillhisdutyonlybytryingasfaraspossibletopatternhislifeonIslamThenatureofhisfaithitselfrequiresthatheshouldconcentrateallhiseffortuponwrestingleadershipfromunbelievingandcorruptmentoentrustittotherighteousanduponerectingthesystemoftruththathasbeenordainedfortheconductoftheworldaccordingtothewillofGodBecausethisendisunattainablewith-out thehighestdegreeofcollectiveeffort theremustexistarigh-teouscommunitycommittedtotheprincipleoftruthanddevotedtothesolepurposeintheworldoferectingmaintainingandproperlyrealizingthesystemoftruth

ThefactthatsomeIslamistthinkerssanctifyviolentstruggleinsuchtermsdoesnotmeanofcoursethatallthosewhoadvocateorengageinjihadendorseviolence28NordoesitimplythatthosewhoclaimtokillforIslamareentirelywithoutulteriormotivesthosemanipulativepur-poses andpsychologicalmotivations that even themost rarified scrip-turalargumentscanexpressorserveWhattheprecedinganalysisdoessuggesthoweveristhatthereductionofthisviewofjihadtoirrationalbloodlusttheself-interestedgrabfortemporalpoweroradoorthroughwhichtopassintothehereaftermissesacrucialdimensionofitssignifi-canceandappealfortruebelieversjihadisnolessthananenactmentof

28EvenashespokeofaneweraofjahiliyyaandofjihadMawdudihimselfstoppedwellshortof recommendingor condoning the actual resort to violence in themannermanyotherIslamistsdidAsNasr(199670)observesMawdudirsquosorganizationtheJamalsquoat-iIs-lamildquohasavoidedviolentsocialchangeandhasinsteadviewedthepathtotheIslamicstateaslyingwithintheexistingsociopoliticalorderrdquoAlsoseethechapters5and3onQutbandMawdudiinthisvolume

46

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INTRODUCTION

adivineimperativetoremakethefoundationsofcollectivelifeInthisre-spectIslamistviewsofjihadcanbeseenaspartofalong-standingasso-ciationbetweenviolenceandpoliticalfoundingsuponwhichnoparticu-larcultureorhistoricalepochhasamonopolyThisassociationandtheldquolegacyofviolencerdquoitbequeathstofuturegenerationsarenolessappar-entinthoseradicalrevolutionsofrenewalthatmovebywayoftheswordfromthemarginstothecenterthanthosepoliticalfoundingsthatclaimtocreatesomethingoutofnothing(Connolly1995251)Ineithercasethetollofsuchbrutalitycanbeimmeasurableforinadditiontothevic-timswhosufferdirectlytheldquopracticeofviolencelikeallactionchangestheworldbutthemostprobablechangeistoamoreviolentworldrdquo(Ar-endt1972177)

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Page 6: Chapter 1 INTRODUCTION - assets.press.princeton.eduassets.press.princeton.edu/chapters/s9067.pdf · Chapter 1 INTRODUCTION This volume is intended as a broad introduction to the evolution

6

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

norms4This reformist effort centeredon amadrasamdasha school of ad-vancedIslamiclearningmdashfoundedatDeobandinnorthernIndiain1867whichgraduallybecamethenucleusofnumerousmadrasassharingthesamereformistorientationandspreadthroughoutSouthAsiaandeven-tuallybeyondtheIndiansubcontinent(Metcalf1982Zaman2002)TheconvictionthatguidedthesereligiousscholarsthelsquoulamawasnotjustthatthesorrystateoftheirfellowMuslimsreflectedalaxityinadheringtoGodrsquoscommandsbutalsothatintheabsenceofMuslimpoliticalrulereligiousknowledge anchored in the foundational andother religioustextswasthebestguaranteeforthepreservationofadistinctMuslimidentity

SuchlsquoulamahavehadtheiranaloguesacrossmodernMuslimsocieties(cfZeghal1995Zaman2002144ndash80HefnerandZaman2007)TheyhavealsohadtheiropponentsManyoftheopponentsarewhatmightbecharacterizedasinternalthatisotherlsquoulamacommittedtoarivaldoc-trinalorientationortodifferentbeliefsaboutsayhowthememoryofasaintoroftheProphetMuhammadoughttobeveneratedorwhatcus-tomary norms might be accommodated into legitimate ways of beingMuslim But other Muslim reformersmdashwhom scholars have often re-ferredtoastheldquomodernistsrdquomdashhavehadverydifferentideasaboutwhathadgonewrongwiththeMuslimworldandhowtoremedyit5Tothemodernists the sort of institutions and practices represented by thelsquoulamaandtheremediesproposedbythempointednottoasolutionoftheproblemsMuslimshadcometofaceinthecolonialcontextbuttotheirperpetuationModernistreformersalsoprofessedfirmcommitmenttoIslamicnormsbutwithsomecrucialdifferencesTheyarguedthatitwasnolongerenoughforMuslimssimplytoholdfirmtotheteachingsoftheirfaithasconventionallyunderstoodThetimeshadchangeddras-ticallyMuslimsneededtoacquiremodernWesternformsofknowledgeandtoaccommodatethemselvestoEuropeanpracticestechnologiesandinstitutionsiftheyweretoimprovetheirlotandindeedtosurviveatallasacommunityTheearlymodernistsalsoinsistedmdashashavetheirsucces-sorstothisdaymdashthatIslamitselfneededtobereinterpretedinorderto

4MostSunniMuslimshave longbelonged tooneof fourmadhhabs (schoolsof law)whosebeginningsareattributedtoscholarswholivedintheeighthandtheninthcenturiesTheHanafischooloflawisnamedafterAbuHanifa(d767)theMalikischoolafterMalikbAnas(d795)theShafilsquoischoolafterMuhammadbIdrisal-Shafilsquoi(d820)andtheHanbalischoolafterAhmadibnHanbal(d855)AmongtheShilsquoathereareseveralsectar-iandivisionsOfthesethelargestcommunitymdashtheImamisortheIthnalsquoasharis(ldquoTwelversrdquo)mdashadheretoalegalsystemwhoseearlyarticulationisattributedtothesixthShilsquoiimamJalsquofaral-Sadiq(d765)

5ThescholarlyliteratureonMuslimmodernismissubstantialbutunevenNotablestud-iesincludeHourani1983(firstpublishedin1962)Ahmad1967Troll1978Brown1996Khalid1998andHefner2000ThespectrumofmodernistthoughtmayusefullybeseenintwoanthologieseditedbyKurzmanLiberal Islam(1998)andModernist Islam(2002)andinKamrava2006

7

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

meetthenewchallengesthatconfrontedMuslimsItwasnotIslamthatboretheresponsibilityforthepoliticalandintellectualweaknessesafflict-ingMuslimsocietiesmdashasmanyaEuropeanobserverofIslamsuggestedmdashbutthefailureofMuslimstoproperlyinterprettheirfoundationaltextsinaccordancewithchangingneeds

While many among the lsquoulama have long affirmed the authority oftheirmadhhabs(schoolsoflaw)andtheneedforstrictadherence(taqlid)toschooldoctrinesinordertomaintainthecontinuityandcoherenceoftheirscholarlyandespeciallytheirjuridicaltraditionmodernistshavesel-domseenanythingredeeminginsuchconceptionsofauthority6TaqlidtothemisldquoblindimitationrdquooflongdeadmastersandoftheiranachronisticviewswhichhasstoodinthewayofpeoplersquosabilitytoadaptthemselvestonewchallengesThemodernistshavealsoallegedthatinholdingfirmtotheiroutmodedwaysthelsquoulamawereinterestedneitherinthewelfareofIslamnor inthatofthecommunity theywereonlydefendingtheirownprivilegesastheguardiansandauthoritativeinterpretersofthereli-gioustraditionandtheconsiderablesocialstandingthatoftenwentwithitAs themodernist reformers have understood it there is nothing inIslamtostoppeoplefrominterpretingitsnormsaccordingtotheneedsofchangingtimesIndeedtheQurrsquoaninvitespeopletoreflectonit(ldquoWilltheynotthinkaboutthisQurrsquoanrdquoQ482)whichistheveryoppositeofthelsquoulamarsquosinsistenceonfirmadherencetoearlierauthoritiesAsMu-hammadRashidRida(d1935) theeditorof theEgyptian journalalshyManar(1898ndash1935)andadiscipleofthefamousreformerMuhammadlsquoAbduh(d1905)wroteinhiscommentaryonQurrsquoan482

Theonlyunavoidablerequisite[tobeabletoreflectontheQurrsquoan]isknowledgeof the languageof theQurrsquoan itswordsand its stylewhich[inanycase]isthesortofthingrequiredofanyonewhobe-comes aMuslimTaqlid signifiespreventing [people] from re-flectingontheQurrsquoanYetGodhimselfhascommandedustoreflectonHisbookandtoreasonwithitandnoonefromamongHiscreaturescanforbidwhatHehasmadeobligatoryBytherejectionoftaqlidwedonotmeanthateveryMuslimcanpossiblybecomeaMalik[d795]oraShafilsquoi[d820]inderivingthejuristicrulesrelatingtothecommunityorthateveryoneoughttodosoWemeanonlythateveryMuslimisobligatedtoreflectontheQurrsquoanandtobeguidedbyitinaccordancewithhisabilitiesItisneverper-missible foraMuslimtoabandon[theQurrsquoan]andto turnawayfromitortoprefermdashoverwhatheunderstandsofitsguidancemdashthewordsofanyoneelsebeitamujtahid[apractitionerofijtihadieofindependentlegalreasoning]oronecommittedtotaqlid(muqalshylid)AMuslimrsquosreligionislifelesswithouttheQurrsquoanThereisno

6On the lsquoulamarsquos conception of tradition see Zaman 2002 especially 3ndash16 2007b63ndash70

8

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INTRODUCTION

bookbyamastermujtahidorbyamuqallidthatcanmakeupfor[direct]reflectionontheBookofGodIfMuslimshadstoodfirminreflectingontheQurrsquoanandinbeingguidedbyitineveryagetheirmoralsandmannerswouldnothavebeenruinedtheirrulerswouldnothavebeenunjustanddespotictheirauthoritywouldnothavedeclinedandtheywouldnothavebecomedependentonothersfortheirlivelihood(Rida1947ndash545296ndash97)7

AsthispassageillustratescentraltomodernistdiscoursesacrossMus-limsocieties istheideaof ijtihad(cfKurzman20029ndash14)bywhichtheyhaveoftenmeantnotonlytheefforttoformulateIslamiclegalrul-ingsonmattersthefoundationaltextshadleftunregulatedbutalsothereinterpretationofmattersonwhichthegeneralityofearlierscholarsandeventhefoundationaltextsthemselveshadhadareasonablyclearviewManyamongthelsquoulamahaveinsistedthattheirschooldoctrinesprovidesufficient resources to meet all contingencies and what remains to bedoneistofindaparticularnormordoctrinethatmatchesthequestionorproblemathandNotall lsquoulamaofmoderntimeshavebeenaversetoparticularformsofijtihadindeedthecontinuingnecessityofijtihadinatleastsomeofitsformshascometobeincreasinglyrecognizedbymanyamongthem(cfZaman200816ndash1764126)Stilltheideathatspe-cificlegalrulingsenunciatedinthefoundationaltextsmightthemselvesbesetasideinthenameofdarura(necessity)orsubordinatedtoconsid-erationsofmaslaha (commongood) is tothemtantamounttotakinglibertieswithGodrsquoseternalword(cfZaman2004133ndash39)

Needlesstosaymodernistreformershaveneverthoughtoftheirinitia-tivesastakinglibertieswithGodrsquoscommandsTheyhaveofteninsistedhoweverthattheliteralwordofGodmustalwaysbeunderstoodinlightoftheoverallldquospiritrdquoofthedivineinjunctionstakenbothintheiren-tiretyandintheiroriginalhistoricalcontext8Modernistdiscourseson

7ThiscommentarytheTafsir alshyManarreflectstheviewsofbothMuhammadlsquoAbduhandRashidRidathoughitwaslargelywrittenbyRida

8InvocationsoftheldquospiritrdquooftheQurrsquoanoftheProphetrsquosexampleorofIslamatlargeareacommonmotifinmodernist(andsomeIslamist)writingsSyedAmeerAli(d1928)aShilsquoimodernistscholarandjudgeincolonialIndiahadcharacteristicallytitledhisbest-knownbookThe Spirit of IslamForsomeotherinstancesoftheappealtothespiritofIslamandtheQurrsquoanandrelatedformulationscfIqbal1934149156Kurzman200260256Ramadan2007xiThemedieval juridical ideaof theoverarchingldquopurposesrdquounderlyingthesacredlaw(maqasid alshysharilsquoa)anunderstandingofwhichoughttoguidethejuristinallhisendeavorsmightbethoughttohavesomethingincommonwithmod-ernistappealstothespiritofIslamAndit isnoaccidentthattheworkofthemedievalSpanishjuristal-Shatibi(d1388)whoisamongthosemostcloselyassociatedwiththeelaborationofthisideahasremainedespeciallypopularinmodernistcirclesMedievalju-ristsunderstoodtheideaofthemaqasidal-sharilsquoatomeanthatthesharilsquoawasconcernedaboveallwiththepreservationoflifereligionrationalityprogenyandpropertyandthatnolegalrulingsshouldviolatethesefundamentalconcernsInmarkedcontrasthowevertothecarefulexegeticalandlegalargumentationthatwentintodemonstratingwhatthepur-

9

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INTRODUCTION

polygamyofferanillustrationoftheirapproachTheQurrsquoanallowspo-lygamyldquoIfyoufearthatyouwillnotdealfairlywithorphangirlsyoumaymarrywhicheverwomenseemgoodtoyoutwothreeorfourIfyoufearthatyoucannotbeequitable[tothem]thenmarryonlyoneoryourslave(s)thatismorelikelytomakeyouavoidbiasrdquo(Q43)TheQurrsquoanthuspermitspolygamybutsimultaneously insistsonequityasthenecessaryconditionforapolygamoushouseholdaqualificationsup-plementedbyQurrsquoan4129ldquoYouwillneverbeabletotreatyourwiveswithequalfairnesshowevermuchyoumaydesiretodosobutdonotignore one wife altogether leaving her suspendedrdquo Modernist re-formershaveoftenseentheQurrsquoanicsanctionforpolygamynotjustasbeingspecifictoextraordinarycircumstancesmdashasawayofprovidingforgirlsmadeorphanbywarmdashbutaseffectivelyruledoutbytheQurrsquoanicstatementthatmencanneverreallybeequitabletowardmorethanonewife(cfRahman198947ndash48)TothelsquoulamathisisspeciousreasoningforifGodhadreallywantedtoprohibitpolygamyHecouldsimplyhavesaid so (cf Shafilsquo 2005ndash7 2313ndash14 592ndash93) That medieval juristsandexegetesarepracticallyunanimousinallowingpolygamyisfortheirlatter-daysuccessorsfurtherconfirmationofthecorrectnessoftheirownunderstandingoftheQurrsquoanonthismatter

Asthisexamplesuggestsatissuebetweenmodernistsandthelsquoulamaisnotonlyhowparticularnormsareviewedbutalsohowtheyareaf-firmedanddefendedThelsquoulamarsquosscholarlytraditionisconstitutedbyalongandcomplexhistoryofcommentarydebateagreementsanddis-agreementsaboutthefoundationaltextsandaboutallmattersIslamicAstheyseeitthistraditionisnotclosedfrozenormonolithicyetitiswith reference to the scholarly tradition that anygiven readingof thefoundational or other texts finds meaning and legitimacy in their dis-coursesModernistreformersfortheirparthaveusuallyseenthistradi-tionpreciselyasclosedandanachronisticasoccludingthetruespiritofIslamic teachings and therefore as unworthy of serious and sustainedengagement

Modernists Islamists and the lsquoUlama

ThecontestationbetweenthemodernistsandthelsquoulamaprovidesawayofsituatingtheIslamistswithinabroadspectrumofcompetingbutalsooverlappingorientationsintheMuslimpublicsphereLikethemodern-istswhothemselvesholdvariedpositionsontherelationshipbetweenIslamandpoliticsmanyamongthe IslamistsareproductsofmodernWesterninstitutionsoflearningSayyidQutb(d1966)wasnottrained

posesofthelawwerehowoneknewwhattheywereandhowthelawwastobeinter-pretedwithreferencetothem(cfHallaq1997esp162ndash206Weiss199878ndash87145ndash71)modernistappealstothespiritoressenceofIslamareoftenextremelyvague

10

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INTRODUCTION

asareligiousscholarNorwasHasanal-Banna(d1949)thefounderoftheMuslimBrotherhoodofEgypttheoldestandoneofthemostinflu-entialof Islamistorganizations in theSunniMuslimworldBothwereeducatedattheDaral-lsquoUluminCairoaninstitutionfoundedinthelatenineteenthcenturytoestablishsomethingofamiddlegroundbetweenal-AzharUniversityinCairoandmodernseculareducationalthoughitgradually veered toward the latter and in 1946 became part of CairoUniversity (cfReid1990139ndash49)Abursquol-AlsquolaMawdudi (d 1979)ofPakistandidreceivean intermittentmadrasaeducationbut itwasthevocationof a journalist not that of an lsquoalim (plural lsquoulama) that headoptedThanksinparttothisbroadlysimilareducationalbackgroundIslamistsalsosharewithmodernistsasupremeconfidenceintheirownabilitytodiscernthetruemeaningorspiritofIslamthroughamoreorlessdirectencounterwiththefoundationaltextsAsCharlesJAdams(1966396)hasobservedincomparingMawdudiwithMuslimmodern-istsldquoBothhaveclaimedtheabilitytodisengagethespiritoressentialsofGodrsquosguidancetoliberatethemselvesfromtheauthorityofthecu-mulativeMuslimpastand toundercut thepositionof theulamawhorepresentthatauthorityrdquoMuchthesamemightbesaidofSayyidQutbaswellasofmanycontemporaryIslamists

Despitesuchcommonalities IslamistsfrequentlypositionthemselvesinoppositiontothemodernistsAstheIslamistssee it themodernistshavemadeIslamitselfsubservienttotheprojectofestablishingitscom-patibilitywithWesternnorms and institutions rejectingor explainingawayanythingthatdoesnotconformtothesenormsMawdudiputitthisway inderidingmodernistdiscomfortwith the implementationofpunishmentsmandatedbyIslamiclaw

Iwouldliketoputastraightquestiontothesevotariesofldquomoder-nityrdquoldquoWhatarethevaluesthatyoubelieveinDoyoubelieveintheIslamicvaluesoflifeandstandardsofmoralityorthoseofthemoderncivilizationrdquoIfyouhavemadeyourchoiceandacceptedsomeothervaluesandsomedifferentstandardofrightandwrongofvirtueandviceofthepermissibleandtheprohibitedasagainstthoseenvisagedbyIslamitisthenadifferenceofaveryfundamen-talnatureItmeansthatyoudifferwithanddisbelieveintheIslamicideologyitselfInthiscaseyoushouldhavethecouragetodeclarethatyourejectIslamoutrightIsitnotfoolishtoallegefaithinaGodwhose laws you consider as barbarous Anyhow nobody can re-maininsidethepaleofIslamafterholdingsuchanopinionaboutthelawofGod(Mawdudi[Maududi]196067)

PolemicsofthissortnotonlysuggesttheIslamistsrsquosenseofwhatsepa-ratesthemfromthemodernistsbutalsopointtointermittentIslamistef-forts to make common cause with the lsquoulama Such efforts are oftenpredicated on both the rhetorical claim that all sincere Muslims fully

11

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INTRODUCTION

concurintheirconceptionofthesharilsquoa(Islamiclaw)andtheIslamistsrsquoastuterecognitionofthelsquoulamarsquosconsiderablestandinginsocietyUnsur-prisinglysomeleadingIslamistshavesoughttoblurdistinctionsbetweenthemselves and the lsquoulama to enhance their own authority Usama binLaden(b1957)styledhisfamous1996ldquoDeclarationofWaragainsttheAmericansOccupyingtheLandoftheTwoHolyPlacesrdquoasafatwathatisajuridicalopiniontherebyrhetoricallyobscuringthehistoricalfactthatfatwashavetypicallybeenthepreserveofthe lsquoulamaandmorespecifi-callyofthefuqahaormuftis(jurists)amongthemBinLadenhoweverhasnoformalscholarlycredentialsinmattersIslamicMawdudiwascom-monly styledasmawlana a commonhonorific for the lsquoulama inSouthAsiaAdeliberateblurringofdistinctionsislikewiseevidentinthestate-ment of the Sudanese Islamist Hasan al-Turabi (b 1932) ldquoBecause allknowledgeisdivineandreligiousachemistanengineeraneconomistorajuristarealllsquoulamardquo(Turabi1983245alsochapter8inthisvolume) YetthereareleadingIslamistsmdashinthisvolumeKhomeiniMutahhariBaqiral-SadrFadlallah lsquoAliNadwi lsquoUmar lsquoAbdal-RahmanandQa-radawimdashwhoweretrainedaslsquoulamawhichmeansthatporousbounda-riesbetweenIslamistsandthelsquoulamaarenotjustamatterofself-servingrhetoricbyautodidactsGiventhisfactthedistinctionbetweenIslamistsandlsquoulamaturnslessonstarkdifferencesineducationalbackgroundandmoreonthecharacterandcontentoftheirpoliticalcommitmentsMorethananythingelseIslamistsseektoimplementIslamiclawthroughtheagencyofthestateNotallarewillingtoresorttoviolentmeansinpur-suitofthisendManysuchasYusufal-Qaradawi(b1926)ahighlyin-fluentialIslamistandoneofthemostprominentlsquoulamaofcontemporaryIslam(Skovgaard-Petersen2004Kraumlmer2006)professdemocraticcom-mitmentsButwhateverthestancetowardeitherdemocracyorviolencethepublicimplementationofthesharilsquoaisattheheartofallIslamisminbothitsShilsquoiandSunniformsThissuggestsanimportantcontrastwithmanyamongthelsquoulama

SincethefirstcenturiesofIslamthelsquoulamahaveoftensoughttomain-tainacarefuldistancefromtherulingelitejealouslyguardingtheirinsti-tutionsandpracticesfromgovernmentalinterferenceThelsquoulamagener-allyrecognizedthatthefunctioningoflegalandotherIslamicinstitutionspresupposedtheexistenceofaMuslimgovernmentandtheydefinedalegitimategovernmentasonethatoversawtheimplementationofsharilsquoanormsButtheyhavetypicallyunderstoodthegovernmentrsquoscommitmenttothesharilsquoatomeanthattherulerdefendedthebordersofthepolityregulatedpublicmoralitysuppressedhereticsandappointedthosepro-ficientinlegalmatterstoimplementthelaw(cfCrone2004286ndash314)TheyhavenotunderstoodanyofthistomeaneitherthattherulershouldbeabletoofferabsoluteinterpretationsofGodrsquoslaworthattherealmofpoliticsandstatecraftshouldbecomesynonymouswithIslamitselfYetthis ispreciselyhowIslamistshaveoftenconceivedof therelationship

12

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INTRODUCTION

betweenIslamandpoliticsandmorespecificallybetweenIslamandthestatenocallingishigherthanstrivingtowardtheestablishmentofanIs-lamicstateandoncebroughtaboutallwillbeinaccordancewithGodrsquospurposesMawdudi(1960177)claimedthatldquothestruggleforobtainingcontrolovertheorgansofthestatewhenmotivatedbytheurgetoestab-lishthedin[religion]andtheIslamicSharilsquoahandtoenforcetheIslamicinjunctionsisnotonlypermissiblebutpositivelydesirableandassuchobligatoryrdquo

Tomanylsquoulamathisamountstonothinglessthanmakingreligiousnorms subservient topolitical goalsAsMuftiMuhammadTaqi lsquoUth-manialeadingDeobandischolarofPakistannotesinhisrejoindertoviewssuchasMawdudirsquos

Intheirzealtorefutesecularismsomewritersandthinkersofthepresentagehavegonesofarastocharacterizepoliticsandgovern-ment as the true objective of Islam the reason why the prophetsweresent[byGodtothepeople]indeedtheveryreasonforthecre-ationofthehumanbeingAndtheyhavenotonlygivenotherIs-lamiccommandmentsmdashforinstanceonmattersofworshipmdashasec-ondarypositiontheyhaveevendeemedthemtobemeremeansforpoliticalendsjustawayoftrainingpeople[towardpoliticalmobili-zation](lsquoUthmani199825ndash26cfZaman2008116ndash18)

NotalllsquoulamasharesuchmisgivingsaboutthesubordinationofIslamtopoliticsthoughitshouldbenotedthattheywouldseethisintermsnotofanysuchsubordinationbutratheroftheutterinseparabilityofthere-ligiousandthepoliticalByfarthemostnotableoftheseamongtheShilsquoaisAyatollahKhomeini(d1989)ofIranAgainstalong-standingtradi-tionofShilsquoipoliticalquietismintheabsenceofthehiddenShilsquoiimamKhomeiniarguedthattheShilsquoi lsquoulamaoughttoassumedirectpoliticalleadershipandhethenproceededtospearheadthemovementthatcul-minatedinthefalloftheIranianmonarchyandtheestablishmentoftheIslamicRepublicofIran9Hisdoctrineofthevelayatshye faqih(guardian-shipofthejurist)isaradicalrethinkingofShilsquoipoliticaltheologyblur-ringanymeaningfulboundarybetweenreligiousandpoliticalauthority(seechapter6)ItispreciselyKhomeinirsquoscommitmenttoestablishinganIslamic statealong these lines thatwarrantshis classificationasan Is-

9TheImamiorIthnalsquoashariShilsquoabelievethatthetwelfthandlastoftheirimamswentintoghayba(hiding)in874andthathewilleventuallyreturnasthemahdimdashamessianicfigurewhoalonecanrestoreproperordertotheworldinaugurateaneraofunalloyedjus-ticeandreclaimfortheShilsquoatherightsofwhichtheyhavebeendispossessedbytheSunnisandbycorruptrulersformuchofthehistoryofIslamShilsquoischolarshavelongdebatedthequestionofwhatsortofauthoritytheleadingreligiousscholarsoughttohaveinofficiatingintheimamrsquosabsenceKhomeinirsquosviewdisputedbymanyotherscholarswasthatthelead-ingscholar(s)oughttodischargethefullrangeoftheimamrsquosfunctionsincludingthepoliti-calheadshipofthecommunity

13

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INTRODUCTION

lamistnotwithstandinghiswell-recognizedstatusasoneoftheleadingShilsquoilsquoulamaofhisgeneration

The Azhar-educated Yusuf al-Qaradawi has for his part criticizedmanyfellowIslamistsonseveralissuesbutnotonthefundamentalques-tion of their political orientation Just as Khomeini had chastised theldquopropagandainstitutionsofimperialism[fortrying]topersuadeusthatthereligiousleadersmustnotinterfereinsocialmattersandthatthefuqaha[jurists]donothavethedutyofoverseeingthedestinyoftheIslamicnationrdquo(Algar1981141)Qaradawiinsiststhatdenyingthepo-liticalorientationofIslamamountstoitswillfuldistortion

Amongtheinterpretationswithwhichthesecularists[lsquoalmaniyyun]andthemodernists[alshyhadathiyyun]calumniate[Islamproperlyun-derstood and those committed to it] is the notion of ldquopoliticalIslamrdquowhichwithoutdoubtisanideaalientoourIslamicsocietyBy[politicalIslam]theymeananIslamthatconcernsitselfwiththeinternalandexternalaffairsoftheMuslimcommunity[Theymeanbyit]actionsaimedatfreeingthecommunityfromtheforeignpowerthatdirects [Muslim]affairsphysicallyandmorallyas itpleases[Theyalsomeanbyit]actionsseekingtocleansethecommunityofthecultural socialand legalsedimentsofWesterncolonialismsothatthecommunitycanreturnonceagaintosubmissiontoGodrsquoslawindifferentareasoflifeTheyusethischaracterizationofldquopoliticalIslamrdquoinordertoalienatepeoplefromits[aforementioned]contentandto frighten themawayfromthosecalling toacomprehensiveconceptionofIslammdashonethatisinclusiveofbeliefandlawworshipandsocialinteractionproselytismandthestate(Qaradawi200793)

Islamistpoliticalcommitmentsareoftenintertwinedwithcritiquesofthescholarlytraditionanditsattendant institutionsandpracticesandthiscriticismprovidesusacrucialwayof thinkingfurtherbothaboutwhatdistinguishesIslamistsfromthelsquoulamaandabouthowtoviewIs-lamismitselfWhatthelsquoulamacannotbutseeasacavalierattitudeto-wardtheirscholarlytraditioniswesuggestbetterviewedaspartofalargerIslamistcritiqueonethatgoestotheheartofhowIslamismoughttobeunderstoodasaphenomenonItisacritiqueofparticularMuslimbeliefspracticesmoresandinstitutionsthataredeemedtohaveonlyatenuousbasis inldquotruerdquoandldquoauthenticrdquo Islamof the repeatedwrongturnsMuslimshavetakenthroughouttheirlonghistoryofthecorrupt-ingldquoforeignrdquoinfluencesmdashfromSufismtoGreekphilosophytothelureofmodernWesternculturesmdashbywhichMuslimshaveallowedthemselvestobeseducedandoftheirunwillingnesstodowhateverittakestoestab-lish thehakimiyya (sovereignty)ofGodonearthThat it is the sover-eigntyofGodthatIslamistsseekultimatelytoaffirmintheirindividualandpubliclivesremindsusthattheircritiqueofthepastandthepresentisapoliticalcritiqueanchoredinanddrivenbyaspirationstoinstitutea

14

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INTRODUCTION

newreligio-politicalorderWhetherthiscritiqueisarticulatedinconcreteor vague terms in a seeminglymoderateorplainlymilitant languagethere is no mistaking either its principal targetmdashfacets of the Islamictraditionmdashoritsfundamentallypoliticalorientation10

IslamistshaveofteninsistedthatthewordofGodcanandshouldbeapproacheddirectlywithoutthemediationofpresentorpastscholarsandwithoutanyneedfortheedifyingtalesthephilologicaldebatesandthelong-windedtheologicaldisquisitionssooftenfoundinmedievalexe-geticalliteratureamajorfacetoftheIslamicscholarlytradition(cfCarreacute200318)ShukriMustafaanEgyptianIslamistexecutedin1977forthemurderousactivitiesofhisSocietyofMuslims(popularlyknownastheSociety of Excommunication and Emigration) had famously assertedthatalloneneededtoresolveuncertaintiesinonersquosunderstandingofthewordofGodwasadictionary(Kepel199379)SayyidQutbdidnotgoquite that farButhe tooaffirmed that the fundamental teachingsofIslamwereentirelytransparentldquoWhatwearesayingaboutIslamisnoinventionofoursoranynewinterpretationofitsessenceIt issimplyplainIslamasitwasunderstoodbyitsfirstadherentMuhammadandhissincereCompanionsandthoseclosetoitsauthenticsourcerdquo(Qutb19969withminorchange)

TheimplicationofQutbrsquosstrikingassertionistwofoldFirstbehindarhetoric of humility in relation to divine knowledge Qutb implicitlyclaimsthefullbackingofGodandHisProphetfortheldquoplainIslamrdquohesetsforthMorespecificallyheessentiallydepictshisownunderstandingofIslamassynonymouswithGodrsquoseternalintentmuchasKhomeinirsquospronouncementsasthevalishyye faqih(guardianjurist)presumedtoarticu-latewhatIslamitselfstoodfororrequiredonanygivenmatterSecondthestatementimpliesnotonlythatviewsotherthanhisaremereinter-pretationsbutthattheyarethemorereprehensibleforbeingldquonovelrdquomdashasuggestionthatevokesthenotionofbidlsquoathatisofillicitcapriciousin-

10ThatIslamismshouldbeseenasawide-rangingcritiqueoftheworldandoftheIslamictraditionisareminderofcoursethatcritiqueisnotaninherentlysecularphenomenonnordoesitnecessitateasecularframeworkAsTalalAsad(2008)hasobservedgivenawidevarietyofldquopossibleinstancesofcritiquecriticismwhatwehaveisafamilyconceptforwhichitisnotpossibletoprovideasingletheorybecausethepracticesthatconstitutethemdifferradicallyrdquo(alsocfMahmood2008Taylor2008)NorshouldourviewingIs-lamism as a politically motivated critique suggest that other competing orientations inmodernIslamcannotalsobeseenascritiquesofparticularpracticesparticularformsofknowledgeWhatdoesdistinguishanIslamistorientationfromothersisonceagainboththedegreetowhichIslamistcritiquesbreakwiththeirpastandpresentandtheiraspirationto remake theworld in accordancewith their understandingof immutable divine com-mandsThisismarkedlydifferentfromhowthelsquoulamamightcritiqueparticularaspectsoftheirscholarlytraditionintheinterestofastrongersenseofcontinuitywiththattraditionorinordertomakeitmorereceptivetowhattheyseeasthecommunityrsquoschangingneedsItisalsoverydifferentfromhowMuslimmodernistsoftenbreakwiththescholarlytradi-tioninordertoadaptMuslimnormsandinstitutionstothedominantpoliticalandculturalinstitutionsoftheircontemporaryworld

15

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

novationinmattersofreligionSuchaviewofIslamjettisonsmuchofwhatwouldnormallycountasitshistoryandcivilizationldquoThehistoryoflsquoIslamrsquordquoQutbtellshisreadersldquoisthehistoryofthetrueapplicationofIslammdashinpeoplersquosconceptionsandtheirpracticesintheirlivesandtheirsocialsystemsIslamisthefixedaxisaroundwhichpeoplersquoslivesrevolveinafixedframeWhentheygooutofthisframeorwhentheycategorically abandon this axis what then do they have to do withIslamrdquo (Qutb 1967a vol 2 part 4 169 quotation marks aroundldquoIslamrdquoinoriginal)ItisforthefixedaxistheplainIslammdashandinoppo-sition to much of its historymdashthat the Islamist professes to stand (cfGrunebaum1962251ndash52)

Qutbhoweverisfarfromconsistentinhisattitudetowardtheschol-arlytraditionorinhowheseekstoarticulatehisownauthorityinrela-tiontoitHisfaithinthetransparencyandthetransformativeimmedi-acyofGodrsquoswordswouldappeartomakeallexegesissuperfluousyethehimselfhadproceededtowriteamajorcommentaryIn the Shade of the QurrsquoanthatwouldexceedfourthousandpagesinprintThejustifi-cationheoffers for it intheopening linesof thecommentary isauda-ciousnotapologetic

LifeintheshadeoftheQurrsquoanisablessingItisablessingunknownto anyonewhohasnrsquot tasted itAll praisebe toGodHehasgrantedmetheopportunitytoliveintheshadeoftheQurrsquoanforaperiodoftimeduringwhichIhavetastedHisblessingsasIneverhadearlierinmylifeIhavelistenedtoGodtheexaltedconvers-ingwithmethroughthisQurrsquoanmdashwithmeasmalllittleslaveIhavelivedintheshadeoftheQurrsquoanlookingfromanelevationatthejahiliyya[paganignorance]raginginthelandandthepettycon-cernsof itspeople [Fromthisvantage] Ihave seen thepride thepeopleofthisjahiliyyatakeintheirchildishknowledgetheirchild-ishideastheirchildishpreoccupations[Ihavelookeduponthem]likeanelderlooksuponthefrivolitiesofchildrenupontheireffortsandupontheirlisps(Qutb1967a13)

Theseresoundingwordsserveinteraliatoexplainwhyanewcom-mentaryshouldhavebeenneededatallthemind-numbingimpactofthejahiliyyahasmadepeopleincapableofrespondingtoeventhemostdi-rectofdivinesummonsandonlysomeonewhohaslivedldquointheshadeoftheQurrsquoanrdquocanunderstandtheirplightandremedyitFromtheper-spectiveQutbadoptshereanyappealtothescholarlytraditionanyef-forttoresthisauthorityonitwouldappearaltogetheroutofplaceYetQutbrsquosclaimstoauthoritydonotderiveexclusivelyfromhisconversingwithGodthroughtheQurrsquoanTosomedegreetheyalsodependonhisbeingseenashavingmasteryovertheveryexegeticaltraditionofwhichheisotherwisefrequentlydismissiveQutbcitesasmallnumberofearliercommentators and other authorities when it suits his purpose to do

16

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

so11justashesidestepstheexegeticaltraditionwhendoingsooffersarhetoricallymoreeffectivewayofarrivingataconclusionMoretradi-tionalexegetespastandpresentalsopickandchooseofcourseButtheyhavetypicallydonesowithinanoverallframeworkthatisdefinedbyacontinuousengagementwiththeexegeticaltraditionasawhole(cfSaleh2004)BycontrastQutbandotherIslamistexegeteswriteoutsideandofteninconsciousoppositiontoanysuchframeworkTheconversa-tionisnotwiththeearlierexegetesbutdirectlywithGodthoughthismightonoccasionbeaidedbyillustrationsfromtheearlierexegeticaltradition

If thereareunacknowledgedambiguities inQutbrsquosrelationshipwiththe Islamic traditionaswehaveobserveda frequentlyacerbic stancedoesnonetheless remain characteristicofhowheviews itmostof thetimeQutbisanythingbutuniqueinthisrespectYetifIslamistssharealmostbydefinitionacriticalstancetowardfacetsofthistraditionthereismuchthatalsoseparatesthemfromoneanotherinpreciselyhowthiscritique and its implications are articulated in different instances Al-thoughthemerepresenceofdisagreementamongIslamist intellectualsandactivistsishardlyremarkablethescopeandimplicationsofsomeofthedisagreementsinasmuchastheyrelatetothescholarlytraditionarenonethelessworthexamininghereFortheysuggestthatwhileIslamistsshare the conviction that particular institutions practices and normsneedtoberefashionedinlightofimmutabledivinecommandsthiscon-victionoftenrestsonquitedifferentviewsofIslamichistoryandciviliza-tionofcontemporaryMuslimsocietiesandnotleastofreligiousau-thorityanditslociNowhereperhapsisthismoreevidentthaninsomeofthewritingsofYusufal-QaradawiLikeQutbQaradawiisamongthemostinfluentialIslamistideologuesintheSunniworldHeisalsooneofQutbrsquosseverestcriticsfromwithintheIslamistcamp(seeespeciallyQa-radawi1994101ndash31)

ThatldquoMuslimrdquosocietieslackedaproperIslamicfoundationmadeitfutileQutbhadarguedtodebatespecificquestionsofIslamiclawand

11TheseincludeinteraliaMuhammadibnIshaq(d767)theauthoroftheSirat rasul AllahoneoftheearliestbiographiesoftheProphetMuhammadal-Tabari(d923)theauthorofJamilsquo alshybayan lishytarsquowil ay alshyQurrsquoanoneofthemostinfluentialcommentariesoftheQurrsquoaneverproducedal-Baghawi(d1117)whosecommentaryistitledMalsquoalim alshytanzilal-Qurtubi(d1273)theauthorofaworkalshyJamilsquo lishyahkam alshyQurrsquoanwhichises-peciallyattentivetothelegalcontentoftheQurrsquoanandIbnKathir(d1373)theauthorofaQurrsquoan commentaryTafsir alshyQurrsquoan alshylsquoazimwhichhasbeenpopular amongmanyMuslimsofaSalafiorientationOnoccasionQutbalsocitesinfluentialfellowIslamistsSeeforexampleQutbFi zilal alshyQurrsquoanvol2part4132(Mawdudi)vol2part525(Nadwi)vol2part6143and150ndash53(lsquoAbdal-QadirlsquoAwdaanEgyptianIslamistandlegalscholarexecutedundertheNasserregimein1954)OccasionallyQutbcitesRidarsquosTafsir alshymanaraswell thoughmoreoftenthannot toregisterhisdisagreementswithRidaandwiththelatterrsquosmentorMuhammadlsquoAbduhForadetailedcomparisonbetweenthecommentariesofRidaandQutbseeCarreacute2003

17

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

howitdealtwithparticularsocialoreconomicissuesThelsquoulamawerepatheticallydeludediftheythoughtthattheinterestsofIslamcouldbefurtheredthroughdisquisitionsonthesharilsquoainsuchconditionsofper-vasiveungodliness(Qutb1967b183ndash90)WhatpeopleneededbeforeanythingelsewasareturntothebasicsofthefaithThetaskofrighteouspreacherswastoinstructtheminthesemattersandtohelpthemrecog-nizewhatthesovereigntyofGoddemandedofthem(Qutb199135cfQaradawi1994102ndash4)Allothermattersincludingthenicetiesofjuris-ticdiscussionwerebestpostponeduntilaproperlyIslamicsocietybasedonthisfoundationhadbeenrealized

Qaradawi vehemently disagrees with Qutb arguing that educatedMuslimsarenotpagansbutbelieversandassuchdonotneedtobetu-toredinthefundamentalsoftheirfaithWhattheyoftendonotunder-standverywellmdashandhereQaradawiconcurswithotherIslamistsmdashisthenatureofIslamasanizam (socialandpoliticalsystem)TheproblemofMuslimsinotherwordsisnotgodlessnessbutsimplyignorance(whichiswhat the term jahiliyya literallymeans)of the teachingsof Islam intheircomprehensiveall-encompassingdimensionsAsQaradawiseesitmanyldquocaptivesofWesternthoughtrdquohavedoubtsnotabouttheessentialsoftheirfaithbutratheraboutIslamasacomprehensivesystemanditistheirunaddressedmisunderstandingstheirignoranceonthelatterscorethatsometimesopens thedoor todoubtsaboutmattersofbelief itself(Qaradawi1994113ndash14)Tocontinuetoexpoundonthesocialpoliti-calandotherteachingsofIslamwhilethesocietyisyetimperfectisnottoendorseorstrengthenthejahiliorderasQutbhadallegedbutonlytohelpordinarypeopleintheirefforttoleadvirtuouslivesevenininiqui-touscircumstances

ThisviewrepresentsanappealtowhatQaradawihasrepeatedlyre-ferredtoasthemoderatepathoralshymadrasa alshywasatiyya(theldquocentristschoolrdquocfQaradawi2006137ndash217)mdashonethatlocatesitselfonaputa-tivemiddlegroundbetweenacompleterejectionoftheworldincludingMuslimsocietiesanditstotalembraceQaradawiisequallyconcernedwithrescuingIslamichistoryandcivilizationfromoutrightdismissalatthehandsofIslamistslikeQutb12TheideathatjahilinormshadbeguntocreepbackintotheMuslimcommunityshortlyafterthedeathoftheProphetandthattheyhaveremainedunchallengedformuchofIslamrsquoshistoryignoresallthoseQaradawisayswhohavecontinuedtorepre-sentthepathofrighteousnessthroughoutthehistoryofIslamContrarytotheconvictionoftheSunnisthatldquothecommunitywillneveragreeonerrorrdquomdashastheProphetissaidtohavepromisedmdashthenotionofaperva-

12AmongleadingfiguresQaradawisinglesoutforcriticisminthisregardarebesidesQutbMawdudiandtheEgyptianIslamistscholarMuhammadal-Ghazali(d1996)SeeQaradawi2005b46ndash64It isworthnotingthatdespitetheseandotherdisagreementsQaradawihaswrittenrespectfullyofallthreedevotinganentirebooktohislongassocia-tionwithMuhammadal-Ghazali(seeQaradawi1995)

18

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INTRODUCTION

sivejahiliyyasuggestsmoreoverthatthecommunitydidindeedagreeonerror13Mostgrievouslyperhaps Islamist critiques tend to suggestthatthesharilsquoahasalmostneverbeenimplementedinMuslimsocietiesaftertheveryfirstyearsofIslamIronicallysaysQaradawisuchindis-criminaterejectionofIslamichistoryinadvertentlyreinforcessecularist argumentsthatthesharilsquoaisunsuitedtopracticalapplication(Qaradawi2005b46)QaradawirsquoscritiqueofQutbandotherIslamistsisfinallyanargumentforthecontinuingcentralityofthelsquoulamatothetaskofpro-viding authoritative guidance to the communityHisunderstandingofwhoconstitutesthelsquoulamaisfarmoreexpansivethanthatofmostDeo-bandilsquoulamaofSouthAsiaButlikethemheisinnodoubtthatseriousreligiousscholarsasdistinguishedfromamateurishautodidactsarecru-cialtothetaskofprovidingauthoritativereligiousandmoralguidancetothecommunity

AlthoughwehavesoughttoillustratecertainfacetsoftheIslamistcri-tiqueof the scholarly traditionandof theworldas somekey IslamistthinkershavearticulateditwedonotwishtosuggestofcoursethatIslamists are necessarily ldquointellectualsrdquo Whatever Qutb KhomeiniMawdudiandQaradawimightthinkofotherscholarsandintellectualsorofthemselvesinrelationtothemtheformerobviouslyarereligiousintellectualsThesameishardlytrueofmanyotherIslamistsYeteventhosewithlittleornointellectualpretensionsareoftenrecognizableas IslamistsnotonlyfortheircommitmenttothepublicimplementationofIslamicnormsgroundedinthefoundationaltextsbutalsomdashandasacor-ollaryoftheformermdashfortheiroftenself-consciouscritiqueofanddisen-gagementfromthenormsandmorestheyseearoundthemIncontempo-raryLebanonforinstanceShilsquoiIslamistshaveoftenseentheirtext-basedreligiouscommitmentsasmarkingacleardeparturefromearlierandex-isting religious practicesAs anthropologist LaraDeeb (2006 20) ob-servesldquoTheyvieweditasnewanddifferentmdashdifferentfromwhattheyoftenreferredtoenigmaticallyaslsquobeforersquoorlsquohowwewerersquoanddifferentfromwhattheycalledalshytaqalid(traditions)Inlieuofpracticesandbeliefscastastraditionaltheyespoused [an] lsquoauthenticatedrsquoIslamexpressedinpublicpietyrdquo14ManyIslamists living inrefugeecampsinGazahavehadasimilarviewTothemldquoPalestinianshadeitherbe-comelostinforeignideologiesortheyhadbecomelsquoMuslimsbycon-

13Theconvictionthatthecommunityatlargeisdivinelyprotectedfromerrorisanim-portantbasisoftheauthorityofldquoconsensusrdquoasamajorsourceofjuridicalnormsinSunniIslamFormoderndebateson consensus and someof the literatureon this subject seeZaman2006

14Theldquotraditionsrdquohereprimarilyrefer tocustomarynormsanddevotionalpracticesratherthantothecenturies-olddiscursivetraditionfromwhichthelsquoulamabothShilsquoiandSunniderivetheirauthorityIslamistcritiquesareoftendirectedasmuchhoweverattra-ditionsinthesenseofldquoinauthenticrdquoculturallyrootedreligiouspracticesastheyareatthescholarlytraditionofthelsquoulamawhichtothemisequallyinauthenticinhavingobscuredthesimpleandfundamentalteachingsofthefoundationaltexts

19

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

ventionrsquowhowentalongwiththefastorprayednowandthenbecausethiswaslsquocustomandtraditionrsquo(lsquoada wa taqlid)ThislackofconsciouszealousadherencetoIslamhadresultedinsocialweaknessleadingtode-featatthehandsofIsraelrdquo(Lybarger2007211)ThereismuchthatsuchanalysessharewiththewritingsandpronouncementsoftheleadingIs-lamistintellectuals

Islamists and Salafi s

JustasitisnotalwayseasytodifferentiatelsquoulamafromIslamistsorIs-lamists frommodernists it is sometimesdifficult to clearlydistinguishbetweenIslamistsandtheSalafisThelatterderivethisself-designationfromclaimsofstrictadherencetothenormativepracticeofalshysalaf alshysalih(thepiousforbears)usuallyunderstoodastheMuslimsofthefirstgenerations of Islam The guiding Salafi assumption is that these firstMuslims inbeingcontemporariesof theProphetMuhammadandtheimmediatesuccessorsofthosecontemporariesexemplifymostperfectlywhatitmeanstobeavirtuousMuslimandthatlatergenerationscandonobetterthanemulatetheexampleofthesefirstgenerationsSomever-sionofthisviewwouldfindbroadresonanceamongIslamistsbutalsoordinary believers though the Shilsquoa of various doctrinal orientationshavealwayshada farmore restrictiveviewofpreciselywho isworthemulating Again like the Islamists the Salafis insist on deriving theirnormsdirectlyfromtheIslamicfoundationaltextstheQurrsquoanandtheexampleoftheProphetMuhammadunmediatedbythemedievalschoolsoflawThismeansdoingawaywiththesortofhistoricallyarticulatedscholarlytraditionfromwhichthelsquoulamahavetendedtodrawmuchoftheirauthorityTheSalafisdohavetheirownlsquoulamamdashQaradawiisano-tableinstanceasaremembersoftheSaudireligiousestablishmentmdashbuteventheirauthorityisbasedfarmoreondirectlyinterpretingthefounda-tional texts than it is on any systematic engagement with the Islamicscholarlytradition

AllthissoundsagooddealnotjustliketheIslamistsbutalsolikethemodernistsThisshouldnotbesurprisingfortheSalafiorientationisanimportantpartofthegenealogyofbothmodernismandIslamismTheSalafi reformer Muhammad lsquoAbduh though a traditionally educatedscholarwhoservedtowardtheendofhislifeasthegrandmuftiofEgyptwasakeyinfluenceinthedevelopmentofIslamicmodernismButwhilesomeoflsquoAbduhrsquosdisciplesdevelopedhisideasinthedirectionofsecularnationalismothersmdashnotablytheSalafijournalistandQurrsquoancommenta-torRashidRidamdasheventuallytookthemdespitehismodernistproclivi-tiesinadecidedlyconservativedirection(Hourani1983alsocfDallal2000)Hasan al-Banna the founder of the MuslimBrotherhoodwasclose to many Egyptian Salafis Muhibb al-din al-Khatib (d 1969) aleadingSalafiofthetimeandtheowneroftheSalafiPublishingHousein

20

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

CairowasinchargeofoneoftheBrotherhoodrsquosfirstjournals(Mitchell1993185)andafterRidarsquosdeathin1935itwasatBannarsquosinitiativethatRidarsquosinfluentialjournalalshyManarwouldcontinuetobepublishedforsomeyears(RMitchell1993186)

ForalltheiraffinitieshoweverSalafiscannotsimplybesubsumedwiththeIslamistsanymorethantheycanwiththemodernistsUnliketheearlySalafisandothermodernists Islamistshavealmost invariablysought toaddressthemselvestoawidepopularaudienceratherthantotheintellec-tualelite(cfRMitchell1993211)TheSalafishavealsobeenfarmorepreoccupiedwithmattersofcorrectbeliefthenuancesofdoctrinethanhaveeither the Islamistsor themodernists (cfHaykel2009 [forthcom-ing])BythesametokenwhilemanyIslamistshavehadasomewhatam-bivalentrelationshipwithSufismSalafishaveusuallybeenunrelentinglyhostile to devotional Sufi practices But if it is useful to distinguish theSalafisfromothercompetingorientationsinmodernIslamitisimportantalsotorecognizethatthereismuchonwhichSalafisthemselveshavedis-agreedsometimessharplyInquestionintheseldquointernalrdquodifferencesisnottheiroverallorientationmdashtowardtheIslamicfoundational textsandthepristinenormsofIslamrsquosfirstgenerationsmdashbutratherthepreciseimplica-tionsofthisorientationforbeliefandconductinthepresentAconsider-ationofsomeofthesedifferencesshouldinturnfurtherillustratehowtheSalafisoughttobedistinguishedfromothercompetingcamps

WheremanySalafisseetheschoolsoflawasobstructingandindeeddistortingthesimplemessageofthefoundationaltextsothersviewthelegaltraditionasrepresentingIslamrsquosrichintellectuallegacyfromwhichMuslimsought todrawboth inspirationandguidanceQaradawi forinstance has been critical not just of the Muslimmodernists but alsooffellowSalafisfortheirirreverencetowardtherichesofthelegaltradi-tiontheiruneducatedproclivitytosetitasidealltoocallouslyOnthisviewarejectionofthetaqlid-boundlsquoulamashouldnotleadtotheotherextrememdashexemplifiedbynotafewSalafismdashofjettisoningthescholarlytraditionaltogether SalafisalsodifferamongthemselvesintheirattitudestowardmodernWesterninstitutionsandpracticesInthelatenineteenthandearlytwen-tieth centuries Salafi reformers like Muhammad lsquoAbduh and RashidRidainEgyptandJamalal-dinal-Qasimi(d1914)inSyriahadcalledforareorientationtowardthefoundationaltextsasawayofjustifyingnotresistingchangesinlawandeducationaswellasotherfacetsofso-cialreform(cfHourani1983Commins1990)OnthisviewadirectrecoursetotheQurrsquoanandthesunnaofferedthebestwayofdemonstrat-ing the accord between their teachings and the reformist project15 In

15SymptomaticofotherdisagreementsamongtheSalafisistheveryquestionofpreciselywhothesalafarewhoseexampleoughttobeemulatedThenarrowerviewslimitthesalaftothefirstthreegenerationsofIslammdashtheageoftheProphetMuhammadandhiscompan-ionstheirsuccessorsandthelatterrsquosimmediatesuccessorsmdashbuteventhesenarrowviews

21

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

contemporaryEuropeTariqRamadananinfluentialSwissArabphilos-opherhasarguedthatMuslimslivinginWesternsocietiesoughttofeelathomeinandcontributetoward thosesocietieswhileretainingandcultivatingtheirdistinctIslamicidentityHetooappearstoseehimselfinthegenealogyofwhathecharacterizesasldquoSalafireformismrdquo(onthischaracterization see Ramadan 2004 26ndash27) and he has echoed Qa-radawiinsomeofhisviews(cfRamadan199993ndash99) Other Salafis have remained staunchly opposed to institutions andpracticesofaWesternprovenanceAnespeciallyinfluentialfigureinthegenealogyofthelatterpositionistheeighteenth-centurypuritanicalre-former Muhammad ibn lsquoAbd al-Wahhab (d 1792) whose alliance in1744 with Muhammad ibn Salsquoud contributed to the establishment ofthefirstSaudistateinthelateeighteenthcenturyIbnlsquoAbdal-WahhabwashostilenotonlytoShilsquoismandtoSufidevotionalismbutalsotoany-thinghedeemednottobeinstrictconformitywiththeteachingsofthefoundationaltextsTherewasmuchthatseemedtohimtofailthisstan-dardallofwhichhebrandedasoneoranotherformofunbeliefTheWahhabismdashas the followers of Ibn lsquoAbd al-Wahhab are oftenknownthoughtheyprefertothinkofthemselvessimplyasgoodMuslimsoratbestasSalafismdashoftenadheretothelegalnormsoftheHanbalischooloflawthoughitistheteachingsofthefoundationaltextsirrespectiveofthisoranyotherschooldoctrinethattheyprofesstofollowThemoststringentoftheSaudiSalafisaswellasotherselsewhereareaveryfarcryindeedfromwhatQaradawiwouldcharacterizeasldquocentristrdquoSalafireformersletalonefromtheearlytwentieth-centurySalafimodernists

ThepoliticalviewsoftheWahhabisandmorebroadlyoftheSalafisare likewiseanythingbutuniformInSaudiArabiaWahhabireligiousscholarshavelongaffirmedaquietistpoliticalstancewhichhasmeantleavingmattersofthestatetotherulingfamilyFormuchofthehistoryofmodernSaudiArabiatherulingelitefor itsparthas imposedfewconstraintsontheSaudilsquoulamainmattersofreligiouslifetheregulationofsocialnormsandjudicialadministration(cfVogel2000)Onseveraloccasions however this relationship has come under severe strain In1979agroupofWahhabiswhorejectedthelegitimacyoftheSaudistateyethadtieswithsomeprominentreligiousscholarsmdashincludinglsquoAbdal-

feelconstrainedtomakeroomforsuchreveredfiguresasAhmadibnHanbaltheputativefounderoftheHanbalischooloflawandthefourteenth-centuryDamascenescholarIbnTaymiyya(d1328)OtherviewsarerathermoreexpansivenotjustinchronologicalbutalsoandcruciallyinintellectualtermsThusMuhammadlsquoAbduhthoughtthesalaftoalsoincludesuchtheologiansasal-Ashlsquoari(d935)al-Baqillani(d1013)andal-Maturidi(d944)SeeHourani1983149SuchaviewobviouslyopensthedoorforpreciselythesortoftheologicaldebatesthatotherSalafisaswellasIslamistsoftenfrownuponfortakingthebelieversveryfarfromthesimpleanddirectwordsofGod lsquoAbduhrsquosdiscipleRidaagaintookanarrowerviewofthesalafandlaterinhiscareerbecameastrongdefenderoftheWahhabisCfHourani1983230ndash32

22

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

lsquoAzizBinBaz(d1999)laterthegrandmuftiofSaudiArabiamdashtookoverthesacredprecinctsoftheKalsquobainMeccainashort-livedbutextremelyembarrassingchallenge toSaudi royalauthority (cfHegghammerandLacroix2007)In1990KingFahdrsquosdecisiontoinviteAmericantroopstodefendthekingdomagainstthethreatofanIraqiinvasioncreatedwide-spreadresentmentamongSaudis theeffectsofwhichcontinue to thisdayThestationingofnon-MuslimmilitarypersonnelinIslamrsquosholiestlandwasdeemedbythekingrsquoscriticstobescandalousandevensacrile-giousAnumberofprominentSaudiSalafispubliclycriticizedthekingrsquosdecisiononthisoccasioncallinguponhimaswellasonBinBazandoth-ersatthehelmoftheSaudireligiousestablishmenttoreorienttheSaudipolitytowarditstruereligiousfoundationsManyofthesedissidentsmdashwhowerealsojoinedbyldquosecularrdquoSaudicriticsoftheroyalfamilymdashwereandhaveremainedrestrainedintheircriticismevenastheycalledforstricterconformitytoIslamicnormsasthepanaceaforallills(cfFandy1999)OthershoweverhavedenouncedtheroyalfamilyanditsWesternalliesinnouncertaintermsBinLadenisonlythemostnotoriousofthosewhobrokewiththeroyalfamilyinthewakeofKingFahdrsquosdecisiontoinviteWesterntroopsin1990andwhocalledfortheoverthrowoftheroyal familyand for jihadagainstWesternpowers Such strident callshavebeencontinuedbyotherSalafisbothbeforeandaftertheterroristattacksofSeptember112001aswellasintheaftermathoftheUS-ledinvasionofIraq(al-Rasheed2007)

ItshouldbeclearinlightoftheforegoingthatanyunderstandingofthedifferencesbetweenIslamistsandtheSalafismustrestontakingac-countofthediversityamongtheSalafisSalafiswhooftenrejectmuchoftheIslamicscholarlytraditioninfavorofadirectrecoursetothefoun-dationaltextsarenotnecessarilyrenderedldquoIslamistrdquosimplybyvirtueofthisstanceForasnotedmanyoftheseSalafiscontinuetoprofessareso-lutelyquietiststancewhichinthecaseoftheSaudiSalafismeansaf-firmingallegiancetotheSaudiroyalfamilyThispositionisrepresentedforinstancebyBinBaztheerstwhilegrandmuftiaswellasbyotherleading members of the Saudi religious establishment A pro-regimestanceoroneindifferenttopoliticsisnolessldquopoliticalrdquoofcoursethana position of strident hostility to the established order at home andabroadForourpurposeshoweveritisonlywhentheSalafisrejecttheexistingdispensationandbeginstrivingmdashthoughnotnecessarilythroughmilitantmeansmdashforanewreligio-politicalorderthattheycanbesaidtojointheranksoftheIslamists

ItisworthnotingfinallythatSalafipositionsamongSaudisandelse-wherearemarkednotonlybydiversitybutalsobyconsiderablefluidity(al-Rasheed 2007) The same activist or intellectual might at varioustimesmoveamongavarietyofseeminglyincompatiblepositionsmdashap-pearingtobemoreldquomoderaterdquoonsomeissuesthanonothersForallhiscriticismofradicalIslamistsQaradawiforinstancehashimselfwrittenin justificationofsuicidebombingsbyPalestiniansagainst Israelis (see

23

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

chapter 9 on Qaradawi) And Saudi Salafis like Safar al-Hawali andSalmanal-lsquoAwdamdashwhocame toprominence in the early1990smdashhavealternatedbetweencriticismoftheSaudipoliciesanddenunciationsofradicalSalaficallstojihadagainsttheSaudiregime(seeal-Rasheed200759ndash101onal-HawalialsoseeReichmuth2006)Theirshiftingviewsreflect changes in their relations with the Saudi regime but they alsopointtothebroadspectrumofpositionswhichSalafishavetakenatdif-ferenttimesindifferentcontextsandbeforedifferentaudiencesThusevenasal-Hawaliandal-lsquoAwdahavecondemnedterroristactsdirectedagainstSaudiArabiaandadvisedSaudisnottofightAmericantroopsinpostndashSaddamHusseinIraqtheyhavecalledupontheIraqisthemselvestoresistAmericantroopsandhavecharacterizedthateffortasaldquodefen-sivejihadrdquo(al-Rasheed200794ndash95)

Sufi s and Islamists

ItseemsmuchsimpleronthefaceofittodistinguishbetweenIslamistsandSufisThecharacteristicSuficonvictionthattherearelevelsofmean-ingintheQurrsquoanthatgobeyondtheliteralandtheobviousandthataselectfewmdashtheldquofriendsofGodrdquomdashareendowedwiththeuniqueabilityto discern them is anathema to all those who insist that God intendsHisteachingstobeequallyintelligibletoallDespitetheirtendencytoviewthemselvesasbearersof true Islam Islamists typicallyregard theSufi idea that somepeoplehaveaprivileged relationshipwithGodassuspectthebasisnotonlyforsanctioninginterpretationsofIslamthatlackwarrantintheplainteachingsofGodandtheProphetbutalsoforpracticallyldquoworshipingrdquothesefriendsofGodIslamists(andmodernists)havefrequentlyalsobeencriticalofthewaySufidevotionalismcanyieldaturningawayfromtheworldratherthananefforttochangeitaswellasapreoccupationwithpersonalspiritualtransformationattheexpenseofconcernsforthewelfareofthecommunityatlarge SufipracticesandtheteachingsoftheSufimastershavevariedenor-mouslythroughoutthehistoryofIslamyetIslamistcritiquesofSufismareseldomattentivetoitsnuancesortothecomplexwaysithasrelatedtootherfacetsofIslamNorhaveIslamiststakenmuchaccountofthefactthatmanyleadingfiguresofearliertimeswerebesidesmuchelseSufisaswellThisistrueevenofIbnTaymiyya(d1328)whoseprestigeinIslamistandSalaficirclesismatchedbyfewothersandwhowasinhisdayamemberoftheQadiriSufiorder(Makdisi1974)EvenifonearguesmdashasanIslamistmightbeinclinedtomdashthatldquogoodrdquoSufismisnoth-ingbutproperIslamitselftheveryfactthatsuchfigureshadaSufiiden-tityatallnecessarilycomplicateswhatissupposedtobethepristinesim-plicityofafaithsharedequallybyallbelievers

Complicatingthingsstillfurtheristhevarietyofwaysinwhichsomeleading Islamists relate to Sufism Ayatollah Khomeini was a lifelongstudentofIslamicmysticismandtheinfluenceofthemedievalSpanish

24

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

Sufi Ibn lsquoArabi loomed especially large in his thought To Khomeinimysticismmdashoften referred to as lsquoirfan (gnosis) especially when inter-twinedwithIslamicphilosophyandtheology(Knysh1992632)mdashwascrucialtoaproperunderstandingofGodrsquosrelationshipwiththeworldandwiththehumanbeingItwasalsoessentialforonersquosethicalforma-tionforamasteryovertheselfandultimatelyforrealizinginoneselftheattributesofwhat Ibn lsquoArabihadcalledldquotheperfectmanrdquo (cfKnysh1992 635 also Mottahedeh 1985 180ndash85) Some of the austerity ofKhomeinirsquospersonallifeprobablyalsoderivedfromSufiasceticismAndthoughheanchoredhisconceptionofIslamicgovernmentinanexposi-tionofShilsquoijuridicalthoughtratherthaninIslamicmysticismthesortofreligiousauthorityhecametoenjoyonthebasisofhisreformulationofShilsquoipoliticaltheologyseemstoechomysticalideasoftheperfectmanwho embodies and upholds the moral order as the microcosm of theuniverse

UnlikeKhomeiniQutbwasnotaSufiandhegivesnoindicationofsharinganyofKhomeinirsquosenthusiasmforthegreatSufithinkersofear-liertimesEvensoechoesofamysticrsquosdirectencounterwiththefoun-tainheadoftruthandknowledgearehardtomissinQutbrsquoswritingses-peciallyinhiscommentaryontheQurrsquoan(cfCarreacute200395ndash97)TheveryfirstsentenceofhiscommentarymdashldquolifeintheshadeoftheQurrsquoanisablessingunknowntoanyonewhohasnrsquottasteditrdquomdashevokesthefa-miliarSufiideathatincontrovertibleknowledgeofRealityisultimatelyacquired only through direct personal experience (dhawq that is theldquotasterdquooftheTruth)ThegreatmedievalSufial-Ghazali(d1111)hadauthoredafamousautobiographicalaccountofhowitwasonlythroughthe immediacyofhispersonalmysticalexperience thathewasable toovercomehisdebilitatingepistemologicaldoubtsandreassurehimselfofthenecessarytruths(Watt199857)QutbdoesnotmentionGhazaliinthiscontextbutitisdifficultnottobestruckbythemysticalresonanceofsomeofhislanguageHereisoneexamplewhichoccursinhiscom-mentaryonsura(chapter)53oftheQurrsquoan16

16TheearlyversesinthissuraoftheQurrsquoanhavebeenunderstoodbyMuslimexegetesasreferringtotheProphetrsquosrevelatoryexperienceaswellastohisldquonightjourneyrdquoandhisascensiontoheavenormilsquoraj inthecourseofonenighthewastransportedfirstfromMeccatoJerusalemandthentothepresenceofGodbeforebeingreturnedtoMecca

UnrelatedtothenightjourneybutrelatedtohisrevelatoryexperiencestheexegeticalsignificanceofthisQurrsquoanicsuraalsoliesinitsconnectionwiththeso-calledSatanicVersesAccordingtocertainexegeticalreportsMuhammadwasinthecourseofreceivingarevela-tionwhenSataninterpolatedsomeversesintoitmdashversespraisingthreegoddessesreveredbythepolytheistsofMeccaItwasnotuntilsometimelaterthatMuhammadrealizedhiserrorwhereupontheversesinterpolatedbySatanwereremovedTheepisodeoftheldquoSa-tanicVersesrdquohasbeenacontroversialoneinIslamichistorylongbeforeSalmanRushdiersquosnovelofthatnameandKhomeinirsquosjuridicalruling(fatwa)callingforRushdiersquosdeathMostMuslimscholarshavefoundittooshockingtobelievethattheProphetcouldhavemadesuchagrievouserrorandhavedeniedthatanysuch incidentever tookplaceYetsome

25

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

IwaschattingoneeveningwithsomecompanionswhentoourearscamethesoundofsomeonerecitingtheQurrsquoannearbyrecitingtheSuraoftheStar[al-Najm]andweinterruptedourconversationtolistentotheNobleQurrsquoanLittlebylittlemyheartenteredintowhatwasbeing recited into theheartofMuhammadashe jour-neyedtotheHeavenlyHostIwaswithhimashesawGabrielintheangelicforminwhichGodhadcreatedhimIwaswithhiminhis loftyandfree-flying journey to theLoteTreeof theBoundaryandtheGardenoftheRefugeIwaswithhimtotheextentthatmyimaginationcouldformavisionofitandtotheextentthatmyfeelings couldbear itThen came the final cry andmywholebeingshookatthefearfulreproachldquoDoyoumarvelatthisdiscourseanddoyoulaughandnotweepandmakemerryrdquo[Q5359ndash61]WhenIheardldquoBowdownbeforeGodandserveHimrdquo[Q5362]thetremblinginmyhearthadbecomeaphysicalandvisibletremblingthroughoutmybodythatIcouldnotresistMybodykeptshakingandIcouldnotcontrolitNorcouldIholdbackthetearsthatwerepouringforthhowevermuchItried(QutbZilalvol7part2774ndash75quotedfromCarreacute2003333ndash34withminorchanges)

TheQurrsquoanrsquosprofoundimpactontheaestheticsensibilitiesofitslisten-ersisafamiliarmotifindiscussionsofitsliteraryqualities(cfGrahamandKermani2006)AssomeonewhoseearlywritingswereconcernedwithArabicliterarycriticismandspecificallywiththeliteraryexcellenceoftheIslamicscripture(Qutb1949b)QutbwasespeciallyreceptivetothisaspectoftheQurrsquoanThesenseofbeingtransportedbacktothetimeoftheProphetandtowitnessingtheProphetrsquosascension(milsquoraj)tothepresence of Godmdashwhich is how the passage being commented on byQutbherehascommonlybeeninterpretedbytheexegetesmdashcanlikewisebeseenasanillustrationoftheoverpoweringimpactthewordsoftheQurrsquoancanhaveonthebelieverQutbrsquosaccountofconversingwithGodthrough the Qurrsquoan (cited earlier) is again something he may havewantedtoseeallbelieversdoYetallbelieverscanscarcelydosoany-morethanallaspirantsevenontheSufipathcanexperiencethetransfor-mativemysticalldquostatesrdquothatGodbestowsonHisspecialfriends(awlshyiya)IrrespectiveofwhetherhesawitinquitethiswayQutbrsquosassertionthatheisabletoenterldquointotheheartofMuhammadrdquoandtoseeGabrielasMuhammad sawhimsurelygiveshimaperspective thatothers en-counteringthewordofGoddonothave

ThepointisnotofcoursethatQutbwaseverrecognizedbyhisfol-lowersasaSufimasterbutthatsomeofthehermeneuticalauthorityheclaimshasadistinctiveSufiringtoitMorebroadlythesortofunques-

leadingscholarsofearlyandmedievalIslammdashincludingIbnTaymiyyamdashacceptedthehisto-ricityofthisincidentSeeSAhmed1998

26

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INTRODUCTION

tioningreligio-politicalauthorityIslamistleadershaveoftenenjoyedovertheirfollowersisnotunlikethatoftheSufimasteroverhisfollowersBe-ginningwithHasanal-BannathefounderoftheMuslimBrotherhoodandoncehimselfamemberofaSufiordertheleaderofthisorganizationis formally referred to as themurshid (guide)ormore specificallyalshymurshid alshylsquoam (thegeneralguide[RMitchell1993165])whichisafamiliartermforthemasterinSuficontextsForhispartAbdessalamYassine the founder and leader of lsquoAdl warsquol-Ihsan Party of Morocco(oftenreferredtoastheJusticeandSpiritualityAssociationorJSA)haslike Khomeini gone well beyond simply echoing Sufi conceptions ofauthorityinhisowndiscoursesHetoowasonceamemberofaMoroc-canSufiorderandhehascontinuedtodrawonSufithemesinhiswrit-ingsTheverynameofYassinersquospoliticalorganizationevokesacentralSufiideanamelyihsanThisisaQurrsquoanicterm(cfQ756)thattrans-latedliterallymeansldquotodogoodrdquothoughSufishaveunderstoodittomeanmuchmore thanthatFollowingawell-knownstatementattrib-uted to theProphetMuhammad theyhaveoften interpreted ihsan tomeangoingbeyondtheexternalsofIslamicritualpracticestoldquoworshipGodasifyouseeHimrdquo(Schimmel197529)thatiscultivatingasenseof personal communion and intimacy with God Even as Yassine hassoughttodistancehimselffromwhathedeemstobetheexcessesofSu-fismthereislittledoubtthathispoliticalappealowesmuchtocarefullycalibratedeffortstocombinedistinctiveSufiideaswithhisownbrandofIslamism(cfLauziegravere2005seealsochapter12onNadiaYassineinthisvolume)

FinallyMawdudirsquosJamalsquoat-iIslamimdashoneoftheearliestIslamistorga-nizations in the Sunni worldmdashillustrates both the Islamistsrsquo complexrelationshipwith Sufismand their pragmatic recognitionof its appealinmanyMuslimsocietiesMawdudihadoncebeenaharshcriticofSu-fismblamingitformanyillsafflictingMuslimsocietiesYettheJama-lsquoat-iIslamigraduallycametosoftenitsstanceonSufipracticesconsider-ablynodoubtintheinterestofbroadeningsomeofitssupportbaseinPakistanwheresaintsandSufishrinesareanimportantpartofthereli-giousandpoliticallandscapeAlreadyinMawdudirsquoslifetimeMianTufaylMuhammadhissuccessorastheheadoftheJamalsquoat-iIslamihadtakentheextraordinaryinitiativeoftranslatinganearlySuficlassictheKashf alshymahjub into Urdu The author of this work Shaykh lsquoAli Hujwiri(d1072)isburiedinLahoreinPakistanandhismuch-frequentedshrineishometoprecisely thesortofdevotionalpractices that Islamistsandmodernist reformers letaloneSalafishaveoften frownedupon (Nasr1996124)

ThesediverseexamplesarenotintendedtoobscuretherealdifferencesbetweenthegeneralityofIslamistsandmostSufisTheirsignificanceliesratherinillustratingthedifficultyofdistinguishingbetweenIslamismandotherreligiousintellectualandpoliticaltrendsintermsofneatcharac-

27

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INTRODUCTION

terizationsofgrandtranslocalgeneralizationsAstheforegoingsuggeststhesameistrueandmoresowhenitcomestocharacterizingIslamistsinrelationtothelsquoulamatheMuslimmodernistsandtheSalafisIndeedasLorenLybargerhasarguedwithreferencetothoseusuallycharacter-izedasldquosecularnationalistrdquoorldquoIslamistrdquoPalestiniansintheWestBankandGazadifferenceswithintheranksofyoungsecularnationalistsandIslamistscansometimesalsoshadeintosignificantsimilaritiesbetweenthesesupposedlyrivalorientations(Lybarger2007)ManyIslamistshavesoughttodistancethemselvesfromwhattheyseeastherigidityandau-thoritarianismofotherIslamistsandtoarguenotjustfortheimplemen-tationofthesharilsquoabutalsofordemocracyandpluralismConverselynot a few of the younger secular nationalists have ldquoadopted IslamisttheodiciesthatexplainedthefailuretoovercomeIsraelastheresultoffallingawayfrompietytheirconclusionsmirroredIslamistonestootheroadbackfromthebrinkhadtotraceitscoursethrougharenewedcom-mitmenttoIslambutnotnecessarilyinthemannerthattheIslamistmove-mentsmighthaveintendedrdquo(Lybarger2007237ndash38quotationat238)

Yet ifneatcategoriesremainelusiveacombinationoftheIslamistsrsquoself-consciouslypoliticalgoalstheirmultifacetedifnotalwaysexplicitpoliticalcritiquesofmanypastandpresentwaysofunderstandingandlivingIslamandanunshakeableconfidenceintheirownabilitytodis-cern Godrsquos will from the foundational texts do often provide enoughgrounds tobroadlydistinguish themfromotheractivists intellectualsand orientations in the Muslim public sphere What this combinationamountstovariesfromonesocialpoliticalreligiousandculturalcon-texttoanotherandsothereforedothewaysinwhichIslamistsrelatetooneanotherorcompeteandoverlapwithothergroupsandorientations

The Politics of Islamism

FromAeneasrsquosmythicalfoundingofRometothedeathandresurrectionofJesusChristtoMuhammadrsquosmigrationtoMedinafoundationalnar-rativesareascommontocollectivelifeasthemovementsthatperiodi-callyarisetorevivethemandclaimantstothemantleoflegitimacytheyconferSounderstoodIslamistsrsquopoliticalaspirationstorestorefounda-tionslocatedinamythicalpastarefarfromuniqueNorareIslamistsaloneintheirconvictionthatscripturalauthorityisguaranteedbyitsdi-vineauthormdashforinthatallMuslimsagreeRatherthechaptersinthisvolumesuggest thatwhatmakes Islamistpoliticsdistinctive (ifnotsui generis)istheclaimtorecuperateanldquoauthenticIslamrdquocomprisedofself-evidenttruthspurgedofalienandcorruptinginfluencesalongwithaninsistenceonremakingthefoundationsofthestateinitsimageGiventhelimitsofhumanunderstandingrelativetoGodrsquosknowledgeIslamistssimultaneouslydepictsuchfidelitytotheunadulteratedwordofAllahas

28

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INTRODUCTION

theultimateexpressionofdeferencetodivineomniscienceandportrayhumilityasaconstitutivefeatureofthehumanconditionAspirationstofullyknowandmasterthenaturalandsocialworldsthusentailnotonlyahumanhubrisdeaftotheQurrsquoanicadmonitionthatldquoAllahknowsbutandyoudonotknowrdquo(Q366)butalsoatransgressionagainstadi-vinely-ordainedontologicalorder

ItisnotablehoweverthattheIslamistemphasisonthelimitsofhumanknowledgerequireshumilityonlyinrelationtoAllahitrarelyyieldshu-milityinregardtotheirownclaimstospeakinHisnameortowardotherhumanbeingswhodissentfromthepremiseofdivineomnipotenceandIslamistaccountsofwhat it requiresThis suggests thatwhile IslamistchallengestostatepowerareobviouslypoliticaltheIslamistclaimtoau-thenticityisalsopolitical inthecoercivepoweritroutinelyenactsandjustifiesmostnotablybywayofthesilencesitimposesandthedebatesitforeclosesAzizal-Azmehpointsoutthatldquothenotionofauthenticityisnotsomuchadeterminateconceptasitisanodeofassociationsandin-terpellationsatropebymeansofwhichthehistoricalworldisreducedtoaparticularorderandatokenwhichmarksoffsocialandpoliticalgroupsandforgesandreconstituteshistoricalidentitiesrdquo(al-Azmeh199341)WhetherintheserviceofArabnationalismChristianfundamental-ismEuropeanromanticismorMuslimmodernismtheclaimofauthen-ticityisanactofpowerthatfunctionsnotjusttoreflecttheworldbuttoconstructitbydeterminingwhoisincludedandexcludedwhomayandmaynotspeakauthoritativelywhatistheproperrealmofdebateandwhatisbeyondcontestation

ItiscertainlythecasethatasingleldquoIslamrdquocapturesandorganizestheperspectivesofmillionswhoself-identifyasMuslim(amongotherthings)yetwhattravelsunderitsrubricisinescapablydiversemultiethnicanddefined asmuchbydisagreement as consensus Just as theTorah andBible lend themselves toat times radicallydivergent interpretationsofwhatitmeanstobeJewishorChristiantheQurrsquoanandhaditharecom-plexandsusceptibletomanydifferentandattimescontradictoryenact-mentsSounderstoodIslamislessafixedessencethanalivingtraditionthatcaptureswhatisimaginedascontinuousandunitaryindialecticalrelationshiptothoseconcretearticulationsandpracticesbywhichitistransformedandadaptedindifferentcontextsforpluralpurposesItispreciselythisunderstandingofreligionthatisanathematoIslamistswhoseek tofix theparametersof Islamicauthenticityonceandforallandtherebyarrogateforthemselvestherighttodeterminewhoqualifiesasagood Muslim to discredit those lsquoulama unable or unwilling to purgeIslamofpurportedimpietiestodeclarenominallyMuslimrulersapos-tatesunfittogovernandtocharacterizeallwhodisagreeascorrupthe-reticalguiltyofunbelieforvictimsoffalseconsciousness

Thesegeneralpoliticaltendencieshowevermustbecarefullysituatedwithinadialecticoftheglobalandthevernacularunderstoodtoreflect

29

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INTRODUCTION

thewaysinwhichunifyingmacrohistoricaldynamicsinformandareinturntransformedbydiversecontingentandfluidlocalcircumstancesInaworldstampedbyWesterndominanceandtheconsolidationofpostco-lonial authoritarian regimes Islamists confront a common set of con-straintsandchallengesInasmuchassuchconstraintsandchallengeshavemade Islamist thinkers (often reluctant) participants in conversationsacrossbothcultureandhistorytheireffortstoremakethefoundationsofcollectiveliferevealasharedinterpretiveframeworkandcommonreli-gio-political grammar At the same time this frame and grammar arecontinuallybeingreworkedinrelationtothedistinctpublicspheresinwhichIslamistsoperateandtowhichtheycarefullycalibratetheirpoliti-calcommitments

Attention to this complex dynamic suggests that the Islamist move-mentcannotsimplybecharacterizedasviolentantidemocraticandop-pressiveofwomenlabelsinvokedsofrequentlyinscholarlyandpopularliterature on the subject that they have become virtually synonymouswithIslamistpoliticsSuchcharacterizationsdocapturecrucialdimen-sionsofIslamistpoliticsyettheyalsosidesteptheparadoxesitsvarie-gatedandoftencontradictoryexpressionspresentInsteadwearguethatIslamistpoliticscanbeproductivelyreadin terms ofandagainst the grain ofsuchbroadcategorizationsasantidemocraticantiwomanorviolentmdashthat is as commitments that at different moments in various localesbothencourageandconstrainbroad-basedpoliticalparticipationdisruptandratifyhierarchicalgendernormsresistandreproducestate-sanctionedbrutalityThepointofreadingIslamistpoliticsinthiswayisnottosug-gestthatIslamistsaresecretlydemocraticfeministandopposedtovio-lenceRatherthepointistodrawattentiontothecomplexityandcon-tradictionserasedbyeasygeneralizationsontheonehandandtheoftenunacknowledgedfluidityandculturaladaptabilityofotherwisefamiliarpoliticalcategoriesontheother

Islamism and Democracy

DespiteimportantdifferencesamongIslamistthinkerstheyhaveincom-monatendencytoviewhumansovereigntyastransgressiveofdivinelawandsharetheaspirationtoestablishsharilsquoaastheprimaryorsolesourceofauthorityAsisoftennotedsuchpremisesandaspirationsrunafoulofassumptionsaboutpopularruleattheheartofdemocracynamelythathumanbeingshavetherighttolegislaterulesforcollectivebehaviorandarecapableofthewisdomrequiredtodevisejustlawsInrecentyearspolicymakersandcommentatorshaveevincedaparticularpreoccupa-tionwiththewaysinwhichIslamistnotionsofdivineauthoritythrottlethespiritandpracticeofpopularsovereigntySomehaveevengonesofarastocharacterizeIslamistsasldquoIslamo-fascistsrdquoanimatedbyhatredoftheldquodemocratic Westrdquo psychologically unable to contend with the fluidity

30

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INTRODUCTION

andindeterminacythatmarkpopularruleandeagertoconvertelectionsintoaldquoone-manone-voteone-timerdquomechanismforestablishinganIs-lamicstate(Murdock2002MRubin2005Kramer1993)

SuchviewsareechoedbythoseIslamistskeentoportraydemocracynotonlyasantitheticaltothesupremacyofdivinelawbutasaTrojanhorseforWesternimperialismFormanyIslamistsincludingseveralinthis volumedemocracy is justone symptomofametastasizingmoralandspiritualbankruptcywherebymoraltransgressionsaretransfiguredintonaturalurgescrassself-interestbecomesthebedrockofcollectivelifeandthedivineplanfortheuniverseandallthingsinitisreducedtoa system of physical causality just waiting to be mastered by way ofhumaningenuity(REuben2007)Qutbcallsthisdiseasedviewoftheworldjahiliyyaanditsignalsnotonlyhumanarrogancebutatransgres-sionagainstdivineauthoritythescopeofwhichencompassesbothpub-licandprivatedomainsofhumanaffairsaswellasbothvisibleandun-seendimensionsoftheuniverseFormanyIslamistssuchtransgressionisattherootofmuchofwhatpassesforMuslimruleinthecontemporaryworldmdashnationalistdemocraticandmonarchicalalikeSucharroganceisalsosaidtobethepatternunderlyingalonghistoryofunrelievedWest-ernaggressionagainstIslaminwhichtheChristianCrusadesEuropeancolonialismIsraelitreatmentofPalestiniansethniccleansinginBosniaGermananti-TurkishviolencetheAmericaninvasionofIraqandDutchcartoonsofMuhammadarebutafewexamples

YetthereisarangeofviewsamongIslamistsaboutboththesubstanceofdemocracyanditscompatibilitywiththereligio-politicalrenewaltheyadvocateAccordingtoQaradawiforexampleldquotheessenceofdemoc-racyisthatpeoplechoosewhorulesoverthemandmanagestheiraf-fairsthatnorulerorregimetheydislikeisforceduponthemthattheyhavetherighttocalltherulertoaccountifheerrsandtoremovehimfromofficeincaseofmisconductandthatpeoplearenotforcedineco-nomicsocialculturalorpoliticaldirectionsthattheyneitherrecognizenor acceptrdquo (Qaradawi1997132 also chapter9 in this volume)TohimthereisnoheavierburdenoppressingMuslimsinthecontemporaryworld thandespotism indeed it is throughdespoticgovernments thatMuslimshavebeenforcedtosubmittootherillsincludingtheneglectofthesharilsquoaandthecoerciveimpositionofsecularismandwesternizationDemocracy then recommends itself to Qaradawi as the most effectiveavailableantidotetodespotismandtheafflictionsofwhichitservesasavehicle

WheremanyamongtheIslamistsandthelsquoulamahaveseenconsider-able tensionbetween IslamanddemocracyQaradawiprofesses to seenoneAswesuggestedearlierbyfarthemostcommonoftheIslamistreservationsaboutademocraticsystemrelatestothesovereigntyofthepeoplewhichistakentocontravenetheideathatGodaloneissovereignQaradawi however is unperturbedby such concernsThe rule of the

31

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INTRODUCTION

peopleoughttobeseenhearguesnotinoppositiontotheruleofGodbutratherinoppositiontotheruleofthedespotMorefundamentallyQaradawirsquos view of democracy does not necessarily require that thepeopleshouldbeabletooverturndivinelyinstitutednormsRatherhisassumptionisthatpeopleexercisetheirsovereigntywithinconstitutionalboundsandMuslimslivinginapredominantlyMuslimdemocraticpol-itywouldlikewisenotwishtotransgresstheparametersoflegitimatehumanactionlaiddownintheIslamicfoundationaltexts(seeQaradawichapter9inthisvolumeandcfFeldman2007)

NadiaYassineofMoroccorsquosJusticeandSpiritualityAssociationisan-othercaseinpointWhilecriticalofthedemocraticgesturesembracedbyamonarchythatshedepictsasallergictogenuinelypopularsovereigntyYassineinsiststhatthemodelofMuslimruleadumbratedintheummafoundedbytheProphetMuhammadandinparticulartheConstitutionofMedina17isnothingshortofdemocratic(NYassine2005d2005e)UnliketheMuslimdynastiesthatarosetousurpitYassinecontendsthiscommunity was participatory egalitarian committed to freedom andexpressiveofGodrsquosmercyMostimportantitwasgovernedalwaysbytheQurrsquoanicprincipleofshura (consultation)bywhichYassinemeansaphilosophy of power that places sovereignty in the community ratherthaninanyindividuallinksvirtuetodeliberationratherthanobedienceandexhortsbelieverstocontinuallyadaptQurrsquoanicprinciplesthroughijtihad rather than adhere reflexively to precedent (N Yassine 2006a182ndash862005d)ManyscholarsandjournalistsremainskepticaloftheJSArsquosasyetuntestedcommitment toproceduraldemocracyandworrythatNadiaandher fatherAbdessalamultimatelyseektoestablishanIslamic state inhospitable to tolerance pluralism and civil liberties(Maghraoui2001Brandon2007Whitlock2006)YetothersarguethattheJSAisagenuinelypopulistorganizationthatrepresentstheunrepre-sentedtendstothewelfareofthedispossessedandbothexpressesandcontributestoanincreasinglyvibrantcivilsocietyinMorocco(Cavatorta2006Entelis2002)

QaradawirsquosandYassinersquosargumentstogethersuggestthatdemocracycanandhasservedaseitheracosmeticcoverfordespotismoranauthen-ticallyIslamiccheckuponcorruptandarbitraryruleAtissueinIslamistargumentsforandagainstdemocracythenarenotonlywhatcountsasldquoauthenticIslamrdquoandtheintentionsofthosewhoclaimtoknowitbutalsothecontentandcharacterofdemocracyitselfParadoxicallybothIslamistsopposedtodemocracyandthosewhotakeIslamismasinher-entlyantidemocraticregardthisasasimplematterwithanobviousan-swerdemocracyisanexpressionofandevensynonymouswithliberal-ismcapitalismandtheWestYetdemocracyisbothmorecapaciousand

17TheConstitutionofMedinawasanagreementtheProphethadenteredintowiththelocalcommunitiesincludingJewishtribesuponhisemigrationfromMeccatoMedina

32

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

moredistinctthanthispresumptionsuggestsTheworditselfofcoursederivesfromtheancientGreekdemokratiawhichmeansrule(kratos)ofthepeople(demos)andmanyderivetheequationofdemocracyandtheWestfromthisassociationwithclassicalGreeceYetancientGreekphi-losopherssuchasPlatosawindemocracythespecterofmobrulepartic-ularly vulnerable to demagoguery and despotism (a suspicion notablyechoedbyAmerican founder JamesMadison)Contrary to thedemo-cratic idealof inclusivenessmoreover citizenship inGreekdemocracyexcludedasubstantialpartofthepopulationincludingwomenslavesandforeignersFinallytheextenttowhichtheancientGreeksmayevenbecalledWesternisamatterofgreatdisputeparticularlyastheldquoWestrdquoisacategoryofrelativelyrecentprovenancethroughwhichhistoryandgeographyhavebeenretroactivelyorganized18DespitedepictionsoftheHellenicworldasWesternancientGreeksdidnotinfactviewthem-selvesintheseterms19

TheequationofdemocracywiththeWestalsopresupposestheexis-tenceofacoherentldquoWesterncivilizationrdquowitheitherculturallyhomoge-neousrootsorclearlydelineatedhistoricalandcontemporarybounda-riesorbothYetwhatiscalledtheWestisanamalgamationofmultipletraditionsincludingtheGreekRomanJudaicChristianandIslamicmdashtraditionsthatarethemselvespolyvalentratherthanhomogeneousmdashandistodaycharacterizedbyporousbordershybridsubculturesandmyriaddebtstodiversecivilizationspastandpresent20AsageographicmarkeritisvirtuallyimpossibletopinpointexactlywheretheWestbeginsandendsandthisisespeciallysonowthatpeoplesinformationandmate-rial goods crisscross cultural andnational borders atwill creating allkindsoftransnationalsubnationalandmultipleidentitiesthatshiftandreconstitutethemselvesinunpredictablewaysEventhosevaluesidenti-fiedasWesternoftenappearelsewhereinotherguisesIndeedscholarssuggestthatavarietyoftheldquostandardsexportedbytheWestanditscul-turalindustriesthemselvesturnouttobeofculturallymixedcharacterifweexaminetheirculturallineagesrdquo(Pieterse199553)

Manyalsoarguethatdemocracyisnotonlydistinctfrombutinten-sionwithboththetheoryandpracticeofpoliticsinldquoWesternrdquosocieties

18MichaelGillespie(19997ndash10)arguesthattherereadingofhistorygeographyandculturethroughtheprismofthissenseofldquotheWestrdquobegannoearlierthanthenineteenthcenturyTheideaofatimelessandbrightlinebetweenWestandEastisalsochallengedbyJeremyBrottonrsquosstudy(19989096ndash97)ofthediplomaticandintellectualexchangesbe-tweenEuropeandtheOttomanEmpireintheearlymodernperiodBrottonshowsnotonlytheextentandamityofsuchexchangesbutapersistentuncertaintyaboutwherepreciselyEuropeldquoendedrdquoandAsialdquobeganrdquo

19AncientGreeksunderstoodthemselvesasgeographicallywestofthebarbariansbutnotWesterninthecontemporarysensethatisasbothaculturalandhistoricalcategory

20StevenRuncimanrsquoswork(19543480)ontheCrusadesforexampledemonstratesaldquolongsequenceofinteractionandfusionbetweenOrientandOccidentoutofwhichourcivilizationhasgrownrdquo

33

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INTRODUCTION

many of which are more accurately classified as liberal and capitalist(Wood1994Wolin2001BallandDagger1999)Whileitisnowcom-monplacetospeakofldquoliberaldemocracyrdquoinasinglebreathliberalismanddemocracyareconceptsandpracticeswithverydifferenthistoriesandpresuppositionsUnlikedemocracyforexampleliberalismemergedfromthecrucibleofChristianreligiouswarsandintandemwiththeas-cendanceofamiddleclassthatpresagedtheendofEuropeanfeudalismTheliberalnation-statecanthusbeviewedasbothanexpressionandaconsolidationofcapitalismontheonehandandtheprincipleofasepa-rationbetweenchurchandstateontheotherBycontrastthereisnoth-ingaboutdemocracyeitherasasystemofgovernanceoracultureofpar-ticipationthatisinherentlysecularIndeedAlexisdeTocquevillefamouslyinsistedthatAmericandemocracycannotandshouldnotbesecularasreligionhelpsshiftattentionawayfromimmediatematerialpreoccupa-tionstolargerconcernsofcommunitycooperationandmoralityInfactmanydemocratictheoristsarguethatgenuinelyinclusivepopularsover-eignty is antithetical to the sharp inequalities of wealth and politicalpowerthatcapitalismoftenproducesandlegitimates

SuchongoingdefinitionalandsubstantivedebatessuggestthatthereismuchmoreatstakeindemocraticpoliticsthanprocedurespertainingtogovernmentauthorityandorderandpointtoawidespreadifelusiveunderstandingofdemocracynotjustasasetofinstitutionsbutasTocque-villesuggestsawayoflifeSeveralpoliticaltheoristshavecharacterizedthiselusiveunderstandingintermsofaldquodemocraticethosrdquoBythistheymeanbothanidealandanargumentforacultureofparticipationactivepowersharingmutualaccountabilityinclusivenessanddeliberationinwhichcitizensmayroutinelyandsafelychallengenotonlyspecificpoli-ciesandpolitical institutionsbutalso thevalues thatgoverncollectivelifeprinciplesofinclusionandexclusionandthepremisesofauthorityitself(Connolly1995JPEuben2003Sadiki2004)AdemocraticethosismuchmoredifficulttomeasureorquantifythanforexampleSamuelHuntingtonrsquosparsimoniousdefinitionofdemocracyasapolityinwhichtherehavebeentwoconsecutivepeacefulchangesofgovernmentbywayof freeand fairelections (Huntington1991)21Yetademocraticethosmakesitpossibletobothrecognizeanddisaggregatethepreconditionsaspirations mechanisms and institutions bundled into ldquodemocracyrdquotherebybringingintofocusforexamplethefrequentlyantidemocratic

21Manypoliticalscientistsprefertodefinedemocracyintermsofproceduresdesignedtorealizepopularruleincludingfreecompetitiveandfairelectionsalongwithstateprotec-tionofcertainrightsandlibertiesSuchaformalminimalistdefinitionhastheadvantageofdetachingdemocracyfromquestionsoforiginsandofferingastandardtowhichallgov-ernmentsmaybeheldregardlessofcultureandplaceAsKeithTopper(2005205ndash7)ar-gueshoweveritalsotendstosidestepknottyquestionsaboutthesubstanceofrepresenta-tion power responsiveness and accountability that are arguably central to democraticpolitics

34

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

casttoelectionsimposedbyelitesorforeignpowersthefeltimpotenceofmanycitizensinestablisheddemocraciesandthosehighlyparticipa-torycivilsocietiesthatflourishevenundermonarchicortheocraticrule

Forourpurposes inparticularademocraticethosmakesvisible theparadoxofanIslamistmovementthatseekstomobilizeordinaryMus-limsagainstcoercivepowerbutinthenameofareligio-politicalorderlargelyimmunizedfromchallengeQutbisanaptillustrationhereashistendencytogroundhisownspecialauthorityandinsightintheunsulliedwisdomofordinarybelieversmakesitpossibletoreadhisworkaseitherabriefagainstdemocracy(amongotherthings)oranenactmentofitIn-asmuchasdemocracyasaformofgovernanceisidentifiedwithpopularsovereigntyQutbrsquosbasicpremisethat thefoundationof legitimateau-thoritymustbedivineratherthanhumansuggeststhatheisunambigu-ouslyantidemocraticMoreoverQutbrsquoseffortstopluralizereligiousandpolitical authority express not a confidence in common wisdom butratheradesiretoclaimforhimselfthestatureofareligiousexpertwhodespitehislackofIslamicacademiccredentialscanclearlyseewhatoth-erscannotQutbcharacterizestherealIslamasself-evidentbuthealsoassumesthatonlyasmallvanguardofbelieversbesideshimselfwillhavetheabilitytorecognizeitandactdecisivelytoremaketheworldinitsimageSounderstoodthesignofldquochosennessrdquoisunyieldingcommitmenttoestablishingareligio-politicalorderthatsimultaneouslypresumesthesupremacyofthefewcapableoftrueknowledgeandpromisesaworldinwhichdissentitselfwillbecomebothunnecessaryandillegitimate

Yetifdemocracyrefersnotonlytoasystemofgovernanceorsetofprocedurestorealizepopularsovereigntybutalsotopracticesthatdis-ruptthoseforceswhichconcentratepowerandestablishpoliticalexclu-sionthecharacterizationofQutbrsquosworkassimplyantidemocraticmissesa crucial dimensionof its significance and appealAs the sacred textscontaintherulesandregulationsmeanttogovernbothpublicandpri-vateaffairsQutbrsquosinsistencethatordinaryuntrainedMuslimsmusten-gagethemdirectlyisinmanywaysademocratizationofaccesstoau-thoritySuchaccesscandisruptdeeplyentrenchedpatternsofpowerandpowerlessness particularlywhen conjoined to Islamist arguments thatarbitrarypowerisun-Islamicthatreligiousknowledgedependsoncom-mitmentratherthantrainingorexpertise thatMuslimshavetherightandobligationtodeterminewhenrulersareillegitimateandthatthosewhopreferordertojusticesecuritytofreedomandmoneytopietyhaveforfeitedanyclaimtoauthority

ThisaspectofIslamismhasfrequentlybeencomparedtotheProtestantReformationandmorespecificallytoCalvinistsrsquoattemptstotransferldquore-ligiousauthorityawayfromofficiallysanctionedindividualswhointer-prettextstoordinarycitizensrdquo(EGoldberg19913alsocfLoimeier2005)Suchaparallelhassparkedagreatdealofscholarlyspeculation

35

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

regardingapossibleldquoIslamicReformationrdquo22andarangeofargumentsaboutwhetherandhowIslamismmightfacilitatethedemocratizationofMuslim societies much as the Protestant Reformation is said to haveheralded the emergence of European ldquoliberal democracyrdquo While suchcomparisonsareevocativeafullerunderstandingof IslamismrequiresfirstsituatingitinrelationtoahistoricalshiftinthenatureandlocusofreligiousauthorityinIslambeginninginthenineteenthcenturyAsschol-arsofMuslimsocietieshavepointedouttheimpactofmasseducationnewtechnologiesfordisseminatingknowledgeandinformationanddra-matically changed social economic and political contexts have madeavailabletoamateurswhathadpreviouslybeenthepurviewofreligiousexpertsAtthesametimeithasinauguratedafragmentationofauthor-itywithintheveryranksofthelsquoulamathatcontinuestothepresentday23

InthiscontexttheascendanceandinfluenceofautodidactssuchasQutbHasanal-BannalsquoAbdal-SalamFarajandBinLadensimultaneouslyex-pressandaccelerateanongoingrenegotiationofauthorityoverwhomayspeakforIslamandonwhatbasisthepathofwhichisstillunfoldingandtheoutcomeasyetuncertain

Islamism and Gender

One already apparent consequence of this ongoing renegotiation overwhomayspeakforIslamandonwhatbasisistheentryofwomenintothe interpretive fray This development is increasingly unsettling thoseunwrittengendernormsarguablyattheveryheartofIslamistthoughtdisruptingthestandardsofmasculinityandfemininitythatreflecthowparticularculturesorganizehumanbeingsrsquosocialandreproductiveactiv-itiesintorolesthatareinturnthoughttoexpresstheldquonaturerdquoofmenand women Such norms are frequently considered tangential to theknottyproblemsofdefiningIslamismandadumbratingitscentralideasyetarangeofscholarshiponculturespastandpresenthasshownthatgenderisconsistentlytheterrainoverwhichbattlesforpoliticalcontrolandculturalidentityarefoughtMorespecificallyresearchindisciplinessuchasanthropologyhistoryclassicsandpostcolonialstudieshasdem-onstratedthatculturesinwhichfemalebodiesandbehaviorareregardedas indicesofmoralpurity tend to symbolically transformwomen intoconduitsof cultural corruption in timesof internal crisis and externalthreat(Papenek1994Chatterjee1990Tavakoli-Targhi1991Just1989Cohen1991Welter1966Bloch1978)Thisisespeciallytrueofcontem-

22Foralatenineteenth-centuryassessmentoftheprospectsforaldquoMuhammadanRefor-mationrdquoseeBlunt1882132ndash73

23EickelmanandPiscatori199637ndash39131ndash35Zaman2006Suchfragmentationhasinmanywaysbeenacceleratedbytheexplosionofdigitalcultureswhichpromoteamongotherthingsaldquoformofempoweredamateurismrdquo(Mirzoeff20026)

36

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

poraryreligio-politicalmovementswhosememberstendtoldquoidealizepa-triarchalstructuresofauthorityandmoralityrdquoendorsegenderdualismasgod-givenornaturalandcondemnvigorouslyrecentchangesingen-derrelationsasasymptomandsymbolofsecularistmoralbankruptcy(Riesebrodt1993Moghadam1992Hawley1994)

SeveralchaptersinthisvolumeilluminateIslamistgendernormsbyre-vealing thecharacterandcontentof Islamistconcernsabout theplaceandpurityofMuslimwomenmdashpreoccupationsFatimaMernissi(199199)hasgonesofarastocharacterizeasanobsessionDespiteimportantdifferences among Islamists thinkers many endorse gender norms inwhichthefairlyconventionalinsistencethatfemalenatureisdefinedinand through reproduction undergirds an understanding of women assymbolsofmoralvirtueandvesselsofculturalpurityThisviewsustainstheclaimthatmenandwomenareequalinreligiousbeliefbutperformfundamentallydifferentandcomplementaryfunctionsinsocietyWhilemenarenaturallymadetoruleinboththepublicandprivatedomainawomanbelongsinthedomesticrealmwhereherprimaryroleistobeawifeandmotheraswellastoinsuretheintegrityofthefamilythefirstschoolofmoraleducationAssuchfunctionsarerootedinaninescap-ablehumannaturefashionedbyGodawomanrsquosinabilityorunwilling-nesstoperformherdutiessignalsadisobediencetothedivinewillandpresages the corruption of the Muslim family from within From thisvantagepointtheWesterninsistenceonfullequalitybetweenthesexesisdoubly pernicious it at once liberates women from basic moral con-straintsandenslavesthemtomutuallyreinforcingsexualandcapitalistexploitationAsMurtazaMutahhari(1998xxxi)arguescapitalismmakesuseofwomentomarket itsgoodsldquoby trading inhonourandrespectthrough[their]powertoenticerdquotherebyldquotransform[ing]manintoaninvoluntaryagentofconsumptionrdquoInasmuchaswomenareresponsiblefor producing the next generation of Muslim men destined to restoreIslamtoitsformergloryitisnotonlythevirtueofwomenortheinteg-rityofthefamilythathangsinthebalancebutthefutureofIslamiccivili-zationitself

Zaynab al-Ghazali andMutahharimake several of these argumentsexplicitlyandindetail(seechapters10and11)butinmuchofIslamistrhetoricthenatureandsignificanceofwomenareestablishedindirectlyandsymbolicallyandthroughthreerecurrentimagesinparticularThefirstisofwomenassilentsymbolsofculturalmoralandsexualvulnera-bilityvoicelessfiguresinneedofmasculineprotectionorwhenitistoolatedefiledbodiesthatmutelydemandvengeanceSoforexamplelsquoAb-dallahlsquoAzzam(oneofBinLadenrsquosmentorsseechapter18)graphicallydetailstheagonizinghumiliationofyoungmenunabletoactwhentheAfghanwoman isldquocryingout forhelpher childrenarebeing slaugh-tered her women are being raped the innocent are killed and theircorpsesscatteredrdquo(lsquoAzzam1987a)Inthesecondimagewomenfunction

37

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INTRODUCTION

muchlikeachorusthatspeaksinpermittedcadencestoratifymasculineendeavorsSuchisthecaseforexampleinBinLadenrsquos1996ldquoDeclara-tionofWaragainsttheAmericansOccupyingtheLandoftheTwoHolyPlacesrdquo(seechapter18)wherethewomenexhortmentojihadinthefollowing way ldquoPrepare yourself like a struggler the matter is biggerthanwordsAreyougoingtoleaveusforthewolvesofKufr[unbe-lief]eatingourwingsWherearethefreemendefendingfreewomenbyarmsDeath isbetter than life inhumiliation Some scandals andshameswillneverbeotherwiseeradicatedrdquo24InthethirdimagewomenarecreaturesnotofthisworldbutofanothervirginalrewardsforthecourageousmartyrintheafterlifeThisisevidentinthefinalinstructionsforthe911hijackersforexamplewhereMuslimldquobrothersrdquoareurgedto purify their carnal impulses sharpen their knives for the dhabh (slaughter)andheedthecallofthehur lsquoayn (theblack-eyedones)await-ingtheminParadise(seechapter19)

Such rhetoric primarily registers women as an extensionmirror ormeasure of masculinity and together with explicit Islamist argumentsabouthumannatureandthefamilyarticulatesIslamistgendernormsinwhichmenandwomeneachhaveaproperlocationandpurposeinadi-vinely ordained social hierarchy Deviance from this gendered scriptthussignalsdisruptionofamuchbroaderreligio-politicalorderitbothpresumes and seeks to bring into existence The disruption caused byforeign aggression in particular exacerbates the tendency to translateconflict into an assault on Muslim masculinity and to conceptualizewomenaspotentialvehiclesforWesterncorruptioninneedofguidingand guarding Women such as Zaynab al-Ghazali and Nadia Yassinewho seek a prominent place and voice within the Islamist movementhavehadlittlechoicebuttocontendwiththisgenderedscriptDoingsohasentailedamongotherthingsnavigatingcarefullybetweenIslamistcharacterizations of womenrsquos visibility and agency as symptomatic ofthe new jahiliyya on the one hand and essentializing arguments thatequateIslamwithveilingfemalegenitalmutilationandhonorkillingsontheother

AsthechaptersonGhazaliandYassinesuggestIslamistwomenhavenegotiatedbetweensuchconstraintsandpressuresandtheirownambi-tionsindifferentwaysApioneeringdalsquoiya(onewhoinvitesMuslimstogreater piety)Ghazalirsquos own life reveals a fierce resistance to conven-tionalnormsofdomesticityevenasmuchofher(earlier)workappearsto embrace an Islamist gender ideology that defines women as wivesmothers andldquobuilders ofmenrdquo (al-Hashimi 1990 118)By contrastYassineisawifeandmotherwhoembracesanldquoIslamicfeminismrdquothatrequiresldquoreappropriatingtheinstrumentsofclassicaltheologyrdquoanden-

24TheIslamistjournalSawt alshyJihadhasgonesofarastofeatureldquowomenrsquosvoicesrdquointheformofrolemodelsnamedforexampleumm alshyshahid(motherofthemartyr)al-thoughitisunclearthattheseldquovoicesrdquoareactuallywomenrsquos(SUsher2004)

38

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

gaging the textsdirectly through ijtihad (NYassine2003) In this re-spect Yassine must be understood as part of a broader effort amongMuslimwomenwithdifferentpoliticalcommitmentstosimultaneouslyadvocateandenacttheirrighttorecuperatetheldquooriginalintentrdquooftheIslamictextsIfwomenandmendoinfacthavedistinctperspectivesontheworldYassinesuggestswomenhaveaspecialobligationtoexcavatewhattheyseeasthegenderparityoftheQurrsquoanburiedbeneaththoseldquomachointerpretationsrdquoofIslamuponwhichmenhavebuilttheirprivi-legeandpower(Khalaf2006)25

ManyAnglo-AmericanandEuropean feministsworry that Islamistsseekonly to secureor restorepatriarchalpowerConverselymany Is-lamist women view feminism as a term and a movement inescapablyWesterninoriginfreightedwiththelegacyofcolonialismanduneasilyimplicatedinculturalimperialismThisapplieseventoYassinewhoisunwillingtoadoptwithoutqualificationalabelsheassociateswithagen-dasopposedtoherowntheWesttheMoroccanstateMaghribi(North-westAfrican)elitesYetfeminismitselfisahighlycontestedtermwithin theso-calledWestitisthebearerofmultiplemeaningssomeofwhichareevenopposedandischaracterizedbydeepdisagreementsaboutwhowomenarewhatwomenneedwhoisauthorizedtoworkonwomenrsquosbehalf andbywhatmeans Inasmuch as these various feminismsmayshareonlyastatedconcernforwomenrsquoswelfarethereisnothinginco-herentinmodifyingldquofeminismrdquowithldquoIslamicrdquoldquoMuslimrdquoorevenldquoIs-lamistrdquounlessone iscommitted toarguing thatfirst Islam isanun-changingessencebeyondhistorypoliticsandculturesecondthereisaneutralobjectivevantagefromwhichtoidentifythisessenceonceandforallandfinallytheIslamicessencesoidentifiedisfundamentallyin-compatiblewitheffortstoimprovetheconditionsandqualityofwomenrsquoslivesBythesametokenIslamistwomenwhorejectthetermfeminismcanbe(althoughnotalwaysare)deeplycommittedtoimprovingwom-enrsquoswelfareaswellasactivelyresistanttoeffortsthatreduceortrans-formthemintosilentaccessoriesofmalepower

YassineandGhazalidifferaboutwhatwomenareandshouldbeyetbroadlyspeakingbothmaybeconsideredpartofarecenttrendtowardthe feminizationofdalsquowa Dalsquowa literallymeanscallappealor sum-monsbutthetermhascometosignifyavarietyofpracticesandargu-mentsmeanttoexhortinviteandguideMuslimstowhatisregardedasproperconductandmoraldevotionWomenrsquosparticipationindalsquowais

25WomenrsquosparticipationintheldquoproductionofofficialIslamicknowledgerdquohasalonghistoryalthoughtheyhaveoftendonesoinrelativeobscurityandwithoutthebenefitofeducation in the Islamicsciences thathas legitimateddirectengagementwith thesacredtexts (Cooke 2001 xiv Badran and Cooke 2004) Pioneering attempts to read genderequalityinIslamarealsonotconfinedtowritingbywomenasevincedbyQasimAminrsquosTahrir alshymarrsquoa [TheLiberationofWoman] (1899)andMumtaz lsquoAlirsquosHuquqshye niswan [TheRightsofWomen](1898)

39

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

notabrandnewphenomenonasisevidentinGhazalirsquosworkwiththeEgyptianSocietyofMuslimLadiesinthe1930sYetfromEgypttoPaki-stantoSaudiArabiatotheUnitedStatesthenumberoffemaledalsquoiyashasproliferatedexponentially inrecentyears(Cooke2001Mahmood2005Hirschkind2006)Thisreflectsinpartcurrentdoctrinalempha-sesondalsquowaasincumbentuponbothmenandwomenanddependentlessupontechnicalknowledgethanmoralvirtueandpracticalfamiliaritywiththeIslamictradition(Mahmood200565ndash66)It isalsoaconse-quenceofrecentpoliticalandsocioeconomictransformationsinMuslimsocietiesincludingtheexpansionofmasseducationthathasnotonlyin-creasedwomenrsquosliteracyandsocialmobilitybutalsomadeIslamictextsmoreaccessibletheproliferationoftechnologiesmdashfromthecassettetapetotheInternetmdashthatfacilitatethecirculationofreligiousknowledgeevenamongthosewhocannotreadortraveltheprecedentsetbythevigorousparticipationof IranianwomeninpostrevolutiondebatesaboutIslamandthemodeloflegalactivismevidentintheIslamistmovementrsquosownchallenge to the lsquoulamarsquos status as gatekeepers of religious knowledge(Singerman2005Mir-Hosseini1999)

If Ghazali and Yassine exemplify the feminization of dalsquowa amongelitesthemosquemovementinEgyptillustratesthegrowingparticipa-tionofwomenfromdiversesocialbackgroundsinreligiousclassesde-votedtostudyinganddebatingwhatIslamrequiresforawomantobeldquomorallyuprightrdquointhecontemporaryworld(Mahmood2005)Con-ceptualizingpiety in termsof adeepandholistic commitment to self-transformationparticipantsinthemosquemovementareconcernedlesswithmattersofsovereigntyandpoliticsconventionallyunderstoodandmorewiththeldquomoralcultivationrdquoofthosedailypracticesseenascrucialtobecomingclosertoGod(Mahmood2005)SomeIslamistshavecriti-cizedthis focusonpracticesofworshipasapoliticalandoverlypriva-tizedyetsuchcriticismmissestheforceofIslamistsrsquoowninsistenceondin(religion)asawayoflifeinwhichthedomainsofpublicandprivateare inextricably linked26AsSabaMahmood (2005193194) showsthesewomenrsquosintenseeffortsatldquoretrainingethicalsensibilitiesrdquohavealdquosociopoliticalforcerdquothatextendswellbeyondmattersofgovernancefacilitatingnolessthantheemergenceofaldquonewsocialandmoralorderrdquoEvidenceofitstransformativepowermaybefoundnotonlyinthesheernumbersandvarietyofwomenmdashwealthyandpoor literateand illiter-atemdashparticipatinginthemosquemovementbutalsointherhetoricalandpoliticaleffortsbythestateandsomeIslamiststocurtailcontrolordis-creditit(Mahmood200571194)

26ParticipantsinthemosquemovementinturnareoftencriticalofwhattheyseeasthereductionofIslamtotokensofculturalauthenticityorofitsinstrumentalizationbybothnationalistsandIslamiststheycharacterizeasmoreinterestedinpoliticalmaneuveringthanreligiouspiety

40

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

Understoodtoincludebothwrittenandembodiedpracticesthefemi-nizationof dalsquowa illustrates theways inwhichwomen fromdifferentperspectivesandsocialclassesareinsistingonengagingthesacredtextsdirectly for and with one another without the mediating authority ofmenwhohavetraditionallyheldthemonopolyonsuchactivitiesAsSu-danese Islamist Lubabah al-Fadl argues ldquoAs an insan [human being]whohappenstobeawomanIhavearighttorejectthemanipulativeexegesesofoursharilsquoa thatthreatenmyexistenceinawaythat isnotconsistentwiththeGodlywayandtoapplymyownijtihadtorectifyer-roneoustendenciesbysomeshuyukh[pluralofshaykh]rdquo(Sadiki2004290)DespitetheproliferationofvoicesintentonclaimingforthemselvestheauthoritytodemarcatewhatisauthenticallyIslamicandun-Islamiconceandforallcontestationoveritsscopeandmeaningproceedsapacefacilitatedatleastinpartbywomenformerlyexcludedfromtheconver-sationAtthesametimeIslamistwomenrsquosagencyandclaimstoauthorityarefrequentlystillpredicatedonawillingnesstofollowfairlypatriarchalrulesaboutwherehowandwithwhomtheymaypracticetheirvocation(Hirschkind2003Sadiki2004283)

Islamism and Violence

IfgenderisfrequentlyanimplicitpreoccupationamongIslamistsjihadisarguably Islamistsrsquomost consistently explicit concern Jihad is derivedfromtheArabicverbthatmeanstostruggleortostriveyetitisaparticu-larkindofstruggle that isofconcern tomanyof thefigurescollectedheretheoftenviolentstruggleagainstapostatesandinfidelsbothathomeandabroadtowhicheveryindividualMuslimmustcontributeTheclaimthatfightingunbelieversisthepreeminentenactmentofindividualMus-limpiety seems to justify characterizationsof Islam ingeneral and Is-lamisminparticularassanctioningevenencouragingviolenceYetwhatIslamistsrepresentasjihadtout courtisahistoricallyspecificunderstand-ingderivedfromahighlyselectiveuseoftextsandprecedentsprominentamongthemaformerlyobscureclaimbytheinfluentialfourteenth-cen-tury jurist IbnTaymiyya thatMongol rulerswhohad contravened Is-lamiclawcouldbesubjecttoforcibleremovalFarfromadefinitiveex-pressionof Islamldquoproperlyunderstoodrdquo such Islamist argumentsnotonlymarkasignificantdeparturefrommuchofantecedentdoctrineandpractice but also diminish the importance of ongoing disagreementsamongMuslimsabouttheformandpurposesofjihad

TobeginwithMuslimscholarshavetendedtoconsiderjihadagainstforeignenemiesafard kifaya(collectiveobligation)thatisadutyagroupofpeoplewithinthecommunitymayperformonbehalfoftherestandonethatpresupposesalegitimateMuslimleadertodeclareorleadthechargeJuristshavedistinguishedthisfromthefard lsquoayn(individualduty)thatmustbefulfilledbyeverysingleMuslimincasesofdefensivejihad

41

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INTRODUCTION

thatiswhentheummaisunderattackManyIslamistsincludedheretakeamuchlessnuancedviewofjihadAsamodeofpoliticalactionQutbarguesjihadmustberegardedasaldquopermanentconditionnotanocca-sionalconcernrdquoonethatincurrentcircumstancesrequiresdeedsratherthanwordsstruggleratherthancontemplationrevolutionathomeaswellasresistanceabroad(Qutb199167ndash6882)lsquoAbdal-SalamFarajarguesalongsimilarlinesthatthenatureoftheattackonIslammakespolitical authorization by a caliph (ldquodeputyrdquo referring to a legitimatesuccessortotheProphetrsquosleadership)unnecessaryafterallldquoleadershipovertheMuslimsis(always)intheirownhandsifonlytheymakethismanifestIfthereissomethinglackingintheleadershipwellthereisnothingthatcannotbeacquiredrdquo(Jansen1986asec93)

SuchargumentsareadeliberaterejectionofearlyMuslimmodernistswhohademphasizedthelargelydefensivecharacterofjihadandsoughttoshowthatrelationsbetweenMuslimsandnon-MuslimswerenormallypeacefulratherthanantagonisticMahmudShaltut(d1963)therectorof al-Azhar from 1958 to 1963 had argued for example that theQurrsquoanicversesonfightingldquoprohibittheprovocationofhostilityandthisprohibitionisreinforcedbyGodrsquosrepugnancetoaggressionandbyhisdislikeofthosewhoprovokehostilityrdquo(Peters199674onShaltutseeZebiri1993)ConversionbyforceisanathematoIslamShaltutaversandfightingiscommandedonlyindefenseinresponsetoaggressionini-tiatedbyothersEvendefensivejihadmustaimatldquotheterminationoftheaggressionandtheestablishmentofreligiouslibertydevotedtoGodandfreefromanypressureorforcerdquo(Peters199675)

ManyIslamistsexplicitlydismisssuchargumentsasasymptomoffalseconsciousnessoneamongmanydestructiveeffectsofcolonialdomina-tionMawdudiargues for example thatwhile imperialists ravage theworld to satisfy their greed jihad alone ldquoconjures up the vision of amarching band of religious fanatics with savage beards and fiery eyesbrandishingdrawnswordsandattackingtheinfidelswherevertheymeetthemrdquoHavinginternalizedthis imageMuslimsrushtoapologizeandrenouncearmedstruggleInthiswayhelamentscolonialistsretaintheexclusiverighttoldquofightwitharmsandammunitionwhilewearecon-tented with our pen and our tonguerdquo (Mawdudi 1948 1ndash3) SayyidQutbforhispartagreedthatIslamdoesnotcountenancespreadingitsmessagebyforceandcoercionyethehadlittlepatiencewiththosewhosoughttopresentjihadaslegitimateonlyinself-defense

IfweinsistoncallingIslamicjihadadefensivemovementthenwemustchangethemeaningofthewordldquodefenserdquoandmeanbyitldquothedefenseofmanrdquoagainstallthoseforcesthatlimithisfreedomWhenwetakethisbroadmeaningofthewordldquodefenserdquoweunder-standthetruecharacterofIslaminthatitproclaimstheuniversalfreedomofeverypersonandcommunityfromservitudetoanyother

42

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

individualorsocietytheendofmanrsquosarroganceandselfishnesstheestablishmentofthesovereigntyofAllahandHisLordshipthrough-outtheworldandtheruleofthedivinesharilsquoainhumanaffairs(Qutb199050)

Qutbdoesnotnameanynamesincastigatingtheldquowriterswithdefeatistandapologeticmentalities[who]writeaboutlsquojihadinIslamrsquoandtrytoremovethislsquoblotrsquofromIslamrdquo(Qutb199046)buthecouldverywellhavehadhisdistinguishedfellowEgyptianMahmudShaltutinmind

These arguments about jihad may be said to constitute a commongrammarandframeworkofanalysisformanyIslamistsalthoughseveralthinkers in this volume carefully calibrate such claims to suit variouspurposesanddifferentpublicspheresInhisjustificationfortheassassi-nationofEgyptianpresidentAnwaral-SadatforexamplelsquoAbdal-SalamFarajdepictsthestruggletoreclaimthemoralfoundationsoftheEgyp-tianstateasafightagainstjahiliyyafromwithinarguingthatthejihadagainstacorruptnationalistregimeathomemusttakeprecedenceoverfightingenemieselsewhereTheCharterofHamas(seechapter15)how-everinsiststhatallMuslimsrecognizetheprimacyofthejihadforJeru-salemweldingIslamistrhetorictothatofnationalistresistanceinanef-fortbothtofightIsraelioccupationandtocompeteforadherentswiththePalestinianLiberationOrganization(PLO)IncontrasttobothFarajandHamasBinLadenembracesaglobaljihadthatessentiallycollapsesdistinctionsbetweennationalandinternationaloffensiveanddefensivefightingenemiesathomeandthosefromafar

Yet despite such differences these arguments tend to presume thatviolent jihad is a necessary response to the pervasive power of thosewithdemonstratedhostilitytoMuslimliveslandspietiesandsensibili-tiesaformofretaliationwhoseurgencyandlegitimacyderivefromtheviolencemdashpsychologicalandeconomicaswellasphysicalmdashoftheinitialassaultThisviewofjihadsubsumesindividualsintoarchetypesofldquoin-fidelsrdquoandldquobelieversrdquoandinsodoingvitiatesmoreconventionaldis-tinctionsbetweenforexamplesoldierandcivilianorcollectiveandin-dividual responsibility It is far from inevitable that thosewhoharborsuchviewswillautomaticallyactuponthemyetthecarnagewroughtbytheattacksontheWorldTradeCenterandthePentagonin2001aBalinightclub in 2002 Madrid commuter trains in 2004 and throughoutIraqonadailybasissuggestjusthowlethalsuchclaimscanbegiventheright circumstances The fact that such violence does not discriminateamongvictimsonlyfurtherfuelsrhetoriccharacterizingIslamistsasirra-tional fanatics ldquoin love with deathrdquo terrorists animated by a religioncharacterizedbyapropensityforviolenceandauthoritarianism27

27AnxietiesabouttheparticularsusceptibilityofMuslimstoirrationalityinsularityandfanaticismhavealonganddistinguishedpedigreeinEuro-AmericanhistoryandpoliticalthoughtSeeforexampleRenan18833

43

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

AsinsomanyothermattershoweverIslamistsarehardlyofonemindonthesubjectofjihadindeedthereareIslamistswhoexplicitlyrejectthereductionof struggle toviolenceAcase inpoint isNadiaYassine(20032005c)whoinsiststhatjihadisthededicatedstruggleagainstisshytikbar(arrogance)particularlyinitscommonformasthelustforpoweranddominationAsjihadagainstistikbarisbothafinalgoalandapre-scriptionforactionYassinesuggestsitisantitheticaltoviolentpracticesthataimatdominationTheprimaryinstrumentsofjihadarenotbombsbutwords particularly thosedeployed in the art of persuasion (Fara-marzi2005NYassine2006a)WhenIslamistssuchaslsquoAbdal-SalamFarajandlsquoUmarlsquoAbdal-RahmanseektolegitimizeviolentrevolutionbyrecoursetoIslamictextsshearguestheycontravenethetruemeaningofjihadtoservetheirownarrogantendsBythesametokenBinLadenrsquosdecisiontoldquofightevilwithevilandbarbaritywithbarbarityrdquonotonlyviolatesspecificIslamicprohibitionsagainstharmingcivilianswomenandchildrenbutalsobetraystheethicalimperativetoembodythemes-sageofamercifulGodwhocautionsbelieversthat(Q8822)ldquoYouhavenopoweroverthemrdquo(NYassine2005cDaily Excelsior2002)

SuchpersistentdisagreementsamongMuslimspastandpresentsug-gest that Islam isnomore inherently violent andbloody-minded thanitmdashorChristianityor Judaism for thatmattermdashis inherentlypeacefulIslamists often claim to speak for an unchanging authentic Islam thatexistsoutsideoftimeandspaceyetthepoliticalpurchaseoftheirper-spective derives from the ways it assembles disparate yet recognizablecontemporaryexperiencesofsufferingfrustrationandlossintoanex-planationthatresonateswithMuslimswholiveincommunitiescultur-allylinguisticallyandgeographicallydistantfromoneanotherTheex-tenttowhichIslamistargumentsresonatebroadlyacrossMuslimsocie-tiesthusdependsuponasetofexperiencesandphenomenathatmarkthisparticularmomentinhistoryincludingthewaysinwhichcontempo-raryglobalinequalitiescompoundalegacyofhistoricalasymmetriestocontinuallyreproduceasenseofMuslimpowerlessnessmdashbothrealandimaginedmdashrelativetotheWestcontinuingEuro-Americanpoliticalandfinancialsupportofcorruptautocratsmanyofwhompresideoverna-tion-statesbrutallystitchedtogetherbyWesternfiat thepersistenceofauthoritarian regimes eager to control domestic unrest by catalyzingldquoMuslimragerdquotowardexternaltargetsthesenseofemasculationpro-ducedbydecadesofpoliticalrepressionandeconomicfrustrationandthecontinualflowofimagesofbloodiedMuslimbodiesdeliveredbyaburgeoningarrayofvideosatelliteandelectronicmedia

It is notable that the understanding of jihad many Islamists proffermirrorstheverystate-sanctionedviolenceagainstwhichtheyhavestrug-gledforalmostacenturyAlongwiththousandsofMuslimscaughtinthemachineryoftwentieth-centurystateviolenceprominentIslamistsfromQutbtoGhazalitoAymanal-Zawahirimdashal-Qalsquoidarsquossecondincommandmdash

44

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

arewellknowntohavebeenradicalizedbyextendedandoftenbrutaltermsofincarcerationinEgyptSyriaIraqJordanIsraelAlgeriaandelsewhere(onal-ZawahiriandprisoncfKepelandMilelli2008152ndash54)ItisthusfarfromsurprisingthatIslamistsforgedbyinterrogationtortureinprisoncampswouldconcludethatthepreeminentenactmentofMuslimpietyisviolentstruggleldquoPrisonrdquoasPalestinianKhaledAbuHilalhassaidldquoismyuniversityrdquo(Erlanger2007)anargumentmadeingreaterdetailinadifferenttimeandplacebyRussianwriterandrevolu-tionaryMaximGorky(1868ndash1936)

Apeoplebroughtupinaschoolthatremindsoneofthetormentsofhellonasmallscaleapeopleaccustomedtotheclenched-fistprisonandthewhipwillnotbeblestwithatenderheartApeoplethatthepoliceagentshaveriddenoverwillbecapableintheirturnofwalk-ingoverthebodiesofothersInacountrywhereunresthasreignedsolongit isdifficultforthepeopletorealizefromonedaytothenextthepowerofrightOnecannotdemandfromamanwhohasneverknownjusticethatheshouldbejust(Gorky1920)

InthiscontextasTimothyMitchell(1990195ndash96199207ndash8)suggestsIslamistviewsoftheworldcanbecharacterizedasbothamodeofresis-tancetostatemechanismsofcoercionandanexpressionofthemSuchisthedynamic evident inGhazalirsquosmemoirs for examplewhen shede-scribeshowtheldquodarknessofprisonsthebladesoftortureandthevi-ciousbeatingsonly increasetheenduranceandresolveofthefaithfulrdquo(Ghazali19786)

There is no doubt a great deal of pragmatism at work in IslamistargumentsaboutviolenceAsQutb(19916447ndash48)drylynotesthepathtofreedommustoccasionallybehewnbywayoftheswordbecausetyrants are not reasoned out of power and ldquojahiliyya is not lsquoabstracttheoryrsquo[it]consciouslyorunconsciouslystrivestopreserveitsownexistence to defend its essence to annihilate dangerous elementswhichthreatenitsverybeingrdquoYetitisalsothecasethatformanyoftheseIslamistsjihadisbothameansandanendanefforttoeradicatethoseobstacles torestoringa justcommunityonearththatsimultane-ouslybringshumanaction intoaccordwithGodrsquosplansandpurposes(Haddad198321)While theQurrsquoan (2256) states thatldquothere isnocompulsioninreligionrdquoIslamistscontendthatonlyinastateinwhichIslamiclawreignssupremearehumanbeingsfreefromenslavementtooneanotherrsquosruleandallareequalbyvirtueoftheircommonsubmissiontoGodAsQutb(1991107ndash8)argues

WhenthehighestauthorityinsocietyisGodalonemdashexpressedintheruleofdivinelawmdashonlythenishumanitytrulyandcompletelyliber-atedfromslaverytomenOnlythisisldquohumancivilizationrdquobecausetheessentialfoundationofhumancivilizationisthetrueandcom-

45

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

pletefreedomofhumanityandtheabsolutedignityofeveryindivid-ualinsocietyThereisnotruefreedomanddignityforhumanityortheindividualinasocietywheresomepeoplearelordswholegislateandothersareslaveswhoobey

From this perspective the realization of justice liberty equality andchoiceitselfnecessitatestheforcibleremovaloftheconstraintsimposedbyjahiliyyaalongwiththosewhoaidandabetitno matter the costAsMawdudi(1954160ndash61)writes

[W]hyisitthatinreligionsuchimportanceisgiventojihadthattheQurrsquoanpronouncesthejudgmentofhypocrisyuponthosewhoshirkandevadeitJihadisbutanothernamefortheattempttoerectthesystemoftruthandtheQurrsquoandeclaresjihadtobeatouchstoneonthesamefootingwithamanrsquosfaithInotherwordshewhohasfaithinhisheartwillneitherbecontentwiththedominationofthesystemofevilnorwillhegrudgetheexpenditureoflifeandwealthinthestruggleforerectingthesystemoftruthIfoneshowsweaknessinthismatterhisfaithitselfisdoubtfulWhatcananythingelsebesidethenprofithimThemanwhoprofesses faith in this religioncannotfulfillhisdutyonlybytryingasfaraspossibletopatternhislifeonIslamThenatureofhisfaithitselfrequiresthatheshouldconcentrateallhiseffortuponwrestingleadershipfromunbelievingandcorruptmentoentrustittotherighteousanduponerectingthesystemoftruththathasbeenordainedfortheconductoftheworldaccordingtothewillofGodBecausethisendisunattainablewith-out thehighestdegreeofcollectiveeffort theremustexistarigh-teouscommunitycommittedtotheprincipleoftruthanddevotedtothesolepurposeintheworldoferectingmaintainingandproperlyrealizingthesystemoftruth

ThefactthatsomeIslamistthinkerssanctifyviolentstruggleinsuchtermsdoesnotmeanofcoursethatallthosewhoadvocateorengageinjihadendorseviolence28NordoesitimplythatthosewhoclaimtokillforIslamareentirelywithoutulteriormotivesthosemanipulativepur-poses andpsychologicalmotivations that even themost rarified scrip-turalargumentscanexpressorserveWhattheprecedinganalysisdoessuggesthoweveristhatthereductionofthisviewofjihadtoirrationalbloodlusttheself-interestedgrabfortemporalpoweroradoorthroughwhichtopassintothehereaftermissesacrucialdimensionofitssignifi-canceandappealfortruebelieversjihadisnolessthananenactmentof

28EvenashespokeofaneweraofjahiliyyaandofjihadMawdudihimselfstoppedwellshortof recommendingor condoning the actual resort to violence in themannermanyotherIslamistsdidAsNasr(199670)observesMawdudirsquosorganizationtheJamalsquoat-iIs-lamildquohasavoidedviolentsocialchangeandhasinsteadviewedthepathtotheIslamicstateaslyingwithintheexistingsociopoliticalorderrdquoAlsoseethechapters5and3onQutbandMawdudiinthisvolume

46

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INTRODUCTION

adivineimperativetoremakethefoundationsofcollectivelifeInthisre-spectIslamistviewsofjihadcanbeseenaspartofalong-standingasso-ciationbetweenviolenceandpoliticalfoundingsuponwhichnoparticu-larcultureorhistoricalepochhasamonopolyThisassociationandtheldquolegacyofviolencerdquoitbequeathstofuturegenerationsarenolessappar-entinthoseradicalrevolutionsofrenewalthatmovebywayoftheswordfromthemarginstothecenterthanthosepoliticalfoundingsthatclaimtocreatesomethingoutofnothing(Connolly1995251)Ineithercasethetollofsuchbrutalitycanbeimmeasurableforinadditiontothevic-timswhosufferdirectlytheldquopracticeofviolencelikeallactionchangestheworldbutthemostprobablechangeistoamoreviolentworldrdquo(Ar-endt1972177)

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Page 7: Chapter 1 INTRODUCTION - assets.press.princeton.eduassets.press.princeton.edu/chapters/s9067.pdf · Chapter 1 INTRODUCTION This volume is intended as a broad introduction to the evolution

7

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INTRODUCTION

meetthenewchallengesthatconfrontedMuslimsItwasnotIslamthatboretheresponsibilityforthepoliticalandintellectualweaknessesafflict-ingMuslimsocietiesmdashasmanyaEuropeanobserverofIslamsuggestedmdashbutthefailureofMuslimstoproperlyinterprettheirfoundationaltextsinaccordancewithchangingneeds

While many among the lsquoulama have long affirmed the authority oftheirmadhhabs(schoolsoflaw)andtheneedforstrictadherence(taqlid)toschooldoctrinesinordertomaintainthecontinuityandcoherenceoftheirscholarlyandespeciallytheirjuridicaltraditionmodernistshavesel-domseenanythingredeeminginsuchconceptionsofauthority6TaqlidtothemisldquoblindimitationrdquooflongdeadmastersandoftheiranachronisticviewswhichhasstoodinthewayofpeoplersquosabilitytoadaptthemselvestonewchallengesThemodernistshavealsoallegedthatinholdingfirmtotheiroutmodedwaysthelsquoulamawereinterestedneitherinthewelfareofIslamnor inthatofthecommunity theywereonlydefendingtheirownprivilegesastheguardiansandauthoritativeinterpretersofthereli-gioustraditionandtheconsiderablesocialstandingthatoftenwentwithitAs themodernist reformers have understood it there is nothing inIslamtostoppeoplefrominterpretingitsnormsaccordingtotheneedsofchangingtimesIndeedtheQurrsquoaninvitespeopletoreflectonit(ldquoWilltheynotthinkaboutthisQurrsquoanrdquoQ482)whichistheveryoppositeofthelsquoulamarsquosinsistenceonfirmadherencetoearlierauthoritiesAsMu-hammadRashidRida(d1935) theeditorof theEgyptian journalalshyManar(1898ndash1935)andadiscipleofthefamousreformerMuhammadlsquoAbduh(d1905)wroteinhiscommentaryonQurrsquoan482

Theonlyunavoidablerequisite[tobeabletoreflectontheQurrsquoan]isknowledgeof the languageof theQurrsquoan itswordsand its stylewhich[inanycase]isthesortofthingrequiredofanyonewhobe-comes aMuslimTaqlid signifiespreventing [people] from re-flectingontheQurrsquoanYetGodhimselfhascommandedustoreflectonHisbookandtoreasonwithitandnoonefromamongHiscreaturescanforbidwhatHehasmadeobligatoryBytherejectionoftaqlidwedonotmeanthateveryMuslimcanpossiblybecomeaMalik[d795]oraShafilsquoi[d820]inderivingthejuristicrulesrelatingtothecommunityorthateveryoneoughttodosoWemeanonlythateveryMuslimisobligatedtoreflectontheQurrsquoanandtobeguidedbyitinaccordancewithhisabilitiesItisneverper-missible foraMuslimtoabandon[theQurrsquoan]andto turnawayfromitortoprefermdashoverwhatheunderstandsofitsguidancemdashthewordsofanyoneelsebeitamujtahid[apractitionerofijtihadieofindependentlegalreasoning]oronecommittedtotaqlid(muqalshylid)AMuslimrsquosreligionislifelesswithouttheQurrsquoanThereisno

6On the lsquoulamarsquos conception of tradition see Zaman 2002 especially 3ndash16 2007b63ndash70

8

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INTRODUCTION

bookbyamastermujtahidorbyamuqallidthatcanmakeupfor[direct]reflectionontheBookofGodIfMuslimshadstoodfirminreflectingontheQurrsquoanandinbeingguidedbyitineveryagetheirmoralsandmannerswouldnothavebeenruinedtheirrulerswouldnothavebeenunjustanddespotictheirauthoritywouldnothavedeclinedandtheywouldnothavebecomedependentonothersfortheirlivelihood(Rida1947ndash545296ndash97)7

AsthispassageillustratescentraltomodernistdiscoursesacrossMus-limsocieties istheideaof ijtihad(cfKurzman20029ndash14)bywhichtheyhaveoftenmeantnotonlytheefforttoformulateIslamiclegalrul-ingsonmattersthefoundationaltextshadleftunregulatedbutalsothereinterpretationofmattersonwhichthegeneralityofearlierscholarsandeventhefoundationaltextsthemselveshadhadareasonablyclearviewManyamongthelsquoulamahaveinsistedthattheirschooldoctrinesprovidesufficient resources to meet all contingencies and what remains to bedoneistofindaparticularnormordoctrinethatmatchesthequestionorproblemathandNotall lsquoulamaofmoderntimeshavebeenaversetoparticularformsofijtihadindeedthecontinuingnecessityofijtihadinatleastsomeofitsformshascometobeincreasinglyrecognizedbymanyamongthem(cfZaman200816ndash1764126)Stilltheideathatspe-cificlegalrulingsenunciatedinthefoundationaltextsmightthemselvesbesetasideinthenameofdarura(necessity)orsubordinatedtoconsid-erationsofmaslaha (commongood) is tothemtantamounttotakinglibertieswithGodrsquoseternalword(cfZaman2004133ndash39)

Needlesstosaymodernistreformershaveneverthoughtoftheirinitia-tivesastakinglibertieswithGodrsquoscommandsTheyhaveofteninsistedhoweverthattheliteralwordofGodmustalwaysbeunderstoodinlightoftheoverallldquospiritrdquoofthedivineinjunctionstakenbothintheiren-tiretyandintheiroriginalhistoricalcontext8Modernistdiscourseson

7ThiscommentarytheTafsir alshyManarreflectstheviewsofbothMuhammadlsquoAbduhandRashidRidathoughitwaslargelywrittenbyRida

8InvocationsoftheldquospiritrdquooftheQurrsquoanoftheProphetrsquosexampleorofIslamatlargeareacommonmotifinmodernist(andsomeIslamist)writingsSyedAmeerAli(d1928)aShilsquoimodernistscholarandjudgeincolonialIndiahadcharacteristicallytitledhisbest-knownbookThe Spirit of IslamForsomeotherinstancesoftheappealtothespiritofIslamandtheQurrsquoanandrelatedformulationscfIqbal1934149156Kurzman200260256Ramadan2007xiThemedieval juridical ideaof theoverarchingldquopurposesrdquounderlyingthesacredlaw(maqasid alshysharilsquoa)anunderstandingofwhichoughttoguidethejuristinallhisendeavorsmightbethoughttohavesomethingincommonwithmod-ernistappealstothespiritofIslamAndit isnoaccidentthattheworkofthemedievalSpanishjuristal-Shatibi(d1388)whoisamongthosemostcloselyassociatedwiththeelaborationofthisideahasremainedespeciallypopularinmodernistcirclesMedievalju-ristsunderstoodtheideaofthemaqasidal-sharilsquoatomeanthatthesharilsquoawasconcernedaboveallwiththepreservationoflifereligionrationalityprogenyandpropertyandthatnolegalrulingsshouldviolatethesefundamentalconcernsInmarkedcontrasthowevertothecarefulexegeticalandlegalargumentationthatwentintodemonstratingwhatthepur-

9

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

polygamyofferanillustrationoftheirapproachTheQurrsquoanallowspo-lygamyldquoIfyoufearthatyouwillnotdealfairlywithorphangirlsyoumaymarrywhicheverwomenseemgoodtoyoutwothreeorfourIfyoufearthatyoucannotbeequitable[tothem]thenmarryonlyoneoryourslave(s)thatismorelikelytomakeyouavoidbiasrdquo(Q43)TheQurrsquoanthuspermitspolygamybutsimultaneously insistsonequityasthenecessaryconditionforapolygamoushouseholdaqualificationsup-plementedbyQurrsquoan4129ldquoYouwillneverbeabletotreatyourwiveswithequalfairnesshowevermuchyoumaydesiretodosobutdonotignore one wife altogether leaving her suspendedrdquo Modernist re-formershaveoftenseentheQurrsquoanicsanctionforpolygamynotjustasbeingspecifictoextraordinarycircumstancesmdashasawayofprovidingforgirlsmadeorphanbywarmdashbutaseffectivelyruledoutbytheQurrsquoanicstatementthatmencanneverreallybeequitabletowardmorethanonewife(cfRahman198947ndash48)TothelsquoulamathisisspeciousreasoningforifGodhadreallywantedtoprohibitpolygamyHecouldsimplyhavesaid so (cf Shafilsquo 2005ndash7 2313ndash14 592ndash93) That medieval juristsandexegetesarepracticallyunanimousinallowingpolygamyisfortheirlatter-daysuccessorsfurtherconfirmationofthecorrectnessoftheirownunderstandingoftheQurrsquoanonthismatter

Asthisexamplesuggestsatissuebetweenmodernistsandthelsquoulamaisnotonlyhowparticularnormsareviewedbutalsohowtheyareaf-firmedanddefendedThelsquoulamarsquosscholarlytraditionisconstitutedbyalongandcomplexhistoryofcommentarydebateagreementsanddis-agreementsaboutthefoundationaltextsandaboutallmattersIslamicAstheyseeitthistraditionisnotclosedfrozenormonolithicyetitiswith reference to the scholarly tradition that anygiven readingof thefoundational or other texts finds meaning and legitimacy in their dis-coursesModernistreformersfortheirparthaveusuallyseenthistradi-tionpreciselyasclosedandanachronisticasoccludingthetruespiritofIslamic teachings and therefore as unworthy of serious and sustainedengagement

Modernists Islamists and the lsquoUlama

ThecontestationbetweenthemodernistsandthelsquoulamaprovidesawayofsituatingtheIslamistswithinabroadspectrumofcompetingbutalsooverlappingorientationsintheMuslimpublicsphereLikethemodern-istswhothemselvesholdvariedpositionsontherelationshipbetweenIslamandpoliticsmanyamongthe IslamistsareproductsofmodernWesterninstitutionsoflearningSayyidQutb(d1966)wasnottrained

posesofthelawwerehowoneknewwhattheywereandhowthelawwastobeinter-pretedwithreferencetothem(cfHallaq1997esp162ndash206Weiss199878ndash87145ndash71)modernistappealstothespiritoressenceofIslamareoftenextremelyvague

10

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INTRODUCTION

asareligiousscholarNorwasHasanal-Banna(d1949)thefounderoftheMuslimBrotherhoodofEgypttheoldestandoneofthemostinflu-entialof Islamistorganizations in theSunniMuslimworldBothwereeducatedattheDaral-lsquoUluminCairoaninstitutionfoundedinthelatenineteenthcenturytoestablishsomethingofamiddlegroundbetweenal-AzharUniversityinCairoandmodernseculareducationalthoughitgradually veered toward the latter and in 1946 became part of CairoUniversity (cfReid1990139ndash49)Abursquol-AlsquolaMawdudi (d 1979)ofPakistandidreceivean intermittentmadrasaeducationbut itwasthevocationof a journalist not that of an lsquoalim (plural lsquoulama) that headoptedThanksinparttothisbroadlysimilareducationalbackgroundIslamistsalsosharewithmodernistsasupremeconfidenceintheirownabilitytodiscernthetruemeaningorspiritofIslamthroughamoreorlessdirectencounterwiththefoundationaltextsAsCharlesJAdams(1966396)hasobservedincomparingMawdudiwithMuslimmodern-istsldquoBothhaveclaimedtheabilitytodisengagethespiritoressentialsofGodrsquosguidancetoliberatethemselvesfromtheauthorityofthecu-mulativeMuslimpastand toundercut thepositionof theulamawhorepresentthatauthorityrdquoMuchthesamemightbesaidofSayyidQutbaswellasofmanycontemporaryIslamists

Despitesuchcommonalities IslamistsfrequentlypositionthemselvesinoppositiontothemodernistsAstheIslamistssee it themodernistshavemadeIslamitselfsubservienttotheprojectofestablishingitscom-patibilitywithWesternnorms and institutions rejectingor explainingawayanythingthatdoesnotconformtothesenormsMawdudiputitthisway inderidingmodernistdiscomfortwith the implementationofpunishmentsmandatedbyIslamiclaw

Iwouldliketoputastraightquestiontothesevotariesofldquomoder-nityrdquoldquoWhatarethevaluesthatyoubelieveinDoyoubelieveintheIslamicvaluesoflifeandstandardsofmoralityorthoseofthemoderncivilizationrdquoIfyouhavemadeyourchoiceandacceptedsomeothervaluesandsomedifferentstandardofrightandwrongofvirtueandviceofthepermissibleandtheprohibitedasagainstthoseenvisagedbyIslamitisthenadifferenceofaveryfundamen-talnatureItmeansthatyoudifferwithanddisbelieveintheIslamicideologyitselfInthiscaseyoushouldhavethecouragetodeclarethatyourejectIslamoutrightIsitnotfoolishtoallegefaithinaGodwhose laws you consider as barbarous Anyhow nobody can re-maininsidethepaleofIslamafterholdingsuchanopinionaboutthelawofGod(Mawdudi[Maududi]196067)

PolemicsofthissortnotonlysuggesttheIslamistsrsquosenseofwhatsepa-ratesthemfromthemodernistsbutalsopointtointermittentIslamistef-forts to make common cause with the lsquoulama Such efforts are oftenpredicated on both the rhetorical claim that all sincere Muslims fully

11

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INTRODUCTION

concurintheirconceptionofthesharilsquoa(Islamiclaw)andtheIslamistsrsquoastuterecognitionofthelsquoulamarsquosconsiderablestandinginsocietyUnsur-prisinglysomeleadingIslamistshavesoughttoblurdistinctionsbetweenthemselves and the lsquoulama to enhance their own authority Usama binLaden(b1957)styledhisfamous1996ldquoDeclarationofWaragainsttheAmericansOccupyingtheLandoftheTwoHolyPlacesrdquoasafatwathatisajuridicalopiniontherebyrhetoricallyobscuringthehistoricalfactthatfatwashavetypicallybeenthepreserveofthe lsquoulamaandmorespecifi-callyofthefuqahaormuftis(jurists)amongthemBinLadenhoweverhasnoformalscholarlycredentialsinmattersIslamicMawdudiwascom-monly styledasmawlana a commonhonorific for the lsquoulama inSouthAsiaAdeliberateblurringofdistinctionsislikewiseevidentinthestate-ment of the Sudanese Islamist Hasan al-Turabi (b 1932) ldquoBecause allknowledgeisdivineandreligiousachemistanengineeraneconomistorajuristarealllsquoulamardquo(Turabi1983245alsochapter8inthisvolume) YetthereareleadingIslamistsmdashinthisvolumeKhomeiniMutahhariBaqiral-SadrFadlallah lsquoAliNadwi lsquoUmar lsquoAbdal-RahmanandQa-radawimdashwhoweretrainedaslsquoulamawhichmeansthatporousbounda-riesbetweenIslamistsandthelsquoulamaarenotjustamatterofself-servingrhetoricbyautodidactsGiventhisfactthedistinctionbetweenIslamistsandlsquoulamaturnslessonstarkdifferencesineducationalbackgroundandmoreonthecharacterandcontentoftheirpoliticalcommitmentsMorethananythingelseIslamistsseektoimplementIslamiclawthroughtheagencyofthestateNotallarewillingtoresorttoviolentmeansinpur-suitofthisendManysuchasYusufal-Qaradawi(b1926)ahighlyin-fluentialIslamistandoneofthemostprominentlsquoulamaofcontemporaryIslam(Skovgaard-Petersen2004Kraumlmer2006)professdemocraticcom-mitmentsButwhateverthestancetowardeitherdemocracyorviolencethepublicimplementationofthesharilsquoaisattheheartofallIslamisminbothitsShilsquoiandSunniformsThissuggestsanimportantcontrastwithmanyamongthelsquoulama

SincethefirstcenturiesofIslamthelsquoulamahaveoftensoughttomain-tainacarefuldistancefromtherulingelitejealouslyguardingtheirinsti-tutionsandpracticesfromgovernmentalinterferenceThelsquoulamagener-allyrecognizedthatthefunctioningoflegalandotherIslamicinstitutionspresupposedtheexistenceofaMuslimgovernmentandtheydefinedalegitimategovernmentasonethatoversawtheimplementationofsharilsquoanormsButtheyhavetypicallyunderstoodthegovernmentrsquoscommitmenttothesharilsquoatomeanthattherulerdefendedthebordersofthepolityregulatedpublicmoralitysuppressedhereticsandappointedthosepro-ficientinlegalmatterstoimplementthelaw(cfCrone2004286ndash314)TheyhavenotunderstoodanyofthistomeaneitherthattherulershouldbeabletoofferabsoluteinterpretationsofGodrsquoslaworthattherealmofpoliticsandstatecraftshouldbecomesynonymouswithIslamitselfYetthis ispreciselyhowIslamistshaveoftenconceivedof therelationship

12

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INTRODUCTION

betweenIslamandpoliticsandmorespecificallybetweenIslamandthestatenocallingishigherthanstrivingtowardtheestablishmentofanIs-lamicstateandoncebroughtaboutallwillbeinaccordancewithGodrsquospurposesMawdudi(1960177)claimedthatldquothestruggleforobtainingcontrolovertheorgansofthestatewhenmotivatedbytheurgetoestab-lishthedin[religion]andtheIslamicSharilsquoahandtoenforcetheIslamicinjunctionsisnotonlypermissiblebutpositivelydesirableandassuchobligatoryrdquo

Tomanylsquoulamathisamountstonothinglessthanmakingreligiousnorms subservient topolitical goalsAsMuftiMuhammadTaqi lsquoUth-manialeadingDeobandischolarofPakistannotesinhisrejoindertoviewssuchasMawdudirsquos

Intheirzealtorefutesecularismsomewritersandthinkersofthepresentagehavegonesofarastocharacterizepoliticsandgovern-ment as the true objective of Islam the reason why the prophetsweresent[byGodtothepeople]indeedtheveryreasonforthecre-ationofthehumanbeingAndtheyhavenotonlygivenotherIs-lamiccommandmentsmdashforinstanceonmattersofworshipmdashasec-ondarypositiontheyhaveevendeemedthemtobemeremeansforpoliticalendsjustawayoftrainingpeople[towardpoliticalmobili-zation](lsquoUthmani199825ndash26cfZaman2008116ndash18)

NotalllsquoulamasharesuchmisgivingsaboutthesubordinationofIslamtopoliticsthoughitshouldbenotedthattheywouldseethisintermsnotofanysuchsubordinationbutratheroftheutterinseparabilityofthere-ligiousandthepoliticalByfarthemostnotableoftheseamongtheShilsquoaisAyatollahKhomeini(d1989)ofIranAgainstalong-standingtradi-tionofShilsquoipoliticalquietismintheabsenceofthehiddenShilsquoiimamKhomeiniarguedthattheShilsquoi lsquoulamaoughttoassumedirectpoliticalleadershipandhethenproceededtospearheadthemovementthatcul-minatedinthefalloftheIranianmonarchyandtheestablishmentoftheIslamicRepublicofIran9Hisdoctrineofthevelayatshye faqih(guardian-shipofthejurist)isaradicalrethinkingofShilsquoipoliticaltheologyblur-ringanymeaningfulboundarybetweenreligiousandpoliticalauthority(seechapter6)ItispreciselyKhomeinirsquoscommitmenttoestablishinganIslamic statealong these lines thatwarrantshis classificationasan Is-

9TheImamiorIthnalsquoashariShilsquoabelievethatthetwelfthandlastoftheirimamswentintoghayba(hiding)in874andthathewilleventuallyreturnasthemahdimdashamessianicfigurewhoalonecanrestoreproperordertotheworldinaugurateaneraofunalloyedjus-ticeandreclaimfortheShilsquoatherightsofwhichtheyhavebeendispossessedbytheSunnisandbycorruptrulersformuchofthehistoryofIslamShilsquoischolarshavelongdebatedthequestionofwhatsortofauthoritytheleadingreligiousscholarsoughttohaveinofficiatingintheimamrsquosabsenceKhomeinirsquosviewdisputedbymanyotherscholarswasthatthelead-ingscholar(s)oughttodischargethefullrangeoftheimamrsquosfunctionsincludingthepoliti-calheadshipofthecommunity

13

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INTRODUCTION

lamistnotwithstandinghiswell-recognizedstatusasoneoftheleadingShilsquoilsquoulamaofhisgeneration

The Azhar-educated Yusuf al-Qaradawi has for his part criticizedmanyfellowIslamistsonseveralissuesbutnotonthefundamentalques-tion of their political orientation Just as Khomeini had chastised theldquopropagandainstitutionsofimperialism[fortrying]topersuadeusthatthereligiousleadersmustnotinterfereinsocialmattersandthatthefuqaha[jurists]donothavethedutyofoverseeingthedestinyoftheIslamicnationrdquo(Algar1981141)Qaradawiinsiststhatdenyingthepo-liticalorientationofIslamamountstoitswillfuldistortion

Amongtheinterpretationswithwhichthesecularists[lsquoalmaniyyun]andthemodernists[alshyhadathiyyun]calumniate[Islamproperlyun-derstood and those committed to it] is the notion of ldquopoliticalIslamrdquowhichwithoutdoubtisanideaalientoourIslamicsocietyBy[politicalIslam]theymeananIslamthatconcernsitselfwiththeinternalandexternalaffairsoftheMuslimcommunity[Theymeanbyit]actionsaimedatfreeingthecommunityfromtheforeignpowerthatdirects [Muslim]affairsphysicallyandmorallyas itpleases[Theyalsomeanbyit]actionsseekingtocleansethecommunityofthecultural socialand legalsedimentsofWesterncolonialismsothatthecommunitycanreturnonceagaintosubmissiontoGodrsquoslawindifferentareasoflifeTheyusethischaracterizationofldquopoliticalIslamrdquoinordertoalienatepeoplefromits[aforementioned]contentandto frighten themawayfromthosecalling toacomprehensiveconceptionofIslammdashonethatisinclusiveofbeliefandlawworshipandsocialinteractionproselytismandthestate(Qaradawi200793)

Islamistpoliticalcommitmentsareoftenintertwinedwithcritiquesofthescholarlytraditionanditsattendant institutionsandpracticesandthiscriticismprovidesusacrucialwayof thinkingfurtherbothaboutwhatdistinguishesIslamistsfromthelsquoulamaandabouthowtoviewIs-lamismitselfWhatthelsquoulamacannotbutseeasacavalierattitudeto-wardtheirscholarlytraditioniswesuggestbetterviewedaspartofalargerIslamistcritiqueonethatgoestotheheartofhowIslamismoughttobeunderstoodasaphenomenonItisacritiqueofparticularMuslimbeliefspracticesmoresandinstitutionsthataredeemedtohaveonlyatenuousbasis inldquotruerdquoandldquoauthenticrdquo Islamof the repeatedwrongturnsMuslimshavetakenthroughouttheirlonghistoryofthecorrupt-ingldquoforeignrdquoinfluencesmdashfromSufismtoGreekphilosophytothelureofmodernWesternculturesmdashbywhichMuslimshaveallowedthemselvestobeseducedandoftheirunwillingnesstodowhateverittakestoestab-lish thehakimiyya (sovereignty)ofGodonearthThat it is the sover-eigntyofGodthatIslamistsseekultimatelytoaffirmintheirindividualandpubliclivesremindsusthattheircritiqueofthepastandthepresentisapoliticalcritiqueanchoredinanddrivenbyaspirationstoinstitutea

14

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INTRODUCTION

newreligio-politicalorderWhetherthiscritiqueisarticulatedinconcreteor vague terms in a seeminglymoderateorplainlymilitant languagethere is no mistaking either its principal targetmdashfacets of the Islamictraditionmdashoritsfundamentallypoliticalorientation10

IslamistshaveofteninsistedthatthewordofGodcanandshouldbeapproacheddirectlywithoutthemediationofpresentorpastscholarsandwithoutanyneedfortheedifyingtalesthephilologicaldebatesandthelong-windedtheologicaldisquisitionssooftenfoundinmedievalexe-geticalliteratureamajorfacetoftheIslamicscholarlytradition(cfCarreacute200318)ShukriMustafaanEgyptianIslamistexecutedin1977forthemurderousactivitiesofhisSocietyofMuslims(popularlyknownastheSociety of Excommunication and Emigration) had famously assertedthatalloneneededtoresolveuncertaintiesinonersquosunderstandingofthewordofGodwasadictionary(Kepel199379)SayyidQutbdidnotgoquite that farButhe tooaffirmed that the fundamental teachingsofIslamwereentirelytransparentldquoWhatwearesayingaboutIslamisnoinventionofoursoranynewinterpretationofitsessenceIt issimplyplainIslamasitwasunderstoodbyitsfirstadherentMuhammadandhissincereCompanionsandthoseclosetoitsauthenticsourcerdquo(Qutb19969withminorchange)

TheimplicationofQutbrsquosstrikingassertionistwofoldFirstbehindarhetoric of humility in relation to divine knowledge Qutb implicitlyclaimsthefullbackingofGodandHisProphetfortheldquoplainIslamrdquohesetsforthMorespecificallyheessentiallydepictshisownunderstandingofIslamassynonymouswithGodrsquoseternalintentmuchasKhomeinirsquospronouncementsasthevalishyye faqih(guardianjurist)presumedtoarticu-latewhatIslamitselfstoodfororrequiredonanygivenmatterSecondthestatementimpliesnotonlythatviewsotherthanhisaremereinter-pretationsbutthattheyarethemorereprehensibleforbeingldquonovelrdquomdashasuggestionthatevokesthenotionofbidlsquoathatisofillicitcapriciousin-

10ThatIslamismshouldbeseenasawide-rangingcritiqueoftheworldandoftheIslamictraditionisareminderofcoursethatcritiqueisnotaninherentlysecularphenomenonnordoesitnecessitateasecularframeworkAsTalalAsad(2008)hasobservedgivenawidevarietyofldquopossibleinstancesofcritiquecriticismwhatwehaveisafamilyconceptforwhichitisnotpossibletoprovideasingletheorybecausethepracticesthatconstitutethemdifferradicallyrdquo(alsocfMahmood2008Taylor2008)NorshouldourviewingIs-lamism as a politically motivated critique suggest that other competing orientations inmodernIslamcannotalsobeseenascritiquesofparticularpracticesparticularformsofknowledgeWhatdoesdistinguishanIslamistorientationfromothersisonceagainboththedegreetowhichIslamistcritiquesbreakwiththeirpastandpresentandtheiraspirationto remake theworld in accordancewith their understandingof immutable divine com-mandsThisismarkedlydifferentfromhowthelsquoulamamightcritiqueparticularaspectsoftheirscholarlytraditionintheinterestofastrongersenseofcontinuitywiththattraditionorinordertomakeitmorereceptivetowhattheyseeasthecommunityrsquoschangingneedsItisalsoverydifferentfromhowMuslimmodernistsoftenbreakwiththescholarlytradi-tioninordertoadaptMuslimnormsandinstitutionstothedominantpoliticalandculturalinstitutionsoftheircontemporaryworld

15

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INTRODUCTION

novationinmattersofreligionSuchaviewofIslamjettisonsmuchofwhatwouldnormallycountasitshistoryandcivilizationldquoThehistoryoflsquoIslamrsquordquoQutbtellshisreadersldquoisthehistoryofthetrueapplicationofIslammdashinpeoplersquosconceptionsandtheirpracticesintheirlivesandtheirsocialsystemsIslamisthefixedaxisaroundwhichpeoplersquoslivesrevolveinafixedframeWhentheygooutofthisframeorwhentheycategorically abandon this axis what then do they have to do withIslamrdquo (Qutb 1967a vol 2 part 4 169 quotation marks aroundldquoIslamrdquoinoriginal)ItisforthefixedaxistheplainIslammdashandinoppo-sition to much of its historymdashthat the Islamist professes to stand (cfGrunebaum1962251ndash52)

Qutbhoweverisfarfromconsistentinhisattitudetowardtheschol-arlytraditionorinhowheseekstoarticulatehisownauthorityinrela-tiontoitHisfaithinthetransparencyandthetransformativeimmedi-acyofGodrsquoswordswouldappeartomakeallexegesissuperfluousyethehimselfhadproceededtowriteamajorcommentaryIn the Shade of the QurrsquoanthatwouldexceedfourthousandpagesinprintThejustifi-cationheoffers for it intheopening linesof thecommentary isauda-ciousnotapologetic

LifeintheshadeoftheQurrsquoanisablessingItisablessingunknownto anyonewhohasnrsquot tasted itAll praisebe toGodHehasgrantedmetheopportunitytoliveintheshadeoftheQurrsquoanforaperiodoftimeduringwhichIhavetastedHisblessingsasIneverhadearlierinmylifeIhavelistenedtoGodtheexaltedconvers-ingwithmethroughthisQurrsquoanmdashwithmeasmalllittleslaveIhavelivedintheshadeoftheQurrsquoanlookingfromanelevationatthejahiliyya[paganignorance]raginginthelandandthepettycon-cernsof itspeople [Fromthisvantage] Ihave seen thepride thepeopleofthisjahiliyyatakeintheirchildishknowledgetheirchild-ishideastheirchildishpreoccupations[Ihavelookeduponthem]likeanelderlooksuponthefrivolitiesofchildrenupontheireffortsandupontheirlisps(Qutb1967a13)

Theseresoundingwordsserveinteraliatoexplainwhyanewcom-mentaryshouldhavebeenneededatallthemind-numbingimpactofthejahiliyyahasmadepeopleincapableofrespondingtoeventhemostdi-rectofdivinesummonsandonlysomeonewhohaslivedldquointheshadeoftheQurrsquoanrdquocanunderstandtheirplightandremedyitFromtheper-spectiveQutbadoptshereanyappealtothescholarlytraditionanyef-forttoresthisauthorityonitwouldappearaltogetheroutofplaceYetQutbrsquosclaimstoauthoritydonotderiveexclusivelyfromhisconversingwithGodthroughtheQurrsquoanTosomedegreetheyalsodependonhisbeingseenashavingmasteryovertheveryexegeticaltraditionofwhichheisotherwisefrequentlydismissiveQutbcitesasmallnumberofearliercommentators and other authorities when it suits his purpose to do

16

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INTRODUCTION

so11justashesidestepstheexegeticaltraditionwhendoingsooffersarhetoricallymoreeffectivewayofarrivingataconclusionMoretradi-tionalexegetespastandpresentalsopickandchooseofcourseButtheyhavetypicallydonesowithinanoverallframeworkthatisdefinedbyacontinuousengagementwiththeexegeticaltraditionasawhole(cfSaleh2004)BycontrastQutbandotherIslamistexegeteswriteoutsideandofteninconsciousoppositiontoanysuchframeworkTheconversa-tionisnotwiththeearlierexegetesbutdirectlywithGodthoughthismightonoccasionbeaidedbyillustrationsfromtheearlierexegeticaltradition

If thereareunacknowledgedambiguities inQutbrsquosrelationshipwiththe Islamic traditionaswehaveobserveda frequentlyacerbic stancedoesnonetheless remain characteristicofhowheviews itmostof thetimeQutbisanythingbutuniqueinthisrespectYetifIslamistssharealmostbydefinitionacriticalstancetowardfacetsofthistraditionthereismuchthatalsoseparatesthemfromoneanotherinpreciselyhowthiscritique and its implications are articulated in different instances Al-thoughthemerepresenceofdisagreementamongIslamist intellectualsandactivistsishardlyremarkablethescopeandimplicationsofsomeofthedisagreementsinasmuchastheyrelatetothescholarlytraditionarenonethelessworthexamininghereFortheysuggestthatwhileIslamistsshare the conviction that particular institutions practices and normsneedtoberefashionedinlightofimmutabledivinecommandsthiscon-victionoftenrestsonquitedifferentviewsofIslamichistoryandciviliza-tionofcontemporaryMuslimsocietiesandnotleastofreligiousau-thorityanditslociNowhereperhapsisthismoreevidentthaninsomeofthewritingsofYusufal-QaradawiLikeQutbQaradawiisamongthemostinfluentialIslamistideologuesintheSunniworldHeisalsooneofQutbrsquosseverestcriticsfromwithintheIslamistcamp(seeespeciallyQa-radawi1994101ndash31)

ThatldquoMuslimrdquosocietieslackedaproperIslamicfoundationmadeitfutileQutbhadarguedtodebatespecificquestionsofIslamiclawand

11TheseincludeinteraliaMuhammadibnIshaq(d767)theauthoroftheSirat rasul AllahoneoftheearliestbiographiesoftheProphetMuhammadal-Tabari(d923)theauthorofJamilsquo alshybayan lishytarsquowil ay alshyQurrsquoanoneofthemostinfluentialcommentariesoftheQurrsquoaneverproducedal-Baghawi(d1117)whosecommentaryistitledMalsquoalim alshytanzilal-Qurtubi(d1273)theauthorofaworkalshyJamilsquo lishyahkam alshyQurrsquoanwhichises-peciallyattentivetothelegalcontentoftheQurrsquoanandIbnKathir(d1373)theauthorofaQurrsquoan commentaryTafsir alshyQurrsquoan alshylsquoazimwhichhasbeenpopular amongmanyMuslimsofaSalafiorientationOnoccasionQutbalsocitesinfluentialfellowIslamistsSeeforexampleQutbFi zilal alshyQurrsquoanvol2part4132(Mawdudi)vol2part525(Nadwi)vol2part6143and150ndash53(lsquoAbdal-QadirlsquoAwdaanEgyptianIslamistandlegalscholarexecutedundertheNasserregimein1954)OccasionallyQutbcitesRidarsquosTafsir alshymanaraswell thoughmoreoftenthannot toregisterhisdisagreementswithRidaandwiththelatterrsquosmentorMuhammadlsquoAbduhForadetailedcomparisonbetweenthecommentariesofRidaandQutbseeCarreacute2003

17

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INTRODUCTION

howitdealtwithparticularsocialoreconomicissuesThelsquoulamawerepatheticallydeludediftheythoughtthattheinterestsofIslamcouldbefurtheredthroughdisquisitionsonthesharilsquoainsuchconditionsofper-vasiveungodliness(Qutb1967b183ndash90)WhatpeopleneededbeforeanythingelsewasareturntothebasicsofthefaithThetaskofrighteouspreacherswastoinstructtheminthesemattersandtohelpthemrecog-nizewhatthesovereigntyofGoddemandedofthem(Qutb199135cfQaradawi1994102ndash4)Allothermattersincludingthenicetiesofjuris-ticdiscussionwerebestpostponeduntilaproperlyIslamicsocietybasedonthisfoundationhadbeenrealized

Qaradawi vehemently disagrees with Qutb arguing that educatedMuslimsarenotpagansbutbelieversandassuchdonotneedtobetu-toredinthefundamentalsoftheirfaithWhattheyoftendonotunder-standverywellmdashandhereQaradawiconcurswithotherIslamistsmdashisthenatureofIslamasanizam (socialandpoliticalsystem)TheproblemofMuslimsinotherwordsisnotgodlessnessbutsimplyignorance(whichiswhat the term jahiliyya literallymeans)of the teachingsof Islam intheircomprehensiveall-encompassingdimensionsAsQaradawiseesitmanyldquocaptivesofWesternthoughtrdquohavedoubtsnotabouttheessentialsoftheirfaithbutratheraboutIslamasacomprehensivesystemanditistheirunaddressedmisunderstandingstheirignoranceonthelatterscorethatsometimesopens thedoor todoubtsaboutmattersofbelief itself(Qaradawi1994113ndash14)Tocontinuetoexpoundonthesocialpoliti-calandotherteachingsofIslamwhilethesocietyisyetimperfectisnottoendorseorstrengthenthejahiliorderasQutbhadallegedbutonlytohelpordinarypeopleintheirefforttoleadvirtuouslivesevenininiqui-touscircumstances

ThisviewrepresentsanappealtowhatQaradawihasrepeatedlyre-ferredtoasthemoderatepathoralshymadrasa alshywasatiyya(theldquocentristschoolrdquocfQaradawi2006137ndash217)mdashonethatlocatesitselfonaputa-tivemiddlegroundbetweenacompleterejectionoftheworldincludingMuslimsocietiesanditstotalembraceQaradawiisequallyconcernedwithrescuingIslamichistoryandcivilizationfromoutrightdismissalatthehandsofIslamistslikeQutb12TheideathatjahilinormshadbeguntocreepbackintotheMuslimcommunityshortlyafterthedeathoftheProphetandthattheyhaveremainedunchallengedformuchofIslamrsquoshistoryignoresallthoseQaradawisayswhohavecontinuedtorepre-sentthepathofrighteousnessthroughoutthehistoryofIslamContrarytotheconvictionoftheSunnisthatldquothecommunitywillneveragreeonerrorrdquomdashastheProphetissaidtohavepromisedmdashthenotionofaperva-

12AmongleadingfiguresQaradawisinglesoutforcriticisminthisregardarebesidesQutbMawdudiandtheEgyptianIslamistscholarMuhammadal-Ghazali(d1996)SeeQaradawi2005b46ndash64It isworthnotingthatdespitetheseandotherdisagreementsQaradawihaswrittenrespectfullyofallthreedevotinganentirebooktohislongassocia-tionwithMuhammadal-Ghazali(seeQaradawi1995)

18

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INTRODUCTION

sivejahiliyyasuggestsmoreoverthatthecommunitydidindeedagreeonerror13Mostgrievouslyperhaps Islamist critiques tend to suggestthatthesharilsquoahasalmostneverbeenimplementedinMuslimsocietiesaftertheveryfirstyearsofIslamIronicallysaysQaradawisuchindis-criminaterejectionofIslamichistoryinadvertentlyreinforcessecularist argumentsthatthesharilsquoaisunsuitedtopracticalapplication(Qaradawi2005b46)QaradawirsquoscritiqueofQutbandotherIslamistsisfinallyanargumentforthecontinuingcentralityofthelsquoulamatothetaskofpro-viding authoritative guidance to the communityHisunderstandingofwhoconstitutesthelsquoulamaisfarmoreexpansivethanthatofmostDeo-bandilsquoulamaofSouthAsiaButlikethemheisinnodoubtthatseriousreligiousscholarsasdistinguishedfromamateurishautodidactsarecru-cialtothetaskofprovidingauthoritativereligiousandmoralguidancetothecommunity

AlthoughwehavesoughttoillustratecertainfacetsoftheIslamistcri-tiqueof the scholarly traditionandof theworldas somekey IslamistthinkershavearticulateditwedonotwishtosuggestofcoursethatIslamists are necessarily ldquointellectualsrdquo Whatever Qutb KhomeiniMawdudiandQaradawimightthinkofotherscholarsandintellectualsorofthemselvesinrelationtothemtheformerobviouslyarereligiousintellectualsThesameishardlytrueofmanyotherIslamistsYeteventhosewithlittleornointellectualpretensionsareoftenrecognizableas IslamistsnotonlyfortheircommitmenttothepublicimplementationofIslamicnormsgroundedinthefoundationaltextsbutalsomdashandasacor-ollaryoftheformermdashfortheiroftenself-consciouscritiqueofanddisen-gagementfromthenormsandmorestheyseearoundthemIncontempo-raryLebanonforinstanceShilsquoiIslamistshaveoftenseentheirtext-basedreligiouscommitmentsasmarkingacleardeparturefromearlierandex-isting religious practicesAs anthropologist LaraDeeb (2006 20) ob-servesldquoTheyvieweditasnewanddifferentmdashdifferentfromwhattheyoftenreferredtoenigmaticallyaslsquobeforersquoorlsquohowwewerersquoanddifferentfromwhattheycalledalshytaqalid(traditions)Inlieuofpracticesandbeliefscastastraditionaltheyespoused [an] lsquoauthenticatedrsquoIslamexpressedinpublicpietyrdquo14ManyIslamists living inrefugeecampsinGazahavehadasimilarviewTothemldquoPalestinianshadeitherbe-comelostinforeignideologiesortheyhadbecomelsquoMuslimsbycon-

13Theconvictionthatthecommunityatlargeisdivinelyprotectedfromerrorisanim-portantbasisoftheauthorityofldquoconsensusrdquoasamajorsourceofjuridicalnormsinSunniIslamFormoderndebateson consensus and someof the literatureon this subject seeZaman2006

14Theldquotraditionsrdquohereprimarilyrefer tocustomarynormsanddevotionalpracticesratherthantothecenturies-olddiscursivetraditionfromwhichthelsquoulamabothShilsquoiandSunniderivetheirauthorityIslamistcritiquesareoftendirectedasmuchhoweverattra-ditionsinthesenseofldquoinauthenticrdquoculturallyrootedreligiouspracticesastheyareatthescholarlytraditionofthelsquoulamawhichtothemisequallyinauthenticinhavingobscuredthesimpleandfundamentalteachingsofthefoundationaltexts

19

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

ventionrsquowhowentalongwiththefastorprayednowandthenbecausethiswaslsquocustomandtraditionrsquo(lsquoada wa taqlid)ThislackofconsciouszealousadherencetoIslamhadresultedinsocialweaknessleadingtode-featatthehandsofIsraelrdquo(Lybarger2007211)ThereismuchthatsuchanalysessharewiththewritingsandpronouncementsoftheleadingIs-lamistintellectuals

Islamists and Salafi s

JustasitisnotalwayseasytodifferentiatelsquoulamafromIslamistsorIs-lamists frommodernists it is sometimesdifficult to clearlydistinguishbetweenIslamistsandtheSalafisThelatterderivethisself-designationfromclaimsofstrictadherencetothenormativepracticeofalshysalaf alshysalih(thepiousforbears)usuallyunderstoodastheMuslimsofthefirstgenerations of Islam The guiding Salafi assumption is that these firstMuslims inbeingcontemporariesof theProphetMuhammadandtheimmediatesuccessorsofthosecontemporariesexemplifymostperfectlywhatitmeanstobeavirtuousMuslimandthatlatergenerationscandonobetterthanemulatetheexampleofthesefirstgenerationsSomever-sionofthisviewwouldfindbroadresonanceamongIslamistsbutalsoordinary believers though the Shilsquoa of various doctrinal orientationshavealwayshada farmore restrictiveviewofpreciselywho isworthemulating Again like the Islamists the Salafis insist on deriving theirnormsdirectlyfromtheIslamicfoundationaltextstheQurrsquoanandtheexampleoftheProphetMuhammadunmediatedbythemedievalschoolsoflawThismeansdoingawaywiththesortofhistoricallyarticulatedscholarlytraditionfromwhichthelsquoulamahavetendedtodrawmuchoftheirauthorityTheSalafisdohavetheirownlsquoulamamdashQaradawiisano-tableinstanceasaremembersoftheSaudireligiousestablishmentmdashbuteventheirauthorityisbasedfarmoreondirectlyinterpretingthefounda-tional texts than it is on any systematic engagement with the Islamicscholarlytradition

AllthissoundsagooddealnotjustliketheIslamistsbutalsolikethemodernistsThisshouldnotbesurprisingfortheSalafiorientationisanimportantpartofthegenealogyofbothmodernismandIslamismTheSalafi reformer Muhammad lsquoAbduh though a traditionally educatedscholarwhoservedtowardtheendofhislifeasthegrandmuftiofEgyptwasakeyinfluenceinthedevelopmentofIslamicmodernismButwhilesomeoflsquoAbduhrsquosdisciplesdevelopedhisideasinthedirectionofsecularnationalismothersmdashnotablytheSalafijournalistandQurrsquoancommenta-torRashidRidamdasheventuallytookthemdespitehismodernistproclivi-tiesinadecidedlyconservativedirection(Hourani1983alsocfDallal2000)Hasan al-Banna the founder of the MuslimBrotherhoodwasclose to many Egyptian Salafis Muhibb al-din al-Khatib (d 1969) aleadingSalafiofthetimeandtheowneroftheSalafiPublishingHousein

20

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INTRODUCTION

CairowasinchargeofoneoftheBrotherhoodrsquosfirstjournals(Mitchell1993185)andafterRidarsquosdeathin1935itwasatBannarsquosinitiativethatRidarsquosinfluentialjournalalshyManarwouldcontinuetobepublishedforsomeyears(RMitchell1993186)

ForalltheiraffinitieshoweverSalafiscannotsimplybesubsumedwiththeIslamistsanymorethantheycanwiththemodernistsUnliketheearlySalafisandothermodernists Islamistshavealmost invariablysought toaddressthemselvestoawidepopularaudienceratherthantotheintellec-tualelite(cfRMitchell1993211)TheSalafishavealsobeenfarmorepreoccupiedwithmattersofcorrectbeliefthenuancesofdoctrinethanhaveeither the Islamistsor themodernists (cfHaykel2009 [forthcom-ing])BythesametokenwhilemanyIslamistshavehadasomewhatam-bivalentrelationshipwithSufismSalafishaveusuallybeenunrelentinglyhostile to devotional Sufi practices But if it is useful to distinguish theSalafisfromothercompetingorientationsinmodernIslamitisimportantalsotorecognizethatthereismuchonwhichSalafisthemselveshavedis-agreedsometimessharplyInquestionintheseldquointernalrdquodifferencesisnottheiroverallorientationmdashtowardtheIslamicfoundational textsandthepristinenormsofIslamrsquosfirstgenerationsmdashbutratherthepreciseimplica-tionsofthisorientationforbeliefandconductinthepresentAconsider-ationofsomeofthesedifferencesshouldinturnfurtherillustratehowtheSalafisoughttobedistinguishedfromothercompetingcamps

WheremanySalafisseetheschoolsoflawasobstructingandindeeddistortingthesimplemessageofthefoundationaltextsothersviewthelegaltraditionasrepresentingIslamrsquosrichintellectuallegacyfromwhichMuslimsought todrawboth inspirationandguidanceQaradawi forinstance has been critical not just of the Muslimmodernists but alsooffellowSalafisfortheirirreverencetowardtherichesofthelegaltradi-tiontheiruneducatedproclivitytosetitasidealltoocallouslyOnthisviewarejectionofthetaqlid-boundlsquoulamashouldnotleadtotheotherextrememdashexemplifiedbynotafewSalafismdashofjettisoningthescholarlytraditionaltogether SalafisalsodifferamongthemselvesintheirattitudestowardmodernWesterninstitutionsandpracticesInthelatenineteenthandearlytwen-tieth centuries Salafi reformers like Muhammad lsquoAbduh and RashidRidainEgyptandJamalal-dinal-Qasimi(d1914)inSyriahadcalledforareorientationtowardthefoundationaltextsasawayofjustifyingnotresistingchangesinlawandeducationaswellasotherfacetsofso-cialreform(cfHourani1983Commins1990)OnthisviewadirectrecoursetotheQurrsquoanandthesunnaofferedthebestwayofdemonstrat-ing the accord between their teachings and the reformist project15 In

15SymptomaticofotherdisagreementsamongtheSalafisistheveryquestionofpreciselywhothesalafarewhoseexampleoughttobeemulatedThenarrowerviewslimitthesalaftothefirstthreegenerationsofIslammdashtheageoftheProphetMuhammadandhiscompan-ionstheirsuccessorsandthelatterrsquosimmediatesuccessorsmdashbuteventhesenarrowviews

21

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INTRODUCTION

contemporaryEuropeTariqRamadananinfluentialSwissArabphilos-opherhasarguedthatMuslimslivinginWesternsocietiesoughttofeelathomeinandcontributetoward thosesocietieswhileretainingandcultivatingtheirdistinctIslamicidentityHetooappearstoseehimselfinthegenealogyofwhathecharacterizesasldquoSalafireformismrdquo(onthischaracterization see Ramadan 2004 26ndash27) and he has echoed Qa-radawiinsomeofhisviews(cfRamadan199993ndash99) Other Salafis have remained staunchly opposed to institutions andpracticesofaWesternprovenanceAnespeciallyinfluentialfigureinthegenealogyofthelatterpositionistheeighteenth-centurypuritanicalre-former Muhammad ibn lsquoAbd al-Wahhab (d 1792) whose alliance in1744 with Muhammad ibn Salsquoud contributed to the establishment ofthefirstSaudistateinthelateeighteenthcenturyIbnlsquoAbdal-WahhabwashostilenotonlytoShilsquoismandtoSufidevotionalismbutalsotoany-thinghedeemednottobeinstrictconformitywiththeteachingsofthefoundationaltextsTherewasmuchthatseemedtohimtofailthisstan-dardallofwhichhebrandedasoneoranotherformofunbeliefTheWahhabismdashas the followers of Ibn lsquoAbd al-Wahhab are oftenknownthoughtheyprefertothinkofthemselvessimplyasgoodMuslimsoratbestasSalafismdashoftenadheretothelegalnormsoftheHanbalischooloflawthoughitistheteachingsofthefoundationaltextsirrespectiveofthisoranyotherschooldoctrinethattheyprofesstofollowThemoststringentoftheSaudiSalafisaswellasotherselsewhereareaveryfarcryindeedfromwhatQaradawiwouldcharacterizeasldquocentristrdquoSalafireformersletalonefromtheearlytwentieth-centurySalafimodernists

ThepoliticalviewsoftheWahhabisandmorebroadlyoftheSalafisare likewiseanythingbutuniformInSaudiArabiaWahhabireligiousscholarshavelongaffirmedaquietistpoliticalstancewhichhasmeantleavingmattersofthestatetotherulingfamilyFormuchofthehistoryofmodernSaudiArabiatherulingelitefor itsparthas imposedfewconstraintsontheSaudilsquoulamainmattersofreligiouslifetheregulationofsocialnormsandjudicialadministration(cfVogel2000)Onseveraloccasions however this relationship has come under severe strain In1979agroupofWahhabiswhorejectedthelegitimacyoftheSaudistateyethadtieswithsomeprominentreligiousscholarsmdashincludinglsquoAbdal-

feelconstrainedtomakeroomforsuchreveredfiguresasAhmadibnHanbaltheputativefounderoftheHanbalischooloflawandthefourteenth-centuryDamascenescholarIbnTaymiyya(d1328)OtherviewsarerathermoreexpansivenotjustinchronologicalbutalsoandcruciallyinintellectualtermsThusMuhammadlsquoAbduhthoughtthesalaftoalsoincludesuchtheologiansasal-Ashlsquoari(d935)al-Baqillani(d1013)andal-Maturidi(d944)SeeHourani1983149SuchaviewobviouslyopensthedoorforpreciselythesortoftheologicaldebatesthatotherSalafisaswellasIslamistsoftenfrownuponfortakingthebelieversveryfarfromthesimpleanddirectwordsofGod lsquoAbduhrsquosdiscipleRidaagaintookanarrowerviewofthesalafandlaterinhiscareerbecameastrongdefenderoftheWahhabisCfHourani1983230ndash32

22

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

lsquoAzizBinBaz(d1999)laterthegrandmuftiofSaudiArabiamdashtookoverthesacredprecinctsoftheKalsquobainMeccainashort-livedbutextremelyembarrassingchallenge toSaudi royalauthority (cfHegghammerandLacroix2007)In1990KingFahdrsquosdecisiontoinviteAmericantroopstodefendthekingdomagainstthethreatofanIraqiinvasioncreatedwide-spreadresentmentamongSaudis theeffectsofwhichcontinue to thisdayThestationingofnon-MuslimmilitarypersonnelinIslamrsquosholiestlandwasdeemedbythekingrsquoscriticstobescandalousandevensacrile-giousAnumberofprominentSaudiSalafispubliclycriticizedthekingrsquosdecisiononthisoccasioncallinguponhimaswellasonBinBazandoth-ersatthehelmoftheSaudireligiousestablishmenttoreorienttheSaudipolitytowarditstruereligiousfoundationsManyofthesedissidentsmdashwhowerealsojoinedbyldquosecularrdquoSaudicriticsoftheroyalfamilymdashwereandhaveremainedrestrainedintheircriticismevenastheycalledforstricterconformitytoIslamicnormsasthepanaceaforallills(cfFandy1999)OthershoweverhavedenouncedtheroyalfamilyanditsWesternalliesinnouncertaintermsBinLadenisonlythemostnotoriousofthosewhobrokewiththeroyalfamilyinthewakeofKingFahdrsquosdecisiontoinviteWesterntroopsin1990andwhocalledfortheoverthrowoftheroyal familyand for jihadagainstWesternpowers Such strident callshavebeencontinuedbyotherSalafisbothbeforeandaftertheterroristattacksofSeptember112001aswellasintheaftermathoftheUS-ledinvasionofIraq(al-Rasheed2007)

ItshouldbeclearinlightoftheforegoingthatanyunderstandingofthedifferencesbetweenIslamistsandtheSalafismustrestontakingac-countofthediversityamongtheSalafisSalafiswhooftenrejectmuchoftheIslamicscholarlytraditioninfavorofadirectrecoursetothefoun-dationaltextsarenotnecessarilyrenderedldquoIslamistrdquosimplybyvirtueofthisstanceForasnotedmanyoftheseSalafiscontinuetoprofessareso-lutelyquietiststancewhichinthecaseoftheSaudiSalafismeansaf-firmingallegiancetotheSaudiroyalfamilyThispositionisrepresentedforinstancebyBinBaztheerstwhilegrandmuftiaswellasbyotherleading members of the Saudi religious establishment A pro-regimestanceoroneindifferenttopoliticsisnolessldquopoliticalrdquoofcoursethana position of strident hostility to the established order at home andabroadForourpurposeshoweveritisonlywhentheSalafisrejecttheexistingdispensationandbeginstrivingmdashthoughnotnecessarilythroughmilitantmeansmdashforanewreligio-politicalorderthattheycanbesaidtojointheranksoftheIslamists

ItisworthnotingfinallythatSalafipositionsamongSaudisandelse-wherearemarkednotonlybydiversitybutalsobyconsiderablefluidity(al-Rasheed 2007) The same activist or intellectual might at varioustimesmoveamongavarietyofseeminglyincompatiblepositionsmdashap-pearingtobemoreldquomoderaterdquoonsomeissuesthanonothersForallhiscriticismofradicalIslamistsQaradawiforinstancehashimselfwrittenin justificationofsuicidebombingsbyPalestiniansagainst Israelis (see

23

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INTRODUCTION

chapter 9 on Qaradawi) And Saudi Salafis like Safar al-Hawali andSalmanal-lsquoAwdamdashwhocame toprominence in the early1990smdashhavealternatedbetweencriticismoftheSaudipoliciesanddenunciationsofradicalSalaficallstojihadagainsttheSaudiregime(seeal-Rasheed200759ndash101onal-HawalialsoseeReichmuth2006)Theirshiftingviewsreflect changes in their relations with the Saudi regime but they alsopointtothebroadspectrumofpositionswhichSalafishavetakenatdif-ferenttimesindifferentcontextsandbeforedifferentaudiencesThusevenasal-Hawaliandal-lsquoAwdahavecondemnedterroristactsdirectedagainstSaudiArabiaandadvisedSaudisnottofightAmericantroopsinpostndashSaddamHusseinIraqtheyhavecalledupontheIraqisthemselvestoresistAmericantroopsandhavecharacterizedthateffortasaldquodefen-sivejihadrdquo(al-Rasheed200794ndash95)

Sufi s and Islamists

ItseemsmuchsimpleronthefaceofittodistinguishbetweenIslamistsandSufisThecharacteristicSuficonvictionthattherearelevelsofmean-ingintheQurrsquoanthatgobeyondtheliteralandtheobviousandthataselectfewmdashtheldquofriendsofGodrdquomdashareendowedwiththeuniqueabilityto discern them is anathema to all those who insist that God intendsHisteachingstobeequallyintelligibletoallDespitetheirtendencytoviewthemselvesasbearersof true Islam Islamists typicallyregard theSufi idea that somepeoplehaveaprivileged relationshipwithGodassuspectthebasisnotonlyforsanctioninginterpretationsofIslamthatlackwarrantintheplainteachingsofGodandtheProphetbutalsoforpracticallyldquoworshipingrdquothesefriendsofGodIslamists(andmodernists)havefrequentlyalsobeencriticalofthewaySufidevotionalismcanyieldaturningawayfromtheworldratherthananefforttochangeitaswellasapreoccupationwithpersonalspiritualtransformationattheexpenseofconcernsforthewelfareofthecommunityatlarge SufipracticesandtheteachingsoftheSufimastershavevariedenor-mouslythroughoutthehistoryofIslamyetIslamistcritiquesofSufismareseldomattentivetoitsnuancesortothecomplexwaysithasrelatedtootherfacetsofIslamNorhaveIslamiststakenmuchaccountofthefactthatmanyleadingfiguresofearliertimeswerebesidesmuchelseSufisaswellThisistrueevenofIbnTaymiyya(d1328)whoseprestigeinIslamistandSalaficirclesismatchedbyfewothersandwhowasinhisdayamemberoftheQadiriSufiorder(Makdisi1974)EvenifonearguesmdashasanIslamistmightbeinclinedtomdashthatldquogoodrdquoSufismisnoth-ingbutproperIslamitselftheveryfactthatsuchfigureshadaSufiiden-tityatallnecessarilycomplicateswhatissupposedtobethepristinesim-plicityofafaithsharedequallybyallbelievers

Complicatingthingsstillfurtheristhevarietyofwaysinwhichsomeleading Islamists relate to Sufism Ayatollah Khomeini was a lifelongstudentofIslamicmysticismandtheinfluenceofthemedievalSpanish

24

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

Sufi Ibn lsquoArabi loomed especially large in his thought To Khomeinimysticismmdashoften referred to as lsquoirfan (gnosis) especially when inter-twinedwithIslamicphilosophyandtheology(Knysh1992632)mdashwascrucialtoaproperunderstandingofGodrsquosrelationshipwiththeworldandwiththehumanbeingItwasalsoessentialforonersquosethicalforma-tionforamasteryovertheselfandultimatelyforrealizinginoneselftheattributesofwhat Ibn lsquoArabihadcalledldquotheperfectmanrdquo (cfKnysh1992 635 also Mottahedeh 1985 180ndash85) Some of the austerity ofKhomeinirsquospersonallifeprobablyalsoderivedfromSufiasceticismAndthoughheanchoredhisconceptionofIslamicgovernmentinanexposi-tionofShilsquoijuridicalthoughtratherthaninIslamicmysticismthesortofreligiousauthorityhecametoenjoyonthebasisofhisreformulationofShilsquoipoliticaltheologyseemstoechomysticalideasoftheperfectmanwho embodies and upholds the moral order as the microcosm of theuniverse

UnlikeKhomeiniQutbwasnotaSufiandhegivesnoindicationofsharinganyofKhomeinirsquosenthusiasmforthegreatSufithinkersofear-liertimesEvensoechoesofamysticrsquosdirectencounterwiththefoun-tainheadoftruthandknowledgearehardtomissinQutbrsquoswritingses-peciallyinhiscommentaryontheQurrsquoan(cfCarreacute200395ndash97)TheveryfirstsentenceofhiscommentarymdashldquolifeintheshadeoftheQurrsquoanisablessingunknowntoanyonewhohasnrsquottasteditrdquomdashevokesthefa-miliarSufiideathatincontrovertibleknowledgeofRealityisultimatelyacquired only through direct personal experience (dhawq that is theldquotasterdquooftheTruth)ThegreatmedievalSufial-Ghazali(d1111)hadauthoredafamousautobiographicalaccountofhowitwasonlythroughthe immediacyofhispersonalmysticalexperience thathewasable toovercomehisdebilitatingepistemologicaldoubtsandreassurehimselfofthenecessarytruths(Watt199857)QutbdoesnotmentionGhazaliinthiscontextbutitisdifficultnottobestruckbythemysticalresonanceofsomeofhislanguageHereisoneexamplewhichoccursinhiscom-mentaryonsura(chapter)53oftheQurrsquoan16

16TheearlyversesinthissuraoftheQurrsquoanhavebeenunderstoodbyMuslimexegetesasreferringtotheProphetrsquosrevelatoryexperienceaswellastohisldquonightjourneyrdquoandhisascensiontoheavenormilsquoraj inthecourseofonenighthewastransportedfirstfromMeccatoJerusalemandthentothepresenceofGodbeforebeingreturnedtoMecca

UnrelatedtothenightjourneybutrelatedtohisrevelatoryexperiencestheexegeticalsignificanceofthisQurrsquoanicsuraalsoliesinitsconnectionwiththeso-calledSatanicVersesAccordingtocertainexegeticalreportsMuhammadwasinthecourseofreceivingarevela-tionwhenSataninterpolatedsomeversesintoitmdashversespraisingthreegoddessesreveredbythepolytheistsofMeccaItwasnotuntilsometimelaterthatMuhammadrealizedhiserrorwhereupontheversesinterpolatedbySatanwereremovedTheepisodeoftheldquoSa-tanicVersesrdquohasbeenacontroversialoneinIslamichistorylongbeforeSalmanRushdiersquosnovelofthatnameandKhomeinirsquosjuridicalruling(fatwa)callingforRushdiersquosdeathMostMuslimscholarshavefoundittooshockingtobelievethattheProphetcouldhavemadesuchagrievouserrorandhavedeniedthatanysuch incidentever tookplaceYetsome

25

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

IwaschattingoneeveningwithsomecompanionswhentoourearscamethesoundofsomeonerecitingtheQurrsquoannearbyrecitingtheSuraoftheStar[al-Najm]andweinterruptedourconversationtolistentotheNobleQurrsquoanLittlebylittlemyheartenteredintowhatwasbeing recited into theheartofMuhammadashe jour-neyedtotheHeavenlyHostIwaswithhimashesawGabrielintheangelicforminwhichGodhadcreatedhimIwaswithhiminhis loftyandfree-flying journey to theLoteTreeof theBoundaryandtheGardenoftheRefugeIwaswithhimtotheextentthatmyimaginationcouldformavisionofitandtotheextentthatmyfeelings couldbear itThen came the final cry andmywholebeingshookatthefearfulreproachldquoDoyoumarvelatthisdiscourseanddoyoulaughandnotweepandmakemerryrdquo[Q5359ndash61]WhenIheardldquoBowdownbeforeGodandserveHimrdquo[Q5362]thetremblinginmyhearthadbecomeaphysicalandvisibletremblingthroughoutmybodythatIcouldnotresistMybodykeptshakingandIcouldnotcontrolitNorcouldIholdbackthetearsthatwerepouringforthhowevermuchItried(QutbZilalvol7part2774ndash75quotedfromCarreacute2003333ndash34withminorchanges)

TheQurrsquoanrsquosprofoundimpactontheaestheticsensibilitiesofitslisten-ersisafamiliarmotifindiscussionsofitsliteraryqualities(cfGrahamandKermani2006)AssomeonewhoseearlywritingswereconcernedwithArabicliterarycriticismandspecificallywiththeliteraryexcellenceoftheIslamicscripture(Qutb1949b)QutbwasespeciallyreceptivetothisaspectoftheQurrsquoanThesenseofbeingtransportedbacktothetimeoftheProphetandtowitnessingtheProphetrsquosascension(milsquoraj)tothepresence of Godmdashwhich is how the passage being commented on byQutbherehascommonlybeeninterpretedbytheexegetesmdashcanlikewisebeseenasanillustrationoftheoverpoweringimpactthewordsoftheQurrsquoancanhaveonthebelieverQutbrsquosaccountofconversingwithGodthrough the Qurrsquoan (cited earlier) is again something he may havewantedtoseeallbelieversdoYetallbelieverscanscarcelydosoany-morethanallaspirantsevenontheSufipathcanexperiencethetransfor-mativemysticalldquostatesrdquothatGodbestowsonHisspecialfriends(awlshyiya)IrrespectiveofwhetherhesawitinquitethiswayQutbrsquosassertionthatheisabletoenterldquointotheheartofMuhammadrdquoandtoseeGabrielasMuhammad sawhimsurelygiveshimaperspective thatothers en-counteringthewordofGoddonothave

ThepointisnotofcoursethatQutbwaseverrecognizedbyhisfol-lowersasaSufimasterbutthatsomeofthehermeneuticalauthorityheclaimshasadistinctiveSufiringtoitMorebroadlythesortofunques-

leadingscholarsofearlyandmedievalIslammdashincludingIbnTaymiyyamdashacceptedthehisto-ricityofthisincidentSeeSAhmed1998

26

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

tioningreligio-politicalauthorityIslamistleadershaveoftenenjoyedovertheirfollowersisnotunlikethatoftheSufimasteroverhisfollowersBe-ginningwithHasanal-BannathefounderoftheMuslimBrotherhoodandoncehimselfamemberofaSufiordertheleaderofthisorganizationis formally referred to as themurshid (guide)ormore specificallyalshymurshid alshylsquoam (thegeneralguide[RMitchell1993165])whichisafamiliartermforthemasterinSuficontextsForhispartAbdessalamYassine the founder and leader of lsquoAdl warsquol-Ihsan Party of Morocco(oftenreferredtoastheJusticeandSpiritualityAssociationorJSA)haslike Khomeini gone well beyond simply echoing Sufi conceptions ofauthorityinhisowndiscoursesHetoowasonceamemberofaMoroc-canSufiorderandhehascontinuedtodrawonSufithemesinhiswrit-ingsTheverynameofYassinersquospoliticalorganizationevokesacentralSufiideanamelyihsanThisisaQurrsquoanicterm(cfQ756)thattrans-latedliterallymeansldquotodogoodrdquothoughSufishaveunderstoodittomeanmuchmore thanthatFollowingawell-knownstatementattrib-uted to theProphetMuhammad theyhaveoften interpreted ihsan tomeangoingbeyondtheexternalsofIslamicritualpracticestoldquoworshipGodasifyouseeHimrdquo(Schimmel197529)thatiscultivatingasenseof personal communion and intimacy with God Even as Yassine hassoughttodistancehimselffromwhathedeemstobetheexcessesofSu-fismthereislittledoubtthathispoliticalappealowesmuchtocarefullycalibratedeffortstocombinedistinctiveSufiideaswithhisownbrandofIslamism(cfLauziegravere2005seealsochapter12onNadiaYassineinthisvolume)

FinallyMawdudirsquosJamalsquoat-iIslamimdashoneoftheearliestIslamistorga-nizations in the Sunni worldmdashillustrates both the Islamistsrsquo complexrelationshipwith Sufismand their pragmatic recognitionof its appealinmanyMuslimsocietiesMawdudihadoncebeenaharshcriticofSu-fismblamingitformanyillsafflictingMuslimsocietiesYettheJama-lsquoat-iIslamigraduallycametosoftenitsstanceonSufipracticesconsider-ablynodoubtintheinterestofbroadeningsomeofitssupportbaseinPakistanwheresaintsandSufishrinesareanimportantpartofthereli-giousandpoliticallandscapeAlreadyinMawdudirsquoslifetimeMianTufaylMuhammadhissuccessorastheheadoftheJamalsquoat-iIslamihadtakentheextraordinaryinitiativeoftranslatinganearlySuficlassictheKashf alshymahjub into Urdu The author of this work Shaykh lsquoAli Hujwiri(d1072)isburiedinLahoreinPakistanandhismuch-frequentedshrineishometoprecisely thesortofdevotionalpractices that Islamistsandmodernist reformers letaloneSalafishaveoften frownedupon (Nasr1996124)

ThesediverseexamplesarenotintendedtoobscuretherealdifferencesbetweenthegeneralityofIslamistsandmostSufisTheirsignificanceliesratherinillustratingthedifficultyofdistinguishingbetweenIslamismandotherreligiousintellectualandpoliticaltrendsintermsofneatcharac-

27

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

terizationsofgrandtranslocalgeneralizationsAstheforegoingsuggeststhesameistrueandmoresowhenitcomestocharacterizingIslamistsinrelationtothelsquoulamatheMuslimmodernistsandtheSalafisIndeedasLorenLybargerhasarguedwithreferencetothoseusuallycharacter-izedasldquosecularnationalistrdquoorldquoIslamistrdquoPalestiniansintheWestBankandGazadifferenceswithintheranksofyoungsecularnationalistsandIslamistscansometimesalsoshadeintosignificantsimilaritiesbetweenthesesupposedlyrivalorientations(Lybarger2007)ManyIslamistshavesoughttodistancethemselvesfromwhattheyseeastherigidityandau-thoritarianismofotherIslamistsandtoarguenotjustfortheimplemen-tationofthesharilsquoabutalsofordemocracyandpluralismConverselynot a few of the younger secular nationalists have ldquoadopted IslamisttheodiciesthatexplainedthefailuretoovercomeIsraelastheresultoffallingawayfrompietytheirconclusionsmirroredIslamistonestootheroadbackfromthebrinkhadtotraceitscoursethrougharenewedcom-mitmenttoIslambutnotnecessarilyinthemannerthattheIslamistmove-mentsmighthaveintendedrdquo(Lybarger2007237ndash38quotationat238)

Yet ifneatcategoriesremainelusiveacombinationoftheIslamistsrsquoself-consciouslypoliticalgoalstheirmultifacetedifnotalwaysexplicitpoliticalcritiquesofmanypastandpresentwaysofunderstandingandlivingIslamandanunshakeableconfidenceintheirownabilitytodis-cern Godrsquos will from the foundational texts do often provide enoughgrounds tobroadlydistinguish themfromotheractivists intellectualsand orientations in the Muslim public sphere What this combinationamountstovariesfromonesocialpoliticalreligiousandculturalcon-texttoanotherandsothereforedothewaysinwhichIslamistsrelatetooneanotherorcompeteandoverlapwithothergroupsandorientations

The Politics of Islamism

FromAeneasrsquosmythicalfoundingofRometothedeathandresurrectionofJesusChristtoMuhammadrsquosmigrationtoMedinafoundationalnar-rativesareascommontocollectivelifeasthemovementsthatperiodi-callyarisetorevivethemandclaimantstothemantleoflegitimacytheyconferSounderstoodIslamistsrsquopoliticalaspirationstorestorefounda-tionslocatedinamythicalpastarefarfromuniqueNorareIslamistsaloneintheirconvictionthatscripturalauthorityisguaranteedbyitsdi-vineauthormdashforinthatallMuslimsagreeRatherthechaptersinthisvolumesuggest thatwhatmakes Islamistpoliticsdistinctive (ifnotsui generis)istheclaimtorecuperateanldquoauthenticIslamrdquocomprisedofself-evidenttruthspurgedofalienandcorruptinginfluencesalongwithaninsistenceonremakingthefoundationsofthestateinitsimageGiventhelimitsofhumanunderstandingrelativetoGodrsquosknowledgeIslamistssimultaneouslydepictsuchfidelitytotheunadulteratedwordofAllahas

28

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INTRODUCTION

theultimateexpressionofdeferencetodivineomniscienceandportrayhumilityasaconstitutivefeatureofthehumanconditionAspirationstofullyknowandmasterthenaturalandsocialworldsthusentailnotonlyahumanhubrisdeaftotheQurrsquoanicadmonitionthatldquoAllahknowsbutandyoudonotknowrdquo(Q366)butalsoatransgressionagainstadi-vinely-ordainedontologicalorder

ItisnotablehoweverthattheIslamistemphasisonthelimitsofhumanknowledgerequireshumilityonlyinrelationtoAllahitrarelyyieldshu-milityinregardtotheirownclaimstospeakinHisnameortowardotherhumanbeingswhodissentfromthepremiseofdivineomnipotenceandIslamistaccountsofwhat it requiresThis suggests thatwhile IslamistchallengestostatepowerareobviouslypoliticaltheIslamistclaimtoau-thenticityisalsopolitical inthecoercivepoweritroutinelyenactsandjustifiesmostnotablybywayofthesilencesitimposesandthedebatesitforeclosesAzizal-Azmehpointsoutthatldquothenotionofauthenticityisnotsomuchadeterminateconceptasitisanodeofassociationsandin-terpellationsatropebymeansofwhichthehistoricalworldisreducedtoaparticularorderandatokenwhichmarksoffsocialandpoliticalgroupsandforgesandreconstituteshistoricalidentitiesrdquo(al-Azmeh199341)WhetherintheserviceofArabnationalismChristianfundamental-ismEuropeanromanticismorMuslimmodernismtheclaimofauthen-ticityisanactofpowerthatfunctionsnotjusttoreflecttheworldbuttoconstructitbydeterminingwhoisincludedandexcludedwhomayandmaynotspeakauthoritativelywhatistheproperrealmofdebateandwhatisbeyondcontestation

ItiscertainlythecasethatasingleldquoIslamrdquocapturesandorganizestheperspectivesofmillionswhoself-identifyasMuslim(amongotherthings)yetwhattravelsunderitsrubricisinescapablydiversemultiethnicanddefined asmuchbydisagreement as consensus Just as theTorah andBible lend themselves toat times radicallydivergent interpretationsofwhatitmeanstobeJewishorChristiantheQurrsquoanandhaditharecom-plexandsusceptibletomanydifferentandattimescontradictoryenact-mentsSounderstoodIslamislessafixedessencethanalivingtraditionthatcaptureswhatisimaginedascontinuousandunitaryindialecticalrelationshiptothoseconcretearticulationsandpracticesbywhichitistransformedandadaptedindifferentcontextsforpluralpurposesItispreciselythisunderstandingofreligionthatisanathematoIslamistswhoseek tofix theparametersof Islamicauthenticityonceandforallandtherebyarrogateforthemselvestherighttodeterminewhoqualifiesasagood Muslim to discredit those lsquoulama unable or unwilling to purgeIslamofpurportedimpietiestodeclarenominallyMuslimrulersapos-tatesunfittogovernandtocharacterizeallwhodisagreeascorrupthe-reticalguiltyofunbelieforvictimsoffalseconsciousness

Thesegeneralpoliticaltendencieshowevermustbecarefullysituatedwithinadialecticoftheglobalandthevernacularunderstoodtoreflect

29

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INTRODUCTION

thewaysinwhichunifyingmacrohistoricaldynamicsinformandareinturntransformedbydiversecontingentandfluidlocalcircumstancesInaworldstampedbyWesterndominanceandtheconsolidationofpostco-lonial authoritarian regimes Islamists confront a common set of con-straintsandchallengesInasmuchassuchconstraintsandchallengeshavemade Islamist thinkers (often reluctant) participants in conversationsacrossbothcultureandhistorytheireffortstoremakethefoundationsofcollectiveliferevealasharedinterpretiveframeworkandcommonreli-gio-political grammar At the same time this frame and grammar arecontinuallybeingreworkedinrelationtothedistinctpublicspheresinwhichIslamistsoperateandtowhichtheycarefullycalibratetheirpoliti-calcommitments

Attention to this complex dynamic suggests that the Islamist move-mentcannotsimplybecharacterizedasviolentantidemocraticandop-pressiveofwomenlabelsinvokedsofrequentlyinscholarlyandpopularliterature on the subject that they have become virtually synonymouswithIslamistpoliticsSuchcharacterizationsdocapturecrucialdimen-sionsofIslamistpoliticsyettheyalsosidesteptheparadoxesitsvarie-gatedandoftencontradictoryexpressionspresentInsteadwearguethatIslamistpoliticscanbeproductivelyreadin terms ofandagainst the grain ofsuchbroadcategorizationsasantidemocraticantiwomanorviolentmdashthat is as commitments that at different moments in various localesbothencourageandconstrainbroad-basedpoliticalparticipationdisruptandratifyhierarchicalgendernormsresistandreproducestate-sanctionedbrutalityThepointofreadingIslamistpoliticsinthiswayisnottosug-gestthatIslamistsaresecretlydemocraticfeministandopposedtovio-lenceRatherthepointistodrawattentiontothecomplexityandcon-tradictionserasedbyeasygeneralizationsontheonehandandtheoftenunacknowledgedfluidityandculturaladaptabilityofotherwisefamiliarpoliticalcategoriesontheother

Islamism and Democracy

DespiteimportantdifferencesamongIslamistthinkerstheyhaveincom-monatendencytoviewhumansovereigntyastransgressiveofdivinelawandsharetheaspirationtoestablishsharilsquoaastheprimaryorsolesourceofauthorityAsisoftennotedsuchpremisesandaspirationsrunafoulofassumptionsaboutpopularruleattheheartofdemocracynamelythathumanbeingshavetherighttolegislaterulesforcollectivebehaviorandarecapableofthewisdomrequiredtodevisejustlawsInrecentyearspolicymakersandcommentatorshaveevincedaparticularpreoccupa-tionwiththewaysinwhichIslamistnotionsofdivineauthoritythrottlethespiritandpracticeofpopularsovereigntySomehaveevengonesofarastocharacterizeIslamistsasldquoIslamo-fascistsrdquoanimatedbyhatredoftheldquodemocratic Westrdquo psychologically unable to contend with the fluidity

30

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INTRODUCTION

andindeterminacythatmarkpopularruleandeagertoconvertelectionsintoaldquoone-manone-voteone-timerdquomechanismforestablishinganIs-lamicstate(Murdock2002MRubin2005Kramer1993)

SuchviewsareechoedbythoseIslamistskeentoportraydemocracynotonlyasantitheticaltothesupremacyofdivinelawbutasaTrojanhorseforWesternimperialismFormanyIslamistsincludingseveralinthis volumedemocracy is justone symptomofametastasizingmoralandspiritualbankruptcywherebymoraltransgressionsaretransfiguredintonaturalurgescrassself-interestbecomesthebedrockofcollectivelifeandthedivineplanfortheuniverseandallthingsinitisreducedtoa system of physical causality just waiting to be mastered by way ofhumaningenuity(REuben2007)Qutbcallsthisdiseasedviewoftheworldjahiliyyaanditsignalsnotonlyhumanarrogancebutatransgres-sionagainstdivineauthoritythescopeofwhichencompassesbothpub-licandprivatedomainsofhumanaffairsaswellasbothvisibleandun-seendimensionsoftheuniverseFormanyIslamistssuchtransgressionisattherootofmuchofwhatpassesforMuslimruleinthecontemporaryworldmdashnationalistdemocraticandmonarchicalalikeSucharroganceisalsosaidtobethepatternunderlyingalonghistoryofunrelievedWest-ernaggressionagainstIslaminwhichtheChristianCrusadesEuropeancolonialismIsraelitreatmentofPalestiniansethniccleansinginBosniaGermananti-TurkishviolencetheAmericaninvasionofIraqandDutchcartoonsofMuhammadarebutafewexamples

YetthereisarangeofviewsamongIslamistsaboutboththesubstanceofdemocracyanditscompatibilitywiththereligio-politicalrenewaltheyadvocateAccordingtoQaradawiforexampleldquotheessenceofdemoc-racyisthatpeoplechoosewhorulesoverthemandmanagestheiraf-fairsthatnorulerorregimetheydislikeisforceduponthemthattheyhavetherighttocalltherulertoaccountifheerrsandtoremovehimfromofficeincaseofmisconductandthatpeoplearenotforcedineco-nomicsocialculturalorpoliticaldirectionsthattheyneitherrecognizenor acceptrdquo (Qaradawi1997132 also chapter9 in this volume)TohimthereisnoheavierburdenoppressingMuslimsinthecontemporaryworld thandespotism indeed it is throughdespoticgovernments thatMuslimshavebeenforcedtosubmittootherillsincludingtheneglectofthesharilsquoaandthecoerciveimpositionofsecularismandwesternizationDemocracy then recommends itself to Qaradawi as the most effectiveavailableantidotetodespotismandtheafflictionsofwhichitservesasavehicle

WheremanyamongtheIslamistsandthelsquoulamahaveseenconsider-able tensionbetween IslamanddemocracyQaradawiprofesses to seenoneAswesuggestedearlierbyfarthemostcommonoftheIslamistreservationsaboutademocraticsystemrelatestothesovereigntyofthepeoplewhichistakentocontravenetheideathatGodaloneissovereignQaradawi however is unperturbedby such concernsThe rule of the

31

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INTRODUCTION

peopleoughttobeseenhearguesnotinoppositiontotheruleofGodbutratherinoppositiontotheruleofthedespotMorefundamentallyQaradawirsquos view of democracy does not necessarily require that thepeopleshouldbeabletooverturndivinelyinstitutednormsRatherhisassumptionisthatpeopleexercisetheirsovereigntywithinconstitutionalboundsandMuslimslivinginapredominantlyMuslimdemocraticpol-itywouldlikewisenotwishtotransgresstheparametersoflegitimatehumanactionlaiddownintheIslamicfoundationaltexts(seeQaradawichapter9inthisvolumeandcfFeldman2007)

NadiaYassineofMoroccorsquosJusticeandSpiritualityAssociationisan-othercaseinpointWhilecriticalofthedemocraticgesturesembracedbyamonarchythatshedepictsasallergictogenuinelypopularsovereigntyYassineinsiststhatthemodelofMuslimruleadumbratedintheummafoundedbytheProphetMuhammadandinparticulartheConstitutionofMedina17isnothingshortofdemocratic(NYassine2005d2005e)UnliketheMuslimdynastiesthatarosetousurpitYassinecontendsthiscommunity was participatory egalitarian committed to freedom andexpressiveofGodrsquosmercyMostimportantitwasgovernedalwaysbytheQurrsquoanicprincipleofshura (consultation)bywhichYassinemeansaphilosophy of power that places sovereignty in the community ratherthaninanyindividuallinksvirtuetodeliberationratherthanobedienceandexhortsbelieverstocontinuallyadaptQurrsquoanicprinciplesthroughijtihad rather than adhere reflexively to precedent (N Yassine 2006a182ndash862005d)ManyscholarsandjournalistsremainskepticaloftheJSArsquosasyetuntestedcommitment toproceduraldemocracyandworrythatNadiaandher fatherAbdessalamultimatelyseektoestablishanIslamic state inhospitable to tolerance pluralism and civil liberties(Maghraoui2001Brandon2007Whitlock2006)YetothersarguethattheJSAisagenuinelypopulistorganizationthatrepresentstheunrepre-sentedtendstothewelfareofthedispossessedandbothexpressesandcontributestoanincreasinglyvibrantcivilsocietyinMorocco(Cavatorta2006Entelis2002)

QaradawirsquosandYassinersquosargumentstogethersuggestthatdemocracycanandhasservedaseitheracosmeticcoverfordespotismoranauthen-ticallyIslamiccheckuponcorruptandarbitraryruleAtissueinIslamistargumentsforandagainstdemocracythenarenotonlywhatcountsasldquoauthenticIslamrdquoandtheintentionsofthosewhoclaimtoknowitbutalsothecontentandcharacterofdemocracyitselfParadoxicallybothIslamistsopposedtodemocracyandthosewhotakeIslamismasinher-entlyantidemocraticregardthisasasimplematterwithanobviousan-swerdemocracyisanexpressionofandevensynonymouswithliberal-ismcapitalismandtheWestYetdemocracyisbothmorecapaciousand

17TheConstitutionofMedinawasanagreementtheProphethadenteredintowiththelocalcommunitiesincludingJewishtribesuponhisemigrationfromMeccatoMedina

32

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

moredistinctthanthispresumptionsuggestsTheworditselfofcoursederivesfromtheancientGreekdemokratiawhichmeansrule(kratos)ofthepeople(demos)andmanyderivetheequationofdemocracyandtheWestfromthisassociationwithclassicalGreeceYetancientGreekphi-losopherssuchasPlatosawindemocracythespecterofmobrulepartic-ularly vulnerable to demagoguery and despotism (a suspicion notablyechoedbyAmerican founder JamesMadison)Contrary to thedemo-cratic idealof inclusivenessmoreover citizenship inGreekdemocracyexcludedasubstantialpartofthepopulationincludingwomenslavesandforeignersFinallytheextenttowhichtheancientGreeksmayevenbecalledWesternisamatterofgreatdisputeparticularlyastheldquoWestrdquoisacategoryofrelativelyrecentprovenancethroughwhichhistoryandgeographyhavebeenretroactivelyorganized18DespitedepictionsoftheHellenicworldasWesternancientGreeksdidnotinfactviewthem-selvesintheseterms19

TheequationofdemocracywiththeWestalsopresupposestheexis-tenceofacoherentldquoWesterncivilizationrdquowitheitherculturallyhomoge-neousrootsorclearlydelineatedhistoricalandcontemporarybounda-riesorbothYetwhatiscalledtheWestisanamalgamationofmultipletraditionsincludingtheGreekRomanJudaicChristianandIslamicmdashtraditionsthatarethemselvespolyvalentratherthanhomogeneousmdashandistodaycharacterizedbyporousbordershybridsubculturesandmyriaddebtstodiversecivilizationspastandpresent20AsageographicmarkeritisvirtuallyimpossibletopinpointexactlywheretheWestbeginsandendsandthisisespeciallysonowthatpeoplesinformationandmate-rial goods crisscross cultural andnational borders atwill creating allkindsoftransnationalsubnationalandmultipleidentitiesthatshiftandreconstitutethemselvesinunpredictablewaysEventhosevaluesidenti-fiedasWesternoftenappearelsewhereinotherguisesIndeedscholarssuggestthatavarietyoftheldquostandardsexportedbytheWestanditscul-turalindustriesthemselvesturnouttobeofculturallymixedcharacterifweexaminetheirculturallineagesrdquo(Pieterse199553)

Manyalsoarguethatdemocracyisnotonlydistinctfrombutinten-sionwithboththetheoryandpracticeofpoliticsinldquoWesternrdquosocieties

18MichaelGillespie(19997ndash10)arguesthattherereadingofhistorygeographyandculturethroughtheprismofthissenseofldquotheWestrdquobegannoearlierthanthenineteenthcenturyTheideaofatimelessandbrightlinebetweenWestandEastisalsochallengedbyJeremyBrottonrsquosstudy(19989096ndash97)ofthediplomaticandintellectualexchangesbe-tweenEuropeandtheOttomanEmpireintheearlymodernperiodBrottonshowsnotonlytheextentandamityofsuchexchangesbutapersistentuncertaintyaboutwherepreciselyEuropeldquoendedrdquoandAsialdquobeganrdquo

19AncientGreeksunderstoodthemselvesasgeographicallywestofthebarbariansbutnotWesterninthecontemporarysensethatisasbothaculturalandhistoricalcategory

20StevenRuncimanrsquoswork(19543480)ontheCrusadesforexampledemonstratesaldquolongsequenceofinteractionandfusionbetweenOrientandOccidentoutofwhichourcivilizationhasgrownrdquo

33

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

many of which are more accurately classified as liberal and capitalist(Wood1994Wolin2001BallandDagger1999)Whileitisnowcom-monplacetospeakofldquoliberaldemocracyrdquoinasinglebreathliberalismanddemocracyareconceptsandpracticeswithverydifferenthistoriesandpresuppositionsUnlikedemocracyforexampleliberalismemergedfromthecrucibleofChristianreligiouswarsandintandemwiththeas-cendanceofamiddleclassthatpresagedtheendofEuropeanfeudalismTheliberalnation-statecanthusbeviewedasbothanexpressionandaconsolidationofcapitalismontheonehandandtheprincipleofasepa-rationbetweenchurchandstateontheotherBycontrastthereisnoth-ingaboutdemocracyeitherasasystemofgovernanceoracultureofpar-ticipationthatisinherentlysecularIndeedAlexisdeTocquevillefamouslyinsistedthatAmericandemocracycannotandshouldnotbesecularasreligionhelpsshiftattentionawayfromimmediatematerialpreoccupa-tionstolargerconcernsofcommunitycooperationandmoralityInfactmanydemocratictheoristsarguethatgenuinelyinclusivepopularsover-eignty is antithetical to the sharp inequalities of wealth and politicalpowerthatcapitalismoftenproducesandlegitimates

SuchongoingdefinitionalandsubstantivedebatessuggestthatthereismuchmoreatstakeindemocraticpoliticsthanprocedurespertainingtogovernmentauthorityandorderandpointtoawidespreadifelusiveunderstandingofdemocracynotjustasasetofinstitutionsbutasTocque-villesuggestsawayoflifeSeveralpoliticaltheoristshavecharacterizedthiselusiveunderstandingintermsofaldquodemocraticethosrdquoBythistheymeanbothanidealandanargumentforacultureofparticipationactivepowersharingmutualaccountabilityinclusivenessanddeliberationinwhichcitizensmayroutinelyandsafelychallengenotonlyspecificpoli-ciesandpolitical institutionsbutalso thevalues thatgoverncollectivelifeprinciplesofinclusionandexclusionandthepremisesofauthorityitself(Connolly1995JPEuben2003Sadiki2004)AdemocraticethosismuchmoredifficulttomeasureorquantifythanforexampleSamuelHuntingtonrsquosparsimoniousdefinitionofdemocracyasapolityinwhichtherehavebeentwoconsecutivepeacefulchangesofgovernmentbywayof freeand fairelections (Huntington1991)21Yetademocraticethosmakesitpossibletobothrecognizeanddisaggregatethepreconditionsaspirations mechanisms and institutions bundled into ldquodemocracyrdquotherebybringingintofocusforexamplethefrequentlyantidemocratic

21Manypoliticalscientistsprefertodefinedemocracyintermsofproceduresdesignedtorealizepopularruleincludingfreecompetitiveandfairelectionsalongwithstateprotec-tionofcertainrightsandlibertiesSuchaformalminimalistdefinitionhastheadvantageofdetachingdemocracyfromquestionsoforiginsandofferingastandardtowhichallgov-ernmentsmaybeheldregardlessofcultureandplaceAsKeithTopper(2005205ndash7)ar-gueshoweveritalsotendstosidestepknottyquestionsaboutthesubstanceofrepresenta-tion power responsiveness and accountability that are arguably central to democraticpolitics

34

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

casttoelectionsimposedbyelitesorforeignpowersthefeltimpotenceofmanycitizensinestablisheddemocraciesandthosehighlyparticipa-torycivilsocietiesthatflourishevenundermonarchicortheocraticrule

Forourpurposes inparticularademocraticethosmakesvisible theparadoxofanIslamistmovementthatseekstomobilizeordinaryMus-limsagainstcoercivepowerbutinthenameofareligio-politicalorderlargelyimmunizedfromchallengeQutbisanaptillustrationhereashistendencytogroundhisownspecialauthorityandinsightintheunsulliedwisdomofordinarybelieversmakesitpossibletoreadhisworkaseitherabriefagainstdemocracy(amongotherthings)oranenactmentofitIn-asmuchasdemocracyasaformofgovernanceisidentifiedwithpopularsovereigntyQutbrsquosbasicpremisethat thefoundationof legitimateau-thoritymustbedivineratherthanhumansuggeststhatheisunambigu-ouslyantidemocraticMoreoverQutbrsquoseffortstopluralizereligiousandpolitical authority express not a confidence in common wisdom butratheradesiretoclaimforhimselfthestatureofareligiousexpertwhodespitehislackofIslamicacademiccredentialscanclearlyseewhatoth-erscannotQutbcharacterizestherealIslamasself-evidentbuthealsoassumesthatonlyasmallvanguardofbelieversbesideshimselfwillhavetheabilitytorecognizeitandactdecisivelytoremaketheworldinitsimageSounderstoodthesignofldquochosennessrdquoisunyieldingcommitmenttoestablishingareligio-politicalorderthatsimultaneouslypresumesthesupremacyofthefewcapableoftrueknowledgeandpromisesaworldinwhichdissentitselfwillbecomebothunnecessaryandillegitimate

Yetifdemocracyrefersnotonlytoasystemofgovernanceorsetofprocedurestorealizepopularsovereigntybutalsotopracticesthatdis-ruptthoseforceswhichconcentratepowerandestablishpoliticalexclu-sionthecharacterizationofQutbrsquosworkassimplyantidemocraticmissesa crucial dimensionof its significance and appealAs the sacred textscontaintherulesandregulationsmeanttogovernbothpublicandpri-vateaffairsQutbrsquosinsistencethatordinaryuntrainedMuslimsmusten-gagethemdirectlyisinmanywaysademocratizationofaccesstoau-thoritySuchaccesscandisruptdeeplyentrenchedpatternsofpowerandpowerlessness particularlywhen conjoined to Islamist arguments thatarbitrarypowerisun-Islamicthatreligiousknowledgedependsoncom-mitmentratherthantrainingorexpertise thatMuslimshavetherightandobligationtodeterminewhenrulersareillegitimateandthatthosewhopreferordertojusticesecuritytofreedomandmoneytopietyhaveforfeitedanyclaimtoauthority

ThisaspectofIslamismhasfrequentlybeencomparedtotheProtestantReformationandmorespecificallytoCalvinistsrsquoattemptstotransferldquore-ligiousauthorityawayfromofficiallysanctionedindividualswhointer-prettextstoordinarycitizensrdquo(EGoldberg19913alsocfLoimeier2005)Suchaparallelhassparkedagreatdealofscholarlyspeculation

35

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

regardingapossibleldquoIslamicReformationrdquo22andarangeofargumentsaboutwhetherandhowIslamismmightfacilitatethedemocratizationofMuslim societies much as the Protestant Reformation is said to haveheralded the emergence of European ldquoliberal democracyrdquo While suchcomparisonsareevocativeafullerunderstandingof IslamismrequiresfirstsituatingitinrelationtoahistoricalshiftinthenatureandlocusofreligiousauthorityinIslambeginninginthenineteenthcenturyAsschol-arsofMuslimsocietieshavepointedouttheimpactofmasseducationnewtechnologiesfordisseminatingknowledgeandinformationanddra-matically changed social economic and political contexts have madeavailabletoamateurswhathadpreviouslybeenthepurviewofreligiousexpertsAtthesametimeithasinauguratedafragmentationofauthor-itywithintheveryranksofthelsquoulamathatcontinuestothepresentday23

InthiscontexttheascendanceandinfluenceofautodidactssuchasQutbHasanal-BannalsquoAbdal-SalamFarajandBinLadensimultaneouslyex-pressandaccelerateanongoingrenegotiationofauthorityoverwhomayspeakforIslamandonwhatbasisthepathofwhichisstillunfoldingandtheoutcomeasyetuncertain

Islamism and Gender

One already apparent consequence of this ongoing renegotiation overwhomayspeakforIslamandonwhatbasisistheentryofwomenintothe interpretive fray This development is increasingly unsettling thoseunwrittengendernormsarguablyattheveryheartofIslamistthoughtdisruptingthestandardsofmasculinityandfemininitythatreflecthowparticularculturesorganizehumanbeingsrsquosocialandreproductiveactiv-itiesintorolesthatareinturnthoughttoexpresstheldquonaturerdquoofmenand women Such norms are frequently considered tangential to theknottyproblemsofdefiningIslamismandadumbratingitscentralideasyetarangeofscholarshiponculturespastandpresenthasshownthatgenderisconsistentlytheterrainoverwhichbattlesforpoliticalcontrolandculturalidentityarefoughtMorespecificallyresearchindisciplinessuchasanthropologyhistoryclassicsandpostcolonialstudieshasdem-onstratedthatculturesinwhichfemalebodiesandbehaviorareregardedas indicesofmoralpurity tend to symbolically transformwomen intoconduitsof cultural corruption in timesof internal crisis and externalthreat(Papenek1994Chatterjee1990Tavakoli-Targhi1991Just1989Cohen1991Welter1966Bloch1978)Thisisespeciallytrueofcontem-

22Foralatenineteenth-centuryassessmentoftheprospectsforaldquoMuhammadanRefor-mationrdquoseeBlunt1882132ndash73

23EickelmanandPiscatori199637ndash39131ndash35Zaman2006Suchfragmentationhasinmanywaysbeenacceleratedbytheexplosionofdigitalcultureswhichpromoteamongotherthingsaldquoformofempoweredamateurismrdquo(Mirzoeff20026)

36

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

poraryreligio-politicalmovementswhosememberstendtoldquoidealizepa-triarchalstructuresofauthorityandmoralityrdquoendorsegenderdualismasgod-givenornaturalandcondemnvigorouslyrecentchangesingen-derrelationsasasymptomandsymbolofsecularistmoralbankruptcy(Riesebrodt1993Moghadam1992Hawley1994)

SeveralchaptersinthisvolumeilluminateIslamistgendernormsbyre-vealing thecharacterandcontentof Islamistconcernsabout theplaceandpurityofMuslimwomenmdashpreoccupationsFatimaMernissi(199199)hasgonesofarastocharacterizeasanobsessionDespiteimportantdifferences among Islamists thinkers many endorse gender norms inwhichthefairlyconventionalinsistencethatfemalenatureisdefinedinand through reproduction undergirds an understanding of women assymbolsofmoralvirtueandvesselsofculturalpurityThisviewsustainstheclaimthatmenandwomenareequalinreligiousbeliefbutperformfundamentallydifferentandcomplementaryfunctionsinsocietyWhilemenarenaturallymadetoruleinboththepublicandprivatedomainawomanbelongsinthedomesticrealmwhereherprimaryroleistobeawifeandmotheraswellastoinsuretheintegrityofthefamilythefirstschoolofmoraleducationAssuchfunctionsarerootedinaninescap-ablehumannaturefashionedbyGodawomanrsquosinabilityorunwilling-nesstoperformherdutiessignalsadisobediencetothedivinewillandpresages the corruption of the Muslim family from within From thisvantagepointtheWesterninsistenceonfullequalitybetweenthesexesisdoubly pernicious it at once liberates women from basic moral con-straintsandenslavesthemtomutuallyreinforcingsexualandcapitalistexploitationAsMurtazaMutahhari(1998xxxi)arguescapitalismmakesuseofwomentomarket itsgoodsldquoby trading inhonourandrespectthrough[their]powertoenticerdquotherebyldquotransform[ing]manintoaninvoluntaryagentofconsumptionrdquoInasmuchaswomenareresponsiblefor producing the next generation of Muslim men destined to restoreIslamtoitsformergloryitisnotonlythevirtueofwomenortheinteg-rityofthefamilythathangsinthebalancebutthefutureofIslamiccivili-zationitself

Zaynab al-Ghazali andMutahharimake several of these argumentsexplicitlyandindetail(seechapters10and11)butinmuchofIslamistrhetoricthenatureandsignificanceofwomenareestablishedindirectlyandsymbolicallyandthroughthreerecurrentimagesinparticularThefirstisofwomenassilentsymbolsofculturalmoralandsexualvulnera-bilityvoicelessfiguresinneedofmasculineprotectionorwhenitistoolatedefiledbodiesthatmutelydemandvengeanceSoforexamplelsquoAb-dallahlsquoAzzam(oneofBinLadenrsquosmentorsseechapter18)graphicallydetailstheagonizinghumiliationofyoungmenunabletoactwhentheAfghanwoman isldquocryingout forhelpher childrenarebeing slaugh-tered her women are being raped the innocent are killed and theircorpsesscatteredrdquo(lsquoAzzam1987a)Inthesecondimagewomenfunction

37

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

muchlikeachorusthatspeaksinpermittedcadencestoratifymasculineendeavorsSuchisthecaseforexampleinBinLadenrsquos1996ldquoDeclara-tionofWaragainsttheAmericansOccupyingtheLandoftheTwoHolyPlacesrdquo(seechapter18)wherethewomenexhortmentojihadinthefollowing way ldquoPrepare yourself like a struggler the matter is biggerthanwordsAreyougoingtoleaveusforthewolvesofKufr[unbe-lief]eatingourwingsWherearethefreemendefendingfreewomenbyarmsDeath isbetter than life inhumiliation Some scandals andshameswillneverbeotherwiseeradicatedrdquo24InthethirdimagewomenarecreaturesnotofthisworldbutofanothervirginalrewardsforthecourageousmartyrintheafterlifeThisisevidentinthefinalinstructionsforthe911hijackersforexamplewhereMuslimldquobrothersrdquoareurgedto purify their carnal impulses sharpen their knives for the dhabh (slaughter)andheedthecallofthehur lsquoayn (theblack-eyedones)await-ingtheminParadise(seechapter19)

Such rhetoric primarily registers women as an extensionmirror ormeasure of masculinity and together with explicit Islamist argumentsabouthumannatureandthefamilyarticulatesIslamistgendernormsinwhichmenandwomeneachhaveaproperlocationandpurposeinadi-vinely ordained social hierarchy Deviance from this gendered scriptthussignalsdisruptionofamuchbroaderreligio-politicalorderitbothpresumes and seeks to bring into existence The disruption caused byforeign aggression in particular exacerbates the tendency to translateconflict into an assault on Muslim masculinity and to conceptualizewomenaspotentialvehiclesforWesterncorruptioninneedofguidingand guarding Women such as Zaynab al-Ghazali and Nadia Yassinewho seek a prominent place and voice within the Islamist movementhavehadlittlechoicebuttocontendwiththisgenderedscriptDoingsohasentailedamongotherthingsnavigatingcarefullybetweenIslamistcharacterizations of womenrsquos visibility and agency as symptomatic ofthe new jahiliyya on the one hand and essentializing arguments thatequateIslamwithveilingfemalegenitalmutilationandhonorkillingsontheother

AsthechaptersonGhazaliandYassinesuggestIslamistwomenhavenegotiatedbetweensuchconstraintsandpressuresandtheirownambi-tionsindifferentwaysApioneeringdalsquoiya(onewhoinvitesMuslimstogreater piety)Ghazalirsquos own life reveals a fierce resistance to conven-tionalnormsofdomesticityevenasmuchofher(earlier)workappearsto embrace an Islamist gender ideology that defines women as wivesmothers andldquobuilders ofmenrdquo (al-Hashimi 1990 118)By contrastYassineisawifeandmotherwhoembracesanldquoIslamicfeminismrdquothatrequiresldquoreappropriatingtheinstrumentsofclassicaltheologyrdquoanden-

24TheIslamistjournalSawt alshyJihadhasgonesofarastofeatureldquowomenrsquosvoicesrdquointheformofrolemodelsnamedforexampleumm alshyshahid(motherofthemartyr)al-thoughitisunclearthattheseldquovoicesrdquoareactuallywomenrsquos(SUsher2004)

38

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

gaging the textsdirectly through ijtihad (NYassine2003) In this re-spect Yassine must be understood as part of a broader effort amongMuslimwomenwithdifferentpoliticalcommitmentstosimultaneouslyadvocateandenacttheirrighttorecuperatetheldquooriginalintentrdquooftheIslamictextsIfwomenandmendoinfacthavedistinctperspectivesontheworldYassinesuggestswomenhaveaspecialobligationtoexcavatewhattheyseeasthegenderparityoftheQurrsquoanburiedbeneaththoseldquomachointerpretationsrdquoofIslamuponwhichmenhavebuilttheirprivi-legeandpower(Khalaf2006)25

ManyAnglo-AmericanandEuropean feministsworry that Islamistsseekonly to secureor restorepatriarchalpowerConverselymany Is-lamist women view feminism as a term and a movement inescapablyWesterninoriginfreightedwiththelegacyofcolonialismanduneasilyimplicatedinculturalimperialismThisapplieseventoYassinewhoisunwillingtoadoptwithoutqualificationalabelsheassociateswithagen-dasopposedtoherowntheWesttheMoroccanstateMaghribi(North-westAfrican)elitesYetfeminismitselfisahighlycontestedtermwithin theso-calledWestitisthebearerofmultiplemeaningssomeofwhichareevenopposedandischaracterizedbydeepdisagreementsaboutwhowomenarewhatwomenneedwhoisauthorizedtoworkonwomenrsquosbehalf andbywhatmeans Inasmuch as these various feminismsmayshareonlyastatedconcernforwomenrsquoswelfarethereisnothinginco-herentinmodifyingldquofeminismrdquowithldquoIslamicrdquoldquoMuslimrdquoorevenldquoIs-lamistrdquounlessone iscommitted toarguing thatfirst Islam isanun-changingessencebeyondhistorypoliticsandculturesecondthereisaneutralobjectivevantagefromwhichtoidentifythisessenceonceandforallandfinallytheIslamicessencesoidentifiedisfundamentallyin-compatiblewitheffortstoimprovetheconditionsandqualityofwomenrsquoslivesBythesametokenIslamistwomenwhorejectthetermfeminismcanbe(althoughnotalwaysare)deeplycommittedtoimprovingwom-enrsquoswelfareaswellasactivelyresistanttoeffortsthatreduceortrans-formthemintosilentaccessoriesofmalepower

YassineandGhazalidifferaboutwhatwomenareandshouldbeyetbroadlyspeakingbothmaybeconsideredpartofarecenttrendtowardthe feminizationofdalsquowa Dalsquowa literallymeanscallappealor sum-monsbutthetermhascometosignifyavarietyofpracticesandargu-mentsmeanttoexhortinviteandguideMuslimstowhatisregardedasproperconductandmoraldevotionWomenrsquosparticipationindalsquowais

25WomenrsquosparticipationintheldquoproductionofofficialIslamicknowledgerdquohasalonghistoryalthoughtheyhaveoftendonesoinrelativeobscurityandwithoutthebenefitofeducation in the Islamicsciences thathas legitimateddirectengagementwith thesacredtexts (Cooke 2001 xiv Badran and Cooke 2004) Pioneering attempts to read genderequalityinIslamarealsonotconfinedtowritingbywomenasevincedbyQasimAminrsquosTahrir alshymarrsquoa [TheLiberationofWoman] (1899)andMumtaz lsquoAlirsquosHuquqshye niswan [TheRightsofWomen](1898)

39

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

notabrandnewphenomenonasisevidentinGhazalirsquosworkwiththeEgyptianSocietyofMuslimLadiesinthe1930sYetfromEgypttoPaki-stantoSaudiArabiatotheUnitedStatesthenumberoffemaledalsquoiyashasproliferatedexponentially inrecentyears(Cooke2001Mahmood2005Hirschkind2006)Thisreflectsinpartcurrentdoctrinalempha-sesondalsquowaasincumbentuponbothmenandwomenanddependentlessupontechnicalknowledgethanmoralvirtueandpracticalfamiliaritywiththeIslamictradition(Mahmood200565ndash66)It isalsoaconse-quenceofrecentpoliticalandsocioeconomictransformationsinMuslimsocietiesincludingtheexpansionofmasseducationthathasnotonlyin-creasedwomenrsquosliteracyandsocialmobilitybutalsomadeIslamictextsmoreaccessibletheproliferationoftechnologiesmdashfromthecassettetapetotheInternetmdashthatfacilitatethecirculationofreligiousknowledgeevenamongthosewhocannotreadortraveltheprecedentsetbythevigorousparticipationof IranianwomeninpostrevolutiondebatesaboutIslamandthemodeloflegalactivismevidentintheIslamistmovementrsquosownchallenge to the lsquoulamarsquos status as gatekeepers of religious knowledge(Singerman2005Mir-Hosseini1999)

If Ghazali and Yassine exemplify the feminization of dalsquowa amongelitesthemosquemovementinEgyptillustratesthegrowingparticipa-tionofwomenfromdiversesocialbackgroundsinreligiousclassesde-votedtostudyinganddebatingwhatIslamrequiresforawomantobeldquomorallyuprightrdquointhecontemporaryworld(Mahmood2005)Con-ceptualizingpiety in termsof adeepandholistic commitment to self-transformationparticipantsinthemosquemovementareconcernedlesswithmattersofsovereigntyandpoliticsconventionallyunderstoodandmorewiththeldquomoralcultivationrdquoofthosedailypracticesseenascrucialtobecomingclosertoGod(Mahmood2005)SomeIslamistshavecriti-cizedthis focusonpracticesofworshipasapoliticalandoverlypriva-tizedyetsuchcriticismmissestheforceofIslamistsrsquoowninsistenceondin(religion)asawayoflifeinwhichthedomainsofpublicandprivateare inextricably linked26AsSabaMahmood (2005193194) showsthesewomenrsquosintenseeffortsatldquoretrainingethicalsensibilitiesrdquohavealdquosociopoliticalforcerdquothatextendswellbeyondmattersofgovernancefacilitatingnolessthantheemergenceofaldquonewsocialandmoralorderrdquoEvidenceofitstransformativepowermaybefoundnotonlyinthesheernumbersandvarietyofwomenmdashwealthyandpoor literateand illiter-atemdashparticipatinginthemosquemovementbutalsointherhetoricalandpoliticaleffortsbythestateandsomeIslamiststocurtailcontrolordis-creditit(Mahmood200571194)

26ParticipantsinthemosquemovementinturnareoftencriticalofwhattheyseeasthereductionofIslamtotokensofculturalauthenticityorofitsinstrumentalizationbybothnationalistsandIslamiststheycharacterizeasmoreinterestedinpoliticalmaneuveringthanreligiouspiety

40

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

Understoodtoincludebothwrittenandembodiedpracticesthefemi-nizationof dalsquowa illustrates theways inwhichwomen fromdifferentperspectivesandsocialclassesareinsistingonengagingthesacredtextsdirectly for and with one another without the mediating authority ofmenwhohavetraditionallyheldthemonopolyonsuchactivitiesAsSu-danese Islamist Lubabah al-Fadl argues ldquoAs an insan [human being]whohappenstobeawomanIhavearighttorejectthemanipulativeexegesesofoursharilsquoa thatthreatenmyexistenceinawaythat isnotconsistentwiththeGodlywayandtoapplymyownijtihadtorectifyer-roneoustendenciesbysomeshuyukh[pluralofshaykh]rdquo(Sadiki2004290)DespitetheproliferationofvoicesintentonclaimingforthemselvestheauthoritytodemarcatewhatisauthenticallyIslamicandun-Islamiconceandforallcontestationoveritsscopeandmeaningproceedsapacefacilitatedatleastinpartbywomenformerlyexcludedfromtheconver-sationAtthesametimeIslamistwomenrsquosagencyandclaimstoauthorityarefrequentlystillpredicatedonawillingnesstofollowfairlypatriarchalrulesaboutwherehowandwithwhomtheymaypracticetheirvocation(Hirschkind2003Sadiki2004283)

Islamism and Violence

IfgenderisfrequentlyanimplicitpreoccupationamongIslamistsjihadisarguably Islamistsrsquomost consistently explicit concern Jihad is derivedfromtheArabicverbthatmeanstostruggleortostriveyetitisaparticu-larkindofstruggle that isofconcern tomanyof thefigurescollectedheretheoftenviolentstruggleagainstapostatesandinfidelsbothathomeandabroadtowhicheveryindividualMuslimmustcontributeTheclaimthatfightingunbelieversisthepreeminentenactmentofindividualMus-limpiety seems to justify characterizationsof Islam ingeneral and Is-lamisminparticularassanctioningevenencouragingviolenceYetwhatIslamistsrepresentasjihadtout courtisahistoricallyspecificunderstand-ingderivedfromahighlyselectiveuseoftextsandprecedentsprominentamongthemaformerlyobscureclaimbytheinfluentialfourteenth-cen-tury jurist IbnTaymiyya thatMongol rulerswhohad contravened Is-lamiclawcouldbesubjecttoforcibleremovalFarfromadefinitiveex-pressionof Islamldquoproperlyunderstoodrdquo such Islamist argumentsnotonlymarkasignificantdeparturefrommuchofantecedentdoctrineandpractice but also diminish the importance of ongoing disagreementsamongMuslimsabouttheformandpurposesofjihad

TobeginwithMuslimscholarshavetendedtoconsiderjihadagainstforeignenemiesafard kifaya(collectiveobligation)thatisadutyagroupofpeoplewithinthecommunitymayperformonbehalfoftherestandonethatpresupposesalegitimateMuslimleadertodeclareorleadthechargeJuristshavedistinguishedthisfromthefard lsquoayn(individualduty)thatmustbefulfilledbyeverysingleMuslimincasesofdefensivejihad

41

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

thatiswhentheummaisunderattackManyIslamistsincludedheretakeamuchlessnuancedviewofjihadAsamodeofpoliticalactionQutbarguesjihadmustberegardedasaldquopermanentconditionnotanocca-sionalconcernrdquoonethatincurrentcircumstancesrequiresdeedsratherthanwordsstruggleratherthancontemplationrevolutionathomeaswellasresistanceabroad(Qutb199167ndash6882)lsquoAbdal-SalamFarajarguesalongsimilarlinesthatthenatureoftheattackonIslammakespolitical authorization by a caliph (ldquodeputyrdquo referring to a legitimatesuccessortotheProphetrsquosleadership)unnecessaryafterallldquoleadershipovertheMuslimsis(always)intheirownhandsifonlytheymakethismanifestIfthereissomethinglackingintheleadershipwellthereisnothingthatcannotbeacquiredrdquo(Jansen1986asec93)

SuchargumentsareadeliberaterejectionofearlyMuslimmodernistswhohademphasizedthelargelydefensivecharacterofjihadandsoughttoshowthatrelationsbetweenMuslimsandnon-MuslimswerenormallypeacefulratherthanantagonisticMahmudShaltut(d1963)therectorof al-Azhar from 1958 to 1963 had argued for example that theQurrsquoanicversesonfightingldquoprohibittheprovocationofhostilityandthisprohibitionisreinforcedbyGodrsquosrepugnancetoaggressionandbyhisdislikeofthosewhoprovokehostilityrdquo(Peters199674onShaltutseeZebiri1993)ConversionbyforceisanathematoIslamShaltutaversandfightingiscommandedonlyindefenseinresponsetoaggressionini-tiatedbyothersEvendefensivejihadmustaimatldquotheterminationoftheaggressionandtheestablishmentofreligiouslibertydevotedtoGodandfreefromanypressureorforcerdquo(Peters199675)

ManyIslamistsexplicitlydismisssuchargumentsasasymptomoffalseconsciousnessoneamongmanydestructiveeffectsofcolonialdomina-tionMawdudiargues for example thatwhile imperialists ravage theworld to satisfy their greed jihad alone ldquoconjures up the vision of amarching band of religious fanatics with savage beards and fiery eyesbrandishingdrawnswordsandattackingtheinfidelswherevertheymeetthemrdquoHavinginternalizedthis imageMuslimsrushtoapologizeandrenouncearmedstruggleInthiswayhelamentscolonialistsretaintheexclusiverighttoldquofightwitharmsandammunitionwhilewearecon-tented with our pen and our tonguerdquo (Mawdudi 1948 1ndash3) SayyidQutbforhispartagreedthatIslamdoesnotcountenancespreadingitsmessagebyforceandcoercionyethehadlittlepatiencewiththosewhosoughttopresentjihadaslegitimateonlyinself-defense

IfweinsistoncallingIslamicjihadadefensivemovementthenwemustchangethemeaningofthewordldquodefenserdquoandmeanbyitldquothedefenseofmanrdquoagainstallthoseforcesthatlimithisfreedomWhenwetakethisbroadmeaningofthewordldquodefenserdquoweunder-standthetruecharacterofIslaminthatitproclaimstheuniversalfreedomofeverypersonandcommunityfromservitudetoanyother

42

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

individualorsocietytheendofmanrsquosarroganceandselfishnesstheestablishmentofthesovereigntyofAllahandHisLordshipthrough-outtheworldandtheruleofthedivinesharilsquoainhumanaffairs(Qutb199050)

Qutbdoesnotnameanynamesincastigatingtheldquowriterswithdefeatistandapologeticmentalities[who]writeaboutlsquojihadinIslamrsquoandtrytoremovethislsquoblotrsquofromIslamrdquo(Qutb199046)buthecouldverywellhavehadhisdistinguishedfellowEgyptianMahmudShaltutinmind

These arguments about jihad may be said to constitute a commongrammarandframeworkofanalysisformanyIslamistsalthoughseveralthinkers in this volume carefully calibrate such claims to suit variouspurposesanddifferentpublicspheresInhisjustificationfortheassassi-nationofEgyptianpresidentAnwaral-SadatforexamplelsquoAbdal-SalamFarajdepictsthestruggletoreclaimthemoralfoundationsoftheEgyp-tianstateasafightagainstjahiliyyafromwithinarguingthatthejihadagainstacorruptnationalistregimeathomemusttakeprecedenceoverfightingenemieselsewhereTheCharterofHamas(seechapter15)how-everinsiststhatallMuslimsrecognizetheprimacyofthejihadforJeru-salemweldingIslamistrhetorictothatofnationalistresistanceinanef-fortbothtofightIsraelioccupationandtocompeteforadherentswiththePalestinianLiberationOrganization(PLO)IncontrasttobothFarajandHamasBinLadenembracesaglobaljihadthatessentiallycollapsesdistinctionsbetweennationalandinternationaloffensiveanddefensivefightingenemiesathomeandthosefromafar

Yet despite such differences these arguments tend to presume thatviolent jihad is a necessary response to the pervasive power of thosewithdemonstratedhostilitytoMuslimliveslandspietiesandsensibili-tiesaformofretaliationwhoseurgencyandlegitimacyderivefromtheviolencemdashpsychologicalandeconomicaswellasphysicalmdashoftheinitialassaultThisviewofjihadsubsumesindividualsintoarchetypesofldquoin-fidelsrdquoandldquobelieversrdquoandinsodoingvitiatesmoreconventionaldis-tinctionsbetweenforexamplesoldierandcivilianorcollectiveandin-dividual responsibility It is far from inevitable that thosewhoharborsuchviewswillautomaticallyactuponthemyetthecarnagewroughtbytheattacksontheWorldTradeCenterandthePentagonin2001aBalinightclub in 2002 Madrid commuter trains in 2004 and throughoutIraqonadailybasissuggestjusthowlethalsuchclaimscanbegiventheright circumstances The fact that such violence does not discriminateamongvictimsonlyfurtherfuelsrhetoriccharacterizingIslamistsasirra-tional fanatics ldquoin love with deathrdquo terrorists animated by a religioncharacterizedbyapropensityforviolenceandauthoritarianism27

27AnxietiesabouttheparticularsusceptibilityofMuslimstoirrationalityinsularityandfanaticismhavealonganddistinguishedpedigreeinEuro-AmericanhistoryandpoliticalthoughtSeeforexampleRenan18833

43

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

AsinsomanyothermattershoweverIslamistsarehardlyofonemindonthesubjectofjihadindeedthereareIslamistswhoexplicitlyrejectthereductionof struggle toviolenceAcase inpoint isNadiaYassine(20032005c)whoinsiststhatjihadisthededicatedstruggleagainstisshytikbar(arrogance)particularlyinitscommonformasthelustforpoweranddominationAsjihadagainstistikbarisbothafinalgoalandapre-scriptionforactionYassinesuggestsitisantitheticaltoviolentpracticesthataimatdominationTheprimaryinstrumentsofjihadarenotbombsbutwords particularly thosedeployed in the art of persuasion (Fara-marzi2005NYassine2006a)WhenIslamistssuchaslsquoAbdal-SalamFarajandlsquoUmarlsquoAbdal-RahmanseektolegitimizeviolentrevolutionbyrecoursetoIslamictextsshearguestheycontravenethetruemeaningofjihadtoservetheirownarrogantendsBythesametokenBinLadenrsquosdecisiontoldquofightevilwithevilandbarbaritywithbarbarityrdquonotonlyviolatesspecificIslamicprohibitionsagainstharmingcivilianswomenandchildrenbutalsobetraystheethicalimperativetoembodythemes-sageofamercifulGodwhocautionsbelieversthat(Q8822)ldquoYouhavenopoweroverthemrdquo(NYassine2005cDaily Excelsior2002)

SuchpersistentdisagreementsamongMuslimspastandpresentsug-gest that Islam isnomore inherently violent andbloody-minded thanitmdashorChristianityor Judaism for thatmattermdashis inherentlypeacefulIslamists often claim to speak for an unchanging authentic Islam thatexistsoutsideoftimeandspaceyetthepoliticalpurchaseoftheirper-spective derives from the ways it assembles disparate yet recognizablecontemporaryexperiencesofsufferingfrustrationandlossintoanex-planationthatresonateswithMuslimswholiveincommunitiescultur-allylinguisticallyandgeographicallydistantfromoneanotherTheex-tenttowhichIslamistargumentsresonatebroadlyacrossMuslimsocie-tiesthusdependsuponasetofexperiencesandphenomenathatmarkthisparticularmomentinhistoryincludingthewaysinwhichcontempo-raryglobalinequalitiescompoundalegacyofhistoricalasymmetriestocontinuallyreproduceasenseofMuslimpowerlessnessmdashbothrealandimaginedmdashrelativetotheWestcontinuingEuro-Americanpoliticalandfinancialsupportofcorruptautocratsmanyofwhompresideoverna-tion-statesbrutallystitchedtogetherbyWesternfiat thepersistenceofauthoritarian regimes eager to control domestic unrest by catalyzingldquoMuslimragerdquotowardexternaltargetsthesenseofemasculationpro-ducedbydecadesofpoliticalrepressionandeconomicfrustrationandthecontinualflowofimagesofbloodiedMuslimbodiesdeliveredbyaburgeoningarrayofvideosatelliteandelectronicmedia

It is notable that the understanding of jihad many Islamists proffermirrorstheverystate-sanctionedviolenceagainstwhichtheyhavestrug-gledforalmostacenturyAlongwiththousandsofMuslimscaughtinthemachineryoftwentieth-centurystateviolenceprominentIslamistsfromQutbtoGhazalitoAymanal-Zawahirimdashal-Qalsquoidarsquossecondincommandmdash

44

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

arewellknowntohavebeenradicalizedbyextendedandoftenbrutaltermsofincarcerationinEgyptSyriaIraqJordanIsraelAlgeriaandelsewhere(onal-ZawahiriandprisoncfKepelandMilelli2008152ndash54)ItisthusfarfromsurprisingthatIslamistsforgedbyinterrogationtortureinprisoncampswouldconcludethatthepreeminentenactmentofMuslimpietyisviolentstruggleldquoPrisonrdquoasPalestinianKhaledAbuHilalhassaidldquoismyuniversityrdquo(Erlanger2007)anargumentmadeingreaterdetailinadifferenttimeandplacebyRussianwriterandrevolu-tionaryMaximGorky(1868ndash1936)

Apeoplebroughtupinaschoolthatremindsoneofthetormentsofhellonasmallscaleapeopleaccustomedtotheclenched-fistprisonandthewhipwillnotbeblestwithatenderheartApeoplethatthepoliceagentshaveriddenoverwillbecapableintheirturnofwalk-ingoverthebodiesofothersInacountrywhereunresthasreignedsolongit isdifficultforthepeopletorealizefromonedaytothenextthepowerofrightOnecannotdemandfromamanwhohasneverknownjusticethatheshouldbejust(Gorky1920)

InthiscontextasTimothyMitchell(1990195ndash96199207ndash8)suggestsIslamistviewsoftheworldcanbecharacterizedasbothamodeofresis-tancetostatemechanismsofcoercionandanexpressionofthemSuchisthedynamic evident inGhazalirsquosmemoirs for examplewhen shede-scribeshowtheldquodarknessofprisonsthebladesoftortureandthevi-ciousbeatingsonly increasetheenduranceandresolveofthefaithfulrdquo(Ghazali19786)

There is no doubt a great deal of pragmatism at work in IslamistargumentsaboutviolenceAsQutb(19916447ndash48)drylynotesthepathtofreedommustoccasionallybehewnbywayoftheswordbecausetyrants are not reasoned out of power and ldquojahiliyya is not lsquoabstracttheoryrsquo[it]consciouslyorunconsciouslystrivestopreserveitsownexistence to defend its essence to annihilate dangerous elementswhichthreatenitsverybeingrdquoYetitisalsothecasethatformanyoftheseIslamistsjihadisbothameansandanendanefforttoeradicatethoseobstacles torestoringa justcommunityonearththatsimultane-ouslybringshumanaction intoaccordwithGodrsquosplansandpurposes(Haddad198321)While theQurrsquoan (2256) states thatldquothere isnocompulsioninreligionrdquoIslamistscontendthatonlyinastateinwhichIslamiclawreignssupremearehumanbeingsfreefromenslavementtooneanotherrsquosruleandallareequalbyvirtueoftheircommonsubmissiontoGodAsQutb(1991107ndash8)argues

WhenthehighestauthorityinsocietyisGodalonemdashexpressedintheruleofdivinelawmdashonlythenishumanitytrulyandcompletelyliber-atedfromslaverytomenOnlythisisldquohumancivilizationrdquobecausetheessentialfoundationofhumancivilizationisthetrueandcom-

45

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

pletefreedomofhumanityandtheabsolutedignityofeveryindivid-ualinsocietyThereisnotruefreedomanddignityforhumanityortheindividualinasocietywheresomepeoplearelordswholegislateandothersareslaveswhoobey

From this perspective the realization of justice liberty equality andchoiceitselfnecessitatestheforcibleremovaloftheconstraintsimposedbyjahiliyyaalongwiththosewhoaidandabetitno matter the costAsMawdudi(1954160ndash61)writes

[W]hyisitthatinreligionsuchimportanceisgiventojihadthattheQurrsquoanpronouncesthejudgmentofhypocrisyuponthosewhoshirkandevadeitJihadisbutanothernamefortheattempttoerectthesystemoftruthandtheQurrsquoandeclaresjihadtobeatouchstoneonthesamefootingwithamanrsquosfaithInotherwordshewhohasfaithinhisheartwillneitherbecontentwiththedominationofthesystemofevilnorwillhegrudgetheexpenditureoflifeandwealthinthestruggleforerectingthesystemoftruthIfoneshowsweaknessinthismatterhisfaithitselfisdoubtfulWhatcananythingelsebesidethenprofithimThemanwhoprofesses faith in this religioncannotfulfillhisdutyonlybytryingasfaraspossibletopatternhislifeonIslamThenatureofhisfaithitselfrequiresthatheshouldconcentrateallhiseffortuponwrestingleadershipfromunbelievingandcorruptmentoentrustittotherighteousanduponerectingthesystemoftruththathasbeenordainedfortheconductoftheworldaccordingtothewillofGodBecausethisendisunattainablewith-out thehighestdegreeofcollectiveeffort theremustexistarigh-teouscommunitycommittedtotheprincipleoftruthanddevotedtothesolepurposeintheworldoferectingmaintainingandproperlyrealizingthesystemoftruth

ThefactthatsomeIslamistthinkerssanctifyviolentstruggleinsuchtermsdoesnotmeanofcoursethatallthosewhoadvocateorengageinjihadendorseviolence28NordoesitimplythatthosewhoclaimtokillforIslamareentirelywithoutulteriormotivesthosemanipulativepur-poses andpsychologicalmotivations that even themost rarified scrip-turalargumentscanexpressorserveWhattheprecedinganalysisdoessuggesthoweveristhatthereductionofthisviewofjihadtoirrationalbloodlusttheself-interestedgrabfortemporalpoweroradoorthroughwhichtopassintothehereaftermissesacrucialdimensionofitssignifi-canceandappealfortruebelieversjihadisnolessthananenactmentof

28EvenashespokeofaneweraofjahiliyyaandofjihadMawdudihimselfstoppedwellshortof recommendingor condoning the actual resort to violence in themannermanyotherIslamistsdidAsNasr(199670)observesMawdudirsquosorganizationtheJamalsquoat-iIs-lamildquohasavoidedviolentsocialchangeandhasinsteadviewedthepathtotheIslamicstateaslyingwithintheexistingsociopoliticalorderrdquoAlsoseethechapters5and3onQutbandMawdudiinthisvolume

46

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

adivineimperativetoremakethefoundationsofcollectivelifeInthisre-spectIslamistviewsofjihadcanbeseenaspartofalong-standingasso-ciationbetweenviolenceandpoliticalfoundingsuponwhichnoparticu-larcultureorhistoricalepochhasamonopolyThisassociationandtheldquolegacyofviolencerdquoitbequeathstofuturegenerationsarenolessappar-entinthoseradicalrevolutionsofrenewalthatmovebywayoftheswordfromthemarginstothecenterthanthosepoliticalfoundingsthatclaimtocreatesomethingoutofnothing(Connolly1995251)Ineithercasethetollofsuchbrutalitycanbeimmeasurableforinadditiontothevic-timswhosufferdirectlytheldquopracticeofviolencelikeallactionchangestheworldbutthemostprobablechangeistoamoreviolentworldrdquo(Ar-endt1972177)

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Page 8: Chapter 1 INTRODUCTION - assets.press.princeton.eduassets.press.princeton.edu/chapters/s9067.pdf · Chapter 1 INTRODUCTION This volume is intended as a broad introduction to the evolution

8

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

bookbyamastermujtahidorbyamuqallidthatcanmakeupfor[direct]reflectionontheBookofGodIfMuslimshadstoodfirminreflectingontheQurrsquoanandinbeingguidedbyitineveryagetheirmoralsandmannerswouldnothavebeenruinedtheirrulerswouldnothavebeenunjustanddespotictheirauthoritywouldnothavedeclinedandtheywouldnothavebecomedependentonothersfortheirlivelihood(Rida1947ndash545296ndash97)7

AsthispassageillustratescentraltomodernistdiscoursesacrossMus-limsocieties istheideaof ijtihad(cfKurzman20029ndash14)bywhichtheyhaveoftenmeantnotonlytheefforttoformulateIslamiclegalrul-ingsonmattersthefoundationaltextshadleftunregulatedbutalsothereinterpretationofmattersonwhichthegeneralityofearlierscholarsandeventhefoundationaltextsthemselveshadhadareasonablyclearviewManyamongthelsquoulamahaveinsistedthattheirschooldoctrinesprovidesufficient resources to meet all contingencies and what remains to bedoneistofindaparticularnormordoctrinethatmatchesthequestionorproblemathandNotall lsquoulamaofmoderntimeshavebeenaversetoparticularformsofijtihadindeedthecontinuingnecessityofijtihadinatleastsomeofitsformshascometobeincreasinglyrecognizedbymanyamongthem(cfZaman200816ndash1764126)Stilltheideathatspe-cificlegalrulingsenunciatedinthefoundationaltextsmightthemselvesbesetasideinthenameofdarura(necessity)orsubordinatedtoconsid-erationsofmaslaha (commongood) is tothemtantamounttotakinglibertieswithGodrsquoseternalword(cfZaman2004133ndash39)

Needlesstosaymodernistreformershaveneverthoughtoftheirinitia-tivesastakinglibertieswithGodrsquoscommandsTheyhaveofteninsistedhoweverthattheliteralwordofGodmustalwaysbeunderstoodinlightoftheoverallldquospiritrdquoofthedivineinjunctionstakenbothintheiren-tiretyandintheiroriginalhistoricalcontext8Modernistdiscourseson

7ThiscommentarytheTafsir alshyManarreflectstheviewsofbothMuhammadlsquoAbduhandRashidRidathoughitwaslargelywrittenbyRida

8InvocationsoftheldquospiritrdquooftheQurrsquoanoftheProphetrsquosexampleorofIslamatlargeareacommonmotifinmodernist(andsomeIslamist)writingsSyedAmeerAli(d1928)aShilsquoimodernistscholarandjudgeincolonialIndiahadcharacteristicallytitledhisbest-knownbookThe Spirit of IslamForsomeotherinstancesoftheappealtothespiritofIslamandtheQurrsquoanandrelatedformulationscfIqbal1934149156Kurzman200260256Ramadan2007xiThemedieval juridical ideaof theoverarchingldquopurposesrdquounderlyingthesacredlaw(maqasid alshysharilsquoa)anunderstandingofwhichoughttoguidethejuristinallhisendeavorsmightbethoughttohavesomethingincommonwithmod-ernistappealstothespiritofIslamAndit isnoaccidentthattheworkofthemedievalSpanishjuristal-Shatibi(d1388)whoisamongthosemostcloselyassociatedwiththeelaborationofthisideahasremainedespeciallypopularinmodernistcirclesMedievalju-ristsunderstoodtheideaofthemaqasidal-sharilsquoatomeanthatthesharilsquoawasconcernedaboveallwiththepreservationoflifereligionrationalityprogenyandpropertyandthatnolegalrulingsshouldviolatethesefundamentalconcernsInmarkedcontrasthowevertothecarefulexegeticalandlegalargumentationthatwentintodemonstratingwhatthepur-

9

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

polygamyofferanillustrationoftheirapproachTheQurrsquoanallowspo-lygamyldquoIfyoufearthatyouwillnotdealfairlywithorphangirlsyoumaymarrywhicheverwomenseemgoodtoyoutwothreeorfourIfyoufearthatyoucannotbeequitable[tothem]thenmarryonlyoneoryourslave(s)thatismorelikelytomakeyouavoidbiasrdquo(Q43)TheQurrsquoanthuspermitspolygamybutsimultaneously insistsonequityasthenecessaryconditionforapolygamoushouseholdaqualificationsup-plementedbyQurrsquoan4129ldquoYouwillneverbeabletotreatyourwiveswithequalfairnesshowevermuchyoumaydesiretodosobutdonotignore one wife altogether leaving her suspendedrdquo Modernist re-formershaveoftenseentheQurrsquoanicsanctionforpolygamynotjustasbeingspecifictoextraordinarycircumstancesmdashasawayofprovidingforgirlsmadeorphanbywarmdashbutaseffectivelyruledoutbytheQurrsquoanicstatementthatmencanneverreallybeequitabletowardmorethanonewife(cfRahman198947ndash48)TothelsquoulamathisisspeciousreasoningforifGodhadreallywantedtoprohibitpolygamyHecouldsimplyhavesaid so (cf Shafilsquo 2005ndash7 2313ndash14 592ndash93) That medieval juristsandexegetesarepracticallyunanimousinallowingpolygamyisfortheirlatter-daysuccessorsfurtherconfirmationofthecorrectnessoftheirownunderstandingoftheQurrsquoanonthismatter

Asthisexamplesuggestsatissuebetweenmodernistsandthelsquoulamaisnotonlyhowparticularnormsareviewedbutalsohowtheyareaf-firmedanddefendedThelsquoulamarsquosscholarlytraditionisconstitutedbyalongandcomplexhistoryofcommentarydebateagreementsanddis-agreementsaboutthefoundationaltextsandaboutallmattersIslamicAstheyseeitthistraditionisnotclosedfrozenormonolithicyetitiswith reference to the scholarly tradition that anygiven readingof thefoundational or other texts finds meaning and legitimacy in their dis-coursesModernistreformersfortheirparthaveusuallyseenthistradi-tionpreciselyasclosedandanachronisticasoccludingthetruespiritofIslamic teachings and therefore as unworthy of serious and sustainedengagement

Modernists Islamists and the lsquoUlama

ThecontestationbetweenthemodernistsandthelsquoulamaprovidesawayofsituatingtheIslamistswithinabroadspectrumofcompetingbutalsooverlappingorientationsintheMuslimpublicsphereLikethemodern-istswhothemselvesholdvariedpositionsontherelationshipbetweenIslamandpoliticsmanyamongthe IslamistsareproductsofmodernWesterninstitutionsoflearningSayyidQutb(d1966)wasnottrained

posesofthelawwerehowoneknewwhattheywereandhowthelawwastobeinter-pretedwithreferencetothem(cfHallaq1997esp162ndash206Weiss199878ndash87145ndash71)modernistappealstothespiritoressenceofIslamareoftenextremelyvague

10

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

asareligiousscholarNorwasHasanal-Banna(d1949)thefounderoftheMuslimBrotherhoodofEgypttheoldestandoneofthemostinflu-entialof Islamistorganizations in theSunniMuslimworldBothwereeducatedattheDaral-lsquoUluminCairoaninstitutionfoundedinthelatenineteenthcenturytoestablishsomethingofamiddlegroundbetweenal-AzharUniversityinCairoandmodernseculareducationalthoughitgradually veered toward the latter and in 1946 became part of CairoUniversity (cfReid1990139ndash49)Abursquol-AlsquolaMawdudi (d 1979)ofPakistandidreceivean intermittentmadrasaeducationbut itwasthevocationof a journalist not that of an lsquoalim (plural lsquoulama) that headoptedThanksinparttothisbroadlysimilareducationalbackgroundIslamistsalsosharewithmodernistsasupremeconfidenceintheirownabilitytodiscernthetruemeaningorspiritofIslamthroughamoreorlessdirectencounterwiththefoundationaltextsAsCharlesJAdams(1966396)hasobservedincomparingMawdudiwithMuslimmodern-istsldquoBothhaveclaimedtheabilitytodisengagethespiritoressentialsofGodrsquosguidancetoliberatethemselvesfromtheauthorityofthecu-mulativeMuslimpastand toundercut thepositionof theulamawhorepresentthatauthorityrdquoMuchthesamemightbesaidofSayyidQutbaswellasofmanycontemporaryIslamists

Despitesuchcommonalities IslamistsfrequentlypositionthemselvesinoppositiontothemodernistsAstheIslamistssee it themodernistshavemadeIslamitselfsubservienttotheprojectofestablishingitscom-patibilitywithWesternnorms and institutions rejectingor explainingawayanythingthatdoesnotconformtothesenormsMawdudiputitthisway inderidingmodernistdiscomfortwith the implementationofpunishmentsmandatedbyIslamiclaw

Iwouldliketoputastraightquestiontothesevotariesofldquomoder-nityrdquoldquoWhatarethevaluesthatyoubelieveinDoyoubelieveintheIslamicvaluesoflifeandstandardsofmoralityorthoseofthemoderncivilizationrdquoIfyouhavemadeyourchoiceandacceptedsomeothervaluesandsomedifferentstandardofrightandwrongofvirtueandviceofthepermissibleandtheprohibitedasagainstthoseenvisagedbyIslamitisthenadifferenceofaveryfundamen-talnatureItmeansthatyoudifferwithanddisbelieveintheIslamicideologyitselfInthiscaseyoushouldhavethecouragetodeclarethatyourejectIslamoutrightIsitnotfoolishtoallegefaithinaGodwhose laws you consider as barbarous Anyhow nobody can re-maininsidethepaleofIslamafterholdingsuchanopinionaboutthelawofGod(Mawdudi[Maududi]196067)

PolemicsofthissortnotonlysuggesttheIslamistsrsquosenseofwhatsepa-ratesthemfromthemodernistsbutalsopointtointermittentIslamistef-forts to make common cause with the lsquoulama Such efforts are oftenpredicated on both the rhetorical claim that all sincere Muslims fully

11

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

concurintheirconceptionofthesharilsquoa(Islamiclaw)andtheIslamistsrsquoastuterecognitionofthelsquoulamarsquosconsiderablestandinginsocietyUnsur-prisinglysomeleadingIslamistshavesoughttoblurdistinctionsbetweenthemselves and the lsquoulama to enhance their own authority Usama binLaden(b1957)styledhisfamous1996ldquoDeclarationofWaragainsttheAmericansOccupyingtheLandoftheTwoHolyPlacesrdquoasafatwathatisajuridicalopiniontherebyrhetoricallyobscuringthehistoricalfactthatfatwashavetypicallybeenthepreserveofthe lsquoulamaandmorespecifi-callyofthefuqahaormuftis(jurists)amongthemBinLadenhoweverhasnoformalscholarlycredentialsinmattersIslamicMawdudiwascom-monly styledasmawlana a commonhonorific for the lsquoulama inSouthAsiaAdeliberateblurringofdistinctionsislikewiseevidentinthestate-ment of the Sudanese Islamist Hasan al-Turabi (b 1932) ldquoBecause allknowledgeisdivineandreligiousachemistanengineeraneconomistorajuristarealllsquoulamardquo(Turabi1983245alsochapter8inthisvolume) YetthereareleadingIslamistsmdashinthisvolumeKhomeiniMutahhariBaqiral-SadrFadlallah lsquoAliNadwi lsquoUmar lsquoAbdal-RahmanandQa-radawimdashwhoweretrainedaslsquoulamawhichmeansthatporousbounda-riesbetweenIslamistsandthelsquoulamaarenotjustamatterofself-servingrhetoricbyautodidactsGiventhisfactthedistinctionbetweenIslamistsandlsquoulamaturnslessonstarkdifferencesineducationalbackgroundandmoreonthecharacterandcontentoftheirpoliticalcommitmentsMorethananythingelseIslamistsseektoimplementIslamiclawthroughtheagencyofthestateNotallarewillingtoresorttoviolentmeansinpur-suitofthisendManysuchasYusufal-Qaradawi(b1926)ahighlyin-fluentialIslamistandoneofthemostprominentlsquoulamaofcontemporaryIslam(Skovgaard-Petersen2004Kraumlmer2006)professdemocraticcom-mitmentsButwhateverthestancetowardeitherdemocracyorviolencethepublicimplementationofthesharilsquoaisattheheartofallIslamisminbothitsShilsquoiandSunniformsThissuggestsanimportantcontrastwithmanyamongthelsquoulama

SincethefirstcenturiesofIslamthelsquoulamahaveoftensoughttomain-tainacarefuldistancefromtherulingelitejealouslyguardingtheirinsti-tutionsandpracticesfromgovernmentalinterferenceThelsquoulamagener-allyrecognizedthatthefunctioningoflegalandotherIslamicinstitutionspresupposedtheexistenceofaMuslimgovernmentandtheydefinedalegitimategovernmentasonethatoversawtheimplementationofsharilsquoanormsButtheyhavetypicallyunderstoodthegovernmentrsquoscommitmenttothesharilsquoatomeanthattherulerdefendedthebordersofthepolityregulatedpublicmoralitysuppressedhereticsandappointedthosepro-ficientinlegalmatterstoimplementthelaw(cfCrone2004286ndash314)TheyhavenotunderstoodanyofthistomeaneitherthattherulershouldbeabletoofferabsoluteinterpretationsofGodrsquoslaworthattherealmofpoliticsandstatecraftshouldbecomesynonymouswithIslamitselfYetthis ispreciselyhowIslamistshaveoftenconceivedof therelationship

12

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

betweenIslamandpoliticsandmorespecificallybetweenIslamandthestatenocallingishigherthanstrivingtowardtheestablishmentofanIs-lamicstateandoncebroughtaboutallwillbeinaccordancewithGodrsquospurposesMawdudi(1960177)claimedthatldquothestruggleforobtainingcontrolovertheorgansofthestatewhenmotivatedbytheurgetoestab-lishthedin[religion]andtheIslamicSharilsquoahandtoenforcetheIslamicinjunctionsisnotonlypermissiblebutpositivelydesirableandassuchobligatoryrdquo

Tomanylsquoulamathisamountstonothinglessthanmakingreligiousnorms subservient topolitical goalsAsMuftiMuhammadTaqi lsquoUth-manialeadingDeobandischolarofPakistannotesinhisrejoindertoviewssuchasMawdudirsquos

Intheirzealtorefutesecularismsomewritersandthinkersofthepresentagehavegonesofarastocharacterizepoliticsandgovern-ment as the true objective of Islam the reason why the prophetsweresent[byGodtothepeople]indeedtheveryreasonforthecre-ationofthehumanbeingAndtheyhavenotonlygivenotherIs-lamiccommandmentsmdashforinstanceonmattersofworshipmdashasec-ondarypositiontheyhaveevendeemedthemtobemeremeansforpoliticalendsjustawayoftrainingpeople[towardpoliticalmobili-zation](lsquoUthmani199825ndash26cfZaman2008116ndash18)

NotalllsquoulamasharesuchmisgivingsaboutthesubordinationofIslamtopoliticsthoughitshouldbenotedthattheywouldseethisintermsnotofanysuchsubordinationbutratheroftheutterinseparabilityofthere-ligiousandthepoliticalByfarthemostnotableoftheseamongtheShilsquoaisAyatollahKhomeini(d1989)ofIranAgainstalong-standingtradi-tionofShilsquoipoliticalquietismintheabsenceofthehiddenShilsquoiimamKhomeiniarguedthattheShilsquoi lsquoulamaoughttoassumedirectpoliticalleadershipandhethenproceededtospearheadthemovementthatcul-minatedinthefalloftheIranianmonarchyandtheestablishmentoftheIslamicRepublicofIran9Hisdoctrineofthevelayatshye faqih(guardian-shipofthejurist)isaradicalrethinkingofShilsquoipoliticaltheologyblur-ringanymeaningfulboundarybetweenreligiousandpoliticalauthority(seechapter6)ItispreciselyKhomeinirsquoscommitmenttoestablishinganIslamic statealong these lines thatwarrantshis classificationasan Is-

9TheImamiorIthnalsquoashariShilsquoabelievethatthetwelfthandlastoftheirimamswentintoghayba(hiding)in874andthathewilleventuallyreturnasthemahdimdashamessianicfigurewhoalonecanrestoreproperordertotheworldinaugurateaneraofunalloyedjus-ticeandreclaimfortheShilsquoatherightsofwhichtheyhavebeendispossessedbytheSunnisandbycorruptrulersformuchofthehistoryofIslamShilsquoischolarshavelongdebatedthequestionofwhatsortofauthoritytheleadingreligiousscholarsoughttohaveinofficiatingintheimamrsquosabsenceKhomeinirsquosviewdisputedbymanyotherscholarswasthatthelead-ingscholar(s)oughttodischargethefullrangeoftheimamrsquosfunctionsincludingthepoliti-calheadshipofthecommunity

13

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

lamistnotwithstandinghiswell-recognizedstatusasoneoftheleadingShilsquoilsquoulamaofhisgeneration

The Azhar-educated Yusuf al-Qaradawi has for his part criticizedmanyfellowIslamistsonseveralissuesbutnotonthefundamentalques-tion of their political orientation Just as Khomeini had chastised theldquopropagandainstitutionsofimperialism[fortrying]topersuadeusthatthereligiousleadersmustnotinterfereinsocialmattersandthatthefuqaha[jurists]donothavethedutyofoverseeingthedestinyoftheIslamicnationrdquo(Algar1981141)Qaradawiinsiststhatdenyingthepo-liticalorientationofIslamamountstoitswillfuldistortion

Amongtheinterpretationswithwhichthesecularists[lsquoalmaniyyun]andthemodernists[alshyhadathiyyun]calumniate[Islamproperlyun-derstood and those committed to it] is the notion of ldquopoliticalIslamrdquowhichwithoutdoubtisanideaalientoourIslamicsocietyBy[politicalIslam]theymeananIslamthatconcernsitselfwiththeinternalandexternalaffairsoftheMuslimcommunity[Theymeanbyit]actionsaimedatfreeingthecommunityfromtheforeignpowerthatdirects [Muslim]affairsphysicallyandmorallyas itpleases[Theyalsomeanbyit]actionsseekingtocleansethecommunityofthecultural socialand legalsedimentsofWesterncolonialismsothatthecommunitycanreturnonceagaintosubmissiontoGodrsquoslawindifferentareasoflifeTheyusethischaracterizationofldquopoliticalIslamrdquoinordertoalienatepeoplefromits[aforementioned]contentandto frighten themawayfromthosecalling toacomprehensiveconceptionofIslammdashonethatisinclusiveofbeliefandlawworshipandsocialinteractionproselytismandthestate(Qaradawi200793)

Islamistpoliticalcommitmentsareoftenintertwinedwithcritiquesofthescholarlytraditionanditsattendant institutionsandpracticesandthiscriticismprovidesusacrucialwayof thinkingfurtherbothaboutwhatdistinguishesIslamistsfromthelsquoulamaandabouthowtoviewIs-lamismitselfWhatthelsquoulamacannotbutseeasacavalierattitudeto-wardtheirscholarlytraditioniswesuggestbetterviewedaspartofalargerIslamistcritiqueonethatgoestotheheartofhowIslamismoughttobeunderstoodasaphenomenonItisacritiqueofparticularMuslimbeliefspracticesmoresandinstitutionsthataredeemedtohaveonlyatenuousbasis inldquotruerdquoandldquoauthenticrdquo Islamof the repeatedwrongturnsMuslimshavetakenthroughouttheirlonghistoryofthecorrupt-ingldquoforeignrdquoinfluencesmdashfromSufismtoGreekphilosophytothelureofmodernWesternculturesmdashbywhichMuslimshaveallowedthemselvestobeseducedandoftheirunwillingnesstodowhateverittakestoestab-lish thehakimiyya (sovereignty)ofGodonearthThat it is the sover-eigntyofGodthatIslamistsseekultimatelytoaffirmintheirindividualandpubliclivesremindsusthattheircritiqueofthepastandthepresentisapoliticalcritiqueanchoredinanddrivenbyaspirationstoinstitutea

14

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

newreligio-politicalorderWhetherthiscritiqueisarticulatedinconcreteor vague terms in a seeminglymoderateorplainlymilitant languagethere is no mistaking either its principal targetmdashfacets of the Islamictraditionmdashoritsfundamentallypoliticalorientation10

IslamistshaveofteninsistedthatthewordofGodcanandshouldbeapproacheddirectlywithoutthemediationofpresentorpastscholarsandwithoutanyneedfortheedifyingtalesthephilologicaldebatesandthelong-windedtheologicaldisquisitionssooftenfoundinmedievalexe-geticalliteratureamajorfacetoftheIslamicscholarlytradition(cfCarreacute200318)ShukriMustafaanEgyptianIslamistexecutedin1977forthemurderousactivitiesofhisSocietyofMuslims(popularlyknownastheSociety of Excommunication and Emigration) had famously assertedthatalloneneededtoresolveuncertaintiesinonersquosunderstandingofthewordofGodwasadictionary(Kepel199379)SayyidQutbdidnotgoquite that farButhe tooaffirmed that the fundamental teachingsofIslamwereentirelytransparentldquoWhatwearesayingaboutIslamisnoinventionofoursoranynewinterpretationofitsessenceIt issimplyplainIslamasitwasunderstoodbyitsfirstadherentMuhammadandhissincereCompanionsandthoseclosetoitsauthenticsourcerdquo(Qutb19969withminorchange)

TheimplicationofQutbrsquosstrikingassertionistwofoldFirstbehindarhetoric of humility in relation to divine knowledge Qutb implicitlyclaimsthefullbackingofGodandHisProphetfortheldquoplainIslamrdquohesetsforthMorespecificallyheessentiallydepictshisownunderstandingofIslamassynonymouswithGodrsquoseternalintentmuchasKhomeinirsquospronouncementsasthevalishyye faqih(guardianjurist)presumedtoarticu-latewhatIslamitselfstoodfororrequiredonanygivenmatterSecondthestatementimpliesnotonlythatviewsotherthanhisaremereinter-pretationsbutthattheyarethemorereprehensibleforbeingldquonovelrdquomdashasuggestionthatevokesthenotionofbidlsquoathatisofillicitcapriciousin-

10ThatIslamismshouldbeseenasawide-rangingcritiqueoftheworldandoftheIslamictraditionisareminderofcoursethatcritiqueisnotaninherentlysecularphenomenonnordoesitnecessitateasecularframeworkAsTalalAsad(2008)hasobservedgivenawidevarietyofldquopossibleinstancesofcritiquecriticismwhatwehaveisafamilyconceptforwhichitisnotpossibletoprovideasingletheorybecausethepracticesthatconstitutethemdifferradicallyrdquo(alsocfMahmood2008Taylor2008)NorshouldourviewingIs-lamism as a politically motivated critique suggest that other competing orientations inmodernIslamcannotalsobeseenascritiquesofparticularpracticesparticularformsofknowledgeWhatdoesdistinguishanIslamistorientationfromothersisonceagainboththedegreetowhichIslamistcritiquesbreakwiththeirpastandpresentandtheiraspirationto remake theworld in accordancewith their understandingof immutable divine com-mandsThisismarkedlydifferentfromhowthelsquoulamamightcritiqueparticularaspectsoftheirscholarlytraditionintheinterestofastrongersenseofcontinuitywiththattraditionorinordertomakeitmorereceptivetowhattheyseeasthecommunityrsquoschangingneedsItisalsoverydifferentfromhowMuslimmodernistsoftenbreakwiththescholarlytradi-tioninordertoadaptMuslimnormsandinstitutionstothedominantpoliticalandculturalinstitutionsoftheircontemporaryworld

15

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

novationinmattersofreligionSuchaviewofIslamjettisonsmuchofwhatwouldnormallycountasitshistoryandcivilizationldquoThehistoryoflsquoIslamrsquordquoQutbtellshisreadersldquoisthehistoryofthetrueapplicationofIslammdashinpeoplersquosconceptionsandtheirpracticesintheirlivesandtheirsocialsystemsIslamisthefixedaxisaroundwhichpeoplersquoslivesrevolveinafixedframeWhentheygooutofthisframeorwhentheycategorically abandon this axis what then do they have to do withIslamrdquo (Qutb 1967a vol 2 part 4 169 quotation marks aroundldquoIslamrdquoinoriginal)ItisforthefixedaxistheplainIslammdashandinoppo-sition to much of its historymdashthat the Islamist professes to stand (cfGrunebaum1962251ndash52)

Qutbhoweverisfarfromconsistentinhisattitudetowardtheschol-arlytraditionorinhowheseekstoarticulatehisownauthorityinrela-tiontoitHisfaithinthetransparencyandthetransformativeimmedi-acyofGodrsquoswordswouldappeartomakeallexegesissuperfluousyethehimselfhadproceededtowriteamajorcommentaryIn the Shade of the QurrsquoanthatwouldexceedfourthousandpagesinprintThejustifi-cationheoffers for it intheopening linesof thecommentary isauda-ciousnotapologetic

LifeintheshadeoftheQurrsquoanisablessingItisablessingunknownto anyonewhohasnrsquot tasted itAll praisebe toGodHehasgrantedmetheopportunitytoliveintheshadeoftheQurrsquoanforaperiodoftimeduringwhichIhavetastedHisblessingsasIneverhadearlierinmylifeIhavelistenedtoGodtheexaltedconvers-ingwithmethroughthisQurrsquoanmdashwithmeasmalllittleslaveIhavelivedintheshadeoftheQurrsquoanlookingfromanelevationatthejahiliyya[paganignorance]raginginthelandandthepettycon-cernsof itspeople [Fromthisvantage] Ihave seen thepride thepeopleofthisjahiliyyatakeintheirchildishknowledgetheirchild-ishideastheirchildishpreoccupations[Ihavelookeduponthem]likeanelderlooksuponthefrivolitiesofchildrenupontheireffortsandupontheirlisps(Qutb1967a13)

Theseresoundingwordsserveinteraliatoexplainwhyanewcom-mentaryshouldhavebeenneededatallthemind-numbingimpactofthejahiliyyahasmadepeopleincapableofrespondingtoeventhemostdi-rectofdivinesummonsandonlysomeonewhohaslivedldquointheshadeoftheQurrsquoanrdquocanunderstandtheirplightandremedyitFromtheper-spectiveQutbadoptshereanyappealtothescholarlytraditionanyef-forttoresthisauthorityonitwouldappearaltogetheroutofplaceYetQutbrsquosclaimstoauthoritydonotderiveexclusivelyfromhisconversingwithGodthroughtheQurrsquoanTosomedegreetheyalsodependonhisbeingseenashavingmasteryovertheveryexegeticaltraditionofwhichheisotherwisefrequentlydismissiveQutbcitesasmallnumberofearliercommentators and other authorities when it suits his purpose to do

16

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

so11justashesidestepstheexegeticaltraditionwhendoingsooffersarhetoricallymoreeffectivewayofarrivingataconclusionMoretradi-tionalexegetespastandpresentalsopickandchooseofcourseButtheyhavetypicallydonesowithinanoverallframeworkthatisdefinedbyacontinuousengagementwiththeexegeticaltraditionasawhole(cfSaleh2004)BycontrastQutbandotherIslamistexegeteswriteoutsideandofteninconsciousoppositiontoanysuchframeworkTheconversa-tionisnotwiththeearlierexegetesbutdirectlywithGodthoughthismightonoccasionbeaidedbyillustrationsfromtheearlierexegeticaltradition

If thereareunacknowledgedambiguities inQutbrsquosrelationshipwiththe Islamic traditionaswehaveobserveda frequentlyacerbic stancedoesnonetheless remain characteristicofhowheviews itmostof thetimeQutbisanythingbutuniqueinthisrespectYetifIslamistssharealmostbydefinitionacriticalstancetowardfacetsofthistraditionthereismuchthatalsoseparatesthemfromoneanotherinpreciselyhowthiscritique and its implications are articulated in different instances Al-thoughthemerepresenceofdisagreementamongIslamist intellectualsandactivistsishardlyremarkablethescopeandimplicationsofsomeofthedisagreementsinasmuchastheyrelatetothescholarlytraditionarenonethelessworthexamininghereFortheysuggestthatwhileIslamistsshare the conviction that particular institutions practices and normsneedtoberefashionedinlightofimmutabledivinecommandsthiscon-victionoftenrestsonquitedifferentviewsofIslamichistoryandciviliza-tionofcontemporaryMuslimsocietiesandnotleastofreligiousau-thorityanditslociNowhereperhapsisthismoreevidentthaninsomeofthewritingsofYusufal-QaradawiLikeQutbQaradawiisamongthemostinfluentialIslamistideologuesintheSunniworldHeisalsooneofQutbrsquosseverestcriticsfromwithintheIslamistcamp(seeespeciallyQa-radawi1994101ndash31)

ThatldquoMuslimrdquosocietieslackedaproperIslamicfoundationmadeitfutileQutbhadarguedtodebatespecificquestionsofIslamiclawand

11TheseincludeinteraliaMuhammadibnIshaq(d767)theauthoroftheSirat rasul AllahoneoftheearliestbiographiesoftheProphetMuhammadal-Tabari(d923)theauthorofJamilsquo alshybayan lishytarsquowil ay alshyQurrsquoanoneofthemostinfluentialcommentariesoftheQurrsquoaneverproducedal-Baghawi(d1117)whosecommentaryistitledMalsquoalim alshytanzilal-Qurtubi(d1273)theauthorofaworkalshyJamilsquo lishyahkam alshyQurrsquoanwhichises-peciallyattentivetothelegalcontentoftheQurrsquoanandIbnKathir(d1373)theauthorofaQurrsquoan commentaryTafsir alshyQurrsquoan alshylsquoazimwhichhasbeenpopular amongmanyMuslimsofaSalafiorientationOnoccasionQutbalsocitesinfluentialfellowIslamistsSeeforexampleQutbFi zilal alshyQurrsquoanvol2part4132(Mawdudi)vol2part525(Nadwi)vol2part6143and150ndash53(lsquoAbdal-QadirlsquoAwdaanEgyptianIslamistandlegalscholarexecutedundertheNasserregimein1954)OccasionallyQutbcitesRidarsquosTafsir alshymanaraswell thoughmoreoftenthannot toregisterhisdisagreementswithRidaandwiththelatterrsquosmentorMuhammadlsquoAbduhForadetailedcomparisonbetweenthecommentariesofRidaandQutbseeCarreacute2003

17

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INTRODUCTION

howitdealtwithparticularsocialoreconomicissuesThelsquoulamawerepatheticallydeludediftheythoughtthattheinterestsofIslamcouldbefurtheredthroughdisquisitionsonthesharilsquoainsuchconditionsofper-vasiveungodliness(Qutb1967b183ndash90)WhatpeopleneededbeforeanythingelsewasareturntothebasicsofthefaithThetaskofrighteouspreacherswastoinstructtheminthesemattersandtohelpthemrecog-nizewhatthesovereigntyofGoddemandedofthem(Qutb199135cfQaradawi1994102ndash4)Allothermattersincludingthenicetiesofjuris-ticdiscussionwerebestpostponeduntilaproperlyIslamicsocietybasedonthisfoundationhadbeenrealized

Qaradawi vehemently disagrees with Qutb arguing that educatedMuslimsarenotpagansbutbelieversandassuchdonotneedtobetu-toredinthefundamentalsoftheirfaithWhattheyoftendonotunder-standverywellmdashandhereQaradawiconcurswithotherIslamistsmdashisthenatureofIslamasanizam (socialandpoliticalsystem)TheproblemofMuslimsinotherwordsisnotgodlessnessbutsimplyignorance(whichiswhat the term jahiliyya literallymeans)of the teachingsof Islam intheircomprehensiveall-encompassingdimensionsAsQaradawiseesitmanyldquocaptivesofWesternthoughtrdquohavedoubtsnotabouttheessentialsoftheirfaithbutratheraboutIslamasacomprehensivesystemanditistheirunaddressedmisunderstandingstheirignoranceonthelatterscorethatsometimesopens thedoor todoubtsaboutmattersofbelief itself(Qaradawi1994113ndash14)Tocontinuetoexpoundonthesocialpoliti-calandotherteachingsofIslamwhilethesocietyisyetimperfectisnottoendorseorstrengthenthejahiliorderasQutbhadallegedbutonlytohelpordinarypeopleintheirefforttoleadvirtuouslivesevenininiqui-touscircumstances

ThisviewrepresentsanappealtowhatQaradawihasrepeatedlyre-ferredtoasthemoderatepathoralshymadrasa alshywasatiyya(theldquocentristschoolrdquocfQaradawi2006137ndash217)mdashonethatlocatesitselfonaputa-tivemiddlegroundbetweenacompleterejectionoftheworldincludingMuslimsocietiesanditstotalembraceQaradawiisequallyconcernedwithrescuingIslamichistoryandcivilizationfromoutrightdismissalatthehandsofIslamistslikeQutb12TheideathatjahilinormshadbeguntocreepbackintotheMuslimcommunityshortlyafterthedeathoftheProphetandthattheyhaveremainedunchallengedformuchofIslamrsquoshistoryignoresallthoseQaradawisayswhohavecontinuedtorepre-sentthepathofrighteousnessthroughoutthehistoryofIslamContrarytotheconvictionoftheSunnisthatldquothecommunitywillneveragreeonerrorrdquomdashastheProphetissaidtohavepromisedmdashthenotionofaperva-

12AmongleadingfiguresQaradawisinglesoutforcriticisminthisregardarebesidesQutbMawdudiandtheEgyptianIslamistscholarMuhammadal-Ghazali(d1996)SeeQaradawi2005b46ndash64It isworthnotingthatdespitetheseandotherdisagreementsQaradawihaswrittenrespectfullyofallthreedevotinganentirebooktohislongassocia-tionwithMuhammadal-Ghazali(seeQaradawi1995)

18

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

sivejahiliyyasuggestsmoreoverthatthecommunitydidindeedagreeonerror13Mostgrievouslyperhaps Islamist critiques tend to suggestthatthesharilsquoahasalmostneverbeenimplementedinMuslimsocietiesaftertheveryfirstyearsofIslamIronicallysaysQaradawisuchindis-criminaterejectionofIslamichistoryinadvertentlyreinforcessecularist argumentsthatthesharilsquoaisunsuitedtopracticalapplication(Qaradawi2005b46)QaradawirsquoscritiqueofQutbandotherIslamistsisfinallyanargumentforthecontinuingcentralityofthelsquoulamatothetaskofpro-viding authoritative guidance to the communityHisunderstandingofwhoconstitutesthelsquoulamaisfarmoreexpansivethanthatofmostDeo-bandilsquoulamaofSouthAsiaButlikethemheisinnodoubtthatseriousreligiousscholarsasdistinguishedfromamateurishautodidactsarecru-cialtothetaskofprovidingauthoritativereligiousandmoralguidancetothecommunity

AlthoughwehavesoughttoillustratecertainfacetsoftheIslamistcri-tiqueof the scholarly traditionandof theworldas somekey IslamistthinkershavearticulateditwedonotwishtosuggestofcoursethatIslamists are necessarily ldquointellectualsrdquo Whatever Qutb KhomeiniMawdudiandQaradawimightthinkofotherscholarsandintellectualsorofthemselvesinrelationtothemtheformerobviouslyarereligiousintellectualsThesameishardlytrueofmanyotherIslamistsYeteventhosewithlittleornointellectualpretensionsareoftenrecognizableas IslamistsnotonlyfortheircommitmenttothepublicimplementationofIslamicnormsgroundedinthefoundationaltextsbutalsomdashandasacor-ollaryoftheformermdashfortheiroftenself-consciouscritiqueofanddisen-gagementfromthenormsandmorestheyseearoundthemIncontempo-raryLebanonforinstanceShilsquoiIslamistshaveoftenseentheirtext-basedreligiouscommitmentsasmarkingacleardeparturefromearlierandex-isting religious practicesAs anthropologist LaraDeeb (2006 20) ob-servesldquoTheyvieweditasnewanddifferentmdashdifferentfromwhattheyoftenreferredtoenigmaticallyaslsquobeforersquoorlsquohowwewerersquoanddifferentfromwhattheycalledalshytaqalid(traditions)Inlieuofpracticesandbeliefscastastraditionaltheyespoused [an] lsquoauthenticatedrsquoIslamexpressedinpublicpietyrdquo14ManyIslamists living inrefugeecampsinGazahavehadasimilarviewTothemldquoPalestinianshadeitherbe-comelostinforeignideologiesortheyhadbecomelsquoMuslimsbycon-

13Theconvictionthatthecommunityatlargeisdivinelyprotectedfromerrorisanim-portantbasisoftheauthorityofldquoconsensusrdquoasamajorsourceofjuridicalnormsinSunniIslamFormoderndebateson consensus and someof the literatureon this subject seeZaman2006

14Theldquotraditionsrdquohereprimarilyrefer tocustomarynormsanddevotionalpracticesratherthantothecenturies-olddiscursivetraditionfromwhichthelsquoulamabothShilsquoiandSunniderivetheirauthorityIslamistcritiquesareoftendirectedasmuchhoweverattra-ditionsinthesenseofldquoinauthenticrdquoculturallyrootedreligiouspracticesastheyareatthescholarlytraditionofthelsquoulamawhichtothemisequallyinauthenticinhavingobscuredthesimpleandfundamentalteachingsofthefoundationaltexts

19

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

ventionrsquowhowentalongwiththefastorprayednowandthenbecausethiswaslsquocustomandtraditionrsquo(lsquoada wa taqlid)ThislackofconsciouszealousadherencetoIslamhadresultedinsocialweaknessleadingtode-featatthehandsofIsraelrdquo(Lybarger2007211)ThereismuchthatsuchanalysessharewiththewritingsandpronouncementsoftheleadingIs-lamistintellectuals

Islamists and Salafi s

JustasitisnotalwayseasytodifferentiatelsquoulamafromIslamistsorIs-lamists frommodernists it is sometimesdifficult to clearlydistinguishbetweenIslamistsandtheSalafisThelatterderivethisself-designationfromclaimsofstrictadherencetothenormativepracticeofalshysalaf alshysalih(thepiousforbears)usuallyunderstoodastheMuslimsofthefirstgenerations of Islam The guiding Salafi assumption is that these firstMuslims inbeingcontemporariesof theProphetMuhammadandtheimmediatesuccessorsofthosecontemporariesexemplifymostperfectlywhatitmeanstobeavirtuousMuslimandthatlatergenerationscandonobetterthanemulatetheexampleofthesefirstgenerationsSomever-sionofthisviewwouldfindbroadresonanceamongIslamistsbutalsoordinary believers though the Shilsquoa of various doctrinal orientationshavealwayshada farmore restrictiveviewofpreciselywho isworthemulating Again like the Islamists the Salafis insist on deriving theirnormsdirectlyfromtheIslamicfoundationaltextstheQurrsquoanandtheexampleoftheProphetMuhammadunmediatedbythemedievalschoolsoflawThismeansdoingawaywiththesortofhistoricallyarticulatedscholarlytraditionfromwhichthelsquoulamahavetendedtodrawmuchoftheirauthorityTheSalafisdohavetheirownlsquoulamamdashQaradawiisano-tableinstanceasaremembersoftheSaudireligiousestablishmentmdashbuteventheirauthorityisbasedfarmoreondirectlyinterpretingthefounda-tional texts than it is on any systematic engagement with the Islamicscholarlytradition

AllthissoundsagooddealnotjustliketheIslamistsbutalsolikethemodernistsThisshouldnotbesurprisingfortheSalafiorientationisanimportantpartofthegenealogyofbothmodernismandIslamismTheSalafi reformer Muhammad lsquoAbduh though a traditionally educatedscholarwhoservedtowardtheendofhislifeasthegrandmuftiofEgyptwasakeyinfluenceinthedevelopmentofIslamicmodernismButwhilesomeoflsquoAbduhrsquosdisciplesdevelopedhisideasinthedirectionofsecularnationalismothersmdashnotablytheSalafijournalistandQurrsquoancommenta-torRashidRidamdasheventuallytookthemdespitehismodernistproclivi-tiesinadecidedlyconservativedirection(Hourani1983alsocfDallal2000)Hasan al-Banna the founder of the MuslimBrotherhoodwasclose to many Egyptian Salafis Muhibb al-din al-Khatib (d 1969) aleadingSalafiofthetimeandtheowneroftheSalafiPublishingHousein

20

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

CairowasinchargeofoneoftheBrotherhoodrsquosfirstjournals(Mitchell1993185)andafterRidarsquosdeathin1935itwasatBannarsquosinitiativethatRidarsquosinfluentialjournalalshyManarwouldcontinuetobepublishedforsomeyears(RMitchell1993186)

ForalltheiraffinitieshoweverSalafiscannotsimplybesubsumedwiththeIslamistsanymorethantheycanwiththemodernistsUnliketheearlySalafisandothermodernists Islamistshavealmost invariablysought toaddressthemselvestoawidepopularaudienceratherthantotheintellec-tualelite(cfRMitchell1993211)TheSalafishavealsobeenfarmorepreoccupiedwithmattersofcorrectbeliefthenuancesofdoctrinethanhaveeither the Islamistsor themodernists (cfHaykel2009 [forthcom-ing])BythesametokenwhilemanyIslamistshavehadasomewhatam-bivalentrelationshipwithSufismSalafishaveusuallybeenunrelentinglyhostile to devotional Sufi practices But if it is useful to distinguish theSalafisfromothercompetingorientationsinmodernIslamitisimportantalsotorecognizethatthereismuchonwhichSalafisthemselveshavedis-agreedsometimessharplyInquestionintheseldquointernalrdquodifferencesisnottheiroverallorientationmdashtowardtheIslamicfoundational textsandthepristinenormsofIslamrsquosfirstgenerationsmdashbutratherthepreciseimplica-tionsofthisorientationforbeliefandconductinthepresentAconsider-ationofsomeofthesedifferencesshouldinturnfurtherillustratehowtheSalafisoughttobedistinguishedfromothercompetingcamps

WheremanySalafisseetheschoolsoflawasobstructingandindeeddistortingthesimplemessageofthefoundationaltextsothersviewthelegaltraditionasrepresentingIslamrsquosrichintellectuallegacyfromwhichMuslimsought todrawboth inspirationandguidanceQaradawi forinstance has been critical not just of the Muslimmodernists but alsooffellowSalafisfortheirirreverencetowardtherichesofthelegaltradi-tiontheiruneducatedproclivitytosetitasidealltoocallouslyOnthisviewarejectionofthetaqlid-boundlsquoulamashouldnotleadtotheotherextrememdashexemplifiedbynotafewSalafismdashofjettisoningthescholarlytraditionaltogether SalafisalsodifferamongthemselvesintheirattitudestowardmodernWesterninstitutionsandpracticesInthelatenineteenthandearlytwen-tieth centuries Salafi reformers like Muhammad lsquoAbduh and RashidRidainEgyptandJamalal-dinal-Qasimi(d1914)inSyriahadcalledforareorientationtowardthefoundationaltextsasawayofjustifyingnotresistingchangesinlawandeducationaswellasotherfacetsofso-cialreform(cfHourani1983Commins1990)OnthisviewadirectrecoursetotheQurrsquoanandthesunnaofferedthebestwayofdemonstrat-ing the accord between their teachings and the reformist project15 In

15SymptomaticofotherdisagreementsamongtheSalafisistheveryquestionofpreciselywhothesalafarewhoseexampleoughttobeemulatedThenarrowerviewslimitthesalaftothefirstthreegenerationsofIslammdashtheageoftheProphetMuhammadandhiscompan-ionstheirsuccessorsandthelatterrsquosimmediatesuccessorsmdashbuteventhesenarrowviews

21

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INTRODUCTION

contemporaryEuropeTariqRamadananinfluentialSwissArabphilos-opherhasarguedthatMuslimslivinginWesternsocietiesoughttofeelathomeinandcontributetoward thosesocietieswhileretainingandcultivatingtheirdistinctIslamicidentityHetooappearstoseehimselfinthegenealogyofwhathecharacterizesasldquoSalafireformismrdquo(onthischaracterization see Ramadan 2004 26ndash27) and he has echoed Qa-radawiinsomeofhisviews(cfRamadan199993ndash99) Other Salafis have remained staunchly opposed to institutions andpracticesofaWesternprovenanceAnespeciallyinfluentialfigureinthegenealogyofthelatterpositionistheeighteenth-centurypuritanicalre-former Muhammad ibn lsquoAbd al-Wahhab (d 1792) whose alliance in1744 with Muhammad ibn Salsquoud contributed to the establishment ofthefirstSaudistateinthelateeighteenthcenturyIbnlsquoAbdal-WahhabwashostilenotonlytoShilsquoismandtoSufidevotionalismbutalsotoany-thinghedeemednottobeinstrictconformitywiththeteachingsofthefoundationaltextsTherewasmuchthatseemedtohimtofailthisstan-dardallofwhichhebrandedasoneoranotherformofunbeliefTheWahhabismdashas the followers of Ibn lsquoAbd al-Wahhab are oftenknownthoughtheyprefertothinkofthemselvessimplyasgoodMuslimsoratbestasSalafismdashoftenadheretothelegalnormsoftheHanbalischooloflawthoughitistheteachingsofthefoundationaltextsirrespectiveofthisoranyotherschooldoctrinethattheyprofesstofollowThemoststringentoftheSaudiSalafisaswellasotherselsewhereareaveryfarcryindeedfromwhatQaradawiwouldcharacterizeasldquocentristrdquoSalafireformersletalonefromtheearlytwentieth-centurySalafimodernists

ThepoliticalviewsoftheWahhabisandmorebroadlyoftheSalafisare likewiseanythingbutuniformInSaudiArabiaWahhabireligiousscholarshavelongaffirmedaquietistpoliticalstancewhichhasmeantleavingmattersofthestatetotherulingfamilyFormuchofthehistoryofmodernSaudiArabiatherulingelitefor itsparthas imposedfewconstraintsontheSaudilsquoulamainmattersofreligiouslifetheregulationofsocialnormsandjudicialadministration(cfVogel2000)Onseveraloccasions however this relationship has come under severe strain In1979agroupofWahhabiswhorejectedthelegitimacyoftheSaudistateyethadtieswithsomeprominentreligiousscholarsmdashincludinglsquoAbdal-

feelconstrainedtomakeroomforsuchreveredfiguresasAhmadibnHanbaltheputativefounderoftheHanbalischooloflawandthefourteenth-centuryDamascenescholarIbnTaymiyya(d1328)OtherviewsarerathermoreexpansivenotjustinchronologicalbutalsoandcruciallyinintellectualtermsThusMuhammadlsquoAbduhthoughtthesalaftoalsoincludesuchtheologiansasal-Ashlsquoari(d935)al-Baqillani(d1013)andal-Maturidi(d944)SeeHourani1983149SuchaviewobviouslyopensthedoorforpreciselythesortoftheologicaldebatesthatotherSalafisaswellasIslamistsoftenfrownuponfortakingthebelieversveryfarfromthesimpleanddirectwordsofGod lsquoAbduhrsquosdiscipleRidaagaintookanarrowerviewofthesalafandlaterinhiscareerbecameastrongdefenderoftheWahhabisCfHourani1983230ndash32

22

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INTRODUCTION

lsquoAzizBinBaz(d1999)laterthegrandmuftiofSaudiArabiamdashtookoverthesacredprecinctsoftheKalsquobainMeccainashort-livedbutextremelyembarrassingchallenge toSaudi royalauthority (cfHegghammerandLacroix2007)In1990KingFahdrsquosdecisiontoinviteAmericantroopstodefendthekingdomagainstthethreatofanIraqiinvasioncreatedwide-spreadresentmentamongSaudis theeffectsofwhichcontinue to thisdayThestationingofnon-MuslimmilitarypersonnelinIslamrsquosholiestlandwasdeemedbythekingrsquoscriticstobescandalousandevensacrile-giousAnumberofprominentSaudiSalafispubliclycriticizedthekingrsquosdecisiononthisoccasioncallinguponhimaswellasonBinBazandoth-ersatthehelmoftheSaudireligiousestablishmenttoreorienttheSaudipolitytowarditstruereligiousfoundationsManyofthesedissidentsmdashwhowerealsojoinedbyldquosecularrdquoSaudicriticsoftheroyalfamilymdashwereandhaveremainedrestrainedintheircriticismevenastheycalledforstricterconformitytoIslamicnormsasthepanaceaforallills(cfFandy1999)OthershoweverhavedenouncedtheroyalfamilyanditsWesternalliesinnouncertaintermsBinLadenisonlythemostnotoriousofthosewhobrokewiththeroyalfamilyinthewakeofKingFahdrsquosdecisiontoinviteWesterntroopsin1990andwhocalledfortheoverthrowoftheroyal familyand for jihadagainstWesternpowers Such strident callshavebeencontinuedbyotherSalafisbothbeforeandaftertheterroristattacksofSeptember112001aswellasintheaftermathoftheUS-ledinvasionofIraq(al-Rasheed2007)

ItshouldbeclearinlightoftheforegoingthatanyunderstandingofthedifferencesbetweenIslamistsandtheSalafismustrestontakingac-countofthediversityamongtheSalafisSalafiswhooftenrejectmuchoftheIslamicscholarlytraditioninfavorofadirectrecoursetothefoun-dationaltextsarenotnecessarilyrenderedldquoIslamistrdquosimplybyvirtueofthisstanceForasnotedmanyoftheseSalafiscontinuetoprofessareso-lutelyquietiststancewhichinthecaseoftheSaudiSalafismeansaf-firmingallegiancetotheSaudiroyalfamilyThispositionisrepresentedforinstancebyBinBaztheerstwhilegrandmuftiaswellasbyotherleading members of the Saudi religious establishment A pro-regimestanceoroneindifferenttopoliticsisnolessldquopoliticalrdquoofcoursethana position of strident hostility to the established order at home andabroadForourpurposeshoweveritisonlywhentheSalafisrejecttheexistingdispensationandbeginstrivingmdashthoughnotnecessarilythroughmilitantmeansmdashforanewreligio-politicalorderthattheycanbesaidtojointheranksoftheIslamists

ItisworthnotingfinallythatSalafipositionsamongSaudisandelse-wherearemarkednotonlybydiversitybutalsobyconsiderablefluidity(al-Rasheed 2007) The same activist or intellectual might at varioustimesmoveamongavarietyofseeminglyincompatiblepositionsmdashap-pearingtobemoreldquomoderaterdquoonsomeissuesthanonothersForallhiscriticismofradicalIslamistsQaradawiforinstancehashimselfwrittenin justificationofsuicidebombingsbyPalestiniansagainst Israelis (see

23

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INTRODUCTION

chapter 9 on Qaradawi) And Saudi Salafis like Safar al-Hawali andSalmanal-lsquoAwdamdashwhocame toprominence in the early1990smdashhavealternatedbetweencriticismoftheSaudipoliciesanddenunciationsofradicalSalaficallstojihadagainsttheSaudiregime(seeal-Rasheed200759ndash101onal-HawalialsoseeReichmuth2006)Theirshiftingviewsreflect changes in their relations with the Saudi regime but they alsopointtothebroadspectrumofpositionswhichSalafishavetakenatdif-ferenttimesindifferentcontextsandbeforedifferentaudiencesThusevenasal-Hawaliandal-lsquoAwdahavecondemnedterroristactsdirectedagainstSaudiArabiaandadvisedSaudisnottofightAmericantroopsinpostndashSaddamHusseinIraqtheyhavecalledupontheIraqisthemselvestoresistAmericantroopsandhavecharacterizedthateffortasaldquodefen-sivejihadrdquo(al-Rasheed200794ndash95)

Sufi s and Islamists

ItseemsmuchsimpleronthefaceofittodistinguishbetweenIslamistsandSufisThecharacteristicSuficonvictionthattherearelevelsofmean-ingintheQurrsquoanthatgobeyondtheliteralandtheobviousandthataselectfewmdashtheldquofriendsofGodrdquomdashareendowedwiththeuniqueabilityto discern them is anathema to all those who insist that God intendsHisteachingstobeequallyintelligibletoallDespitetheirtendencytoviewthemselvesasbearersof true Islam Islamists typicallyregard theSufi idea that somepeoplehaveaprivileged relationshipwithGodassuspectthebasisnotonlyforsanctioninginterpretationsofIslamthatlackwarrantintheplainteachingsofGodandtheProphetbutalsoforpracticallyldquoworshipingrdquothesefriendsofGodIslamists(andmodernists)havefrequentlyalsobeencriticalofthewaySufidevotionalismcanyieldaturningawayfromtheworldratherthananefforttochangeitaswellasapreoccupationwithpersonalspiritualtransformationattheexpenseofconcernsforthewelfareofthecommunityatlarge SufipracticesandtheteachingsoftheSufimastershavevariedenor-mouslythroughoutthehistoryofIslamyetIslamistcritiquesofSufismareseldomattentivetoitsnuancesortothecomplexwaysithasrelatedtootherfacetsofIslamNorhaveIslamiststakenmuchaccountofthefactthatmanyleadingfiguresofearliertimeswerebesidesmuchelseSufisaswellThisistrueevenofIbnTaymiyya(d1328)whoseprestigeinIslamistandSalaficirclesismatchedbyfewothersandwhowasinhisdayamemberoftheQadiriSufiorder(Makdisi1974)EvenifonearguesmdashasanIslamistmightbeinclinedtomdashthatldquogoodrdquoSufismisnoth-ingbutproperIslamitselftheveryfactthatsuchfigureshadaSufiiden-tityatallnecessarilycomplicateswhatissupposedtobethepristinesim-plicityofafaithsharedequallybyallbelievers

Complicatingthingsstillfurtheristhevarietyofwaysinwhichsomeleading Islamists relate to Sufism Ayatollah Khomeini was a lifelongstudentofIslamicmysticismandtheinfluenceofthemedievalSpanish

24

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INTRODUCTION

Sufi Ibn lsquoArabi loomed especially large in his thought To Khomeinimysticismmdashoften referred to as lsquoirfan (gnosis) especially when inter-twinedwithIslamicphilosophyandtheology(Knysh1992632)mdashwascrucialtoaproperunderstandingofGodrsquosrelationshipwiththeworldandwiththehumanbeingItwasalsoessentialforonersquosethicalforma-tionforamasteryovertheselfandultimatelyforrealizinginoneselftheattributesofwhat Ibn lsquoArabihadcalledldquotheperfectmanrdquo (cfKnysh1992 635 also Mottahedeh 1985 180ndash85) Some of the austerity ofKhomeinirsquospersonallifeprobablyalsoderivedfromSufiasceticismAndthoughheanchoredhisconceptionofIslamicgovernmentinanexposi-tionofShilsquoijuridicalthoughtratherthaninIslamicmysticismthesortofreligiousauthorityhecametoenjoyonthebasisofhisreformulationofShilsquoipoliticaltheologyseemstoechomysticalideasoftheperfectmanwho embodies and upholds the moral order as the microcosm of theuniverse

UnlikeKhomeiniQutbwasnotaSufiandhegivesnoindicationofsharinganyofKhomeinirsquosenthusiasmforthegreatSufithinkersofear-liertimesEvensoechoesofamysticrsquosdirectencounterwiththefoun-tainheadoftruthandknowledgearehardtomissinQutbrsquoswritingses-peciallyinhiscommentaryontheQurrsquoan(cfCarreacute200395ndash97)TheveryfirstsentenceofhiscommentarymdashldquolifeintheshadeoftheQurrsquoanisablessingunknowntoanyonewhohasnrsquottasteditrdquomdashevokesthefa-miliarSufiideathatincontrovertibleknowledgeofRealityisultimatelyacquired only through direct personal experience (dhawq that is theldquotasterdquooftheTruth)ThegreatmedievalSufial-Ghazali(d1111)hadauthoredafamousautobiographicalaccountofhowitwasonlythroughthe immediacyofhispersonalmysticalexperience thathewasable toovercomehisdebilitatingepistemologicaldoubtsandreassurehimselfofthenecessarytruths(Watt199857)QutbdoesnotmentionGhazaliinthiscontextbutitisdifficultnottobestruckbythemysticalresonanceofsomeofhislanguageHereisoneexamplewhichoccursinhiscom-mentaryonsura(chapter)53oftheQurrsquoan16

16TheearlyversesinthissuraoftheQurrsquoanhavebeenunderstoodbyMuslimexegetesasreferringtotheProphetrsquosrevelatoryexperienceaswellastohisldquonightjourneyrdquoandhisascensiontoheavenormilsquoraj inthecourseofonenighthewastransportedfirstfromMeccatoJerusalemandthentothepresenceofGodbeforebeingreturnedtoMecca

UnrelatedtothenightjourneybutrelatedtohisrevelatoryexperiencestheexegeticalsignificanceofthisQurrsquoanicsuraalsoliesinitsconnectionwiththeso-calledSatanicVersesAccordingtocertainexegeticalreportsMuhammadwasinthecourseofreceivingarevela-tionwhenSataninterpolatedsomeversesintoitmdashversespraisingthreegoddessesreveredbythepolytheistsofMeccaItwasnotuntilsometimelaterthatMuhammadrealizedhiserrorwhereupontheversesinterpolatedbySatanwereremovedTheepisodeoftheldquoSa-tanicVersesrdquohasbeenacontroversialoneinIslamichistorylongbeforeSalmanRushdiersquosnovelofthatnameandKhomeinirsquosjuridicalruling(fatwa)callingforRushdiersquosdeathMostMuslimscholarshavefoundittooshockingtobelievethattheProphetcouldhavemadesuchagrievouserrorandhavedeniedthatanysuch incidentever tookplaceYetsome

25

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INTRODUCTION

IwaschattingoneeveningwithsomecompanionswhentoourearscamethesoundofsomeonerecitingtheQurrsquoannearbyrecitingtheSuraoftheStar[al-Najm]andweinterruptedourconversationtolistentotheNobleQurrsquoanLittlebylittlemyheartenteredintowhatwasbeing recited into theheartofMuhammadashe jour-neyedtotheHeavenlyHostIwaswithhimashesawGabrielintheangelicforminwhichGodhadcreatedhimIwaswithhiminhis loftyandfree-flying journey to theLoteTreeof theBoundaryandtheGardenoftheRefugeIwaswithhimtotheextentthatmyimaginationcouldformavisionofitandtotheextentthatmyfeelings couldbear itThen came the final cry andmywholebeingshookatthefearfulreproachldquoDoyoumarvelatthisdiscourseanddoyoulaughandnotweepandmakemerryrdquo[Q5359ndash61]WhenIheardldquoBowdownbeforeGodandserveHimrdquo[Q5362]thetremblinginmyhearthadbecomeaphysicalandvisibletremblingthroughoutmybodythatIcouldnotresistMybodykeptshakingandIcouldnotcontrolitNorcouldIholdbackthetearsthatwerepouringforthhowevermuchItried(QutbZilalvol7part2774ndash75quotedfromCarreacute2003333ndash34withminorchanges)

TheQurrsquoanrsquosprofoundimpactontheaestheticsensibilitiesofitslisten-ersisafamiliarmotifindiscussionsofitsliteraryqualities(cfGrahamandKermani2006)AssomeonewhoseearlywritingswereconcernedwithArabicliterarycriticismandspecificallywiththeliteraryexcellenceoftheIslamicscripture(Qutb1949b)QutbwasespeciallyreceptivetothisaspectoftheQurrsquoanThesenseofbeingtransportedbacktothetimeoftheProphetandtowitnessingtheProphetrsquosascension(milsquoraj)tothepresence of Godmdashwhich is how the passage being commented on byQutbherehascommonlybeeninterpretedbytheexegetesmdashcanlikewisebeseenasanillustrationoftheoverpoweringimpactthewordsoftheQurrsquoancanhaveonthebelieverQutbrsquosaccountofconversingwithGodthrough the Qurrsquoan (cited earlier) is again something he may havewantedtoseeallbelieversdoYetallbelieverscanscarcelydosoany-morethanallaspirantsevenontheSufipathcanexperiencethetransfor-mativemysticalldquostatesrdquothatGodbestowsonHisspecialfriends(awlshyiya)IrrespectiveofwhetherhesawitinquitethiswayQutbrsquosassertionthatheisabletoenterldquointotheheartofMuhammadrdquoandtoseeGabrielasMuhammad sawhimsurelygiveshimaperspective thatothers en-counteringthewordofGoddonothave

ThepointisnotofcoursethatQutbwaseverrecognizedbyhisfol-lowersasaSufimasterbutthatsomeofthehermeneuticalauthorityheclaimshasadistinctiveSufiringtoitMorebroadlythesortofunques-

leadingscholarsofearlyandmedievalIslammdashincludingIbnTaymiyyamdashacceptedthehisto-ricityofthisincidentSeeSAhmed1998

26

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INTRODUCTION

tioningreligio-politicalauthorityIslamistleadershaveoftenenjoyedovertheirfollowersisnotunlikethatoftheSufimasteroverhisfollowersBe-ginningwithHasanal-BannathefounderoftheMuslimBrotherhoodandoncehimselfamemberofaSufiordertheleaderofthisorganizationis formally referred to as themurshid (guide)ormore specificallyalshymurshid alshylsquoam (thegeneralguide[RMitchell1993165])whichisafamiliartermforthemasterinSuficontextsForhispartAbdessalamYassine the founder and leader of lsquoAdl warsquol-Ihsan Party of Morocco(oftenreferredtoastheJusticeandSpiritualityAssociationorJSA)haslike Khomeini gone well beyond simply echoing Sufi conceptions ofauthorityinhisowndiscoursesHetoowasonceamemberofaMoroc-canSufiorderandhehascontinuedtodrawonSufithemesinhiswrit-ingsTheverynameofYassinersquospoliticalorganizationevokesacentralSufiideanamelyihsanThisisaQurrsquoanicterm(cfQ756)thattrans-latedliterallymeansldquotodogoodrdquothoughSufishaveunderstoodittomeanmuchmore thanthatFollowingawell-knownstatementattrib-uted to theProphetMuhammad theyhaveoften interpreted ihsan tomeangoingbeyondtheexternalsofIslamicritualpracticestoldquoworshipGodasifyouseeHimrdquo(Schimmel197529)thatiscultivatingasenseof personal communion and intimacy with God Even as Yassine hassoughttodistancehimselffromwhathedeemstobetheexcessesofSu-fismthereislittledoubtthathispoliticalappealowesmuchtocarefullycalibratedeffortstocombinedistinctiveSufiideaswithhisownbrandofIslamism(cfLauziegravere2005seealsochapter12onNadiaYassineinthisvolume)

FinallyMawdudirsquosJamalsquoat-iIslamimdashoneoftheearliestIslamistorga-nizations in the Sunni worldmdashillustrates both the Islamistsrsquo complexrelationshipwith Sufismand their pragmatic recognitionof its appealinmanyMuslimsocietiesMawdudihadoncebeenaharshcriticofSu-fismblamingitformanyillsafflictingMuslimsocietiesYettheJama-lsquoat-iIslamigraduallycametosoftenitsstanceonSufipracticesconsider-ablynodoubtintheinterestofbroadeningsomeofitssupportbaseinPakistanwheresaintsandSufishrinesareanimportantpartofthereli-giousandpoliticallandscapeAlreadyinMawdudirsquoslifetimeMianTufaylMuhammadhissuccessorastheheadoftheJamalsquoat-iIslamihadtakentheextraordinaryinitiativeoftranslatinganearlySuficlassictheKashf alshymahjub into Urdu The author of this work Shaykh lsquoAli Hujwiri(d1072)isburiedinLahoreinPakistanandhismuch-frequentedshrineishometoprecisely thesortofdevotionalpractices that Islamistsandmodernist reformers letaloneSalafishaveoften frownedupon (Nasr1996124)

ThesediverseexamplesarenotintendedtoobscuretherealdifferencesbetweenthegeneralityofIslamistsandmostSufisTheirsignificanceliesratherinillustratingthedifficultyofdistinguishingbetweenIslamismandotherreligiousintellectualandpoliticaltrendsintermsofneatcharac-

27

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INTRODUCTION

terizationsofgrandtranslocalgeneralizationsAstheforegoingsuggeststhesameistrueandmoresowhenitcomestocharacterizingIslamistsinrelationtothelsquoulamatheMuslimmodernistsandtheSalafisIndeedasLorenLybargerhasarguedwithreferencetothoseusuallycharacter-izedasldquosecularnationalistrdquoorldquoIslamistrdquoPalestiniansintheWestBankandGazadifferenceswithintheranksofyoungsecularnationalistsandIslamistscansometimesalsoshadeintosignificantsimilaritiesbetweenthesesupposedlyrivalorientations(Lybarger2007)ManyIslamistshavesoughttodistancethemselvesfromwhattheyseeastherigidityandau-thoritarianismofotherIslamistsandtoarguenotjustfortheimplemen-tationofthesharilsquoabutalsofordemocracyandpluralismConverselynot a few of the younger secular nationalists have ldquoadopted IslamisttheodiciesthatexplainedthefailuretoovercomeIsraelastheresultoffallingawayfrompietytheirconclusionsmirroredIslamistonestootheroadbackfromthebrinkhadtotraceitscoursethrougharenewedcom-mitmenttoIslambutnotnecessarilyinthemannerthattheIslamistmove-mentsmighthaveintendedrdquo(Lybarger2007237ndash38quotationat238)

Yet ifneatcategoriesremainelusiveacombinationoftheIslamistsrsquoself-consciouslypoliticalgoalstheirmultifacetedifnotalwaysexplicitpoliticalcritiquesofmanypastandpresentwaysofunderstandingandlivingIslamandanunshakeableconfidenceintheirownabilitytodis-cern Godrsquos will from the foundational texts do often provide enoughgrounds tobroadlydistinguish themfromotheractivists intellectualsand orientations in the Muslim public sphere What this combinationamountstovariesfromonesocialpoliticalreligiousandculturalcon-texttoanotherandsothereforedothewaysinwhichIslamistsrelatetooneanotherorcompeteandoverlapwithothergroupsandorientations

The Politics of Islamism

FromAeneasrsquosmythicalfoundingofRometothedeathandresurrectionofJesusChristtoMuhammadrsquosmigrationtoMedinafoundationalnar-rativesareascommontocollectivelifeasthemovementsthatperiodi-callyarisetorevivethemandclaimantstothemantleoflegitimacytheyconferSounderstoodIslamistsrsquopoliticalaspirationstorestorefounda-tionslocatedinamythicalpastarefarfromuniqueNorareIslamistsaloneintheirconvictionthatscripturalauthorityisguaranteedbyitsdi-vineauthormdashforinthatallMuslimsagreeRatherthechaptersinthisvolumesuggest thatwhatmakes Islamistpoliticsdistinctive (ifnotsui generis)istheclaimtorecuperateanldquoauthenticIslamrdquocomprisedofself-evidenttruthspurgedofalienandcorruptinginfluencesalongwithaninsistenceonremakingthefoundationsofthestateinitsimageGiventhelimitsofhumanunderstandingrelativetoGodrsquosknowledgeIslamistssimultaneouslydepictsuchfidelitytotheunadulteratedwordofAllahas

28

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INTRODUCTION

theultimateexpressionofdeferencetodivineomniscienceandportrayhumilityasaconstitutivefeatureofthehumanconditionAspirationstofullyknowandmasterthenaturalandsocialworldsthusentailnotonlyahumanhubrisdeaftotheQurrsquoanicadmonitionthatldquoAllahknowsbutandyoudonotknowrdquo(Q366)butalsoatransgressionagainstadi-vinely-ordainedontologicalorder

ItisnotablehoweverthattheIslamistemphasisonthelimitsofhumanknowledgerequireshumilityonlyinrelationtoAllahitrarelyyieldshu-milityinregardtotheirownclaimstospeakinHisnameortowardotherhumanbeingswhodissentfromthepremiseofdivineomnipotenceandIslamistaccountsofwhat it requiresThis suggests thatwhile IslamistchallengestostatepowerareobviouslypoliticaltheIslamistclaimtoau-thenticityisalsopolitical inthecoercivepoweritroutinelyenactsandjustifiesmostnotablybywayofthesilencesitimposesandthedebatesitforeclosesAzizal-Azmehpointsoutthatldquothenotionofauthenticityisnotsomuchadeterminateconceptasitisanodeofassociationsandin-terpellationsatropebymeansofwhichthehistoricalworldisreducedtoaparticularorderandatokenwhichmarksoffsocialandpoliticalgroupsandforgesandreconstituteshistoricalidentitiesrdquo(al-Azmeh199341)WhetherintheserviceofArabnationalismChristianfundamental-ismEuropeanromanticismorMuslimmodernismtheclaimofauthen-ticityisanactofpowerthatfunctionsnotjusttoreflecttheworldbuttoconstructitbydeterminingwhoisincludedandexcludedwhomayandmaynotspeakauthoritativelywhatistheproperrealmofdebateandwhatisbeyondcontestation

ItiscertainlythecasethatasingleldquoIslamrdquocapturesandorganizestheperspectivesofmillionswhoself-identifyasMuslim(amongotherthings)yetwhattravelsunderitsrubricisinescapablydiversemultiethnicanddefined asmuchbydisagreement as consensus Just as theTorah andBible lend themselves toat times radicallydivergent interpretationsofwhatitmeanstobeJewishorChristiantheQurrsquoanandhaditharecom-plexandsusceptibletomanydifferentandattimescontradictoryenact-mentsSounderstoodIslamislessafixedessencethanalivingtraditionthatcaptureswhatisimaginedascontinuousandunitaryindialecticalrelationshiptothoseconcretearticulationsandpracticesbywhichitistransformedandadaptedindifferentcontextsforpluralpurposesItispreciselythisunderstandingofreligionthatisanathematoIslamistswhoseek tofix theparametersof Islamicauthenticityonceandforallandtherebyarrogateforthemselvestherighttodeterminewhoqualifiesasagood Muslim to discredit those lsquoulama unable or unwilling to purgeIslamofpurportedimpietiestodeclarenominallyMuslimrulersapos-tatesunfittogovernandtocharacterizeallwhodisagreeascorrupthe-reticalguiltyofunbelieforvictimsoffalseconsciousness

Thesegeneralpoliticaltendencieshowevermustbecarefullysituatedwithinadialecticoftheglobalandthevernacularunderstoodtoreflect

29

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

thewaysinwhichunifyingmacrohistoricaldynamicsinformandareinturntransformedbydiversecontingentandfluidlocalcircumstancesInaworldstampedbyWesterndominanceandtheconsolidationofpostco-lonial authoritarian regimes Islamists confront a common set of con-straintsandchallengesInasmuchassuchconstraintsandchallengeshavemade Islamist thinkers (often reluctant) participants in conversationsacrossbothcultureandhistorytheireffortstoremakethefoundationsofcollectiveliferevealasharedinterpretiveframeworkandcommonreli-gio-political grammar At the same time this frame and grammar arecontinuallybeingreworkedinrelationtothedistinctpublicspheresinwhichIslamistsoperateandtowhichtheycarefullycalibratetheirpoliti-calcommitments

Attention to this complex dynamic suggests that the Islamist move-mentcannotsimplybecharacterizedasviolentantidemocraticandop-pressiveofwomenlabelsinvokedsofrequentlyinscholarlyandpopularliterature on the subject that they have become virtually synonymouswithIslamistpoliticsSuchcharacterizationsdocapturecrucialdimen-sionsofIslamistpoliticsyettheyalsosidesteptheparadoxesitsvarie-gatedandoftencontradictoryexpressionspresentInsteadwearguethatIslamistpoliticscanbeproductivelyreadin terms ofandagainst the grain ofsuchbroadcategorizationsasantidemocraticantiwomanorviolentmdashthat is as commitments that at different moments in various localesbothencourageandconstrainbroad-basedpoliticalparticipationdisruptandratifyhierarchicalgendernormsresistandreproducestate-sanctionedbrutalityThepointofreadingIslamistpoliticsinthiswayisnottosug-gestthatIslamistsaresecretlydemocraticfeministandopposedtovio-lenceRatherthepointistodrawattentiontothecomplexityandcon-tradictionserasedbyeasygeneralizationsontheonehandandtheoftenunacknowledgedfluidityandculturaladaptabilityofotherwisefamiliarpoliticalcategoriesontheother

Islamism and Democracy

DespiteimportantdifferencesamongIslamistthinkerstheyhaveincom-monatendencytoviewhumansovereigntyastransgressiveofdivinelawandsharetheaspirationtoestablishsharilsquoaastheprimaryorsolesourceofauthorityAsisoftennotedsuchpremisesandaspirationsrunafoulofassumptionsaboutpopularruleattheheartofdemocracynamelythathumanbeingshavetherighttolegislaterulesforcollectivebehaviorandarecapableofthewisdomrequiredtodevisejustlawsInrecentyearspolicymakersandcommentatorshaveevincedaparticularpreoccupa-tionwiththewaysinwhichIslamistnotionsofdivineauthoritythrottlethespiritandpracticeofpopularsovereigntySomehaveevengonesofarastocharacterizeIslamistsasldquoIslamo-fascistsrdquoanimatedbyhatredoftheldquodemocratic Westrdquo psychologically unable to contend with the fluidity

30

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INTRODUCTION

andindeterminacythatmarkpopularruleandeagertoconvertelectionsintoaldquoone-manone-voteone-timerdquomechanismforestablishinganIs-lamicstate(Murdock2002MRubin2005Kramer1993)

SuchviewsareechoedbythoseIslamistskeentoportraydemocracynotonlyasantitheticaltothesupremacyofdivinelawbutasaTrojanhorseforWesternimperialismFormanyIslamistsincludingseveralinthis volumedemocracy is justone symptomofametastasizingmoralandspiritualbankruptcywherebymoraltransgressionsaretransfiguredintonaturalurgescrassself-interestbecomesthebedrockofcollectivelifeandthedivineplanfortheuniverseandallthingsinitisreducedtoa system of physical causality just waiting to be mastered by way ofhumaningenuity(REuben2007)Qutbcallsthisdiseasedviewoftheworldjahiliyyaanditsignalsnotonlyhumanarrogancebutatransgres-sionagainstdivineauthoritythescopeofwhichencompassesbothpub-licandprivatedomainsofhumanaffairsaswellasbothvisibleandun-seendimensionsoftheuniverseFormanyIslamistssuchtransgressionisattherootofmuchofwhatpassesforMuslimruleinthecontemporaryworldmdashnationalistdemocraticandmonarchicalalikeSucharroganceisalsosaidtobethepatternunderlyingalonghistoryofunrelievedWest-ernaggressionagainstIslaminwhichtheChristianCrusadesEuropeancolonialismIsraelitreatmentofPalestiniansethniccleansinginBosniaGermananti-TurkishviolencetheAmericaninvasionofIraqandDutchcartoonsofMuhammadarebutafewexamples

YetthereisarangeofviewsamongIslamistsaboutboththesubstanceofdemocracyanditscompatibilitywiththereligio-politicalrenewaltheyadvocateAccordingtoQaradawiforexampleldquotheessenceofdemoc-racyisthatpeoplechoosewhorulesoverthemandmanagestheiraf-fairsthatnorulerorregimetheydislikeisforceduponthemthattheyhavetherighttocalltherulertoaccountifheerrsandtoremovehimfromofficeincaseofmisconductandthatpeoplearenotforcedineco-nomicsocialculturalorpoliticaldirectionsthattheyneitherrecognizenor acceptrdquo (Qaradawi1997132 also chapter9 in this volume)TohimthereisnoheavierburdenoppressingMuslimsinthecontemporaryworld thandespotism indeed it is throughdespoticgovernments thatMuslimshavebeenforcedtosubmittootherillsincludingtheneglectofthesharilsquoaandthecoerciveimpositionofsecularismandwesternizationDemocracy then recommends itself to Qaradawi as the most effectiveavailableantidotetodespotismandtheafflictionsofwhichitservesasavehicle

WheremanyamongtheIslamistsandthelsquoulamahaveseenconsider-able tensionbetween IslamanddemocracyQaradawiprofesses to seenoneAswesuggestedearlierbyfarthemostcommonoftheIslamistreservationsaboutademocraticsystemrelatestothesovereigntyofthepeoplewhichistakentocontravenetheideathatGodaloneissovereignQaradawi however is unperturbedby such concernsThe rule of the

31

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INTRODUCTION

peopleoughttobeseenhearguesnotinoppositiontotheruleofGodbutratherinoppositiontotheruleofthedespotMorefundamentallyQaradawirsquos view of democracy does not necessarily require that thepeopleshouldbeabletooverturndivinelyinstitutednormsRatherhisassumptionisthatpeopleexercisetheirsovereigntywithinconstitutionalboundsandMuslimslivinginapredominantlyMuslimdemocraticpol-itywouldlikewisenotwishtotransgresstheparametersoflegitimatehumanactionlaiddownintheIslamicfoundationaltexts(seeQaradawichapter9inthisvolumeandcfFeldman2007)

NadiaYassineofMoroccorsquosJusticeandSpiritualityAssociationisan-othercaseinpointWhilecriticalofthedemocraticgesturesembracedbyamonarchythatshedepictsasallergictogenuinelypopularsovereigntyYassineinsiststhatthemodelofMuslimruleadumbratedintheummafoundedbytheProphetMuhammadandinparticulartheConstitutionofMedina17isnothingshortofdemocratic(NYassine2005d2005e)UnliketheMuslimdynastiesthatarosetousurpitYassinecontendsthiscommunity was participatory egalitarian committed to freedom andexpressiveofGodrsquosmercyMostimportantitwasgovernedalwaysbytheQurrsquoanicprincipleofshura (consultation)bywhichYassinemeansaphilosophy of power that places sovereignty in the community ratherthaninanyindividuallinksvirtuetodeliberationratherthanobedienceandexhortsbelieverstocontinuallyadaptQurrsquoanicprinciplesthroughijtihad rather than adhere reflexively to precedent (N Yassine 2006a182ndash862005d)ManyscholarsandjournalistsremainskepticaloftheJSArsquosasyetuntestedcommitment toproceduraldemocracyandworrythatNadiaandher fatherAbdessalamultimatelyseektoestablishanIslamic state inhospitable to tolerance pluralism and civil liberties(Maghraoui2001Brandon2007Whitlock2006)YetothersarguethattheJSAisagenuinelypopulistorganizationthatrepresentstheunrepre-sentedtendstothewelfareofthedispossessedandbothexpressesandcontributestoanincreasinglyvibrantcivilsocietyinMorocco(Cavatorta2006Entelis2002)

QaradawirsquosandYassinersquosargumentstogethersuggestthatdemocracycanandhasservedaseitheracosmeticcoverfordespotismoranauthen-ticallyIslamiccheckuponcorruptandarbitraryruleAtissueinIslamistargumentsforandagainstdemocracythenarenotonlywhatcountsasldquoauthenticIslamrdquoandtheintentionsofthosewhoclaimtoknowitbutalsothecontentandcharacterofdemocracyitselfParadoxicallybothIslamistsopposedtodemocracyandthosewhotakeIslamismasinher-entlyantidemocraticregardthisasasimplematterwithanobviousan-swerdemocracyisanexpressionofandevensynonymouswithliberal-ismcapitalismandtheWestYetdemocracyisbothmorecapaciousand

17TheConstitutionofMedinawasanagreementtheProphethadenteredintowiththelocalcommunitiesincludingJewishtribesuponhisemigrationfromMeccatoMedina

32

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

moredistinctthanthispresumptionsuggestsTheworditselfofcoursederivesfromtheancientGreekdemokratiawhichmeansrule(kratos)ofthepeople(demos)andmanyderivetheequationofdemocracyandtheWestfromthisassociationwithclassicalGreeceYetancientGreekphi-losopherssuchasPlatosawindemocracythespecterofmobrulepartic-ularly vulnerable to demagoguery and despotism (a suspicion notablyechoedbyAmerican founder JamesMadison)Contrary to thedemo-cratic idealof inclusivenessmoreover citizenship inGreekdemocracyexcludedasubstantialpartofthepopulationincludingwomenslavesandforeignersFinallytheextenttowhichtheancientGreeksmayevenbecalledWesternisamatterofgreatdisputeparticularlyastheldquoWestrdquoisacategoryofrelativelyrecentprovenancethroughwhichhistoryandgeographyhavebeenretroactivelyorganized18DespitedepictionsoftheHellenicworldasWesternancientGreeksdidnotinfactviewthem-selvesintheseterms19

TheequationofdemocracywiththeWestalsopresupposestheexis-tenceofacoherentldquoWesterncivilizationrdquowitheitherculturallyhomoge-neousrootsorclearlydelineatedhistoricalandcontemporarybounda-riesorbothYetwhatiscalledtheWestisanamalgamationofmultipletraditionsincludingtheGreekRomanJudaicChristianandIslamicmdashtraditionsthatarethemselvespolyvalentratherthanhomogeneousmdashandistodaycharacterizedbyporousbordershybridsubculturesandmyriaddebtstodiversecivilizationspastandpresent20AsageographicmarkeritisvirtuallyimpossibletopinpointexactlywheretheWestbeginsandendsandthisisespeciallysonowthatpeoplesinformationandmate-rial goods crisscross cultural andnational borders atwill creating allkindsoftransnationalsubnationalandmultipleidentitiesthatshiftandreconstitutethemselvesinunpredictablewaysEventhosevaluesidenti-fiedasWesternoftenappearelsewhereinotherguisesIndeedscholarssuggestthatavarietyoftheldquostandardsexportedbytheWestanditscul-turalindustriesthemselvesturnouttobeofculturallymixedcharacterifweexaminetheirculturallineagesrdquo(Pieterse199553)

Manyalsoarguethatdemocracyisnotonlydistinctfrombutinten-sionwithboththetheoryandpracticeofpoliticsinldquoWesternrdquosocieties

18MichaelGillespie(19997ndash10)arguesthattherereadingofhistorygeographyandculturethroughtheprismofthissenseofldquotheWestrdquobegannoearlierthanthenineteenthcenturyTheideaofatimelessandbrightlinebetweenWestandEastisalsochallengedbyJeremyBrottonrsquosstudy(19989096ndash97)ofthediplomaticandintellectualexchangesbe-tweenEuropeandtheOttomanEmpireintheearlymodernperiodBrottonshowsnotonlytheextentandamityofsuchexchangesbutapersistentuncertaintyaboutwherepreciselyEuropeldquoendedrdquoandAsialdquobeganrdquo

19AncientGreeksunderstoodthemselvesasgeographicallywestofthebarbariansbutnotWesterninthecontemporarysensethatisasbothaculturalandhistoricalcategory

20StevenRuncimanrsquoswork(19543480)ontheCrusadesforexampledemonstratesaldquolongsequenceofinteractionandfusionbetweenOrientandOccidentoutofwhichourcivilizationhasgrownrdquo

33

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

many of which are more accurately classified as liberal and capitalist(Wood1994Wolin2001BallandDagger1999)Whileitisnowcom-monplacetospeakofldquoliberaldemocracyrdquoinasinglebreathliberalismanddemocracyareconceptsandpracticeswithverydifferenthistoriesandpresuppositionsUnlikedemocracyforexampleliberalismemergedfromthecrucibleofChristianreligiouswarsandintandemwiththeas-cendanceofamiddleclassthatpresagedtheendofEuropeanfeudalismTheliberalnation-statecanthusbeviewedasbothanexpressionandaconsolidationofcapitalismontheonehandandtheprincipleofasepa-rationbetweenchurchandstateontheotherBycontrastthereisnoth-ingaboutdemocracyeitherasasystemofgovernanceoracultureofpar-ticipationthatisinherentlysecularIndeedAlexisdeTocquevillefamouslyinsistedthatAmericandemocracycannotandshouldnotbesecularasreligionhelpsshiftattentionawayfromimmediatematerialpreoccupa-tionstolargerconcernsofcommunitycooperationandmoralityInfactmanydemocratictheoristsarguethatgenuinelyinclusivepopularsover-eignty is antithetical to the sharp inequalities of wealth and politicalpowerthatcapitalismoftenproducesandlegitimates

SuchongoingdefinitionalandsubstantivedebatessuggestthatthereismuchmoreatstakeindemocraticpoliticsthanprocedurespertainingtogovernmentauthorityandorderandpointtoawidespreadifelusiveunderstandingofdemocracynotjustasasetofinstitutionsbutasTocque-villesuggestsawayoflifeSeveralpoliticaltheoristshavecharacterizedthiselusiveunderstandingintermsofaldquodemocraticethosrdquoBythistheymeanbothanidealandanargumentforacultureofparticipationactivepowersharingmutualaccountabilityinclusivenessanddeliberationinwhichcitizensmayroutinelyandsafelychallengenotonlyspecificpoli-ciesandpolitical institutionsbutalso thevalues thatgoverncollectivelifeprinciplesofinclusionandexclusionandthepremisesofauthorityitself(Connolly1995JPEuben2003Sadiki2004)AdemocraticethosismuchmoredifficulttomeasureorquantifythanforexampleSamuelHuntingtonrsquosparsimoniousdefinitionofdemocracyasapolityinwhichtherehavebeentwoconsecutivepeacefulchangesofgovernmentbywayof freeand fairelections (Huntington1991)21Yetademocraticethosmakesitpossibletobothrecognizeanddisaggregatethepreconditionsaspirations mechanisms and institutions bundled into ldquodemocracyrdquotherebybringingintofocusforexamplethefrequentlyantidemocratic

21Manypoliticalscientistsprefertodefinedemocracyintermsofproceduresdesignedtorealizepopularruleincludingfreecompetitiveandfairelectionsalongwithstateprotec-tionofcertainrightsandlibertiesSuchaformalminimalistdefinitionhastheadvantageofdetachingdemocracyfromquestionsoforiginsandofferingastandardtowhichallgov-ernmentsmaybeheldregardlessofcultureandplaceAsKeithTopper(2005205ndash7)ar-gueshoweveritalsotendstosidestepknottyquestionsaboutthesubstanceofrepresenta-tion power responsiveness and accountability that are arguably central to democraticpolitics

34

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

casttoelectionsimposedbyelitesorforeignpowersthefeltimpotenceofmanycitizensinestablisheddemocraciesandthosehighlyparticipa-torycivilsocietiesthatflourishevenundermonarchicortheocraticrule

Forourpurposes inparticularademocraticethosmakesvisible theparadoxofanIslamistmovementthatseekstomobilizeordinaryMus-limsagainstcoercivepowerbutinthenameofareligio-politicalorderlargelyimmunizedfromchallengeQutbisanaptillustrationhereashistendencytogroundhisownspecialauthorityandinsightintheunsulliedwisdomofordinarybelieversmakesitpossibletoreadhisworkaseitherabriefagainstdemocracy(amongotherthings)oranenactmentofitIn-asmuchasdemocracyasaformofgovernanceisidentifiedwithpopularsovereigntyQutbrsquosbasicpremisethat thefoundationof legitimateau-thoritymustbedivineratherthanhumansuggeststhatheisunambigu-ouslyantidemocraticMoreoverQutbrsquoseffortstopluralizereligiousandpolitical authority express not a confidence in common wisdom butratheradesiretoclaimforhimselfthestatureofareligiousexpertwhodespitehislackofIslamicacademiccredentialscanclearlyseewhatoth-erscannotQutbcharacterizestherealIslamasself-evidentbuthealsoassumesthatonlyasmallvanguardofbelieversbesideshimselfwillhavetheabilitytorecognizeitandactdecisivelytoremaketheworldinitsimageSounderstoodthesignofldquochosennessrdquoisunyieldingcommitmenttoestablishingareligio-politicalorderthatsimultaneouslypresumesthesupremacyofthefewcapableoftrueknowledgeandpromisesaworldinwhichdissentitselfwillbecomebothunnecessaryandillegitimate

Yetifdemocracyrefersnotonlytoasystemofgovernanceorsetofprocedurestorealizepopularsovereigntybutalsotopracticesthatdis-ruptthoseforceswhichconcentratepowerandestablishpoliticalexclu-sionthecharacterizationofQutbrsquosworkassimplyantidemocraticmissesa crucial dimensionof its significance and appealAs the sacred textscontaintherulesandregulationsmeanttogovernbothpublicandpri-vateaffairsQutbrsquosinsistencethatordinaryuntrainedMuslimsmusten-gagethemdirectlyisinmanywaysademocratizationofaccesstoau-thoritySuchaccesscandisruptdeeplyentrenchedpatternsofpowerandpowerlessness particularlywhen conjoined to Islamist arguments thatarbitrarypowerisun-Islamicthatreligiousknowledgedependsoncom-mitmentratherthantrainingorexpertise thatMuslimshavetherightandobligationtodeterminewhenrulersareillegitimateandthatthosewhopreferordertojusticesecuritytofreedomandmoneytopietyhaveforfeitedanyclaimtoauthority

ThisaspectofIslamismhasfrequentlybeencomparedtotheProtestantReformationandmorespecificallytoCalvinistsrsquoattemptstotransferldquore-ligiousauthorityawayfromofficiallysanctionedindividualswhointer-prettextstoordinarycitizensrdquo(EGoldberg19913alsocfLoimeier2005)Suchaparallelhassparkedagreatdealofscholarlyspeculation

35

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

regardingapossibleldquoIslamicReformationrdquo22andarangeofargumentsaboutwhetherandhowIslamismmightfacilitatethedemocratizationofMuslim societies much as the Protestant Reformation is said to haveheralded the emergence of European ldquoliberal democracyrdquo While suchcomparisonsareevocativeafullerunderstandingof IslamismrequiresfirstsituatingitinrelationtoahistoricalshiftinthenatureandlocusofreligiousauthorityinIslambeginninginthenineteenthcenturyAsschol-arsofMuslimsocietieshavepointedouttheimpactofmasseducationnewtechnologiesfordisseminatingknowledgeandinformationanddra-matically changed social economic and political contexts have madeavailabletoamateurswhathadpreviouslybeenthepurviewofreligiousexpertsAtthesametimeithasinauguratedafragmentationofauthor-itywithintheveryranksofthelsquoulamathatcontinuestothepresentday23

InthiscontexttheascendanceandinfluenceofautodidactssuchasQutbHasanal-BannalsquoAbdal-SalamFarajandBinLadensimultaneouslyex-pressandaccelerateanongoingrenegotiationofauthorityoverwhomayspeakforIslamandonwhatbasisthepathofwhichisstillunfoldingandtheoutcomeasyetuncertain

Islamism and Gender

One already apparent consequence of this ongoing renegotiation overwhomayspeakforIslamandonwhatbasisistheentryofwomenintothe interpretive fray This development is increasingly unsettling thoseunwrittengendernormsarguablyattheveryheartofIslamistthoughtdisruptingthestandardsofmasculinityandfemininitythatreflecthowparticularculturesorganizehumanbeingsrsquosocialandreproductiveactiv-itiesintorolesthatareinturnthoughttoexpresstheldquonaturerdquoofmenand women Such norms are frequently considered tangential to theknottyproblemsofdefiningIslamismandadumbratingitscentralideasyetarangeofscholarshiponculturespastandpresenthasshownthatgenderisconsistentlytheterrainoverwhichbattlesforpoliticalcontrolandculturalidentityarefoughtMorespecificallyresearchindisciplinessuchasanthropologyhistoryclassicsandpostcolonialstudieshasdem-onstratedthatculturesinwhichfemalebodiesandbehaviorareregardedas indicesofmoralpurity tend to symbolically transformwomen intoconduitsof cultural corruption in timesof internal crisis and externalthreat(Papenek1994Chatterjee1990Tavakoli-Targhi1991Just1989Cohen1991Welter1966Bloch1978)Thisisespeciallytrueofcontem-

22Foralatenineteenth-centuryassessmentoftheprospectsforaldquoMuhammadanRefor-mationrdquoseeBlunt1882132ndash73

23EickelmanandPiscatori199637ndash39131ndash35Zaman2006Suchfragmentationhasinmanywaysbeenacceleratedbytheexplosionofdigitalcultureswhichpromoteamongotherthingsaldquoformofempoweredamateurismrdquo(Mirzoeff20026)

36

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

poraryreligio-politicalmovementswhosememberstendtoldquoidealizepa-triarchalstructuresofauthorityandmoralityrdquoendorsegenderdualismasgod-givenornaturalandcondemnvigorouslyrecentchangesingen-derrelationsasasymptomandsymbolofsecularistmoralbankruptcy(Riesebrodt1993Moghadam1992Hawley1994)

SeveralchaptersinthisvolumeilluminateIslamistgendernormsbyre-vealing thecharacterandcontentof Islamistconcernsabout theplaceandpurityofMuslimwomenmdashpreoccupationsFatimaMernissi(199199)hasgonesofarastocharacterizeasanobsessionDespiteimportantdifferences among Islamists thinkers many endorse gender norms inwhichthefairlyconventionalinsistencethatfemalenatureisdefinedinand through reproduction undergirds an understanding of women assymbolsofmoralvirtueandvesselsofculturalpurityThisviewsustainstheclaimthatmenandwomenareequalinreligiousbeliefbutperformfundamentallydifferentandcomplementaryfunctionsinsocietyWhilemenarenaturallymadetoruleinboththepublicandprivatedomainawomanbelongsinthedomesticrealmwhereherprimaryroleistobeawifeandmotheraswellastoinsuretheintegrityofthefamilythefirstschoolofmoraleducationAssuchfunctionsarerootedinaninescap-ablehumannaturefashionedbyGodawomanrsquosinabilityorunwilling-nesstoperformherdutiessignalsadisobediencetothedivinewillandpresages the corruption of the Muslim family from within From thisvantagepointtheWesterninsistenceonfullequalitybetweenthesexesisdoubly pernicious it at once liberates women from basic moral con-straintsandenslavesthemtomutuallyreinforcingsexualandcapitalistexploitationAsMurtazaMutahhari(1998xxxi)arguescapitalismmakesuseofwomentomarket itsgoodsldquoby trading inhonourandrespectthrough[their]powertoenticerdquotherebyldquotransform[ing]manintoaninvoluntaryagentofconsumptionrdquoInasmuchaswomenareresponsiblefor producing the next generation of Muslim men destined to restoreIslamtoitsformergloryitisnotonlythevirtueofwomenortheinteg-rityofthefamilythathangsinthebalancebutthefutureofIslamiccivili-zationitself

Zaynab al-Ghazali andMutahharimake several of these argumentsexplicitlyandindetail(seechapters10and11)butinmuchofIslamistrhetoricthenatureandsignificanceofwomenareestablishedindirectlyandsymbolicallyandthroughthreerecurrentimagesinparticularThefirstisofwomenassilentsymbolsofculturalmoralandsexualvulnera-bilityvoicelessfiguresinneedofmasculineprotectionorwhenitistoolatedefiledbodiesthatmutelydemandvengeanceSoforexamplelsquoAb-dallahlsquoAzzam(oneofBinLadenrsquosmentorsseechapter18)graphicallydetailstheagonizinghumiliationofyoungmenunabletoactwhentheAfghanwoman isldquocryingout forhelpher childrenarebeing slaugh-tered her women are being raped the innocent are killed and theircorpsesscatteredrdquo(lsquoAzzam1987a)Inthesecondimagewomenfunction

37

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

muchlikeachorusthatspeaksinpermittedcadencestoratifymasculineendeavorsSuchisthecaseforexampleinBinLadenrsquos1996ldquoDeclara-tionofWaragainsttheAmericansOccupyingtheLandoftheTwoHolyPlacesrdquo(seechapter18)wherethewomenexhortmentojihadinthefollowing way ldquoPrepare yourself like a struggler the matter is biggerthanwordsAreyougoingtoleaveusforthewolvesofKufr[unbe-lief]eatingourwingsWherearethefreemendefendingfreewomenbyarmsDeath isbetter than life inhumiliation Some scandals andshameswillneverbeotherwiseeradicatedrdquo24InthethirdimagewomenarecreaturesnotofthisworldbutofanothervirginalrewardsforthecourageousmartyrintheafterlifeThisisevidentinthefinalinstructionsforthe911hijackersforexamplewhereMuslimldquobrothersrdquoareurgedto purify their carnal impulses sharpen their knives for the dhabh (slaughter)andheedthecallofthehur lsquoayn (theblack-eyedones)await-ingtheminParadise(seechapter19)

Such rhetoric primarily registers women as an extensionmirror ormeasure of masculinity and together with explicit Islamist argumentsabouthumannatureandthefamilyarticulatesIslamistgendernormsinwhichmenandwomeneachhaveaproperlocationandpurposeinadi-vinely ordained social hierarchy Deviance from this gendered scriptthussignalsdisruptionofamuchbroaderreligio-politicalorderitbothpresumes and seeks to bring into existence The disruption caused byforeign aggression in particular exacerbates the tendency to translateconflict into an assault on Muslim masculinity and to conceptualizewomenaspotentialvehiclesforWesterncorruptioninneedofguidingand guarding Women such as Zaynab al-Ghazali and Nadia Yassinewho seek a prominent place and voice within the Islamist movementhavehadlittlechoicebuttocontendwiththisgenderedscriptDoingsohasentailedamongotherthingsnavigatingcarefullybetweenIslamistcharacterizations of womenrsquos visibility and agency as symptomatic ofthe new jahiliyya on the one hand and essentializing arguments thatequateIslamwithveilingfemalegenitalmutilationandhonorkillingsontheother

AsthechaptersonGhazaliandYassinesuggestIslamistwomenhavenegotiatedbetweensuchconstraintsandpressuresandtheirownambi-tionsindifferentwaysApioneeringdalsquoiya(onewhoinvitesMuslimstogreater piety)Ghazalirsquos own life reveals a fierce resistance to conven-tionalnormsofdomesticityevenasmuchofher(earlier)workappearsto embrace an Islamist gender ideology that defines women as wivesmothers andldquobuilders ofmenrdquo (al-Hashimi 1990 118)By contrastYassineisawifeandmotherwhoembracesanldquoIslamicfeminismrdquothatrequiresldquoreappropriatingtheinstrumentsofclassicaltheologyrdquoanden-

24TheIslamistjournalSawt alshyJihadhasgonesofarastofeatureldquowomenrsquosvoicesrdquointheformofrolemodelsnamedforexampleumm alshyshahid(motherofthemartyr)al-thoughitisunclearthattheseldquovoicesrdquoareactuallywomenrsquos(SUsher2004)

38

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INTRODUCTION

gaging the textsdirectly through ijtihad (NYassine2003) In this re-spect Yassine must be understood as part of a broader effort amongMuslimwomenwithdifferentpoliticalcommitmentstosimultaneouslyadvocateandenacttheirrighttorecuperatetheldquooriginalintentrdquooftheIslamictextsIfwomenandmendoinfacthavedistinctperspectivesontheworldYassinesuggestswomenhaveaspecialobligationtoexcavatewhattheyseeasthegenderparityoftheQurrsquoanburiedbeneaththoseldquomachointerpretationsrdquoofIslamuponwhichmenhavebuilttheirprivi-legeandpower(Khalaf2006)25

ManyAnglo-AmericanandEuropean feministsworry that Islamistsseekonly to secureor restorepatriarchalpowerConverselymany Is-lamist women view feminism as a term and a movement inescapablyWesterninoriginfreightedwiththelegacyofcolonialismanduneasilyimplicatedinculturalimperialismThisapplieseventoYassinewhoisunwillingtoadoptwithoutqualificationalabelsheassociateswithagen-dasopposedtoherowntheWesttheMoroccanstateMaghribi(North-westAfrican)elitesYetfeminismitselfisahighlycontestedtermwithin theso-calledWestitisthebearerofmultiplemeaningssomeofwhichareevenopposedandischaracterizedbydeepdisagreementsaboutwhowomenarewhatwomenneedwhoisauthorizedtoworkonwomenrsquosbehalf andbywhatmeans Inasmuch as these various feminismsmayshareonlyastatedconcernforwomenrsquoswelfarethereisnothinginco-herentinmodifyingldquofeminismrdquowithldquoIslamicrdquoldquoMuslimrdquoorevenldquoIs-lamistrdquounlessone iscommitted toarguing thatfirst Islam isanun-changingessencebeyondhistorypoliticsandculturesecondthereisaneutralobjectivevantagefromwhichtoidentifythisessenceonceandforallandfinallytheIslamicessencesoidentifiedisfundamentallyin-compatiblewitheffortstoimprovetheconditionsandqualityofwomenrsquoslivesBythesametokenIslamistwomenwhorejectthetermfeminismcanbe(althoughnotalwaysare)deeplycommittedtoimprovingwom-enrsquoswelfareaswellasactivelyresistanttoeffortsthatreduceortrans-formthemintosilentaccessoriesofmalepower

YassineandGhazalidifferaboutwhatwomenareandshouldbeyetbroadlyspeakingbothmaybeconsideredpartofarecenttrendtowardthe feminizationofdalsquowa Dalsquowa literallymeanscallappealor sum-monsbutthetermhascometosignifyavarietyofpracticesandargu-mentsmeanttoexhortinviteandguideMuslimstowhatisregardedasproperconductandmoraldevotionWomenrsquosparticipationindalsquowais

25WomenrsquosparticipationintheldquoproductionofofficialIslamicknowledgerdquohasalonghistoryalthoughtheyhaveoftendonesoinrelativeobscurityandwithoutthebenefitofeducation in the Islamicsciences thathas legitimateddirectengagementwith thesacredtexts (Cooke 2001 xiv Badran and Cooke 2004) Pioneering attempts to read genderequalityinIslamarealsonotconfinedtowritingbywomenasevincedbyQasimAminrsquosTahrir alshymarrsquoa [TheLiberationofWoman] (1899)andMumtaz lsquoAlirsquosHuquqshye niswan [TheRightsofWomen](1898)

39

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

notabrandnewphenomenonasisevidentinGhazalirsquosworkwiththeEgyptianSocietyofMuslimLadiesinthe1930sYetfromEgypttoPaki-stantoSaudiArabiatotheUnitedStatesthenumberoffemaledalsquoiyashasproliferatedexponentially inrecentyears(Cooke2001Mahmood2005Hirschkind2006)Thisreflectsinpartcurrentdoctrinalempha-sesondalsquowaasincumbentuponbothmenandwomenanddependentlessupontechnicalknowledgethanmoralvirtueandpracticalfamiliaritywiththeIslamictradition(Mahmood200565ndash66)It isalsoaconse-quenceofrecentpoliticalandsocioeconomictransformationsinMuslimsocietiesincludingtheexpansionofmasseducationthathasnotonlyin-creasedwomenrsquosliteracyandsocialmobilitybutalsomadeIslamictextsmoreaccessibletheproliferationoftechnologiesmdashfromthecassettetapetotheInternetmdashthatfacilitatethecirculationofreligiousknowledgeevenamongthosewhocannotreadortraveltheprecedentsetbythevigorousparticipationof IranianwomeninpostrevolutiondebatesaboutIslamandthemodeloflegalactivismevidentintheIslamistmovementrsquosownchallenge to the lsquoulamarsquos status as gatekeepers of religious knowledge(Singerman2005Mir-Hosseini1999)

If Ghazali and Yassine exemplify the feminization of dalsquowa amongelitesthemosquemovementinEgyptillustratesthegrowingparticipa-tionofwomenfromdiversesocialbackgroundsinreligiousclassesde-votedtostudyinganddebatingwhatIslamrequiresforawomantobeldquomorallyuprightrdquointhecontemporaryworld(Mahmood2005)Con-ceptualizingpiety in termsof adeepandholistic commitment to self-transformationparticipantsinthemosquemovementareconcernedlesswithmattersofsovereigntyandpoliticsconventionallyunderstoodandmorewiththeldquomoralcultivationrdquoofthosedailypracticesseenascrucialtobecomingclosertoGod(Mahmood2005)SomeIslamistshavecriti-cizedthis focusonpracticesofworshipasapoliticalandoverlypriva-tizedyetsuchcriticismmissestheforceofIslamistsrsquoowninsistenceondin(religion)asawayoflifeinwhichthedomainsofpublicandprivateare inextricably linked26AsSabaMahmood (2005193194) showsthesewomenrsquosintenseeffortsatldquoretrainingethicalsensibilitiesrdquohavealdquosociopoliticalforcerdquothatextendswellbeyondmattersofgovernancefacilitatingnolessthantheemergenceofaldquonewsocialandmoralorderrdquoEvidenceofitstransformativepowermaybefoundnotonlyinthesheernumbersandvarietyofwomenmdashwealthyandpoor literateand illiter-atemdashparticipatinginthemosquemovementbutalsointherhetoricalandpoliticaleffortsbythestateandsomeIslamiststocurtailcontrolordis-creditit(Mahmood200571194)

26ParticipantsinthemosquemovementinturnareoftencriticalofwhattheyseeasthereductionofIslamtotokensofculturalauthenticityorofitsinstrumentalizationbybothnationalistsandIslamiststheycharacterizeasmoreinterestedinpoliticalmaneuveringthanreligiouspiety

40

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

Understoodtoincludebothwrittenandembodiedpracticesthefemi-nizationof dalsquowa illustrates theways inwhichwomen fromdifferentperspectivesandsocialclassesareinsistingonengagingthesacredtextsdirectly for and with one another without the mediating authority ofmenwhohavetraditionallyheldthemonopolyonsuchactivitiesAsSu-danese Islamist Lubabah al-Fadl argues ldquoAs an insan [human being]whohappenstobeawomanIhavearighttorejectthemanipulativeexegesesofoursharilsquoa thatthreatenmyexistenceinawaythat isnotconsistentwiththeGodlywayandtoapplymyownijtihadtorectifyer-roneoustendenciesbysomeshuyukh[pluralofshaykh]rdquo(Sadiki2004290)DespitetheproliferationofvoicesintentonclaimingforthemselvestheauthoritytodemarcatewhatisauthenticallyIslamicandun-Islamiconceandforallcontestationoveritsscopeandmeaningproceedsapacefacilitatedatleastinpartbywomenformerlyexcludedfromtheconver-sationAtthesametimeIslamistwomenrsquosagencyandclaimstoauthorityarefrequentlystillpredicatedonawillingnesstofollowfairlypatriarchalrulesaboutwherehowandwithwhomtheymaypracticetheirvocation(Hirschkind2003Sadiki2004283)

Islamism and Violence

IfgenderisfrequentlyanimplicitpreoccupationamongIslamistsjihadisarguably Islamistsrsquomost consistently explicit concern Jihad is derivedfromtheArabicverbthatmeanstostruggleortostriveyetitisaparticu-larkindofstruggle that isofconcern tomanyof thefigurescollectedheretheoftenviolentstruggleagainstapostatesandinfidelsbothathomeandabroadtowhicheveryindividualMuslimmustcontributeTheclaimthatfightingunbelieversisthepreeminentenactmentofindividualMus-limpiety seems to justify characterizationsof Islam ingeneral and Is-lamisminparticularassanctioningevenencouragingviolenceYetwhatIslamistsrepresentasjihadtout courtisahistoricallyspecificunderstand-ingderivedfromahighlyselectiveuseoftextsandprecedentsprominentamongthemaformerlyobscureclaimbytheinfluentialfourteenth-cen-tury jurist IbnTaymiyya thatMongol rulerswhohad contravened Is-lamiclawcouldbesubjecttoforcibleremovalFarfromadefinitiveex-pressionof Islamldquoproperlyunderstoodrdquo such Islamist argumentsnotonlymarkasignificantdeparturefrommuchofantecedentdoctrineandpractice but also diminish the importance of ongoing disagreementsamongMuslimsabouttheformandpurposesofjihad

TobeginwithMuslimscholarshavetendedtoconsiderjihadagainstforeignenemiesafard kifaya(collectiveobligation)thatisadutyagroupofpeoplewithinthecommunitymayperformonbehalfoftherestandonethatpresupposesalegitimateMuslimleadertodeclareorleadthechargeJuristshavedistinguishedthisfromthefard lsquoayn(individualduty)thatmustbefulfilledbyeverysingleMuslimincasesofdefensivejihad

41

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

thatiswhentheummaisunderattackManyIslamistsincludedheretakeamuchlessnuancedviewofjihadAsamodeofpoliticalactionQutbarguesjihadmustberegardedasaldquopermanentconditionnotanocca-sionalconcernrdquoonethatincurrentcircumstancesrequiresdeedsratherthanwordsstruggleratherthancontemplationrevolutionathomeaswellasresistanceabroad(Qutb199167ndash6882)lsquoAbdal-SalamFarajarguesalongsimilarlinesthatthenatureoftheattackonIslammakespolitical authorization by a caliph (ldquodeputyrdquo referring to a legitimatesuccessortotheProphetrsquosleadership)unnecessaryafterallldquoleadershipovertheMuslimsis(always)intheirownhandsifonlytheymakethismanifestIfthereissomethinglackingintheleadershipwellthereisnothingthatcannotbeacquiredrdquo(Jansen1986asec93)

SuchargumentsareadeliberaterejectionofearlyMuslimmodernistswhohademphasizedthelargelydefensivecharacterofjihadandsoughttoshowthatrelationsbetweenMuslimsandnon-MuslimswerenormallypeacefulratherthanantagonisticMahmudShaltut(d1963)therectorof al-Azhar from 1958 to 1963 had argued for example that theQurrsquoanicversesonfightingldquoprohibittheprovocationofhostilityandthisprohibitionisreinforcedbyGodrsquosrepugnancetoaggressionandbyhisdislikeofthosewhoprovokehostilityrdquo(Peters199674onShaltutseeZebiri1993)ConversionbyforceisanathematoIslamShaltutaversandfightingiscommandedonlyindefenseinresponsetoaggressionini-tiatedbyothersEvendefensivejihadmustaimatldquotheterminationoftheaggressionandtheestablishmentofreligiouslibertydevotedtoGodandfreefromanypressureorforcerdquo(Peters199675)

ManyIslamistsexplicitlydismisssuchargumentsasasymptomoffalseconsciousnessoneamongmanydestructiveeffectsofcolonialdomina-tionMawdudiargues for example thatwhile imperialists ravage theworld to satisfy their greed jihad alone ldquoconjures up the vision of amarching band of religious fanatics with savage beards and fiery eyesbrandishingdrawnswordsandattackingtheinfidelswherevertheymeetthemrdquoHavinginternalizedthis imageMuslimsrushtoapologizeandrenouncearmedstruggleInthiswayhelamentscolonialistsretaintheexclusiverighttoldquofightwitharmsandammunitionwhilewearecon-tented with our pen and our tonguerdquo (Mawdudi 1948 1ndash3) SayyidQutbforhispartagreedthatIslamdoesnotcountenancespreadingitsmessagebyforceandcoercionyethehadlittlepatiencewiththosewhosoughttopresentjihadaslegitimateonlyinself-defense

IfweinsistoncallingIslamicjihadadefensivemovementthenwemustchangethemeaningofthewordldquodefenserdquoandmeanbyitldquothedefenseofmanrdquoagainstallthoseforcesthatlimithisfreedomWhenwetakethisbroadmeaningofthewordldquodefenserdquoweunder-standthetruecharacterofIslaminthatitproclaimstheuniversalfreedomofeverypersonandcommunityfromservitudetoanyother

42

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

individualorsocietytheendofmanrsquosarroganceandselfishnesstheestablishmentofthesovereigntyofAllahandHisLordshipthrough-outtheworldandtheruleofthedivinesharilsquoainhumanaffairs(Qutb199050)

Qutbdoesnotnameanynamesincastigatingtheldquowriterswithdefeatistandapologeticmentalities[who]writeaboutlsquojihadinIslamrsquoandtrytoremovethislsquoblotrsquofromIslamrdquo(Qutb199046)buthecouldverywellhavehadhisdistinguishedfellowEgyptianMahmudShaltutinmind

These arguments about jihad may be said to constitute a commongrammarandframeworkofanalysisformanyIslamistsalthoughseveralthinkers in this volume carefully calibrate such claims to suit variouspurposesanddifferentpublicspheresInhisjustificationfortheassassi-nationofEgyptianpresidentAnwaral-SadatforexamplelsquoAbdal-SalamFarajdepictsthestruggletoreclaimthemoralfoundationsoftheEgyp-tianstateasafightagainstjahiliyyafromwithinarguingthatthejihadagainstacorruptnationalistregimeathomemusttakeprecedenceoverfightingenemieselsewhereTheCharterofHamas(seechapter15)how-everinsiststhatallMuslimsrecognizetheprimacyofthejihadforJeru-salemweldingIslamistrhetorictothatofnationalistresistanceinanef-fortbothtofightIsraelioccupationandtocompeteforadherentswiththePalestinianLiberationOrganization(PLO)IncontrasttobothFarajandHamasBinLadenembracesaglobaljihadthatessentiallycollapsesdistinctionsbetweennationalandinternationaloffensiveanddefensivefightingenemiesathomeandthosefromafar

Yet despite such differences these arguments tend to presume thatviolent jihad is a necessary response to the pervasive power of thosewithdemonstratedhostilitytoMuslimliveslandspietiesandsensibili-tiesaformofretaliationwhoseurgencyandlegitimacyderivefromtheviolencemdashpsychologicalandeconomicaswellasphysicalmdashoftheinitialassaultThisviewofjihadsubsumesindividualsintoarchetypesofldquoin-fidelsrdquoandldquobelieversrdquoandinsodoingvitiatesmoreconventionaldis-tinctionsbetweenforexamplesoldierandcivilianorcollectiveandin-dividual responsibility It is far from inevitable that thosewhoharborsuchviewswillautomaticallyactuponthemyetthecarnagewroughtbytheattacksontheWorldTradeCenterandthePentagonin2001aBalinightclub in 2002 Madrid commuter trains in 2004 and throughoutIraqonadailybasissuggestjusthowlethalsuchclaimscanbegiventheright circumstances The fact that such violence does not discriminateamongvictimsonlyfurtherfuelsrhetoriccharacterizingIslamistsasirra-tional fanatics ldquoin love with deathrdquo terrorists animated by a religioncharacterizedbyapropensityforviolenceandauthoritarianism27

27AnxietiesabouttheparticularsusceptibilityofMuslimstoirrationalityinsularityandfanaticismhavealonganddistinguishedpedigreeinEuro-AmericanhistoryandpoliticalthoughtSeeforexampleRenan18833

43

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

AsinsomanyothermattershoweverIslamistsarehardlyofonemindonthesubjectofjihadindeedthereareIslamistswhoexplicitlyrejectthereductionof struggle toviolenceAcase inpoint isNadiaYassine(20032005c)whoinsiststhatjihadisthededicatedstruggleagainstisshytikbar(arrogance)particularlyinitscommonformasthelustforpoweranddominationAsjihadagainstistikbarisbothafinalgoalandapre-scriptionforactionYassinesuggestsitisantitheticaltoviolentpracticesthataimatdominationTheprimaryinstrumentsofjihadarenotbombsbutwords particularly thosedeployed in the art of persuasion (Fara-marzi2005NYassine2006a)WhenIslamistssuchaslsquoAbdal-SalamFarajandlsquoUmarlsquoAbdal-RahmanseektolegitimizeviolentrevolutionbyrecoursetoIslamictextsshearguestheycontravenethetruemeaningofjihadtoservetheirownarrogantendsBythesametokenBinLadenrsquosdecisiontoldquofightevilwithevilandbarbaritywithbarbarityrdquonotonlyviolatesspecificIslamicprohibitionsagainstharmingcivilianswomenandchildrenbutalsobetraystheethicalimperativetoembodythemes-sageofamercifulGodwhocautionsbelieversthat(Q8822)ldquoYouhavenopoweroverthemrdquo(NYassine2005cDaily Excelsior2002)

SuchpersistentdisagreementsamongMuslimspastandpresentsug-gest that Islam isnomore inherently violent andbloody-minded thanitmdashorChristianityor Judaism for thatmattermdashis inherentlypeacefulIslamists often claim to speak for an unchanging authentic Islam thatexistsoutsideoftimeandspaceyetthepoliticalpurchaseoftheirper-spective derives from the ways it assembles disparate yet recognizablecontemporaryexperiencesofsufferingfrustrationandlossintoanex-planationthatresonateswithMuslimswholiveincommunitiescultur-allylinguisticallyandgeographicallydistantfromoneanotherTheex-tenttowhichIslamistargumentsresonatebroadlyacrossMuslimsocie-tiesthusdependsuponasetofexperiencesandphenomenathatmarkthisparticularmomentinhistoryincludingthewaysinwhichcontempo-raryglobalinequalitiescompoundalegacyofhistoricalasymmetriestocontinuallyreproduceasenseofMuslimpowerlessnessmdashbothrealandimaginedmdashrelativetotheWestcontinuingEuro-Americanpoliticalandfinancialsupportofcorruptautocratsmanyofwhompresideoverna-tion-statesbrutallystitchedtogetherbyWesternfiat thepersistenceofauthoritarian regimes eager to control domestic unrest by catalyzingldquoMuslimragerdquotowardexternaltargetsthesenseofemasculationpro-ducedbydecadesofpoliticalrepressionandeconomicfrustrationandthecontinualflowofimagesofbloodiedMuslimbodiesdeliveredbyaburgeoningarrayofvideosatelliteandelectronicmedia

It is notable that the understanding of jihad many Islamists proffermirrorstheverystate-sanctionedviolenceagainstwhichtheyhavestrug-gledforalmostacenturyAlongwiththousandsofMuslimscaughtinthemachineryoftwentieth-centurystateviolenceprominentIslamistsfromQutbtoGhazalitoAymanal-Zawahirimdashal-Qalsquoidarsquossecondincommandmdash

44

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

arewellknowntohavebeenradicalizedbyextendedandoftenbrutaltermsofincarcerationinEgyptSyriaIraqJordanIsraelAlgeriaandelsewhere(onal-ZawahiriandprisoncfKepelandMilelli2008152ndash54)ItisthusfarfromsurprisingthatIslamistsforgedbyinterrogationtortureinprisoncampswouldconcludethatthepreeminentenactmentofMuslimpietyisviolentstruggleldquoPrisonrdquoasPalestinianKhaledAbuHilalhassaidldquoismyuniversityrdquo(Erlanger2007)anargumentmadeingreaterdetailinadifferenttimeandplacebyRussianwriterandrevolu-tionaryMaximGorky(1868ndash1936)

Apeoplebroughtupinaschoolthatremindsoneofthetormentsofhellonasmallscaleapeopleaccustomedtotheclenched-fistprisonandthewhipwillnotbeblestwithatenderheartApeoplethatthepoliceagentshaveriddenoverwillbecapableintheirturnofwalk-ingoverthebodiesofothersInacountrywhereunresthasreignedsolongit isdifficultforthepeopletorealizefromonedaytothenextthepowerofrightOnecannotdemandfromamanwhohasneverknownjusticethatheshouldbejust(Gorky1920)

InthiscontextasTimothyMitchell(1990195ndash96199207ndash8)suggestsIslamistviewsoftheworldcanbecharacterizedasbothamodeofresis-tancetostatemechanismsofcoercionandanexpressionofthemSuchisthedynamic evident inGhazalirsquosmemoirs for examplewhen shede-scribeshowtheldquodarknessofprisonsthebladesoftortureandthevi-ciousbeatingsonly increasetheenduranceandresolveofthefaithfulrdquo(Ghazali19786)

There is no doubt a great deal of pragmatism at work in IslamistargumentsaboutviolenceAsQutb(19916447ndash48)drylynotesthepathtofreedommustoccasionallybehewnbywayoftheswordbecausetyrants are not reasoned out of power and ldquojahiliyya is not lsquoabstracttheoryrsquo[it]consciouslyorunconsciouslystrivestopreserveitsownexistence to defend its essence to annihilate dangerous elementswhichthreatenitsverybeingrdquoYetitisalsothecasethatformanyoftheseIslamistsjihadisbothameansandanendanefforttoeradicatethoseobstacles torestoringa justcommunityonearththatsimultane-ouslybringshumanaction intoaccordwithGodrsquosplansandpurposes(Haddad198321)While theQurrsquoan (2256) states thatldquothere isnocompulsioninreligionrdquoIslamistscontendthatonlyinastateinwhichIslamiclawreignssupremearehumanbeingsfreefromenslavementtooneanotherrsquosruleandallareequalbyvirtueoftheircommonsubmissiontoGodAsQutb(1991107ndash8)argues

WhenthehighestauthorityinsocietyisGodalonemdashexpressedintheruleofdivinelawmdashonlythenishumanitytrulyandcompletelyliber-atedfromslaverytomenOnlythisisldquohumancivilizationrdquobecausetheessentialfoundationofhumancivilizationisthetrueandcom-

45

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

pletefreedomofhumanityandtheabsolutedignityofeveryindivid-ualinsocietyThereisnotruefreedomanddignityforhumanityortheindividualinasocietywheresomepeoplearelordswholegislateandothersareslaveswhoobey

From this perspective the realization of justice liberty equality andchoiceitselfnecessitatestheforcibleremovaloftheconstraintsimposedbyjahiliyyaalongwiththosewhoaidandabetitno matter the costAsMawdudi(1954160ndash61)writes

[W]hyisitthatinreligionsuchimportanceisgiventojihadthattheQurrsquoanpronouncesthejudgmentofhypocrisyuponthosewhoshirkandevadeitJihadisbutanothernamefortheattempttoerectthesystemoftruthandtheQurrsquoandeclaresjihadtobeatouchstoneonthesamefootingwithamanrsquosfaithInotherwordshewhohasfaithinhisheartwillneitherbecontentwiththedominationofthesystemofevilnorwillhegrudgetheexpenditureoflifeandwealthinthestruggleforerectingthesystemoftruthIfoneshowsweaknessinthismatterhisfaithitselfisdoubtfulWhatcananythingelsebesidethenprofithimThemanwhoprofesses faith in this religioncannotfulfillhisdutyonlybytryingasfaraspossibletopatternhislifeonIslamThenatureofhisfaithitselfrequiresthatheshouldconcentrateallhiseffortuponwrestingleadershipfromunbelievingandcorruptmentoentrustittotherighteousanduponerectingthesystemoftruththathasbeenordainedfortheconductoftheworldaccordingtothewillofGodBecausethisendisunattainablewith-out thehighestdegreeofcollectiveeffort theremustexistarigh-teouscommunitycommittedtotheprincipleoftruthanddevotedtothesolepurposeintheworldoferectingmaintainingandproperlyrealizingthesystemoftruth

ThefactthatsomeIslamistthinkerssanctifyviolentstruggleinsuchtermsdoesnotmeanofcoursethatallthosewhoadvocateorengageinjihadendorseviolence28NordoesitimplythatthosewhoclaimtokillforIslamareentirelywithoutulteriormotivesthosemanipulativepur-poses andpsychologicalmotivations that even themost rarified scrip-turalargumentscanexpressorserveWhattheprecedinganalysisdoessuggesthoweveristhatthereductionofthisviewofjihadtoirrationalbloodlusttheself-interestedgrabfortemporalpoweroradoorthroughwhichtopassintothehereaftermissesacrucialdimensionofitssignifi-canceandappealfortruebelieversjihadisnolessthananenactmentof

28EvenashespokeofaneweraofjahiliyyaandofjihadMawdudihimselfstoppedwellshortof recommendingor condoning the actual resort to violence in themannermanyotherIslamistsdidAsNasr(199670)observesMawdudirsquosorganizationtheJamalsquoat-iIs-lamildquohasavoidedviolentsocialchangeandhasinsteadviewedthepathtotheIslamicstateaslyingwithintheexistingsociopoliticalorderrdquoAlsoseethechapters5and3onQutbandMawdudiinthisvolume

46

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INTRODUCTION

adivineimperativetoremakethefoundationsofcollectivelifeInthisre-spectIslamistviewsofjihadcanbeseenaspartofalong-standingasso-ciationbetweenviolenceandpoliticalfoundingsuponwhichnoparticu-larcultureorhistoricalepochhasamonopolyThisassociationandtheldquolegacyofviolencerdquoitbequeathstofuturegenerationsarenolessappar-entinthoseradicalrevolutionsofrenewalthatmovebywayoftheswordfromthemarginstothecenterthanthosepoliticalfoundingsthatclaimtocreatesomethingoutofnothing(Connolly1995251)Ineithercasethetollofsuchbrutalitycanbeimmeasurableforinadditiontothevic-timswhosufferdirectlytheldquopracticeofviolencelikeallactionchangestheworldbutthemostprobablechangeistoamoreviolentworldrdquo(Ar-endt1972177)

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 ESP ltFEFF005500740069006c0069006300650020006500730074006100200063006f006e0066006900670075007200610063006900f3006e0020007000610072006100200063007200650061007200200064006f00630075006d0065006e0074006f00730020005000440046002000640065002000410064006f0062006500200061006400650063007500610064006f00730020007000610072006100200069006d0070007200650073006900f3006e0020007000720065002d0065006400690074006f007200690061006c00200064006500200061006c00740061002000630061006c0069006400610064002e002000530065002000700075006500640065006e00200061006200720069007200200064006f00630075006d0065006e0074006f00730020005000440046002000630072006500610064006f007300200063006f006e0020004100630072006f006200610074002c002000410064006f00620065002000520065006100640065007200200035002e003000200079002000760065007200730069006f006e0065007300200070006f00730074006500720069006f007200650073002egt FRA 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 ITA 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 JPN ltFEFF9ad854c18cea306a30d730ea30d730ec30b951fa529b7528002000410064006f0062006500200050004400460020658766f8306e4f5c6210306b4f7f75283057307e305930023053306e8a2d5b9a30674f5c62103055308c305f0020005000440046002030d530a130a430eb306f3001004100630072006f0062006100740020304a30883073002000410064006f00620065002000520065006100640065007200200035002e003000204ee5964d3067958b304f30533068304c3067304d307e305930023053306e8a2d5b9a306b306f30d530a930f330c8306e57cb30818fbc307f304c5fc59808306730593002gt KOR ltFEFFc7740020c124c815c7440020c0acc6a9d558c5ec0020ace0d488c9c80020c2dcd5d80020c778c1c4c5d00020ac00c7a50020c801d569d55c002000410064006f0062006500200050004400460020bb38c11cb97c0020c791c131d569b2c8b2e4002e0020c774b807ac8c0020c791c131b41c00200050004400460020bb38c11cb2940020004100630072006f0062006100740020bc0f002000410064006f00620065002000520065006100640065007200200035002e00300020c774c0c1c5d0c11c0020c5f40020c2180020c788c2b5b2c8b2e4002egt NLD (Gebruik deze instellingen om Adobe PDF-documenten te maken die zijn geoptimaliseerd voor prepress-afdrukken van hoge kwaliteit De gemaakte PDF-documenten kunnen worden geopend met Acrobat en Adobe Reader 50 en hoger) NOR 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 PTB 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 SUO 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 SVE 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 ENU (Use these settings to create Adobe PDF documents best suited for high-quality prepress printing Created PDF documents can be opened with Acrobat and Adobe Reader 50 and later) gtgt Namespace [ (Adobe) (Common) (10) ] OtherNamespaces [ ltlt AsReaderSpreads false CropImagesToFrames true ErrorControl WarnAndContinue FlattenerIgnoreSpreadOverrides false IncludeGuidesGrids false IncludeNonPrinting false IncludeSlug false Namespace [ (Adobe) (InDesign) (40) ] OmitPlacedBitmaps false OmitPlacedEPS false OmitPlacedPDF false SimulateOverprint Legacy gtgt ltlt AddBleedMarks false AddColorBars false AddCropMarks false AddPageInfo false AddRegMarks false ConvertColors ConvertToCMYK DestinationProfileName () DestinationProfileSelector DocumentCMYK Downsample16BitImages true FlattenerPreset ltlt PresetSelector MediumResolution gtgt FormElements false GenerateStructure false IncludeBookmarks false IncludeHyperlinks false IncludeInteractive false IncludeLayers false IncludeProfiles false MultimediaHandling UseObjectSettings Namespace [ (Adobe) (CreativeSuite) (20) ] PDFXOutputIntentProfileSelector DocumentCMYK PreserveEditing true UntaggedCMYKHandling LeaveUntagged UntaggedRGBHandling 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Page 9: Chapter 1 INTRODUCTION - assets.press.princeton.eduassets.press.princeton.edu/chapters/s9067.pdf · Chapter 1 INTRODUCTION This volume is intended as a broad introduction to the evolution

9

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

polygamyofferanillustrationoftheirapproachTheQurrsquoanallowspo-lygamyldquoIfyoufearthatyouwillnotdealfairlywithorphangirlsyoumaymarrywhicheverwomenseemgoodtoyoutwothreeorfourIfyoufearthatyoucannotbeequitable[tothem]thenmarryonlyoneoryourslave(s)thatismorelikelytomakeyouavoidbiasrdquo(Q43)TheQurrsquoanthuspermitspolygamybutsimultaneously insistsonequityasthenecessaryconditionforapolygamoushouseholdaqualificationsup-plementedbyQurrsquoan4129ldquoYouwillneverbeabletotreatyourwiveswithequalfairnesshowevermuchyoumaydesiretodosobutdonotignore one wife altogether leaving her suspendedrdquo Modernist re-formershaveoftenseentheQurrsquoanicsanctionforpolygamynotjustasbeingspecifictoextraordinarycircumstancesmdashasawayofprovidingforgirlsmadeorphanbywarmdashbutaseffectivelyruledoutbytheQurrsquoanicstatementthatmencanneverreallybeequitabletowardmorethanonewife(cfRahman198947ndash48)TothelsquoulamathisisspeciousreasoningforifGodhadreallywantedtoprohibitpolygamyHecouldsimplyhavesaid so (cf Shafilsquo 2005ndash7 2313ndash14 592ndash93) That medieval juristsandexegetesarepracticallyunanimousinallowingpolygamyisfortheirlatter-daysuccessorsfurtherconfirmationofthecorrectnessoftheirownunderstandingoftheQurrsquoanonthismatter

Asthisexamplesuggestsatissuebetweenmodernistsandthelsquoulamaisnotonlyhowparticularnormsareviewedbutalsohowtheyareaf-firmedanddefendedThelsquoulamarsquosscholarlytraditionisconstitutedbyalongandcomplexhistoryofcommentarydebateagreementsanddis-agreementsaboutthefoundationaltextsandaboutallmattersIslamicAstheyseeitthistraditionisnotclosedfrozenormonolithicyetitiswith reference to the scholarly tradition that anygiven readingof thefoundational or other texts finds meaning and legitimacy in their dis-coursesModernistreformersfortheirparthaveusuallyseenthistradi-tionpreciselyasclosedandanachronisticasoccludingthetruespiritofIslamic teachings and therefore as unworthy of serious and sustainedengagement

Modernists Islamists and the lsquoUlama

ThecontestationbetweenthemodernistsandthelsquoulamaprovidesawayofsituatingtheIslamistswithinabroadspectrumofcompetingbutalsooverlappingorientationsintheMuslimpublicsphereLikethemodern-istswhothemselvesholdvariedpositionsontherelationshipbetweenIslamandpoliticsmanyamongthe IslamistsareproductsofmodernWesterninstitutionsoflearningSayyidQutb(d1966)wasnottrained

posesofthelawwerehowoneknewwhattheywereandhowthelawwastobeinter-pretedwithreferencetothem(cfHallaq1997esp162ndash206Weiss199878ndash87145ndash71)modernistappealstothespiritoressenceofIslamareoftenextremelyvague

10

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

asareligiousscholarNorwasHasanal-Banna(d1949)thefounderoftheMuslimBrotherhoodofEgypttheoldestandoneofthemostinflu-entialof Islamistorganizations in theSunniMuslimworldBothwereeducatedattheDaral-lsquoUluminCairoaninstitutionfoundedinthelatenineteenthcenturytoestablishsomethingofamiddlegroundbetweenal-AzharUniversityinCairoandmodernseculareducationalthoughitgradually veered toward the latter and in 1946 became part of CairoUniversity (cfReid1990139ndash49)Abursquol-AlsquolaMawdudi (d 1979)ofPakistandidreceivean intermittentmadrasaeducationbut itwasthevocationof a journalist not that of an lsquoalim (plural lsquoulama) that headoptedThanksinparttothisbroadlysimilareducationalbackgroundIslamistsalsosharewithmodernistsasupremeconfidenceintheirownabilitytodiscernthetruemeaningorspiritofIslamthroughamoreorlessdirectencounterwiththefoundationaltextsAsCharlesJAdams(1966396)hasobservedincomparingMawdudiwithMuslimmodern-istsldquoBothhaveclaimedtheabilitytodisengagethespiritoressentialsofGodrsquosguidancetoliberatethemselvesfromtheauthorityofthecu-mulativeMuslimpastand toundercut thepositionof theulamawhorepresentthatauthorityrdquoMuchthesamemightbesaidofSayyidQutbaswellasofmanycontemporaryIslamists

Despitesuchcommonalities IslamistsfrequentlypositionthemselvesinoppositiontothemodernistsAstheIslamistssee it themodernistshavemadeIslamitselfsubservienttotheprojectofestablishingitscom-patibilitywithWesternnorms and institutions rejectingor explainingawayanythingthatdoesnotconformtothesenormsMawdudiputitthisway inderidingmodernistdiscomfortwith the implementationofpunishmentsmandatedbyIslamiclaw

Iwouldliketoputastraightquestiontothesevotariesofldquomoder-nityrdquoldquoWhatarethevaluesthatyoubelieveinDoyoubelieveintheIslamicvaluesoflifeandstandardsofmoralityorthoseofthemoderncivilizationrdquoIfyouhavemadeyourchoiceandacceptedsomeothervaluesandsomedifferentstandardofrightandwrongofvirtueandviceofthepermissibleandtheprohibitedasagainstthoseenvisagedbyIslamitisthenadifferenceofaveryfundamen-talnatureItmeansthatyoudifferwithanddisbelieveintheIslamicideologyitselfInthiscaseyoushouldhavethecouragetodeclarethatyourejectIslamoutrightIsitnotfoolishtoallegefaithinaGodwhose laws you consider as barbarous Anyhow nobody can re-maininsidethepaleofIslamafterholdingsuchanopinionaboutthelawofGod(Mawdudi[Maududi]196067)

PolemicsofthissortnotonlysuggesttheIslamistsrsquosenseofwhatsepa-ratesthemfromthemodernistsbutalsopointtointermittentIslamistef-forts to make common cause with the lsquoulama Such efforts are oftenpredicated on both the rhetorical claim that all sincere Muslims fully

11

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

concurintheirconceptionofthesharilsquoa(Islamiclaw)andtheIslamistsrsquoastuterecognitionofthelsquoulamarsquosconsiderablestandinginsocietyUnsur-prisinglysomeleadingIslamistshavesoughttoblurdistinctionsbetweenthemselves and the lsquoulama to enhance their own authority Usama binLaden(b1957)styledhisfamous1996ldquoDeclarationofWaragainsttheAmericansOccupyingtheLandoftheTwoHolyPlacesrdquoasafatwathatisajuridicalopiniontherebyrhetoricallyobscuringthehistoricalfactthatfatwashavetypicallybeenthepreserveofthe lsquoulamaandmorespecifi-callyofthefuqahaormuftis(jurists)amongthemBinLadenhoweverhasnoformalscholarlycredentialsinmattersIslamicMawdudiwascom-monly styledasmawlana a commonhonorific for the lsquoulama inSouthAsiaAdeliberateblurringofdistinctionsislikewiseevidentinthestate-ment of the Sudanese Islamist Hasan al-Turabi (b 1932) ldquoBecause allknowledgeisdivineandreligiousachemistanengineeraneconomistorajuristarealllsquoulamardquo(Turabi1983245alsochapter8inthisvolume) YetthereareleadingIslamistsmdashinthisvolumeKhomeiniMutahhariBaqiral-SadrFadlallah lsquoAliNadwi lsquoUmar lsquoAbdal-RahmanandQa-radawimdashwhoweretrainedaslsquoulamawhichmeansthatporousbounda-riesbetweenIslamistsandthelsquoulamaarenotjustamatterofself-servingrhetoricbyautodidactsGiventhisfactthedistinctionbetweenIslamistsandlsquoulamaturnslessonstarkdifferencesineducationalbackgroundandmoreonthecharacterandcontentoftheirpoliticalcommitmentsMorethananythingelseIslamistsseektoimplementIslamiclawthroughtheagencyofthestateNotallarewillingtoresorttoviolentmeansinpur-suitofthisendManysuchasYusufal-Qaradawi(b1926)ahighlyin-fluentialIslamistandoneofthemostprominentlsquoulamaofcontemporaryIslam(Skovgaard-Petersen2004Kraumlmer2006)professdemocraticcom-mitmentsButwhateverthestancetowardeitherdemocracyorviolencethepublicimplementationofthesharilsquoaisattheheartofallIslamisminbothitsShilsquoiandSunniformsThissuggestsanimportantcontrastwithmanyamongthelsquoulama

SincethefirstcenturiesofIslamthelsquoulamahaveoftensoughttomain-tainacarefuldistancefromtherulingelitejealouslyguardingtheirinsti-tutionsandpracticesfromgovernmentalinterferenceThelsquoulamagener-allyrecognizedthatthefunctioningoflegalandotherIslamicinstitutionspresupposedtheexistenceofaMuslimgovernmentandtheydefinedalegitimategovernmentasonethatoversawtheimplementationofsharilsquoanormsButtheyhavetypicallyunderstoodthegovernmentrsquoscommitmenttothesharilsquoatomeanthattherulerdefendedthebordersofthepolityregulatedpublicmoralitysuppressedhereticsandappointedthosepro-ficientinlegalmatterstoimplementthelaw(cfCrone2004286ndash314)TheyhavenotunderstoodanyofthistomeaneitherthattherulershouldbeabletoofferabsoluteinterpretationsofGodrsquoslaworthattherealmofpoliticsandstatecraftshouldbecomesynonymouswithIslamitselfYetthis ispreciselyhowIslamistshaveoftenconceivedof therelationship

12

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

betweenIslamandpoliticsandmorespecificallybetweenIslamandthestatenocallingishigherthanstrivingtowardtheestablishmentofanIs-lamicstateandoncebroughtaboutallwillbeinaccordancewithGodrsquospurposesMawdudi(1960177)claimedthatldquothestruggleforobtainingcontrolovertheorgansofthestatewhenmotivatedbytheurgetoestab-lishthedin[religion]andtheIslamicSharilsquoahandtoenforcetheIslamicinjunctionsisnotonlypermissiblebutpositivelydesirableandassuchobligatoryrdquo

Tomanylsquoulamathisamountstonothinglessthanmakingreligiousnorms subservient topolitical goalsAsMuftiMuhammadTaqi lsquoUth-manialeadingDeobandischolarofPakistannotesinhisrejoindertoviewssuchasMawdudirsquos

Intheirzealtorefutesecularismsomewritersandthinkersofthepresentagehavegonesofarastocharacterizepoliticsandgovern-ment as the true objective of Islam the reason why the prophetsweresent[byGodtothepeople]indeedtheveryreasonforthecre-ationofthehumanbeingAndtheyhavenotonlygivenotherIs-lamiccommandmentsmdashforinstanceonmattersofworshipmdashasec-ondarypositiontheyhaveevendeemedthemtobemeremeansforpoliticalendsjustawayoftrainingpeople[towardpoliticalmobili-zation](lsquoUthmani199825ndash26cfZaman2008116ndash18)

NotalllsquoulamasharesuchmisgivingsaboutthesubordinationofIslamtopoliticsthoughitshouldbenotedthattheywouldseethisintermsnotofanysuchsubordinationbutratheroftheutterinseparabilityofthere-ligiousandthepoliticalByfarthemostnotableoftheseamongtheShilsquoaisAyatollahKhomeini(d1989)ofIranAgainstalong-standingtradi-tionofShilsquoipoliticalquietismintheabsenceofthehiddenShilsquoiimamKhomeiniarguedthattheShilsquoi lsquoulamaoughttoassumedirectpoliticalleadershipandhethenproceededtospearheadthemovementthatcul-minatedinthefalloftheIranianmonarchyandtheestablishmentoftheIslamicRepublicofIran9Hisdoctrineofthevelayatshye faqih(guardian-shipofthejurist)isaradicalrethinkingofShilsquoipoliticaltheologyblur-ringanymeaningfulboundarybetweenreligiousandpoliticalauthority(seechapter6)ItispreciselyKhomeinirsquoscommitmenttoestablishinganIslamic statealong these lines thatwarrantshis classificationasan Is-

9TheImamiorIthnalsquoashariShilsquoabelievethatthetwelfthandlastoftheirimamswentintoghayba(hiding)in874andthathewilleventuallyreturnasthemahdimdashamessianicfigurewhoalonecanrestoreproperordertotheworldinaugurateaneraofunalloyedjus-ticeandreclaimfortheShilsquoatherightsofwhichtheyhavebeendispossessedbytheSunnisandbycorruptrulersformuchofthehistoryofIslamShilsquoischolarshavelongdebatedthequestionofwhatsortofauthoritytheleadingreligiousscholarsoughttohaveinofficiatingintheimamrsquosabsenceKhomeinirsquosviewdisputedbymanyotherscholarswasthatthelead-ingscholar(s)oughttodischargethefullrangeoftheimamrsquosfunctionsincludingthepoliti-calheadshipofthecommunity

13

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

lamistnotwithstandinghiswell-recognizedstatusasoneoftheleadingShilsquoilsquoulamaofhisgeneration

The Azhar-educated Yusuf al-Qaradawi has for his part criticizedmanyfellowIslamistsonseveralissuesbutnotonthefundamentalques-tion of their political orientation Just as Khomeini had chastised theldquopropagandainstitutionsofimperialism[fortrying]topersuadeusthatthereligiousleadersmustnotinterfereinsocialmattersandthatthefuqaha[jurists]donothavethedutyofoverseeingthedestinyoftheIslamicnationrdquo(Algar1981141)Qaradawiinsiststhatdenyingthepo-liticalorientationofIslamamountstoitswillfuldistortion

Amongtheinterpretationswithwhichthesecularists[lsquoalmaniyyun]andthemodernists[alshyhadathiyyun]calumniate[Islamproperlyun-derstood and those committed to it] is the notion of ldquopoliticalIslamrdquowhichwithoutdoubtisanideaalientoourIslamicsocietyBy[politicalIslam]theymeananIslamthatconcernsitselfwiththeinternalandexternalaffairsoftheMuslimcommunity[Theymeanbyit]actionsaimedatfreeingthecommunityfromtheforeignpowerthatdirects [Muslim]affairsphysicallyandmorallyas itpleases[Theyalsomeanbyit]actionsseekingtocleansethecommunityofthecultural socialand legalsedimentsofWesterncolonialismsothatthecommunitycanreturnonceagaintosubmissiontoGodrsquoslawindifferentareasoflifeTheyusethischaracterizationofldquopoliticalIslamrdquoinordertoalienatepeoplefromits[aforementioned]contentandto frighten themawayfromthosecalling toacomprehensiveconceptionofIslammdashonethatisinclusiveofbeliefandlawworshipandsocialinteractionproselytismandthestate(Qaradawi200793)

Islamistpoliticalcommitmentsareoftenintertwinedwithcritiquesofthescholarlytraditionanditsattendant institutionsandpracticesandthiscriticismprovidesusacrucialwayof thinkingfurtherbothaboutwhatdistinguishesIslamistsfromthelsquoulamaandabouthowtoviewIs-lamismitselfWhatthelsquoulamacannotbutseeasacavalierattitudeto-wardtheirscholarlytraditioniswesuggestbetterviewedaspartofalargerIslamistcritiqueonethatgoestotheheartofhowIslamismoughttobeunderstoodasaphenomenonItisacritiqueofparticularMuslimbeliefspracticesmoresandinstitutionsthataredeemedtohaveonlyatenuousbasis inldquotruerdquoandldquoauthenticrdquo Islamof the repeatedwrongturnsMuslimshavetakenthroughouttheirlonghistoryofthecorrupt-ingldquoforeignrdquoinfluencesmdashfromSufismtoGreekphilosophytothelureofmodernWesternculturesmdashbywhichMuslimshaveallowedthemselvestobeseducedandoftheirunwillingnesstodowhateverittakestoestab-lish thehakimiyya (sovereignty)ofGodonearthThat it is the sover-eigntyofGodthatIslamistsseekultimatelytoaffirmintheirindividualandpubliclivesremindsusthattheircritiqueofthepastandthepresentisapoliticalcritiqueanchoredinanddrivenbyaspirationstoinstitutea

14

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

newreligio-politicalorderWhetherthiscritiqueisarticulatedinconcreteor vague terms in a seeminglymoderateorplainlymilitant languagethere is no mistaking either its principal targetmdashfacets of the Islamictraditionmdashoritsfundamentallypoliticalorientation10

IslamistshaveofteninsistedthatthewordofGodcanandshouldbeapproacheddirectlywithoutthemediationofpresentorpastscholarsandwithoutanyneedfortheedifyingtalesthephilologicaldebatesandthelong-windedtheologicaldisquisitionssooftenfoundinmedievalexe-geticalliteratureamajorfacetoftheIslamicscholarlytradition(cfCarreacute200318)ShukriMustafaanEgyptianIslamistexecutedin1977forthemurderousactivitiesofhisSocietyofMuslims(popularlyknownastheSociety of Excommunication and Emigration) had famously assertedthatalloneneededtoresolveuncertaintiesinonersquosunderstandingofthewordofGodwasadictionary(Kepel199379)SayyidQutbdidnotgoquite that farButhe tooaffirmed that the fundamental teachingsofIslamwereentirelytransparentldquoWhatwearesayingaboutIslamisnoinventionofoursoranynewinterpretationofitsessenceIt issimplyplainIslamasitwasunderstoodbyitsfirstadherentMuhammadandhissincereCompanionsandthoseclosetoitsauthenticsourcerdquo(Qutb19969withminorchange)

TheimplicationofQutbrsquosstrikingassertionistwofoldFirstbehindarhetoric of humility in relation to divine knowledge Qutb implicitlyclaimsthefullbackingofGodandHisProphetfortheldquoplainIslamrdquohesetsforthMorespecificallyheessentiallydepictshisownunderstandingofIslamassynonymouswithGodrsquoseternalintentmuchasKhomeinirsquospronouncementsasthevalishyye faqih(guardianjurist)presumedtoarticu-latewhatIslamitselfstoodfororrequiredonanygivenmatterSecondthestatementimpliesnotonlythatviewsotherthanhisaremereinter-pretationsbutthattheyarethemorereprehensibleforbeingldquonovelrdquomdashasuggestionthatevokesthenotionofbidlsquoathatisofillicitcapriciousin-

10ThatIslamismshouldbeseenasawide-rangingcritiqueoftheworldandoftheIslamictraditionisareminderofcoursethatcritiqueisnotaninherentlysecularphenomenonnordoesitnecessitateasecularframeworkAsTalalAsad(2008)hasobservedgivenawidevarietyofldquopossibleinstancesofcritiquecriticismwhatwehaveisafamilyconceptforwhichitisnotpossibletoprovideasingletheorybecausethepracticesthatconstitutethemdifferradicallyrdquo(alsocfMahmood2008Taylor2008)NorshouldourviewingIs-lamism as a politically motivated critique suggest that other competing orientations inmodernIslamcannotalsobeseenascritiquesofparticularpracticesparticularformsofknowledgeWhatdoesdistinguishanIslamistorientationfromothersisonceagainboththedegreetowhichIslamistcritiquesbreakwiththeirpastandpresentandtheiraspirationto remake theworld in accordancewith their understandingof immutable divine com-mandsThisismarkedlydifferentfromhowthelsquoulamamightcritiqueparticularaspectsoftheirscholarlytraditionintheinterestofastrongersenseofcontinuitywiththattraditionorinordertomakeitmorereceptivetowhattheyseeasthecommunityrsquoschangingneedsItisalsoverydifferentfromhowMuslimmodernistsoftenbreakwiththescholarlytradi-tioninordertoadaptMuslimnormsandinstitutionstothedominantpoliticalandculturalinstitutionsoftheircontemporaryworld

15

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INTRODUCTION

novationinmattersofreligionSuchaviewofIslamjettisonsmuchofwhatwouldnormallycountasitshistoryandcivilizationldquoThehistoryoflsquoIslamrsquordquoQutbtellshisreadersldquoisthehistoryofthetrueapplicationofIslammdashinpeoplersquosconceptionsandtheirpracticesintheirlivesandtheirsocialsystemsIslamisthefixedaxisaroundwhichpeoplersquoslivesrevolveinafixedframeWhentheygooutofthisframeorwhentheycategorically abandon this axis what then do they have to do withIslamrdquo (Qutb 1967a vol 2 part 4 169 quotation marks aroundldquoIslamrdquoinoriginal)ItisforthefixedaxistheplainIslammdashandinoppo-sition to much of its historymdashthat the Islamist professes to stand (cfGrunebaum1962251ndash52)

Qutbhoweverisfarfromconsistentinhisattitudetowardtheschol-arlytraditionorinhowheseekstoarticulatehisownauthorityinrela-tiontoitHisfaithinthetransparencyandthetransformativeimmedi-acyofGodrsquoswordswouldappeartomakeallexegesissuperfluousyethehimselfhadproceededtowriteamajorcommentaryIn the Shade of the QurrsquoanthatwouldexceedfourthousandpagesinprintThejustifi-cationheoffers for it intheopening linesof thecommentary isauda-ciousnotapologetic

LifeintheshadeoftheQurrsquoanisablessingItisablessingunknownto anyonewhohasnrsquot tasted itAll praisebe toGodHehasgrantedmetheopportunitytoliveintheshadeoftheQurrsquoanforaperiodoftimeduringwhichIhavetastedHisblessingsasIneverhadearlierinmylifeIhavelistenedtoGodtheexaltedconvers-ingwithmethroughthisQurrsquoanmdashwithmeasmalllittleslaveIhavelivedintheshadeoftheQurrsquoanlookingfromanelevationatthejahiliyya[paganignorance]raginginthelandandthepettycon-cernsof itspeople [Fromthisvantage] Ihave seen thepride thepeopleofthisjahiliyyatakeintheirchildishknowledgetheirchild-ishideastheirchildishpreoccupations[Ihavelookeduponthem]likeanelderlooksuponthefrivolitiesofchildrenupontheireffortsandupontheirlisps(Qutb1967a13)

Theseresoundingwordsserveinteraliatoexplainwhyanewcom-mentaryshouldhavebeenneededatallthemind-numbingimpactofthejahiliyyahasmadepeopleincapableofrespondingtoeventhemostdi-rectofdivinesummonsandonlysomeonewhohaslivedldquointheshadeoftheQurrsquoanrdquocanunderstandtheirplightandremedyitFromtheper-spectiveQutbadoptshereanyappealtothescholarlytraditionanyef-forttoresthisauthorityonitwouldappearaltogetheroutofplaceYetQutbrsquosclaimstoauthoritydonotderiveexclusivelyfromhisconversingwithGodthroughtheQurrsquoanTosomedegreetheyalsodependonhisbeingseenashavingmasteryovertheveryexegeticaltraditionofwhichheisotherwisefrequentlydismissiveQutbcitesasmallnumberofearliercommentators and other authorities when it suits his purpose to do

16

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

so11justashesidestepstheexegeticaltraditionwhendoingsooffersarhetoricallymoreeffectivewayofarrivingataconclusionMoretradi-tionalexegetespastandpresentalsopickandchooseofcourseButtheyhavetypicallydonesowithinanoverallframeworkthatisdefinedbyacontinuousengagementwiththeexegeticaltraditionasawhole(cfSaleh2004)BycontrastQutbandotherIslamistexegeteswriteoutsideandofteninconsciousoppositiontoanysuchframeworkTheconversa-tionisnotwiththeearlierexegetesbutdirectlywithGodthoughthismightonoccasionbeaidedbyillustrationsfromtheearlierexegeticaltradition

If thereareunacknowledgedambiguities inQutbrsquosrelationshipwiththe Islamic traditionaswehaveobserveda frequentlyacerbic stancedoesnonetheless remain characteristicofhowheviews itmostof thetimeQutbisanythingbutuniqueinthisrespectYetifIslamistssharealmostbydefinitionacriticalstancetowardfacetsofthistraditionthereismuchthatalsoseparatesthemfromoneanotherinpreciselyhowthiscritique and its implications are articulated in different instances Al-thoughthemerepresenceofdisagreementamongIslamist intellectualsandactivistsishardlyremarkablethescopeandimplicationsofsomeofthedisagreementsinasmuchastheyrelatetothescholarlytraditionarenonethelessworthexamininghereFortheysuggestthatwhileIslamistsshare the conviction that particular institutions practices and normsneedtoberefashionedinlightofimmutabledivinecommandsthiscon-victionoftenrestsonquitedifferentviewsofIslamichistoryandciviliza-tionofcontemporaryMuslimsocietiesandnotleastofreligiousau-thorityanditslociNowhereperhapsisthismoreevidentthaninsomeofthewritingsofYusufal-QaradawiLikeQutbQaradawiisamongthemostinfluentialIslamistideologuesintheSunniworldHeisalsooneofQutbrsquosseverestcriticsfromwithintheIslamistcamp(seeespeciallyQa-radawi1994101ndash31)

ThatldquoMuslimrdquosocietieslackedaproperIslamicfoundationmadeitfutileQutbhadarguedtodebatespecificquestionsofIslamiclawand

11TheseincludeinteraliaMuhammadibnIshaq(d767)theauthoroftheSirat rasul AllahoneoftheearliestbiographiesoftheProphetMuhammadal-Tabari(d923)theauthorofJamilsquo alshybayan lishytarsquowil ay alshyQurrsquoanoneofthemostinfluentialcommentariesoftheQurrsquoaneverproducedal-Baghawi(d1117)whosecommentaryistitledMalsquoalim alshytanzilal-Qurtubi(d1273)theauthorofaworkalshyJamilsquo lishyahkam alshyQurrsquoanwhichises-peciallyattentivetothelegalcontentoftheQurrsquoanandIbnKathir(d1373)theauthorofaQurrsquoan commentaryTafsir alshyQurrsquoan alshylsquoazimwhichhasbeenpopular amongmanyMuslimsofaSalafiorientationOnoccasionQutbalsocitesinfluentialfellowIslamistsSeeforexampleQutbFi zilal alshyQurrsquoanvol2part4132(Mawdudi)vol2part525(Nadwi)vol2part6143and150ndash53(lsquoAbdal-QadirlsquoAwdaanEgyptianIslamistandlegalscholarexecutedundertheNasserregimein1954)OccasionallyQutbcitesRidarsquosTafsir alshymanaraswell thoughmoreoftenthannot toregisterhisdisagreementswithRidaandwiththelatterrsquosmentorMuhammadlsquoAbduhForadetailedcomparisonbetweenthecommentariesofRidaandQutbseeCarreacute2003

17

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

howitdealtwithparticularsocialoreconomicissuesThelsquoulamawerepatheticallydeludediftheythoughtthattheinterestsofIslamcouldbefurtheredthroughdisquisitionsonthesharilsquoainsuchconditionsofper-vasiveungodliness(Qutb1967b183ndash90)WhatpeopleneededbeforeanythingelsewasareturntothebasicsofthefaithThetaskofrighteouspreacherswastoinstructtheminthesemattersandtohelpthemrecog-nizewhatthesovereigntyofGoddemandedofthem(Qutb199135cfQaradawi1994102ndash4)Allothermattersincludingthenicetiesofjuris-ticdiscussionwerebestpostponeduntilaproperlyIslamicsocietybasedonthisfoundationhadbeenrealized

Qaradawi vehemently disagrees with Qutb arguing that educatedMuslimsarenotpagansbutbelieversandassuchdonotneedtobetu-toredinthefundamentalsoftheirfaithWhattheyoftendonotunder-standverywellmdashandhereQaradawiconcurswithotherIslamistsmdashisthenatureofIslamasanizam (socialandpoliticalsystem)TheproblemofMuslimsinotherwordsisnotgodlessnessbutsimplyignorance(whichiswhat the term jahiliyya literallymeans)of the teachingsof Islam intheircomprehensiveall-encompassingdimensionsAsQaradawiseesitmanyldquocaptivesofWesternthoughtrdquohavedoubtsnotabouttheessentialsoftheirfaithbutratheraboutIslamasacomprehensivesystemanditistheirunaddressedmisunderstandingstheirignoranceonthelatterscorethatsometimesopens thedoor todoubtsaboutmattersofbelief itself(Qaradawi1994113ndash14)Tocontinuetoexpoundonthesocialpoliti-calandotherteachingsofIslamwhilethesocietyisyetimperfectisnottoendorseorstrengthenthejahiliorderasQutbhadallegedbutonlytohelpordinarypeopleintheirefforttoleadvirtuouslivesevenininiqui-touscircumstances

ThisviewrepresentsanappealtowhatQaradawihasrepeatedlyre-ferredtoasthemoderatepathoralshymadrasa alshywasatiyya(theldquocentristschoolrdquocfQaradawi2006137ndash217)mdashonethatlocatesitselfonaputa-tivemiddlegroundbetweenacompleterejectionoftheworldincludingMuslimsocietiesanditstotalembraceQaradawiisequallyconcernedwithrescuingIslamichistoryandcivilizationfromoutrightdismissalatthehandsofIslamistslikeQutb12TheideathatjahilinormshadbeguntocreepbackintotheMuslimcommunityshortlyafterthedeathoftheProphetandthattheyhaveremainedunchallengedformuchofIslamrsquoshistoryignoresallthoseQaradawisayswhohavecontinuedtorepre-sentthepathofrighteousnessthroughoutthehistoryofIslamContrarytotheconvictionoftheSunnisthatldquothecommunitywillneveragreeonerrorrdquomdashastheProphetissaidtohavepromisedmdashthenotionofaperva-

12AmongleadingfiguresQaradawisinglesoutforcriticisminthisregardarebesidesQutbMawdudiandtheEgyptianIslamistscholarMuhammadal-Ghazali(d1996)SeeQaradawi2005b46ndash64It isworthnotingthatdespitetheseandotherdisagreementsQaradawihaswrittenrespectfullyofallthreedevotinganentirebooktohislongassocia-tionwithMuhammadal-Ghazali(seeQaradawi1995)

18

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INTRODUCTION

sivejahiliyyasuggestsmoreoverthatthecommunitydidindeedagreeonerror13Mostgrievouslyperhaps Islamist critiques tend to suggestthatthesharilsquoahasalmostneverbeenimplementedinMuslimsocietiesaftertheveryfirstyearsofIslamIronicallysaysQaradawisuchindis-criminaterejectionofIslamichistoryinadvertentlyreinforcessecularist argumentsthatthesharilsquoaisunsuitedtopracticalapplication(Qaradawi2005b46)QaradawirsquoscritiqueofQutbandotherIslamistsisfinallyanargumentforthecontinuingcentralityofthelsquoulamatothetaskofpro-viding authoritative guidance to the communityHisunderstandingofwhoconstitutesthelsquoulamaisfarmoreexpansivethanthatofmostDeo-bandilsquoulamaofSouthAsiaButlikethemheisinnodoubtthatseriousreligiousscholarsasdistinguishedfromamateurishautodidactsarecru-cialtothetaskofprovidingauthoritativereligiousandmoralguidancetothecommunity

AlthoughwehavesoughttoillustratecertainfacetsoftheIslamistcri-tiqueof the scholarly traditionandof theworldas somekey IslamistthinkershavearticulateditwedonotwishtosuggestofcoursethatIslamists are necessarily ldquointellectualsrdquo Whatever Qutb KhomeiniMawdudiandQaradawimightthinkofotherscholarsandintellectualsorofthemselvesinrelationtothemtheformerobviouslyarereligiousintellectualsThesameishardlytrueofmanyotherIslamistsYeteventhosewithlittleornointellectualpretensionsareoftenrecognizableas IslamistsnotonlyfortheircommitmenttothepublicimplementationofIslamicnormsgroundedinthefoundationaltextsbutalsomdashandasacor-ollaryoftheformermdashfortheiroftenself-consciouscritiqueofanddisen-gagementfromthenormsandmorestheyseearoundthemIncontempo-raryLebanonforinstanceShilsquoiIslamistshaveoftenseentheirtext-basedreligiouscommitmentsasmarkingacleardeparturefromearlierandex-isting religious practicesAs anthropologist LaraDeeb (2006 20) ob-servesldquoTheyvieweditasnewanddifferentmdashdifferentfromwhattheyoftenreferredtoenigmaticallyaslsquobeforersquoorlsquohowwewerersquoanddifferentfromwhattheycalledalshytaqalid(traditions)Inlieuofpracticesandbeliefscastastraditionaltheyespoused [an] lsquoauthenticatedrsquoIslamexpressedinpublicpietyrdquo14ManyIslamists living inrefugeecampsinGazahavehadasimilarviewTothemldquoPalestinianshadeitherbe-comelostinforeignideologiesortheyhadbecomelsquoMuslimsbycon-

13Theconvictionthatthecommunityatlargeisdivinelyprotectedfromerrorisanim-portantbasisoftheauthorityofldquoconsensusrdquoasamajorsourceofjuridicalnormsinSunniIslamFormoderndebateson consensus and someof the literatureon this subject seeZaman2006

14Theldquotraditionsrdquohereprimarilyrefer tocustomarynormsanddevotionalpracticesratherthantothecenturies-olddiscursivetraditionfromwhichthelsquoulamabothShilsquoiandSunniderivetheirauthorityIslamistcritiquesareoftendirectedasmuchhoweverattra-ditionsinthesenseofldquoinauthenticrdquoculturallyrootedreligiouspracticesastheyareatthescholarlytraditionofthelsquoulamawhichtothemisequallyinauthenticinhavingobscuredthesimpleandfundamentalteachingsofthefoundationaltexts

19

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

ventionrsquowhowentalongwiththefastorprayednowandthenbecausethiswaslsquocustomandtraditionrsquo(lsquoada wa taqlid)ThislackofconsciouszealousadherencetoIslamhadresultedinsocialweaknessleadingtode-featatthehandsofIsraelrdquo(Lybarger2007211)ThereismuchthatsuchanalysessharewiththewritingsandpronouncementsoftheleadingIs-lamistintellectuals

Islamists and Salafi s

JustasitisnotalwayseasytodifferentiatelsquoulamafromIslamistsorIs-lamists frommodernists it is sometimesdifficult to clearlydistinguishbetweenIslamistsandtheSalafisThelatterderivethisself-designationfromclaimsofstrictadherencetothenormativepracticeofalshysalaf alshysalih(thepiousforbears)usuallyunderstoodastheMuslimsofthefirstgenerations of Islam The guiding Salafi assumption is that these firstMuslims inbeingcontemporariesof theProphetMuhammadandtheimmediatesuccessorsofthosecontemporariesexemplifymostperfectlywhatitmeanstobeavirtuousMuslimandthatlatergenerationscandonobetterthanemulatetheexampleofthesefirstgenerationsSomever-sionofthisviewwouldfindbroadresonanceamongIslamistsbutalsoordinary believers though the Shilsquoa of various doctrinal orientationshavealwayshada farmore restrictiveviewofpreciselywho isworthemulating Again like the Islamists the Salafis insist on deriving theirnormsdirectlyfromtheIslamicfoundationaltextstheQurrsquoanandtheexampleoftheProphetMuhammadunmediatedbythemedievalschoolsoflawThismeansdoingawaywiththesortofhistoricallyarticulatedscholarlytraditionfromwhichthelsquoulamahavetendedtodrawmuchoftheirauthorityTheSalafisdohavetheirownlsquoulamamdashQaradawiisano-tableinstanceasaremembersoftheSaudireligiousestablishmentmdashbuteventheirauthorityisbasedfarmoreondirectlyinterpretingthefounda-tional texts than it is on any systematic engagement with the Islamicscholarlytradition

AllthissoundsagooddealnotjustliketheIslamistsbutalsolikethemodernistsThisshouldnotbesurprisingfortheSalafiorientationisanimportantpartofthegenealogyofbothmodernismandIslamismTheSalafi reformer Muhammad lsquoAbduh though a traditionally educatedscholarwhoservedtowardtheendofhislifeasthegrandmuftiofEgyptwasakeyinfluenceinthedevelopmentofIslamicmodernismButwhilesomeoflsquoAbduhrsquosdisciplesdevelopedhisideasinthedirectionofsecularnationalismothersmdashnotablytheSalafijournalistandQurrsquoancommenta-torRashidRidamdasheventuallytookthemdespitehismodernistproclivi-tiesinadecidedlyconservativedirection(Hourani1983alsocfDallal2000)Hasan al-Banna the founder of the MuslimBrotherhoodwasclose to many Egyptian Salafis Muhibb al-din al-Khatib (d 1969) aleadingSalafiofthetimeandtheowneroftheSalafiPublishingHousein

20

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

CairowasinchargeofoneoftheBrotherhoodrsquosfirstjournals(Mitchell1993185)andafterRidarsquosdeathin1935itwasatBannarsquosinitiativethatRidarsquosinfluentialjournalalshyManarwouldcontinuetobepublishedforsomeyears(RMitchell1993186)

ForalltheiraffinitieshoweverSalafiscannotsimplybesubsumedwiththeIslamistsanymorethantheycanwiththemodernistsUnliketheearlySalafisandothermodernists Islamistshavealmost invariablysought toaddressthemselvestoawidepopularaudienceratherthantotheintellec-tualelite(cfRMitchell1993211)TheSalafishavealsobeenfarmorepreoccupiedwithmattersofcorrectbeliefthenuancesofdoctrinethanhaveeither the Islamistsor themodernists (cfHaykel2009 [forthcom-ing])BythesametokenwhilemanyIslamistshavehadasomewhatam-bivalentrelationshipwithSufismSalafishaveusuallybeenunrelentinglyhostile to devotional Sufi practices But if it is useful to distinguish theSalafisfromothercompetingorientationsinmodernIslamitisimportantalsotorecognizethatthereismuchonwhichSalafisthemselveshavedis-agreedsometimessharplyInquestionintheseldquointernalrdquodifferencesisnottheiroverallorientationmdashtowardtheIslamicfoundational textsandthepristinenormsofIslamrsquosfirstgenerationsmdashbutratherthepreciseimplica-tionsofthisorientationforbeliefandconductinthepresentAconsider-ationofsomeofthesedifferencesshouldinturnfurtherillustratehowtheSalafisoughttobedistinguishedfromothercompetingcamps

WheremanySalafisseetheschoolsoflawasobstructingandindeeddistortingthesimplemessageofthefoundationaltextsothersviewthelegaltraditionasrepresentingIslamrsquosrichintellectuallegacyfromwhichMuslimsought todrawboth inspirationandguidanceQaradawi forinstance has been critical not just of the Muslimmodernists but alsooffellowSalafisfortheirirreverencetowardtherichesofthelegaltradi-tiontheiruneducatedproclivitytosetitasidealltoocallouslyOnthisviewarejectionofthetaqlid-boundlsquoulamashouldnotleadtotheotherextrememdashexemplifiedbynotafewSalafismdashofjettisoningthescholarlytraditionaltogether SalafisalsodifferamongthemselvesintheirattitudestowardmodernWesterninstitutionsandpracticesInthelatenineteenthandearlytwen-tieth centuries Salafi reformers like Muhammad lsquoAbduh and RashidRidainEgyptandJamalal-dinal-Qasimi(d1914)inSyriahadcalledforareorientationtowardthefoundationaltextsasawayofjustifyingnotresistingchangesinlawandeducationaswellasotherfacetsofso-cialreform(cfHourani1983Commins1990)OnthisviewadirectrecoursetotheQurrsquoanandthesunnaofferedthebestwayofdemonstrat-ing the accord between their teachings and the reformist project15 In

15SymptomaticofotherdisagreementsamongtheSalafisistheveryquestionofpreciselywhothesalafarewhoseexampleoughttobeemulatedThenarrowerviewslimitthesalaftothefirstthreegenerationsofIslammdashtheageoftheProphetMuhammadandhiscompan-ionstheirsuccessorsandthelatterrsquosimmediatesuccessorsmdashbuteventhesenarrowviews

21

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INTRODUCTION

contemporaryEuropeTariqRamadananinfluentialSwissArabphilos-opherhasarguedthatMuslimslivinginWesternsocietiesoughttofeelathomeinandcontributetoward thosesocietieswhileretainingandcultivatingtheirdistinctIslamicidentityHetooappearstoseehimselfinthegenealogyofwhathecharacterizesasldquoSalafireformismrdquo(onthischaracterization see Ramadan 2004 26ndash27) and he has echoed Qa-radawiinsomeofhisviews(cfRamadan199993ndash99) Other Salafis have remained staunchly opposed to institutions andpracticesofaWesternprovenanceAnespeciallyinfluentialfigureinthegenealogyofthelatterpositionistheeighteenth-centurypuritanicalre-former Muhammad ibn lsquoAbd al-Wahhab (d 1792) whose alliance in1744 with Muhammad ibn Salsquoud contributed to the establishment ofthefirstSaudistateinthelateeighteenthcenturyIbnlsquoAbdal-WahhabwashostilenotonlytoShilsquoismandtoSufidevotionalismbutalsotoany-thinghedeemednottobeinstrictconformitywiththeteachingsofthefoundationaltextsTherewasmuchthatseemedtohimtofailthisstan-dardallofwhichhebrandedasoneoranotherformofunbeliefTheWahhabismdashas the followers of Ibn lsquoAbd al-Wahhab are oftenknownthoughtheyprefertothinkofthemselvessimplyasgoodMuslimsoratbestasSalafismdashoftenadheretothelegalnormsoftheHanbalischooloflawthoughitistheteachingsofthefoundationaltextsirrespectiveofthisoranyotherschooldoctrinethattheyprofesstofollowThemoststringentoftheSaudiSalafisaswellasotherselsewhereareaveryfarcryindeedfromwhatQaradawiwouldcharacterizeasldquocentristrdquoSalafireformersletalonefromtheearlytwentieth-centurySalafimodernists

ThepoliticalviewsoftheWahhabisandmorebroadlyoftheSalafisare likewiseanythingbutuniformInSaudiArabiaWahhabireligiousscholarshavelongaffirmedaquietistpoliticalstancewhichhasmeantleavingmattersofthestatetotherulingfamilyFormuchofthehistoryofmodernSaudiArabiatherulingelitefor itsparthas imposedfewconstraintsontheSaudilsquoulamainmattersofreligiouslifetheregulationofsocialnormsandjudicialadministration(cfVogel2000)Onseveraloccasions however this relationship has come under severe strain In1979agroupofWahhabiswhorejectedthelegitimacyoftheSaudistateyethadtieswithsomeprominentreligiousscholarsmdashincludinglsquoAbdal-

feelconstrainedtomakeroomforsuchreveredfiguresasAhmadibnHanbaltheputativefounderoftheHanbalischooloflawandthefourteenth-centuryDamascenescholarIbnTaymiyya(d1328)OtherviewsarerathermoreexpansivenotjustinchronologicalbutalsoandcruciallyinintellectualtermsThusMuhammadlsquoAbduhthoughtthesalaftoalsoincludesuchtheologiansasal-Ashlsquoari(d935)al-Baqillani(d1013)andal-Maturidi(d944)SeeHourani1983149SuchaviewobviouslyopensthedoorforpreciselythesortoftheologicaldebatesthatotherSalafisaswellasIslamistsoftenfrownuponfortakingthebelieversveryfarfromthesimpleanddirectwordsofGod lsquoAbduhrsquosdiscipleRidaagaintookanarrowerviewofthesalafandlaterinhiscareerbecameastrongdefenderoftheWahhabisCfHourani1983230ndash32

22

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

lsquoAzizBinBaz(d1999)laterthegrandmuftiofSaudiArabiamdashtookoverthesacredprecinctsoftheKalsquobainMeccainashort-livedbutextremelyembarrassingchallenge toSaudi royalauthority (cfHegghammerandLacroix2007)In1990KingFahdrsquosdecisiontoinviteAmericantroopstodefendthekingdomagainstthethreatofanIraqiinvasioncreatedwide-spreadresentmentamongSaudis theeffectsofwhichcontinue to thisdayThestationingofnon-MuslimmilitarypersonnelinIslamrsquosholiestlandwasdeemedbythekingrsquoscriticstobescandalousandevensacrile-giousAnumberofprominentSaudiSalafispubliclycriticizedthekingrsquosdecisiononthisoccasioncallinguponhimaswellasonBinBazandoth-ersatthehelmoftheSaudireligiousestablishmenttoreorienttheSaudipolitytowarditstruereligiousfoundationsManyofthesedissidentsmdashwhowerealsojoinedbyldquosecularrdquoSaudicriticsoftheroyalfamilymdashwereandhaveremainedrestrainedintheircriticismevenastheycalledforstricterconformitytoIslamicnormsasthepanaceaforallills(cfFandy1999)OthershoweverhavedenouncedtheroyalfamilyanditsWesternalliesinnouncertaintermsBinLadenisonlythemostnotoriousofthosewhobrokewiththeroyalfamilyinthewakeofKingFahdrsquosdecisiontoinviteWesterntroopsin1990andwhocalledfortheoverthrowoftheroyal familyand for jihadagainstWesternpowers Such strident callshavebeencontinuedbyotherSalafisbothbeforeandaftertheterroristattacksofSeptember112001aswellasintheaftermathoftheUS-ledinvasionofIraq(al-Rasheed2007)

ItshouldbeclearinlightoftheforegoingthatanyunderstandingofthedifferencesbetweenIslamistsandtheSalafismustrestontakingac-countofthediversityamongtheSalafisSalafiswhooftenrejectmuchoftheIslamicscholarlytraditioninfavorofadirectrecoursetothefoun-dationaltextsarenotnecessarilyrenderedldquoIslamistrdquosimplybyvirtueofthisstanceForasnotedmanyoftheseSalafiscontinuetoprofessareso-lutelyquietiststancewhichinthecaseoftheSaudiSalafismeansaf-firmingallegiancetotheSaudiroyalfamilyThispositionisrepresentedforinstancebyBinBaztheerstwhilegrandmuftiaswellasbyotherleading members of the Saudi religious establishment A pro-regimestanceoroneindifferenttopoliticsisnolessldquopoliticalrdquoofcoursethana position of strident hostility to the established order at home andabroadForourpurposeshoweveritisonlywhentheSalafisrejecttheexistingdispensationandbeginstrivingmdashthoughnotnecessarilythroughmilitantmeansmdashforanewreligio-politicalorderthattheycanbesaidtojointheranksoftheIslamists

ItisworthnotingfinallythatSalafipositionsamongSaudisandelse-wherearemarkednotonlybydiversitybutalsobyconsiderablefluidity(al-Rasheed 2007) The same activist or intellectual might at varioustimesmoveamongavarietyofseeminglyincompatiblepositionsmdashap-pearingtobemoreldquomoderaterdquoonsomeissuesthanonothersForallhiscriticismofradicalIslamistsQaradawiforinstancehashimselfwrittenin justificationofsuicidebombingsbyPalestiniansagainst Israelis (see

23

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

chapter 9 on Qaradawi) And Saudi Salafis like Safar al-Hawali andSalmanal-lsquoAwdamdashwhocame toprominence in the early1990smdashhavealternatedbetweencriticismoftheSaudipoliciesanddenunciationsofradicalSalaficallstojihadagainsttheSaudiregime(seeal-Rasheed200759ndash101onal-HawalialsoseeReichmuth2006)Theirshiftingviewsreflect changes in their relations with the Saudi regime but they alsopointtothebroadspectrumofpositionswhichSalafishavetakenatdif-ferenttimesindifferentcontextsandbeforedifferentaudiencesThusevenasal-Hawaliandal-lsquoAwdahavecondemnedterroristactsdirectedagainstSaudiArabiaandadvisedSaudisnottofightAmericantroopsinpostndashSaddamHusseinIraqtheyhavecalledupontheIraqisthemselvestoresistAmericantroopsandhavecharacterizedthateffortasaldquodefen-sivejihadrdquo(al-Rasheed200794ndash95)

Sufi s and Islamists

ItseemsmuchsimpleronthefaceofittodistinguishbetweenIslamistsandSufisThecharacteristicSuficonvictionthattherearelevelsofmean-ingintheQurrsquoanthatgobeyondtheliteralandtheobviousandthataselectfewmdashtheldquofriendsofGodrdquomdashareendowedwiththeuniqueabilityto discern them is anathema to all those who insist that God intendsHisteachingstobeequallyintelligibletoallDespitetheirtendencytoviewthemselvesasbearersof true Islam Islamists typicallyregard theSufi idea that somepeoplehaveaprivileged relationshipwithGodassuspectthebasisnotonlyforsanctioninginterpretationsofIslamthatlackwarrantintheplainteachingsofGodandtheProphetbutalsoforpracticallyldquoworshipingrdquothesefriendsofGodIslamists(andmodernists)havefrequentlyalsobeencriticalofthewaySufidevotionalismcanyieldaturningawayfromtheworldratherthananefforttochangeitaswellasapreoccupationwithpersonalspiritualtransformationattheexpenseofconcernsforthewelfareofthecommunityatlarge SufipracticesandtheteachingsoftheSufimastershavevariedenor-mouslythroughoutthehistoryofIslamyetIslamistcritiquesofSufismareseldomattentivetoitsnuancesortothecomplexwaysithasrelatedtootherfacetsofIslamNorhaveIslamiststakenmuchaccountofthefactthatmanyleadingfiguresofearliertimeswerebesidesmuchelseSufisaswellThisistrueevenofIbnTaymiyya(d1328)whoseprestigeinIslamistandSalaficirclesismatchedbyfewothersandwhowasinhisdayamemberoftheQadiriSufiorder(Makdisi1974)EvenifonearguesmdashasanIslamistmightbeinclinedtomdashthatldquogoodrdquoSufismisnoth-ingbutproperIslamitselftheveryfactthatsuchfigureshadaSufiiden-tityatallnecessarilycomplicateswhatissupposedtobethepristinesim-plicityofafaithsharedequallybyallbelievers

Complicatingthingsstillfurtheristhevarietyofwaysinwhichsomeleading Islamists relate to Sufism Ayatollah Khomeini was a lifelongstudentofIslamicmysticismandtheinfluenceofthemedievalSpanish

24

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INTRODUCTION

Sufi Ibn lsquoArabi loomed especially large in his thought To Khomeinimysticismmdashoften referred to as lsquoirfan (gnosis) especially when inter-twinedwithIslamicphilosophyandtheology(Knysh1992632)mdashwascrucialtoaproperunderstandingofGodrsquosrelationshipwiththeworldandwiththehumanbeingItwasalsoessentialforonersquosethicalforma-tionforamasteryovertheselfandultimatelyforrealizinginoneselftheattributesofwhat Ibn lsquoArabihadcalledldquotheperfectmanrdquo (cfKnysh1992 635 also Mottahedeh 1985 180ndash85) Some of the austerity ofKhomeinirsquospersonallifeprobablyalsoderivedfromSufiasceticismAndthoughheanchoredhisconceptionofIslamicgovernmentinanexposi-tionofShilsquoijuridicalthoughtratherthaninIslamicmysticismthesortofreligiousauthorityhecametoenjoyonthebasisofhisreformulationofShilsquoipoliticaltheologyseemstoechomysticalideasoftheperfectmanwho embodies and upholds the moral order as the microcosm of theuniverse

UnlikeKhomeiniQutbwasnotaSufiandhegivesnoindicationofsharinganyofKhomeinirsquosenthusiasmforthegreatSufithinkersofear-liertimesEvensoechoesofamysticrsquosdirectencounterwiththefoun-tainheadoftruthandknowledgearehardtomissinQutbrsquoswritingses-peciallyinhiscommentaryontheQurrsquoan(cfCarreacute200395ndash97)TheveryfirstsentenceofhiscommentarymdashldquolifeintheshadeoftheQurrsquoanisablessingunknowntoanyonewhohasnrsquottasteditrdquomdashevokesthefa-miliarSufiideathatincontrovertibleknowledgeofRealityisultimatelyacquired only through direct personal experience (dhawq that is theldquotasterdquooftheTruth)ThegreatmedievalSufial-Ghazali(d1111)hadauthoredafamousautobiographicalaccountofhowitwasonlythroughthe immediacyofhispersonalmysticalexperience thathewasable toovercomehisdebilitatingepistemologicaldoubtsandreassurehimselfofthenecessarytruths(Watt199857)QutbdoesnotmentionGhazaliinthiscontextbutitisdifficultnottobestruckbythemysticalresonanceofsomeofhislanguageHereisoneexamplewhichoccursinhiscom-mentaryonsura(chapter)53oftheQurrsquoan16

16TheearlyversesinthissuraoftheQurrsquoanhavebeenunderstoodbyMuslimexegetesasreferringtotheProphetrsquosrevelatoryexperienceaswellastohisldquonightjourneyrdquoandhisascensiontoheavenormilsquoraj inthecourseofonenighthewastransportedfirstfromMeccatoJerusalemandthentothepresenceofGodbeforebeingreturnedtoMecca

UnrelatedtothenightjourneybutrelatedtohisrevelatoryexperiencestheexegeticalsignificanceofthisQurrsquoanicsuraalsoliesinitsconnectionwiththeso-calledSatanicVersesAccordingtocertainexegeticalreportsMuhammadwasinthecourseofreceivingarevela-tionwhenSataninterpolatedsomeversesintoitmdashversespraisingthreegoddessesreveredbythepolytheistsofMeccaItwasnotuntilsometimelaterthatMuhammadrealizedhiserrorwhereupontheversesinterpolatedbySatanwereremovedTheepisodeoftheldquoSa-tanicVersesrdquohasbeenacontroversialoneinIslamichistorylongbeforeSalmanRushdiersquosnovelofthatnameandKhomeinirsquosjuridicalruling(fatwa)callingforRushdiersquosdeathMostMuslimscholarshavefoundittooshockingtobelievethattheProphetcouldhavemadesuchagrievouserrorandhavedeniedthatanysuch incidentever tookplaceYetsome

25

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INTRODUCTION

IwaschattingoneeveningwithsomecompanionswhentoourearscamethesoundofsomeonerecitingtheQurrsquoannearbyrecitingtheSuraoftheStar[al-Najm]andweinterruptedourconversationtolistentotheNobleQurrsquoanLittlebylittlemyheartenteredintowhatwasbeing recited into theheartofMuhammadashe jour-neyedtotheHeavenlyHostIwaswithhimashesawGabrielintheangelicforminwhichGodhadcreatedhimIwaswithhiminhis loftyandfree-flying journey to theLoteTreeof theBoundaryandtheGardenoftheRefugeIwaswithhimtotheextentthatmyimaginationcouldformavisionofitandtotheextentthatmyfeelings couldbear itThen came the final cry andmywholebeingshookatthefearfulreproachldquoDoyoumarvelatthisdiscourseanddoyoulaughandnotweepandmakemerryrdquo[Q5359ndash61]WhenIheardldquoBowdownbeforeGodandserveHimrdquo[Q5362]thetremblinginmyhearthadbecomeaphysicalandvisibletremblingthroughoutmybodythatIcouldnotresistMybodykeptshakingandIcouldnotcontrolitNorcouldIholdbackthetearsthatwerepouringforthhowevermuchItried(QutbZilalvol7part2774ndash75quotedfromCarreacute2003333ndash34withminorchanges)

TheQurrsquoanrsquosprofoundimpactontheaestheticsensibilitiesofitslisten-ersisafamiliarmotifindiscussionsofitsliteraryqualities(cfGrahamandKermani2006)AssomeonewhoseearlywritingswereconcernedwithArabicliterarycriticismandspecificallywiththeliteraryexcellenceoftheIslamicscripture(Qutb1949b)QutbwasespeciallyreceptivetothisaspectoftheQurrsquoanThesenseofbeingtransportedbacktothetimeoftheProphetandtowitnessingtheProphetrsquosascension(milsquoraj)tothepresence of Godmdashwhich is how the passage being commented on byQutbherehascommonlybeeninterpretedbytheexegetesmdashcanlikewisebeseenasanillustrationoftheoverpoweringimpactthewordsoftheQurrsquoancanhaveonthebelieverQutbrsquosaccountofconversingwithGodthrough the Qurrsquoan (cited earlier) is again something he may havewantedtoseeallbelieversdoYetallbelieverscanscarcelydosoany-morethanallaspirantsevenontheSufipathcanexperiencethetransfor-mativemysticalldquostatesrdquothatGodbestowsonHisspecialfriends(awlshyiya)IrrespectiveofwhetherhesawitinquitethiswayQutbrsquosassertionthatheisabletoenterldquointotheheartofMuhammadrdquoandtoseeGabrielasMuhammad sawhimsurelygiveshimaperspective thatothers en-counteringthewordofGoddonothave

ThepointisnotofcoursethatQutbwaseverrecognizedbyhisfol-lowersasaSufimasterbutthatsomeofthehermeneuticalauthorityheclaimshasadistinctiveSufiringtoitMorebroadlythesortofunques-

leadingscholarsofearlyandmedievalIslammdashincludingIbnTaymiyyamdashacceptedthehisto-ricityofthisincidentSeeSAhmed1998

26

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INTRODUCTION

tioningreligio-politicalauthorityIslamistleadershaveoftenenjoyedovertheirfollowersisnotunlikethatoftheSufimasteroverhisfollowersBe-ginningwithHasanal-BannathefounderoftheMuslimBrotherhoodandoncehimselfamemberofaSufiordertheleaderofthisorganizationis formally referred to as themurshid (guide)ormore specificallyalshymurshid alshylsquoam (thegeneralguide[RMitchell1993165])whichisafamiliartermforthemasterinSuficontextsForhispartAbdessalamYassine the founder and leader of lsquoAdl warsquol-Ihsan Party of Morocco(oftenreferredtoastheJusticeandSpiritualityAssociationorJSA)haslike Khomeini gone well beyond simply echoing Sufi conceptions ofauthorityinhisowndiscoursesHetoowasonceamemberofaMoroc-canSufiorderandhehascontinuedtodrawonSufithemesinhiswrit-ingsTheverynameofYassinersquospoliticalorganizationevokesacentralSufiideanamelyihsanThisisaQurrsquoanicterm(cfQ756)thattrans-latedliterallymeansldquotodogoodrdquothoughSufishaveunderstoodittomeanmuchmore thanthatFollowingawell-knownstatementattrib-uted to theProphetMuhammad theyhaveoften interpreted ihsan tomeangoingbeyondtheexternalsofIslamicritualpracticestoldquoworshipGodasifyouseeHimrdquo(Schimmel197529)thatiscultivatingasenseof personal communion and intimacy with God Even as Yassine hassoughttodistancehimselffromwhathedeemstobetheexcessesofSu-fismthereislittledoubtthathispoliticalappealowesmuchtocarefullycalibratedeffortstocombinedistinctiveSufiideaswithhisownbrandofIslamism(cfLauziegravere2005seealsochapter12onNadiaYassineinthisvolume)

FinallyMawdudirsquosJamalsquoat-iIslamimdashoneoftheearliestIslamistorga-nizations in the Sunni worldmdashillustrates both the Islamistsrsquo complexrelationshipwith Sufismand their pragmatic recognitionof its appealinmanyMuslimsocietiesMawdudihadoncebeenaharshcriticofSu-fismblamingitformanyillsafflictingMuslimsocietiesYettheJama-lsquoat-iIslamigraduallycametosoftenitsstanceonSufipracticesconsider-ablynodoubtintheinterestofbroadeningsomeofitssupportbaseinPakistanwheresaintsandSufishrinesareanimportantpartofthereli-giousandpoliticallandscapeAlreadyinMawdudirsquoslifetimeMianTufaylMuhammadhissuccessorastheheadoftheJamalsquoat-iIslamihadtakentheextraordinaryinitiativeoftranslatinganearlySuficlassictheKashf alshymahjub into Urdu The author of this work Shaykh lsquoAli Hujwiri(d1072)isburiedinLahoreinPakistanandhismuch-frequentedshrineishometoprecisely thesortofdevotionalpractices that Islamistsandmodernist reformers letaloneSalafishaveoften frownedupon (Nasr1996124)

ThesediverseexamplesarenotintendedtoobscuretherealdifferencesbetweenthegeneralityofIslamistsandmostSufisTheirsignificanceliesratherinillustratingthedifficultyofdistinguishingbetweenIslamismandotherreligiousintellectualandpoliticaltrendsintermsofneatcharac-

27

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INTRODUCTION

terizationsofgrandtranslocalgeneralizationsAstheforegoingsuggeststhesameistrueandmoresowhenitcomestocharacterizingIslamistsinrelationtothelsquoulamatheMuslimmodernistsandtheSalafisIndeedasLorenLybargerhasarguedwithreferencetothoseusuallycharacter-izedasldquosecularnationalistrdquoorldquoIslamistrdquoPalestiniansintheWestBankandGazadifferenceswithintheranksofyoungsecularnationalistsandIslamistscansometimesalsoshadeintosignificantsimilaritiesbetweenthesesupposedlyrivalorientations(Lybarger2007)ManyIslamistshavesoughttodistancethemselvesfromwhattheyseeastherigidityandau-thoritarianismofotherIslamistsandtoarguenotjustfortheimplemen-tationofthesharilsquoabutalsofordemocracyandpluralismConverselynot a few of the younger secular nationalists have ldquoadopted IslamisttheodiciesthatexplainedthefailuretoovercomeIsraelastheresultoffallingawayfrompietytheirconclusionsmirroredIslamistonestootheroadbackfromthebrinkhadtotraceitscoursethrougharenewedcom-mitmenttoIslambutnotnecessarilyinthemannerthattheIslamistmove-mentsmighthaveintendedrdquo(Lybarger2007237ndash38quotationat238)

Yet ifneatcategoriesremainelusiveacombinationoftheIslamistsrsquoself-consciouslypoliticalgoalstheirmultifacetedifnotalwaysexplicitpoliticalcritiquesofmanypastandpresentwaysofunderstandingandlivingIslamandanunshakeableconfidenceintheirownabilitytodis-cern Godrsquos will from the foundational texts do often provide enoughgrounds tobroadlydistinguish themfromotheractivists intellectualsand orientations in the Muslim public sphere What this combinationamountstovariesfromonesocialpoliticalreligiousandculturalcon-texttoanotherandsothereforedothewaysinwhichIslamistsrelatetooneanotherorcompeteandoverlapwithothergroupsandorientations

The Politics of Islamism

FromAeneasrsquosmythicalfoundingofRometothedeathandresurrectionofJesusChristtoMuhammadrsquosmigrationtoMedinafoundationalnar-rativesareascommontocollectivelifeasthemovementsthatperiodi-callyarisetorevivethemandclaimantstothemantleoflegitimacytheyconferSounderstoodIslamistsrsquopoliticalaspirationstorestorefounda-tionslocatedinamythicalpastarefarfromuniqueNorareIslamistsaloneintheirconvictionthatscripturalauthorityisguaranteedbyitsdi-vineauthormdashforinthatallMuslimsagreeRatherthechaptersinthisvolumesuggest thatwhatmakes Islamistpoliticsdistinctive (ifnotsui generis)istheclaimtorecuperateanldquoauthenticIslamrdquocomprisedofself-evidenttruthspurgedofalienandcorruptinginfluencesalongwithaninsistenceonremakingthefoundationsofthestateinitsimageGiventhelimitsofhumanunderstandingrelativetoGodrsquosknowledgeIslamistssimultaneouslydepictsuchfidelitytotheunadulteratedwordofAllahas

28

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INTRODUCTION

theultimateexpressionofdeferencetodivineomniscienceandportrayhumilityasaconstitutivefeatureofthehumanconditionAspirationstofullyknowandmasterthenaturalandsocialworldsthusentailnotonlyahumanhubrisdeaftotheQurrsquoanicadmonitionthatldquoAllahknowsbutandyoudonotknowrdquo(Q366)butalsoatransgressionagainstadi-vinely-ordainedontologicalorder

ItisnotablehoweverthattheIslamistemphasisonthelimitsofhumanknowledgerequireshumilityonlyinrelationtoAllahitrarelyyieldshu-milityinregardtotheirownclaimstospeakinHisnameortowardotherhumanbeingswhodissentfromthepremiseofdivineomnipotenceandIslamistaccountsofwhat it requiresThis suggests thatwhile IslamistchallengestostatepowerareobviouslypoliticaltheIslamistclaimtoau-thenticityisalsopolitical inthecoercivepoweritroutinelyenactsandjustifiesmostnotablybywayofthesilencesitimposesandthedebatesitforeclosesAzizal-Azmehpointsoutthatldquothenotionofauthenticityisnotsomuchadeterminateconceptasitisanodeofassociationsandin-terpellationsatropebymeansofwhichthehistoricalworldisreducedtoaparticularorderandatokenwhichmarksoffsocialandpoliticalgroupsandforgesandreconstituteshistoricalidentitiesrdquo(al-Azmeh199341)WhetherintheserviceofArabnationalismChristianfundamental-ismEuropeanromanticismorMuslimmodernismtheclaimofauthen-ticityisanactofpowerthatfunctionsnotjusttoreflecttheworldbuttoconstructitbydeterminingwhoisincludedandexcludedwhomayandmaynotspeakauthoritativelywhatistheproperrealmofdebateandwhatisbeyondcontestation

ItiscertainlythecasethatasingleldquoIslamrdquocapturesandorganizestheperspectivesofmillionswhoself-identifyasMuslim(amongotherthings)yetwhattravelsunderitsrubricisinescapablydiversemultiethnicanddefined asmuchbydisagreement as consensus Just as theTorah andBible lend themselves toat times radicallydivergent interpretationsofwhatitmeanstobeJewishorChristiantheQurrsquoanandhaditharecom-plexandsusceptibletomanydifferentandattimescontradictoryenact-mentsSounderstoodIslamislessafixedessencethanalivingtraditionthatcaptureswhatisimaginedascontinuousandunitaryindialecticalrelationshiptothoseconcretearticulationsandpracticesbywhichitistransformedandadaptedindifferentcontextsforpluralpurposesItispreciselythisunderstandingofreligionthatisanathematoIslamistswhoseek tofix theparametersof Islamicauthenticityonceandforallandtherebyarrogateforthemselvestherighttodeterminewhoqualifiesasagood Muslim to discredit those lsquoulama unable or unwilling to purgeIslamofpurportedimpietiestodeclarenominallyMuslimrulersapos-tatesunfittogovernandtocharacterizeallwhodisagreeascorrupthe-reticalguiltyofunbelieforvictimsoffalseconsciousness

Thesegeneralpoliticaltendencieshowevermustbecarefullysituatedwithinadialecticoftheglobalandthevernacularunderstoodtoreflect

29

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INTRODUCTION

thewaysinwhichunifyingmacrohistoricaldynamicsinformandareinturntransformedbydiversecontingentandfluidlocalcircumstancesInaworldstampedbyWesterndominanceandtheconsolidationofpostco-lonial authoritarian regimes Islamists confront a common set of con-straintsandchallengesInasmuchassuchconstraintsandchallengeshavemade Islamist thinkers (often reluctant) participants in conversationsacrossbothcultureandhistorytheireffortstoremakethefoundationsofcollectiveliferevealasharedinterpretiveframeworkandcommonreli-gio-political grammar At the same time this frame and grammar arecontinuallybeingreworkedinrelationtothedistinctpublicspheresinwhichIslamistsoperateandtowhichtheycarefullycalibratetheirpoliti-calcommitments

Attention to this complex dynamic suggests that the Islamist move-mentcannotsimplybecharacterizedasviolentantidemocraticandop-pressiveofwomenlabelsinvokedsofrequentlyinscholarlyandpopularliterature on the subject that they have become virtually synonymouswithIslamistpoliticsSuchcharacterizationsdocapturecrucialdimen-sionsofIslamistpoliticsyettheyalsosidesteptheparadoxesitsvarie-gatedandoftencontradictoryexpressionspresentInsteadwearguethatIslamistpoliticscanbeproductivelyreadin terms ofandagainst the grain ofsuchbroadcategorizationsasantidemocraticantiwomanorviolentmdashthat is as commitments that at different moments in various localesbothencourageandconstrainbroad-basedpoliticalparticipationdisruptandratifyhierarchicalgendernormsresistandreproducestate-sanctionedbrutalityThepointofreadingIslamistpoliticsinthiswayisnottosug-gestthatIslamistsaresecretlydemocraticfeministandopposedtovio-lenceRatherthepointistodrawattentiontothecomplexityandcon-tradictionserasedbyeasygeneralizationsontheonehandandtheoftenunacknowledgedfluidityandculturaladaptabilityofotherwisefamiliarpoliticalcategoriesontheother

Islamism and Democracy

DespiteimportantdifferencesamongIslamistthinkerstheyhaveincom-monatendencytoviewhumansovereigntyastransgressiveofdivinelawandsharetheaspirationtoestablishsharilsquoaastheprimaryorsolesourceofauthorityAsisoftennotedsuchpremisesandaspirationsrunafoulofassumptionsaboutpopularruleattheheartofdemocracynamelythathumanbeingshavetherighttolegislaterulesforcollectivebehaviorandarecapableofthewisdomrequiredtodevisejustlawsInrecentyearspolicymakersandcommentatorshaveevincedaparticularpreoccupa-tionwiththewaysinwhichIslamistnotionsofdivineauthoritythrottlethespiritandpracticeofpopularsovereigntySomehaveevengonesofarastocharacterizeIslamistsasldquoIslamo-fascistsrdquoanimatedbyhatredoftheldquodemocratic Westrdquo psychologically unable to contend with the fluidity

30

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INTRODUCTION

andindeterminacythatmarkpopularruleandeagertoconvertelectionsintoaldquoone-manone-voteone-timerdquomechanismforestablishinganIs-lamicstate(Murdock2002MRubin2005Kramer1993)

SuchviewsareechoedbythoseIslamistskeentoportraydemocracynotonlyasantitheticaltothesupremacyofdivinelawbutasaTrojanhorseforWesternimperialismFormanyIslamistsincludingseveralinthis volumedemocracy is justone symptomofametastasizingmoralandspiritualbankruptcywherebymoraltransgressionsaretransfiguredintonaturalurgescrassself-interestbecomesthebedrockofcollectivelifeandthedivineplanfortheuniverseandallthingsinitisreducedtoa system of physical causality just waiting to be mastered by way ofhumaningenuity(REuben2007)Qutbcallsthisdiseasedviewoftheworldjahiliyyaanditsignalsnotonlyhumanarrogancebutatransgres-sionagainstdivineauthoritythescopeofwhichencompassesbothpub-licandprivatedomainsofhumanaffairsaswellasbothvisibleandun-seendimensionsoftheuniverseFormanyIslamistssuchtransgressionisattherootofmuchofwhatpassesforMuslimruleinthecontemporaryworldmdashnationalistdemocraticandmonarchicalalikeSucharroganceisalsosaidtobethepatternunderlyingalonghistoryofunrelievedWest-ernaggressionagainstIslaminwhichtheChristianCrusadesEuropeancolonialismIsraelitreatmentofPalestiniansethniccleansinginBosniaGermananti-TurkishviolencetheAmericaninvasionofIraqandDutchcartoonsofMuhammadarebutafewexamples

YetthereisarangeofviewsamongIslamistsaboutboththesubstanceofdemocracyanditscompatibilitywiththereligio-politicalrenewaltheyadvocateAccordingtoQaradawiforexampleldquotheessenceofdemoc-racyisthatpeoplechoosewhorulesoverthemandmanagestheiraf-fairsthatnorulerorregimetheydislikeisforceduponthemthattheyhavetherighttocalltherulertoaccountifheerrsandtoremovehimfromofficeincaseofmisconductandthatpeoplearenotforcedineco-nomicsocialculturalorpoliticaldirectionsthattheyneitherrecognizenor acceptrdquo (Qaradawi1997132 also chapter9 in this volume)TohimthereisnoheavierburdenoppressingMuslimsinthecontemporaryworld thandespotism indeed it is throughdespoticgovernments thatMuslimshavebeenforcedtosubmittootherillsincludingtheneglectofthesharilsquoaandthecoerciveimpositionofsecularismandwesternizationDemocracy then recommends itself to Qaradawi as the most effectiveavailableantidotetodespotismandtheafflictionsofwhichitservesasavehicle

WheremanyamongtheIslamistsandthelsquoulamahaveseenconsider-able tensionbetween IslamanddemocracyQaradawiprofesses to seenoneAswesuggestedearlierbyfarthemostcommonoftheIslamistreservationsaboutademocraticsystemrelatestothesovereigntyofthepeoplewhichistakentocontravenetheideathatGodaloneissovereignQaradawi however is unperturbedby such concernsThe rule of the

31

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INTRODUCTION

peopleoughttobeseenhearguesnotinoppositiontotheruleofGodbutratherinoppositiontotheruleofthedespotMorefundamentallyQaradawirsquos view of democracy does not necessarily require that thepeopleshouldbeabletooverturndivinelyinstitutednormsRatherhisassumptionisthatpeopleexercisetheirsovereigntywithinconstitutionalboundsandMuslimslivinginapredominantlyMuslimdemocraticpol-itywouldlikewisenotwishtotransgresstheparametersoflegitimatehumanactionlaiddownintheIslamicfoundationaltexts(seeQaradawichapter9inthisvolumeandcfFeldman2007)

NadiaYassineofMoroccorsquosJusticeandSpiritualityAssociationisan-othercaseinpointWhilecriticalofthedemocraticgesturesembracedbyamonarchythatshedepictsasallergictogenuinelypopularsovereigntyYassineinsiststhatthemodelofMuslimruleadumbratedintheummafoundedbytheProphetMuhammadandinparticulartheConstitutionofMedina17isnothingshortofdemocratic(NYassine2005d2005e)UnliketheMuslimdynastiesthatarosetousurpitYassinecontendsthiscommunity was participatory egalitarian committed to freedom andexpressiveofGodrsquosmercyMostimportantitwasgovernedalwaysbytheQurrsquoanicprincipleofshura (consultation)bywhichYassinemeansaphilosophy of power that places sovereignty in the community ratherthaninanyindividuallinksvirtuetodeliberationratherthanobedienceandexhortsbelieverstocontinuallyadaptQurrsquoanicprinciplesthroughijtihad rather than adhere reflexively to precedent (N Yassine 2006a182ndash862005d)ManyscholarsandjournalistsremainskepticaloftheJSArsquosasyetuntestedcommitment toproceduraldemocracyandworrythatNadiaandher fatherAbdessalamultimatelyseektoestablishanIslamic state inhospitable to tolerance pluralism and civil liberties(Maghraoui2001Brandon2007Whitlock2006)YetothersarguethattheJSAisagenuinelypopulistorganizationthatrepresentstheunrepre-sentedtendstothewelfareofthedispossessedandbothexpressesandcontributestoanincreasinglyvibrantcivilsocietyinMorocco(Cavatorta2006Entelis2002)

QaradawirsquosandYassinersquosargumentstogethersuggestthatdemocracycanandhasservedaseitheracosmeticcoverfordespotismoranauthen-ticallyIslamiccheckuponcorruptandarbitraryruleAtissueinIslamistargumentsforandagainstdemocracythenarenotonlywhatcountsasldquoauthenticIslamrdquoandtheintentionsofthosewhoclaimtoknowitbutalsothecontentandcharacterofdemocracyitselfParadoxicallybothIslamistsopposedtodemocracyandthosewhotakeIslamismasinher-entlyantidemocraticregardthisasasimplematterwithanobviousan-swerdemocracyisanexpressionofandevensynonymouswithliberal-ismcapitalismandtheWestYetdemocracyisbothmorecapaciousand

17TheConstitutionofMedinawasanagreementtheProphethadenteredintowiththelocalcommunitiesincludingJewishtribesuponhisemigrationfromMeccatoMedina

32

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INTRODUCTION

moredistinctthanthispresumptionsuggestsTheworditselfofcoursederivesfromtheancientGreekdemokratiawhichmeansrule(kratos)ofthepeople(demos)andmanyderivetheequationofdemocracyandtheWestfromthisassociationwithclassicalGreeceYetancientGreekphi-losopherssuchasPlatosawindemocracythespecterofmobrulepartic-ularly vulnerable to demagoguery and despotism (a suspicion notablyechoedbyAmerican founder JamesMadison)Contrary to thedemo-cratic idealof inclusivenessmoreover citizenship inGreekdemocracyexcludedasubstantialpartofthepopulationincludingwomenslavesandforeignersFinallytheextenttowhichtheancientGreeksmayevenbecalledWesternisamatterofgreatdisputeparticularlyastheldquoWestrdquoisacategoryofrelativelyrecentprovenancethroughwhichhistoryandgeographyhavebeenretroactivelyorganized18DespitedepictionsoftheHellenicworldasWesternancientGreeksdidnotinfactviewthem-selvesintheseterms19

TheequationofdemocracywiththeWestalsopresupposestheexis-tenceofacoherentldquoWesterncivilizationrdquowitheitherculturallyhomoge-neousrootsorclearlydelineatedhistoricalandcontemporarybounda-riesorbothYetwhatiscalledtheWestisanamalgamationofmultipletraditionsincludingtheGreekRomanJudaicChristianandIslamicmdashtraditionsthatarethemselvespolyvalentratherthanhomogeneousmdashandistodaycharacterizedbyporousbordershybridsubculturesandmyriaddebtstodiversecivilizationspastandpresent20AsageographicmarkeritisvirtuallyimpossibletopinpointexactlywheretheWestbeginsandendsandthisisespeciallysonowthatpeoplesinformationandmate-rial goods crisscross cultural andnational borders atwill creating allkindsoftransnationalsubnationalandmultipleidentitiesthatshiftandreconstitutethemselvesinunpredictablewaysEventhosevaluesidenti-fiedasWesternoftenappearelsewhereinotherguisesIndeedscholarssuggestthatavarietyoftheldquostandardsexportedbytheWestanditscul-turalindustriesthemselvesturnouttobeofculturallymixedcharacterifweexaminetheirculturallineagesrdquo(Pieterse199553)

Manyalsoarguethatdemocracyisnotonlydistinctfrombutinten-sionwithboththetheoryandpracticeofpoliticsinldquoWesternrdquosocieties

18MichaelGillespie(19997ndash10)arguesthattherereadingofhistorygeographyandculturethroughtheprismofthissenseofldquotheWestrdquobegannoearlierthanthenineteenthcenturyTheideaofatimelessandbrightlinebetweenWestandEastisalsochallengedbyJeremyBrottonrsquosstudy(19989096ndash97)ofthediplomaticandintellectualexchangesbe-tweenEuropeandtheOttomanEmpireintheearlymodernperiodBrottonshowsnotonlytheextentandamityofsuchexchangesbutapersistentuncertaintyaboutwherepreciselyEuropeldquoendedrdquoandAsialdquobeganrdquo

19AncientGreeksunderstoodthemselvesasgeographicallywestofthebarbariansbutnotWesterninthecontemporarysensethatisasbothaculturalandhistoricalcategory

20StevenRuncimanrsquoswork(19543480)ontheCrusadesforexampledemonstratesaldquolongsequenceofinteractionandfusionbetweenOrientandOccidentoutofwhichourcivilizationhasgrownrdquo

33

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

many of which are more accurately classified as liberal and capitalist(Wood1994Wolin2001BallandDagger1999)Whileitisnowcom-monplacetospeakofldquoliberaldemocracyrdquoinasinglebreathliberalismanddemocracyareconceptsandpracticeswithverydifferenthistoriesandpresuppositionsUnlikedemocracyforexampleliberalismemergedfromthecrucibleofChristianreligiouswarsandintandemwiththeas-cendanceofamiddleclassthatpresagedtheendofEuropeanfeudalismTheliberalnation-statecanthusbeviewedasbothanexpressionandaconsolidationofcapitalismontheonehandandtheprincipleofasepa-rationbetweenchurchandstateontheotherBycontrastthereisnoth-ingaboutdemocracyeitherasasystemofgovernanceoracultureofpar-ticipationthatisinherentlysecularIndeedAlexisdeTocquevillefamouslyinsistedthatAmericandemocracycannotandshouldnotbesecularasreligionhelpsshiftattentionawayfromimmediatematerialpreoccupa-tionstolargerconcernsofcommunitycooperationandmoralityInfactmanydemocratictheoristsarguethatgenuinelyinclusivepopularsover-eignty is antithetical to the sharp inequalities of wealth and politicalpowerthatcapitalismoftenproducesandlegitimates

SuchongoingdefinitionalandsubstantivedebatessuggestthatthereismuchmoreatstakeindemocraticpoliticsthanprocedurespertainingtogovernmentauthorityandorderandpointtoawidespreadifelusiveunderstandingofdemocracynotjustasasetofinstitutionsbutasTocque-villesuggestsawayoflifeSeveralpoliticaltheoristshavecharacterizedthiselusiveunderstandingintermsofaldquodemocraticethosrdquoBythistheymeanbothanidealandanargumentforacultureofparticipationactivepowersharingmutualaccountabilityinclusivenessanddeliberationinwhichcitizensmayroutinelyandsafelychallengenotonlyspecificpoli-ciesandpolitical institutionsbutalso thevalues thatgoverncollectivelifeprinciplesofinclusionandexclusionandthepremisesofauthorityitself(Connolly1995JPEuben2003Sadiki2004)AdemocraticethosismuchmoredifficulttomeasureorquantifythanforexampleSamuelHuntingtonrsquosparsimoniousdefinitionofdemocracyasapolityinwhichtherehavebeentwoconsecutivepeacefulchangesofgovernmentbywayof freeand fairelections (Huntington1991)21Yetademocraticethosmakesitpossibletobothrecognizeanddisaggregatethepreconditionsaspirations mechanisms and institutions bundled into ldquodemocracyrdquotherebybringingintofocusforexamplethefrequentlyantidemocratic

21Manypoliticalscientistsprefertodefinedemocracyintermsofproceduresdesignedtorealizepopularruleincludingfreecompetitiveandfairelectionsalongwithstateprotec-tionofcertainrightsandlibertiesSuchaformalminimalistdefinitionhastheadvantageofdetachingdemocracyfromquestionsoforiginsandofferingastandardtowhichallgov-ernmentsmaybeheldregardlessofcultureandplaceAsKeithTopper(2005205ndash7)ar-gueshoweveritalsotendstosidestepknottyquestionsaboutthesubstanceofrepresenta-tion power responsiveness and accountability that are arguably central to democraticpolitics

34

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

casttoelectionsimposedbyelitesorforeignpowersthefeltimpotenceofmanycitizensinestablisheddemocraciesandthosehighlyparticipa-torycivilsocietiesthatflourishevenundermonarchicortheocraticrule

Forourpurposes inparticularademocraticethosmakesvisible theparadoxofanIslamistmovementthatseekstomobilizeordinaryMus-limsagainstcoercivepowerbutinthenameofareligio-politicalorderlargelyimmunizedfromchallengeQutbisanaptillustrationhereashistendencytogroundhisownspecialauthorityandinsightintheunsulliedwisdomofordinarybelieversmakesitpossibletoreadhisworkaseitherabriefagainstdemocracy(amongotherthings)oranenactmentofitIn-asmuchasdemocracyasaformofgovernanceisidentifiedwithpopularsovereigntyQutbrsquosbasicpremisethat thefoundationof legitimateau-thoritymustbedivineratherthanhumansuggeststhatheisunambigu-ouslyantidemocraticMoreoverQutbrsquoseffortstopluralizereligiousandpolitical authority express not a confidence in common wisdom butratheradesiretoclaimforhimselfthestatureofareligiousexpertwhodespitehislackofIslamicacademiccredentialscanclearlyseewhatoth-erscannotQutbcharacterizestherealIslamasself-evidentbuthealsoassumesthatonlyasmallvanguardofbelieversbesideshimselfwillhavetheabilitytorecognizeitandactdecisivelytoremaketheworldinitsimageSounderstoodthesignofldquochosennessrdquoisunyieldingcommitmenttoestablishingareligio-politicalorderthatsimultaneouslypresumesthesupremacyofthefewcapableoftrueknowledgeandpromisesaworldinwhichdissentitselfwillbecomebothunnecessaryandillegitimate

Yetifdemocracyrefersnotonlytoasystemofgovernanceorsetofprocedurestorealizepopularsovereigntybutalsotopracticesthatdis-ruptthoseforceswhichconcentratepowerandestablishpoliticalexclu-sionthecharacterizationofQutbrsquosworkassimplyantidemocraticmissesa crucial dimensionof its significance and appealAs the sacred textscontaintherulesandregulationsmeanttogovernbothpublicandpri-vateaffairsQutbrsquosinsistencethatordinaryuntrainedMuslimsmusten-gagethemdirectlyisinmanywaysademocratizationofaccesstoau-thoritySuchaccesscandisruptdeeplyentrenchedpatternsofpowerandpowerlessness particularlywhen conjoined to Islamist arguments thatarbitrarypowerisun-Islamicthatreligiousknowledgedependsoncom-mitmentratherthantrainingorexpertise thatMuslimshavetherightandobligationtodeterminewhenrulersareillegitimateandthatthosewhopreferordertojusticesecuritytofreedomandmoneytopietyhaveforfeitedanyclaimtoauthority

ThisaspectofIslamismhasfrequentlybeencomparedtotheProtestantReformationandmorespecificallytoCalvinistsrsquoattemptstotransferldquore-ligiousauthorityawayfromofficiallysanctionedindividualswhointer-prettextstoordinarycitizensrdquo(EGoldberg19913alsocfLoimeier2005)Suchaparallelhassparkedagreatdealofscholarlyspeculation

35

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

regardingapossibleldquoIslamicReformationrdquo22andarangeofargumentsaboutwhetherandhowIslamismmightfacilitatethedemocratizationofMuslim societies much as the Protestant Reformation is said to haveheralded the emergence of European ldquoliberal democracyrdquo While suchcomparisonsareevocativeafullerunderstandingof IslamismrequiresfirstsituatingitinrelationtoahistoricalshiftinthenatureandlocusofreligiousauthorityinIslambeginninginthenineteenthcenturyAsschol-arsofMuslimsocietieshavepointedouttheimpactofmasseducationnewtechnologiesfordisseminatingknowledgeandinformationanddra-matically changed social economic and political contexts have madeavailabletoamateurswhathadpreviouslybeenthepurviewofreligiousexpertsAtthesametimeithasinauguratedafragmentationofauthor-itywithintheveryranksofthelsquoulamathatcontinuestothepresentday23

InthiscontexttheascendanceandinfluenceofautodidactssuchasQutbHasanal-BannalsquoAbdal-SalamFarajandBinLadensimultaneouslyex-pressandaccelerateanongoingrenegotiationofauthorityoverwhomayspeakforIslamandonwhatbasisthepathofwhichisstillunfoldingandtheoutcomeasyetuncertain

Islamism and Gender

One already apparent consequence of this ongoing renegotiation overwhomayspeakforIslamandonwhatbasisistheentryofwomenintothe interpretive fray This development is increasingly unsettling thoseunwrittengendernormsarguablyattheveryheartofIslamistthoughtdisruptingthestandardsofmasculinityandfemininitythatreflecthowparticularculturesorganizehumanbeingsrsquosocialandreproductiveactiv-itiesintorolesthatareinturnthoughttoexpresstheldquonaturerdquoofmenand women Such norms are frequently considered tangential to theknottyproblemsofdefiningIslamismandadumbratingitscentralideasyetarangeofscholarshiponculturespastandpresenthasshownthatgenderisconsistentlytheterrainoverwhichbattlesforpoliticalcontrolandculturalidentityarefoughtMorespecificallyresearchindisciplinessuchasanthropologyhistoryclassicsandpostcolonialstudieshasdem-onstratedthatculturesinwhichfemalebodiesandbehaviorareregardedas indicesofmoralpurity tend to symbolically transformwomen intoconduitsof cultural corruption in timesof internal crisis and externalthreat(Papenek1994Chatterjee1990Tavakoli-Targhi1991Just1989Cohen1991Welter1966Bloch1978)Thisisespeciallytrueofcontem-

22Foralatenineteenth-centuryassessmentoftheprospectsforaldquoMuhammadanRefor-mationrdquoseeBlunt1882132ndash73

23EickelmanandPiscatori199637ndash39131ndash35Zaman2006Suchfragmentationhasinmanywaysbeenacceleratedbytheexplosionofdigitalcultureswhichpromoteamongotherthingsaldquoformofempoweredamateurismrdquo(Mirzoeff20026)

36

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

poraryreligio-politicalmovementswhosememberstendtoldquoidealizepa-triarchalstructuresofauthorityandmoralityrdquoendorsegenderdualismasgod-givenornaturalandcondemnvigorouslyrecentchangesingen-derrelationsasasymptomandsymbolofsecularistmoralbankruptcy(Riesebrodt1993Moghadam1992Hawley1994)

SeveralchaptersinthisvolumeilluminateIslamistgendernormsbyre-vealing thecharacterandcontentof Islamistconcernsabout theplaceandpurityofMuslimwomenmdashpreoccupationsFatimaMernissi(199199)hasgonesofarastocharacterizeasanobsessionDespiteimportantdifferences among Islamists thinkers many endorse gender norms inwhichthefairlyconventionalinsistencethatfemalenatureisdefinedinand through reproduction undergirds an understanding of women assymbolsofmoralvirtueandvesselsofculturalpurityThisviewsustainstheclaimthatmenandwomenareequalinreligiousbeliefbutperformfundamentallydifferentandcomplementaryfunctionsinsocietyWhilemenarenaturallymadetoruleinboththepublicandprivatedomainawomanbelongsinthedomesticrealmwhereherprimaryroleistobeawifeandmotheraswellastoinsuretheintegrityofthefamilythefirstschoolofmoraleducationAssuchfunctionsarerootedinaninescap-ablehumannaturefashionedbyGodawomanrsquosinabilityorunwilling-nesstoperformherdutiessignalsadisobediencetothedivinewillandpresages the corruption of the Muslim family from within From thisvantagepointtheWesterninsistenceonfullequalitybetweenthesexesisdoubly pernicious it at once liberates women from basic moral con-straintsandenslavesthemtomutuallyreinforcingsexualandcapitalistexploitationAsMurtazaMutahhari(1998xxxi)arguescapitalismmakesuseofwomentomarket itsgoodsldquoby trading inhonourandrespectthrough[their]powertoenticerdquotherebyldquotransform[ing]manintoaninvoluntaryagentofconsumptionrdquoInasmuchaswomenareresponsiblefor producing the next generation of Muslim men destined to restoreIslamtoitsformergloryitisnotonlythevirtueofwomenortheinteg-rityofthefamilythathangsinthebalancebutthefutureofIslamiccivili-zationitself

Zaynab al-Ghazali andMutahharimake several of these argumentsexplicitlyandindetail(seechapters10and11)butinmuchofIslamistrhetoricthenatureandsignificanceofwomenareestablishedindirectlyandsymbolicallyandthroughthreerecurrentimagesinparticularThefirstisofwomenassilentsymbolsofculturalmoralandsexualvulnera-bilityvoicelessfiguresinneedofmasculineprotectionorwhenitistoolatedefiledbodiesthatmutelydemandvengeanceSoforexamplelsquoAb-dallahlsquoAzzam(oneofBinLadenrsquosmentorsseechapter18)graphicallydetailstheagonizinghumiliationofyoungmenunabletoactwhentheAfghanwoman isldquocryingout forhelpher childrenarebeing slaugh-tered her women are being raped the innocent are killed and theircorpsesscatteredrdquo(lsquoAzzam1987a)Inthesecondimagewomenfunction

37

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

muchlikeachorusthatspeaksinpermittedcadencestoratifymasculineendeavorsSuchisthecaseforexampleinBinLadenrsquos1996ldquoDeclara-tionofWaragainsttheAmericansOccupyingtheLandoftheTwoHolyPlacesrdquo(seechapter18)wherethewomenexhortmentojihadinthefollowing way ldquoPrepare yourself like a struggler the matter is biggerthanwordsAreyougoingtoleaveusforthewolvesofKufr[unbe-lief]eatingourwingsWherearethefreemendefendingfreewomenbyarmsDeath isbetter than life inhumiliation Some scandals andshameswillneverbeotherwiseeradicatedrdquo24InthethirdimagewomenarecreaturesnotofthisworldbutofanothervirginalrewardsforthecourageousmartyrintheafterlifeThisisevidentinthefinalinstructionsforthe911hijackersforexamplewhereMuslimldquobrothersrdquoareurgedto purify their carnal impulses sharpen their knives for the dhabh (slaughter)andheedthecallofthehur lsquoayn (theblack-eyedones)await-ingtheminParadise(seechapter19)

Such rhetoric primarily registers women as an extensionmirror ormeasure of masculinity and together with explicit Islamist argumentsabouthumannatureandthefamilyarticulatesIslamistgendernormsinwhichmenandwomeneachhaveaproperlocationandpurposeinadi-vinely ordained social hierarchy Deviance from this gendered scriptthussignalsdisruptionofamuchbroaderreligio-politicalorderitbothpresumes and seeks to bring into existence The disruption caused byforeign aggression in particular exacerbates the tendency to translateconflict into an assault on Muslim masculinity and to conceptualizewomenaspotentialvehiclesforWesterncorruptioninneedofguidingand guarding Women such as Zaynab al-Ghazali and Nadia Yassinewho seek a prominent place and voice within the Islamist movementhavehadlittlechoicebuttocontendwiththisgenderedscriptDoingsohasentailedamongotherthingsnavigatingcarefullybetweenIslamistcharacterizations of womenrsquos visibility and agency as symptomatic ofthe new jahiliyya on the one hand and essentializing arguments thatequateIslamwithveilingfemalegenitalmutilationandhonorkillingsontheother

AsthechaptersonGhazaliandYassinesuggestIslamistwomenhavenegotiatedbetweensuchconstraintsandpressuresandtheirownambi-tionsindifferentwaysApioneeringdalsquoiya(onewhoinvitesMuslimstogreater piety)Ghazalirsquos own life reveals a fierce resistance to conven-tionalnormsofdomesticityevenasmuchofher(earlier)workappearsto embrace an Islamist gender ideology that defines women as wivesmothers andldquobuilders ofmenrdquo (al-Hashimi 1990 118)By contrastYassineisawifeandmotherwhoembracesanldquoIslamicfeminismrdquothatrequiresldquoreappropriatingtheinstrumentsofclassicaltheologyrdquoanden-

24TheIslamistjournalSawt alshyJihadhasgonesofarastofeatureldquowomenrsquosvoicesrdquointheformofrolemodelsnamedforexampleumm alshyshahid(motherofthemartyr)al-thoughitisunclearthattheseldquovoicesrdquoareactuallywomenrsquos(SUsher2004)

38

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

gaging the textsdirectly through ijtihad (NYassine2003) In this re-spect Yassine must be understood as part of a broader effort amongMuslimwomenwithdifferentpoliticalcommitmentstosimultaneouslyadvocateandenacttheirrighttorecuperatetheldquooriginalintentrdquooftheIslamictextsIfwomenandmendoinfacthavedistinctperspectivesontheworldYassinesuggestswomenhaveaspecialobligationtoexcavatewhattheyseeasthegenderparityoftheQurrsquoanburiedbeneaththoseldquomachointerpretationsrdquoofIslamuponwhichmenhavebuilttheirprivi-legeandpower(Khalaf2006)25

ManyAnglo-AmericanandEuropean feministsworry that Islamistsseekonly to secureor restorepatriarchalpowerConverselymany Is-lamist women view feminism as a term and a movement inescapablyWesterninoriginfreightedwiththelegacyofcolonialismanduneasilyimplicatedinculturalimperialismThisapplieseventoYassinewhoisunwillingtoadoptwithoutqualificationalabelsheassociateswithagen-dasopposedtoherowntheWesttheMoroccanstateMaghribi(North-westAfrican)elitesYetfeminismitselfisahighlycontestedtermwithin theso-calledWestitisthebearerofmultiplemeaningssomeofwhichareevenopposedandischaracterizedbydeepdisagreementsaboutwhowomenarewhatwomenneedwhoisauthorizedtoworkonwomenrsquosbehalf andbywhatmeans Inasmuch as these various feminismsmayshareonlyastatedconcernforwomenrsquoswelfarethereisnothinginco-herentinmodifyingldquofeminismrdquowithldquoIslamicrdquoldquoMuslimrdquoorevenldquoIs-lamistrdquounlessone iscommitted toarguing thatfirst Islam isanun-changingessencebeyondhistorypoliticsandculturesecondthereisaneutralobjectivevantagefromwhichtoidentifythisessenceonceandforallandfinallytheIslamicessencesoidentifiedisfundamentallyin-compatiblewitheffortstoimprovetheconditionsandqualityofwomenrsquoslivesBythesametokenIslamistwomenwhorejectthetermfeminismcanbe(althoughnotalwaysare)deeplycommittedtoimprovingwom-enrsquoswelfareaswellasactivelyresistanttoeffortsthatreduceortrans-formthemintosilentaccessoriesofmalepower

YassineandGhazalidifferaboutwhatwomenareandshouldbeyetbroadlyspeakingbothmaybeconsideredpartofarecenttrendtowardthe feminizationofdalsquowa Dalsquowa literallymeanscallappealor sum-monsbutthetermhascometosignifyavarietyofpracticesandargu-mentsmeanttoexhortinviteandguideMuslimstowhatisregardedasproperconductandmoraldevotionWomenrsquosparticipationindalsquowais

25WomenrsquosparticipationintheldquoproductionofofficialIslamicknowledgerdquohasalonghistoryalthoughtheyhaveoftendonesoinrelativeobscurityandwithoutthebenefitofeducation in the Islamicsciences thathas legitimateddirectengagementwith thesacredtexts (Cooke 2001 xiv Badran and Cooke 2004) Pioneering attempts to read genderequalityinIslamarealsonotconfinedtowritingbywomenasevincedbyQasimAminrsquosTahrir alshymarrsquoa [TheLiberationofWoman] (1899)andMumtaz lsquoAlirsquosHuquqshye niswan [TheRightsofWomen](1898)

39

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

notabrandnewphenomenonasisevidentinGhazalirsquosworkwiththeEgyptianSocietyofMuslimLadiesinthe1930sYetfromEgypttoPaki-stantoSaudiArabiatotheUnitedStatesthenumberoffemaledalsquoiyashasproliferatedexponentially inrecentyears(Cooke2001Mahmood2005Hirschkind2006)Thisreflectsinpartcurrentdoctrinalempha-sesondalsquowaasincumbentuponbothmenandwomenanddependentlessupontechnicalknowledgethanmoralvirtueandpracticalfamiliaritywiththeIslamictradition(Mahmood200565ndash66)It isalsoaconse-quenceofrecentpoliticalandsocioeconomictransformationsinMuslimsocietiesincludingtheexpansionofmasseducationthathasnotonlyin-creasedwomenrsquosliteracyandsocialmobilitybutalsomadeIslamictextsmoreaccessibletheproliferationoftechnologiesmdashfromthecassettetapetotheInternetmdashthatfacilitatethecirculationofreligiousknowledgeevenamongthosewhocannotreadortraveltheprecedentsetbythevigorousparticipationof IranianwomeninpostrevolutiondebatesaboutIslamandthemodeloflegalactivismevidentintheIslamistmovementrsquosownchallenge to the lsquoulamarsquos status as gatekeepers of religious knowledge(Singerman2005Mir-Hosseini1999)

If Ghazali and Yassine exemplify the feminization of dalsquowa amongelitesthemosquemovementinEgyptillustratesthegrowingparticipa-tionofwomenfromdiversesocialbackgroundsinreligiousclassesde-votedtostudyinganddebatingwhatIslamrequiresforawomantobeldquomorallyuprightrdquointhecontemporaryworld(Mahmood2005)Con-ceptualizingpiety in termsof adeepandholistic commitment to self-transformationparticipantsinthemosquemovementareconcernedlesswithmattersofsovereigntyandpoliticsconventionallyunderstoodandmorewiththeldquomoralcultivationrdquoofthosedailypracticesseenascrucialtobecomingclosertoGod(Mahmood2005)SomeIslamistshavecriti-cizedthis focusonpracticesofworshipasapoliticalandoverlypriva-tizedyetsuchcriticismmissestheforceofIslamistsrsquoowninsistenceondin(religion)asawayoflifeinwhichthedomainsofpublicandprivateare inextricably linked26AsSabaMahmood (2005193194) showsthesewomenrsquosintenseeffortsatldquoretrainingethicalsensibilitiesrdquohavealdquosociopoliticalforcerdquothatextendswellbeyondmattersofgovernancefacilitatingnolessthantheemergenceofaldquonewsocialandmoralorderrdquoEvidenceofitstransformativepowermaybefoundnotonlyinthesheernumbersandvarietyofwomenmdashwealthyandpoor literateand illiter-atemdashparticipatinginthemosquemovementbutalsointherhetoricalandpoliticaleffortsbythestateandsomeIslamiststocurtailcontrolordis-creditit(Mahmood200571194)

26ParticipantsinthemosquemovementinturnareoftencriticalofwhattheyseeasthereductionofIslamtotokensofculturalauthenticityorofitsinstrumentalizationbybothnationalistsandIslamiststheycharacterizeasmoreinterestedinpoliticalmaneuveringthanreligiouspiety

40

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

Understoodtoincludebothwrittenandembodiedpracticesthefemi-nizationof dalsquowa illustrates theways inwhichwomen fromdifferentperspectivesandsocialclassesareinsistingonengagingthesacredtextsdirectly for and with one another without the mediating authority ofmenwhohavetraditionallyheldthemonopolyonsuchactivitiesAsSu-danese Islamist Lubabah al-Fadl argues ldquoAs an insan [human being]whohappenstobeawomanIhavearighttorejectthemanipulativeexegesesofoursharilsquoa thatthreatenmyexistenceinawaythat isnotconsistentwiththeGodlywayandtoapplymyownijtihadtorectifyer-roneoustendenciesbysomeshuyukh[pluralofshaykh]rdquo(Sadiki2004290)DespitetheproliferationofvoicesintentonclaimingforthemselvestheauthoritytodemarcatewhatisauthenticallyIslamicandun-Islamiconceandforallcontestationoveritsscopeandmeaningproceedsapacefacilitatedatleastinpartbywomenformerlyexcludedfromtheconver-sationAtthesametimeIslamistwomenrsquosagencyandclaimstoauthorityarefrequentlystillpredicatedonawillingnesstofollowfairlypatriarchalrulesaboutwherehowandwithwhomtheymaypracticetheirvocation(Hirschkind2003Sadiki2004283)

Islamism and Violence

IfgenderisfrequentlyanimplicitpreoccupationamongIslamistsjihadisarguably Islamistsrsquomost consistently explicit concern Jihad is derivedfromtheArabicverbthatmeanstostruggleortostriveyetitisaparticu-larkindofstruggle that isofconcern tomanyof thefigurescollectedheretheoftenviolentstruggleagainstapostatesandinfidelsbothathomeandabroadtowhicheveryindividualMuslimmustcontributeTheclaimthatfightingunbelieversisthepreeminentenactmentofindividualMus-limpiety seems to justify characterizationsof Islam ingeneral and Is-lamisminparticularassanctioningevenencouragingviolenceYetwhatIslamistsrepresentasjihadtout courtisahistoricallyspecificunderstand-ingderivedfromahighlyselectiveuseoftextsandprecedentsprominentamongthemaformerlyobscureclaimbytheinfluentialfourteenth-cen-tury jurist IbnTaymiyya thatMongol rulerswhohad contravened Is-lamiclawcouldbesubjecttoforcibleremovalFarfromadefinitiveex-pressionof Islamldquoproperlyunderstoodrdquo such Islamist argumentsnotonlymarkasignificantdeparturefrommuchofantecedentdoctrineandpractice but also diminish the importance of ongoing disagreementsamongMuslimsabouttheformandpurposesofjihad

TobeginwithMuslimscholarshavetendedtoconsiderjihadagainstforeignenemiesafard kifaya(collectiveobligation)thatisadutyagroupofpeoplewithinthecommunitymayperformonbehalfoftherestandonethatpresupposesalegitimateMuslimleadertodeclareorleadthechargeJuristshavedistinguishedthisfromthefard lsquoayn(individualduty)thatmustbefulfilledbyeverysingleMuslimincasesofdefensivejihad

41

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

thatiswhentheummaisunderattackManyIslamistsincludedheretakeamuchlessnuancedviewofjihadAsamodeofpoliticalactionQutbarguesjihadmustberegardedasaldquopermanentconditionnotanocca-sionalconcernrdquoonethatincurrentcircumstancesrequiresdeedsratherthanwordsstruggleratherthancontemplationrevolutionathomeaswellasresistanceabroad(Qutb199167ndash6882)lsquoAbdal-SalamFarajarguesalongsimilarlinesthatthenatureoftheattackonIslammakespolitical authorization by a caliph (ldquodeputyrdquo referring to a legitimatesuccessortotheProphetrsquosleadership)unnecessaryafterallldquoleadershipovertheMuslimsis(always)intheirownhandsifonlytheymakethismanifestIfthereissomethinglackingintheleadershipwellthereisnothingthatcannotbeacquiredrdquo(Jansen1986asec93)

SuchargumentsareadeliberaterejectionofearlyMuslimmodernistswhohademphasizedthelargelydefensivecharacterofjihadandsoughttoshowthatrelationsbetweenMuslimsandnon-MuslimswerenormallypeacefulratherthanantagonisticMahmudShaltut(d1963)therectorof al-Azhar from 1958 to 1963 had argued for example that theQurrsquoanicversesonfightingldquoprohibittheprovocationofhostilityandthisprohibitionisreinforcedbyGodrsquosrepugnancetoaggressionandbyhisdislikeofthosewhoprovokehostilityrdquo(Peters199674onShaltutseeZebiri1993)ConversionbyforceisanathematoIslamShaltutaversandfightingiscommandedonlyindefenseinresponsetoaggressionini-tiatedbyothersEvendefensivejihadmustaimatldquotheterminationoftheaggressionandtheestablishmentofreligiouslibertydevotedtoGodandfreefromanypressureorforcerdquo(Peters199675)

ManyIslamistsexplicitlydismisssuchargumentsasasymptomoffalseconsciousnessoneamongmanydestructiveeffectsofcolonialdomina-tionMawdudiargues for example thatwhile imperialists ravage theworld to satisfy their greed jihad alone ldquoconjures up the vision of amarching band of religious fanatics with savage beards and fiery eyesbrandishingdrawnswordsandattackingtheinfidelswherevertheymeetthemrdquoHavinginternalizedthis imageMuslimsrushtoapologizeandrenouncearmedstruggleInthiswayhelamentscolonialistsretaintheexclusiverighttoldquofightwitharmsandammunitionwhilewearecon-tented with our pen and our tonguerdquo (Mawdudi 1948 1ndash3) SayyidQutbforhispartagreedthatIslamdoesnotcountenancespreadingitsmessagebyforceandcoercionyethehadlittlepatiencewiththosewhosoughttopresentjihadaslegitimateonlyinself-defense

IfweinsistoncallingIslamicjihadadefensivemovementthenwemustchangethemeaningofthewordldquodefenserdquoandmeanbyitldquothedefenseofmanrdquoagainstallthoseforcesthatlimithisfreedomWhenwetakethisbroadmeaningofthewordldquodefenserdquoweunder-standthetruecharacterofIslaminthatitproclaimstheuniversalfreedomofeverypersonandcommunityfromservitudetoanyother

42

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

individualorsocietytheendofmanrsquosarroganceandselfishnesstheestablishmentofthesovereigntyofAllahandHisLordshipthrough-outtheworldandtheruleofthedivinesharilsquoainhumanaffairs(Qutb199050)

Qutbdoesnotnameanynamesincastigatingtheldquowriterswithdefeatistandapologeticmentalities[who]writeaboutlsquojihadinIslamrsquoandtrytoremovethislsquoblotrsquofromIslamrdquo(Qutb199046)buthecouldverywellhavehadhisdistinguishedfellowEgyptianMahmudShaltutinmind

These arguments about jihad may be said to constitute a commongrammarandframeworkofanalysisformanyIslamistsalthoughseveralthinkers in this volume carefully calibrate such claims to suit variouspurposesanddifferentpublicspheresInhisjustificationfortheassassi-nationofEgyptianpresidentAnwaral-SadatforexamplelsquoAbdal-SalamFarajdepictsthestruggletoreclaimthemoralfoundationsoftheEgyp-tianstateasafightagainstjahiliyyafromwithinarguingthatthejihadagainstacorruptnationalistregimeathomemusttakeprecedenceoverfightingenemieselsewhereTheCharterofHamas(seechapter15)how-everinsiststhatallMuslimsrecognizetheprimacyofthejihadforJeru-salemweldingIslamistrhetorictothatofnationalistresistanceinanef-fortbothtofightIsraelioccupationandtocompeteforadherentswiththePalestinianLiberationOrganization(PLO)IncontrasttobothFarajandHamasBinLadenembracesaglobaljihadthatessentiallycollapsesdistinctionsbetweennationalandinternationaloffensiveanddefensivefightingenemiesathomeandthosefromafar

Yet despite such differences these arguments tend to presume thatviolent jihad is a necessary response to the pervasive power of thosewithdemonstratedhostilitytoMuslimliveslandspietiesandsensibili-tiesaformofretaliationwhoseurgencyandlegitimacyderivefromtheviolencemdashpsychologicalandeconomicaswellasphysicalmdashoftheinitialassaultThisviewofjihadsubsumesindividualsintoarchetypesofldquoin-fidelsrdquoandldquobelieversrdquoandinsodoingvitiatesmoreconventionaldis-tinctionsbetweenforexamplesoldierandcivilianorcollectiveandin-dividual responsibility It is far from inevitable that thosewhoharborsuchviewswillautomaticallyactuponthemyetthecarnagewroughtbytheattacksontheWorldTradeCenterandthePentagonin2001aBalinightclub in 2002 Madrid commuter trains in 2004 and throughoutIraqonadailybasissuggestjusthowlethalsuchclaimscanbegiventheright circumstances The fact that such violence does not discriminateamongvictimsonlyfurtherfuelsrhetoriccharacterizingIslamistsasirra-tional fanatics ldquoin love with deathrdquo terrorists animated by a religioncharacterizedbyapropensityforviolenceandauthoritarianism27

27AnxietiesabouttheparticularsusceptibilityofMuslimstoirrationalityinsularityandfanaticismhavealonganddistinguishedpedigreeinEuro-AmericanhistoryandpoliticalthoughtSeeforexampleRenan18833

43

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

AsinsomanyothermattershoweverIslamistsarehardlyofonemindonthesubjectofjihadindeedthereareIslamistswhoexplicitlyrejectthereductionof struggle toviolenceAcase inpoint isNadiaYassine(20032005c)whoinsiststhatjihadisthededicatedstruggleagainstisshytikbar(arrogance)particularlyinitscommonformasthelustforpoweranddominationAsjihadagainstistikbarisbothafinalgoalandapre-scriptionforactionYassinesuggestsitisantitheticaltoviolentpracticesthataimatdominationTheprimaryinstrumentsofjihadarenotbombsbutwords particularly thosedeployed in the art of persuasion (Fara-marzi2005NYassine2006a)WhenIslamistssuchaslsquoAbdal-SalamFarajandlsquoUmarlsquoAbdal-RahmanseektolegitimizeviolentrevolutionbyrecoursetoIslamictextsshearguestheycontravenethetruemeaningofjihadtoservetheirownarrogantendsBythesametokenBinLadenrsquosdecisiontoldquofightevilwithevilandbarbaritywithbarbarityrdquonotonlyviolatesspecificIslamicprohibitionsagainstharmingcivilianswomenandchildrenbutalsobetraystheethicalimperativetoembodythemes-sageofamercifulGodwhocautionsbelieversthat(Q8822)ldquoYouhavenopoweroverthemrdquo(NYassine2005cDaily Excelsior2002)

SuchpersistentdisagreementsamongMuslimspastandpresentsug-gest that Islam isnomore inherently violent andbloody-minded thanitmdashorChristianityor Judaism for thatmattermdashis inherentlypeacefulIslamists often claim to speak for an unchanging authentic Islam thatexistsoutsideoftimeandspaceyetthepoliticalpurchaseoftheirper-spective derives from the ways it assembles disparate yet recognizablecontemporaryexperiencesofsufferingfrustrationandlossintoanex-planationthatresonateswithMuslimswholiveincommunitiescultur-allylinguisticallyandgeographicallydistantfromoneanotherTheex-tenttowhichIslamistargumentsresonatebroadlyacrossMuslimsocie-tiesthusdependsuponasetofexperiencesandphenomenathatmarkthisparticularmomentinhistoryincludingthewaysinwhichcontempo-raryglobalinequalitiescompoundalegacyofhistoricalasymmetriestocontinuallyreproduceasenseofMuslimpowerlessnessmdashbothrealandimaginedmdashrelativetotheWestcontinuingEuro-Americanpoliticalandfinancialsupportofcorruptautocratsmanyofwhompresideoverna-tion-statesbrutallystitchedtogetherbyWesternfiat thepersistenceofauthoritarian regimes eager to control domestic unrest by catalyzingldquoMuslimragerdquotowardexternaltargetsthesenseofemasculationpro-ducedbydecadesofpoliticalrepressionandeconomicfrustrationandthecontinualflowofimagesofbloodiedMuslimbodiesdeliveredbyaburgeoningarrayofvideosatelliteandelectronicmedia

It is notable that the understanding of jihad many Islamists proffermirrorstheverystate-sanctionedviolenceagainstwhichtheyhavestrug-gledforalmostacenturyAlongwiththousandsofMuslimscaughtinthemachineryoftwentieth-centurystateviolenceprominentIslamistsfromQutbtoGhazalitoAymanal-Zawahirimdashal-Qalsquoidarsquossecondincommandmdash

44

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

arewellknowntohavebeenradicalizedbyextendedandoftenbrutaltermsofincarcerationinEgyptSyriaIraqJordanIsraelAlgeriaandelsewhere(onal-ZawahiriandprisoncfKepelandMilelli2008152ndash54)ItisthusfarfromsurprisingthatIslamistsforgedbyinterrogationtortureinprisoncampswouldconcludethatthepreeminentenactmentofMuslimpietyisviolentstruggleldquoPrisonrdquoasPalestinianKhaledAbuHilalhassaidldquoismyuniversityrdquo(Erlanger2007)anargumentmadeingreaterdetailinadifferenttimeandplacebyRussianwriterandrevolu-tionaryMaximGorky(1868ndash1936)

Apeoplebroughtupinaschoolthatremindsoneofthetormentsofhellonasmallscaleapeopleaccustomedtotheclenched-fistprisonandthewhipwillnotbeblestwithatenderheartApeoplethatthepoliceagentshaveriddenoverwillbecapableintheirturnofwalk-ingoverthebodiesofothersInacountrywhereunresthasreignedsolongit isdifficultforthepeopletorealizefromonedaytothenextthepowerofrightOnecannotdemandfromamanwhohasneverknownjusticethatheshouldbejust(Gorky1920)

InthiscontextasTimothyMitchell(1990195ndash96199207ndash8)suggestsIslamistviewsoftheworldcanbecharacterizedasbothamodeofresis-tancetostatemechanismsofcoercionandanexpressionofthemSuchisthedynamic evident inGhazalirsquosmemoirs for examplewhen shede-scribeshowtheldquodarknessofprisonsthebladesoftortureandthevi-ciousbeatingsonly increasetheenduranceandresolveofthefaithfulrdquo(Ghazali19786)

There is no doubt a great deal of pragmatism at work in IslamistargumentsaboutviolenceAsQutb(19916447ndash48)drylynotesthepathtofreedommustoccasionallybehewnbywayoftheswordbecausetyrants are not reasoned out of power and ldquojahiliyya is not lsquoabstracttheoryrsquo[it]consciouslyorunconsciouslystrivestopreserveitsownexistence to defend its essence to annihilate dangerous elementswhichthreatenitsverybeingrdquoYetitisalsothecasethatformanyoftheseIslamistsjihadisbothameansandanendanefforttoeradicatethoseobstacles torestoringa justcommunityonearththatsimultane-ouslybringshumanaction intoaccordwithGodrsquosplansandpurposes(Haddad198321)While theQurrsquoan (2256) states thatldquothere isnocompulsioninreligionrdquoIslamistscontendthatonlyinastateinwhichIslamiclawreignssupremearehumanbeingsfreefromenslavementtooneanotherrsquosruleandallareequalbyvirtueoftheircommonsubmissiontoGodAsQutb(1991107ndash8)argues

WhenthehighestauthorityinsocietyisGodalonemdashexpressedintheruleofdivinelawmdashonlythenishumanitytrulyandcompletelyliber-atedfromslaverytomenOnlythisisldquohumancivilizationrdquobecausetheessentialfoundationofhumancivilizationisthetrueandcom-

45

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

pletefreedomofhumanityandtheabsolutedignityofeveryindivid-ualinsocietyThereisnotruefreedomanddignityforhumanityortheindividualinasocietywheresomepeoplearelordswholegislateandothersareslaveswhoobey

From this perspective the realization of justice liberty equality andchoiceitselfnecessitatestheforcibleremovaloftheconstraintsimposedbyjahiliyyaalongwiththosewhoaidandabetitno matter the costAsMawdudi(1954160ndash61)writes

[W]hyisitthatinreligionsuchimportanceisgiventojihadthattheQurrsquoanpronouncesthejudgmentofhypocrisyuponthosewhoshirkandevadeitJihadisbutanothernamefortheattempttoerectthesystemoftruthandtheQurrsquoandeclaresjihadtobeatouchstoneonthesamefootingwithamanrsquosfaithInotherwordshewhohasfaithinhisheartwillneitherbecontentwiththedominationofthesystemofevilnorwillhegrudgetheexpenditureoflifeandwealthinthestruggleforerectingthesystemoftruthIfoneshowsweaknessinthismatterhisfaithitselfisdoubtfulWhatcananythingelsebesidethenprofithimThemanwhoprofesses faith in this religioncannotfulfillhisdutyonlybytryingasfaraspossibletopatternhislifeonIslamThenatureofhisfaithitselfrequiresthatheshouldconcentrateallhiseffortuponwrestingleadershipfromunbelievingandcorruptmentoentrustittotherighteousanduponerectingthesystemoftruththathasbeenordainedfortheconductoftheworldaccordingtothewillofGodBecausethisendisunattainablewith-out thehighestdegreeofcollectiveeffort theremustexistarigh-teouscommunitycommittedtotheprincipleoftruthanddevotedtothesolepurposeintheworldoferectingmaintainingandproperlyrealizingthesystemoftruth

ThefactthatsomeIslamistthinkerssanctifyviolentstruggleinsuchtermsdoesnotmeanofcoursethatallthosewhoadvocateorengageinjihadendorseviolence28NordoesitimplythatthosewhoclaimtokillforIslamareentirelywithoutulteriormotivesthosemanipulativepur-poses andpsychologicalmotivations that even themost rarified scrip-turalargumentscanexpressorserveWhattheprecedinganalysisdoessuggesthoweveristhatthereductionofthisviewofjihadtoirrationalbloodlusttheself-interestedgrabfortemporalpoweroradoorthroughwhichtopassintothehereaftermissesacrucialdimensionofitssignifi-canceandappealfortruebelieversjihadisnolessthananenactmentof

28EvenashespokeofaneweraofjahiliyyaandofjihadMawdudihimselfstoppedwellshortof recommendingor condoning the actual resort to violence in themannermanyotherIslamistsdidAsNasr(199670)observesMawdudirsquosorganizationtheJamalsquoat-iIs-lamildquohasavoidedviolentsocialchangeandhasinsteadviewedthepathtotheIslamicstateaslyingwithintheexistingsociopoliticalorderrdquoAlsoseethechapters5and3onQutbandMawdudiinthisvolume

46

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

adivineimperativetoremakethefoundationsofcollectivelifeInthisre-spectIslamistviewsofjihadcanbeseenaspartofalong-standingasso-ciationbetweenviolenceandpoliticalfoundingsuponwhichnoparticu-larcultureorhistoricalepochhasamonopolyThisassociationandtheldquolegacyofviolencerdquoitbequeathstofuturegenerationsarenolessappar-entinthoseradicalrevolutionsofrenewalthatmovebywayoftheswordfromthemarginstothecenterthanthosepoliticalfoundingsthatclaimtocreatesomethingoutofnothing(Connolly1995251)Ineithercasethetollofsuchbrutalitycanbeimmeasurableforinadditiontothevic-timswhosufferdirectlytheldquopracticeofviolencelikeallactionchangestheworldbutthemostprobablechangeistoamoreviolentworldrdquo(Ar-endt1972177)

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Page 10: Chapter 1 INTRODUCTION - assets.press.princeton.eduassets.press.princeton.edu/chapters/s9067.pdf · Chapter 1 INTRODUCTION This volume is intended as a broad introduction to the evolution

10

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

asareligiousscholarNorwasHasanal-Banna(d1949)thefounderoftheMuslimBrotherhoodofEgypttheoldestandoneofthemostinflu-entialof Islamistorganizations in theSunniMuslimworldBothwereeducatedattheDaral-lsquoUluminCairoaninstitutionfoundedinthelatenineteenthcenturytoestablishsomethingofamiddlegroundbetweenal-AzharUniversityinCairoandmodernseculareducationalthoughitgradually veered toward the latter and in 1946 became part of CairoUniversity (cfReid1990139ndash49)Abursquol-AlsquolaMawdudi (d 1979)ofPakistandidreceivean intermittentmadrasaeducationbut itwasthevocationof a journalist not that of an lsquoalim (plural lsquoulama) that headoptedThanksinparttothisbroadlysimilareducationalbackgroundIslamistsalsosharewithmodernistsasupremeconfidenceintheirownabilitytodiscernthetruemeaningorspiritofIslamthroughamoreorlessdirectencounterwiththefoundationaltextsAsCharlesJAdams(1966396)hasobservedincomparingMawdudiwithMuslimmodern-istsldquoBothhaveclaimedtheabilitytodisengagethespiritoressentialsofGodrsquosguidancetoliberatethemselvesfromtheauthorityofthecu-mulativeMuslimpastand toundercut thepositionof theulamawhorepresentthatauthorityrdquoMuchthesamemightbesaidofSayyidQutbaswellasofmanycontemporaryIslamists

Despitesuchcommonalities IslamistsfrequentlypositionthemselvesinoppositiontothemodernistsAstheIslamistssee it themodernistshavemadeIslamitselfsubservienttotheprojectofestablishingitscom-patibilitywithWesternnorms and institutions rejectingor explainingawayanythingthatdoesnotconformtothesenormsMawdudiputitthisway inderidingmodernistdiscomfortwith the implementationofpunishmentsmandatedbyIslamiclaw

Iwouldliketoputastraightquestiontothesevotariesofldquomoder-nityrdquoldquoWhatarethevaluesthatyoubelieveinDoyoubelieveintheIslamicvaluesoflifeandstandardsofmoralityorthoseofthemoderncivilizationrdquoIfyouhavemadeyourchoiceandacceptedsomeothervaluesandsomedifferentstandardofrightandwrongofvirtueandviceofthepermissibleandtheprohibitedasagainstthoseenvisagedbyIslamitisthenadifferenceofaveryfundamen-talnatureItmeansthatyoudifferwithanddisbelieveintheIslamicideologyitselfInthiscaseyoushouldhavethecouragetodeclarethatyourejectIslamoutrightIsitnotfoolishtoallegefaithinaGodwhose laws you consider as barbarous Anyhow nobody can re-maininsidethepaleofIslamafterholdingsuchanopinionaboutthelawofGod(Mawdudi[Maududi]196067)

PolemicsofthissortnotonlysuggesttheIslamistsrsquosenseofwhatsepa-ratesthemfromthemodernistsbutalsopointtointermittentIslamistef-forts to make common cause with the lsquoulama Such efforts are oftenpredicated on both the rhetorical claim that all sincere Muslims fully

11

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INTRODUCTION

concurintheirconceptionofthesharilsquoa(Islamiclaw)andtheIslamistsrsquoastuterecognitionofthelsquoulamarsquosconsiderablestandinginsocietyUnsur-prisinglysomeleadingIslamistshavesoughttoblurdistinctionsbetweenthemselves and the lsquoulama to enhance their own authority Usama binLaden(b1957)styledhisfamous1996ldquoDeclarationofWaragainsttheAmericansOccupyingtheLandoftheTwoHolyPlacesrdquoasafatwathatisajuridicalopiniontherebyrhetoricallyobscuringthehistoricalfactthatfatwashavetypicallybeenthepreserveofthe lsquoulamaandmorespecifi-callyofthefuqahaormuftis(jurists)amongthemBinLadenhoweverhasnoformalscholarlycredentialsinmattersIslamicMawdudiwascom-monly styledasmawlana a commonhonorific for the lsquoulama inSouthAsiaAdeliberateblurringofdistinctionsislikewiseevidentinthestate-ment of the Sudanese Islamist Hasan al-Turabi (b 1932) ldquoBecause allknowledgeisdivineandreligiousachemistanengineeraneconomistorajuristarealllsquoulamardquo(Turabi1983245alsochapter8inthisvolume) YetthereareleadingIslamistsmdashinthisvolumeKhomeiniMutahhariBaqiral-SadrFadlallah lsquoAliNadwi lsquoUmar lsquoAbdal-RahmanandQa-radawimdashwhoweretrainedaslsquoulamawhichmeansthatporousbounda-riesbetweenIslamistsandthelsquoulamaarenotjustamatterofself-servingrhetoricbyautodidactsGiventhisfactthedistinctionbetweenIslamistsandlsquoulamaturnslessonstarkdifferencesineducationalbackgroundandmoreonthecharacterandcontentoftheirpoliticalcommitmentsMorethananythingelseIslamistsseektoimplementIslamiclawthroughtheagencyofthestateNotallarewillingtoresorttoviolentmeansinpur-suitofthisendManysuchasYusufal-Qaradawi(b1926)ahighlyin-fluentialIslamistandoneofthemostprominentlsquoulamaofcontemporaryIslam(Skovgaard-Petersen2004Kraumlmer2006)professdemocraticcom-mitmentsButwhateverthestancetowardeitherdemocracyorviolencethepublicimplementationofthesharilsquoaisattheheartofallIslamisminbothitsShilsquoiandSunniformsThissuggestsanimportantcontrastwithmanyamongthelsquoulama

SincethefirstcenturiesofIslamthelsquoulamahaveoftensoughttomain-tainacarefuldistancefromtherulingelitejealouslyguardingtheirinsti-tutionsandpracticesfromgovernmentalinterferenceThelsquoulamagener-allyrecognizedthatthefunctioningoflegalandotherIslamicinstitutionspresupposedtheexistenceofaMuslimgovernmentandtheydefinedalegitimategovernmentasonethatoversawtheimplementationofsharilsquoanormsButtheyhavetypicallyunderstoodthegovernmentrsquoscommitmenttothesharilsquoatomeanthattherulerdefendedthebordersofthepolityregulatedpublicmoralitysuppressedhereticsandappointedthosepro-ficientinlegalmatterstoimplementthelaw(cfCrone2004286ndash314)TheyhavenotunderstoodanyofthistomeaneitherthattherulershouldbeabletoofferabsoluteinterpretationsofGodrsquoslaworthattherealmofpoliticsandstatecraftshouldbecomesynonymouswithIslamitselfYetthis ispreciselyhowIslamistshaveoftenconceivedof therelationship

12

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

betweenIslamandpoliticsandmorespecificallybetweenIslamandthestatenocallingishigherthanstrivingtowardtheestablishmentofanIs-lamicstateandoncebroughtaboutallwillbeinaccordancewithGodrsquospurposesMawdudi(1960177)claimedthatldquothestruggleforobtainingcontrolovertheorgansofthestatewhenmotivatedbytheurgetoestab-lishthedin[religion]andtheIslamicSharilsquoahandtoenforcetheIslamicinjunctionsisnotonlypermissiblebutpositivelydesirableandassuchobligatoryrdquo

Tomanylsquoulamathisamountstonothinglessthanmakingreligiousnorms subservient topolitical goalsAsMuftiMuhammadTaqi lsquoUth-manialeadingDeobandischolarofPakistannotesinhisrejoindertoviewssuchasMawdudirsquos

Intheirzealtorefutesecularismsomewritersandthinkersofthepresentagehavegonesofarastocharacterizepoliticsandgovern-ment as the true objective of Islam the reason why the prophetsweresent[byGodtothepeople]indeedtheveryreasonforthecre-ationofthehumanbeingAndtheyhavenotonlygivenotherIs-lamiccommandmentsmdashforinstanceonmattersofworshipmdashasec-ondarypositiontheyhaveevendeemedthemtobemeremeansforpoliticalendsjustawayoftrainingpeople[towardpoliticalmobili-zation](lsquoUthmani199825ndash26cfZaman2008116ndash18)

NotalllsquoulamasharesuchmisgivingsaboutthesubordinationofIslamtopoliticsthoughitshouldbenotedthattheywouldseethisintermsnotofanysuchsubordinationbutratheroftheutterinseparabilityofthere-ligiousandthepoliticalByfarthemostnotableoftheseamongtheShilsquoaisAyatollahKhomeini(d1989)ofIranAgainstalong-standingtradi-tionofShilsquoipoliticalquietismintheabsenceofthehiddenShilsquoiimamKhomeiniarguedthattheShilsquoi lsquoulamaoughttoassumedirectpoliticalleadershipandhethenproceededtospearheadthemovementthatcul-minatedinthefalloftheIranianmonarchyandtheestablishmentoftheIslamicRepublicofIran9Hisdoctrineofthevelayatshye faqih(guardian-shipofthejurist)isaradicalrethinkingofShilsquoipoliticaltheologyblur-ringanymeaningfulboundarybetweenreligiousandpoliticalauthority(seechapter6)ItispreciselyKhomeinirsquoscommitmenttoestablishinganIslamic statealong these lines thatwarrantshis classificationasan Is-

9TheImamiorIthnalsquoashariShilsquoabelievethatthetwelfthandlastoftheirimamswentintoghayba(hiding)in874andthathewilleventuallyreturnasthemahdimdashamessianicfigurewhoalonecanrestoreproperordertotheworldinaugurateaneraofunalloyedjus-ticeandreclaimfortheShilsquoatherightsofwhichtheyhavebeendispossessedbytheSunnisandbycorruptrulersformuchofthehistoryofIslamShilsquoischolarshavelongdebatedthequestionofwhatsortofauthoritytheleadingreligiousscholarsoughttohaveinofficiatingintheimamrsquosabsenceKhomeinirsquosviewdisputedbymanyotherscholarswasthatthelead-ingscholar(s)oughttodischargethefullrangeoftheimamrsquosfunctionsincludingthepoliti-calheadshipofthecommunity

13

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INTRODUCTION

lamistnotwithstandinghiswell-recognizedstatusasoneoftheleadingShilsquoilsquoulamaofhisgeneration

The Azhar-educated Yusuf al-Qaradawi has for his part criticizedmanyfellowIslamistsonseveralissuesbutnotonthefundamentalques-tion of their political orientation Just as Khomeini had chastised theldquopropagandainstitutionsofimperialism[fortrying]topersuadeusthatthereligiousleadersmustnotinterfereinsocialmattersandthatthefuqaha[jurists]donothavethedutyofoverseeingthedestinyoftheIslamicnationrdquo(Algar1981141)Qaradawiinsiststhatdenyingthepo-liticalorientationofIslamamountstoitswillfuldistortion

Amongtheinterpretationswithwhichthesecularists[lsquoalmaniyyun]andthemodernists[alshyhadathiyyun]calumniate[Islamproperlyun-derstood and those committed to it] is the notion of ldquopoliticalIslamrdquowhichwithoutdoubtisanideaalientoourIslamicsocietyBy[politicalIslam]theymeananIslamthatconcernsitselfwiththeinternalandexternalaffairsoftheMuslimcommunity[Theymeanbyit]actionsaimedatfreeingthecommunityfromtheforeignpowerthatdirects [Muslim]affairsphysicallyandmorallyas itpleases[Theyalsomeanbyit]actionsseekingtocleansethecommunityofthecultural socialand legalsedimentsofWesterncolonialismsothatthecommunitycanreturnonceagaintosubmissiontoGodrsquoslawindifferentareasoflifeTheyusethischaracterizationofldquopoliticalIslamrdquoinordertoalienatepeoplefromits[aforementioned]contentandto frighten themawayfromthosecalling toacomprehensiveconceptionofIslammdashonethatisinclusiveofbeliefandlawworshipandsocialinteractionproselytismandthestate(Qaradawi200793)

Islamistpoliticalcommitmentsareoftenintertwinedwithcritiquesofthescholarlytraditionanditsattendant institutionsandpracticesandthiscriticismprovidesusacrucialwayof thinkingfurtherbothaboutwhatdistinguishesIslamistsfromthelsquoulamaandabouthowtoviewIs-lamismitselfWhatthelsquoulamacannotbutseeasacavalierattitudeto-wardtheirscholarlytraditioniswesuggestbetterviewedaspartofalargerIslamistcritiqueonethatgoestotheheartofhowIslamismoughttobeunderstoodasaphenomenonItisacritiqueofparticularMuslimbeliefspracticesmoresandinstitutionsthataredeemedtohaveonlyatenuousbasis inldquotruerdquoandldquoauthenticrdquo Islamof the repeatedwrongturnsMuslimshavetakenthroughouttheirlonghistoryofthecorrupt-ingldquoforeignrdquoinfluencesmdashfromSufismtoGreekphilosophytothelureofmodernWesternculturesmdashbywhichMuslimshaveallowedthemselvestobeseducedandoftheirunwillingnesstodowhateverittakestoestab-lish thehakimiyya (sovereignty)ofGodonearthThat it is the sover-eigntyofGodthatIslamistsseekultimatelytoaffirmintheirindividualandpubliclivesremindsusthattheircritiqueofthepastandthepresentisapoliticalcritiqueanchoredinanddrivenbyaspirationstoinstitutea

14

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

newreligio-politicalorderWhetherthiscritiqueisarticulatedinconcreteor vague terms in a seeminglymoderateorplainlymilitant languagethere is no mistaking either its principal targetmdashfacets of the Islamictraditionmdashoritsfundamentallypoliticalorientation10

IslamistshaveofteninsistedthatthewordofGodcanandshouldbeapproacheddirectlywithoutthemediationofpresentorpastscholarsandwithoutanyneedfortheedifyingtalesthephilologicaldebatesandthelong-windedtheologicaldisquisitionssooftenfoundinmedievalexe-geticalliteratureamajorfacetoftheIslamicscholarlytradition(cfCarreacute200318)ShukriMustafaanEgyptianIslamistexecutedin1977forthemurderousactivitiesofhisSocietyofMuslims(popularlyknownastheSociety of Excommunication and Emigration) had famously assertedthatalloneneededtoresolveuncertaintiesinonersquosunderstandingofthewordofGodwasadictionary(Kepel199379)SayyidQutbdidnotgoquite that farButhe tooaffirmed that the fundamental teachingsofIslamwereentirelytransparentldquoWhatwearesayingaboutIslamisnoinventionofoursoranynewinterpretationofitsessenceIt issimplyplainIslamasitwasunderstoodbyitsfirstadherentMuhammadandhissincereCompanionsandthoseclosetoitsauthenticsourcerdquo(Qutb19969withminorchange)

TheimplicationofQutbrsquosstrikingassertionistwofoldFirstbehindarhetoric of humility in relation to divine knowledge Qutb implicitlyclaimsthefullbackingofGodandHisProphetfortheldquoplainIslamrdquohesetsforthMorespecificallyheessentiallydepictshisownunderstandingofIslamassynonymouswithGodrsquoseternalintentmuchasKhomeinirsquospronouncementsasthevalishyye faqih(guardianjurist)presumedtoarticu-latewhatIslamitselfstoodfororrequiredonanygivenmatterSecondthestatementimpliesnotonlythatviewsotherthanhisaremereinter-pretationsbutthattheyarethemorereprehensibleforbeingldquonovelrdquomdashasuggestionthatevokesthenotionofbidlsquoathatisofillicitcapriciousin-

10ThatIslamismshouldbeseenasawide-rangingcritiqueoftheworldandoftheIslamictraditionisareminderofcoursethatcritiqueisnotaninherentlysecularphenomenonnordoesitnecessitateasecularframeworkAsTalalAsad(2008)hasobservedgivenawidevarietyofldquopossibleinstancesofcritiquecriticismwhatwehaveisafamilyconceptforwhichitisnotpossibletoprovideasingletheorybecausethepracticesthatconstitutethemdifferradicallyrdquo(alsocfMahmood2008Taylor2008)NorshouldourviewingIs-lamism as a politically motivated critique suggest that other competing orientations inmodernIslamcannotalsobeseenascritiquesofparticularpracticesparticularformsofknowledgeWhatdoesdistinguishanIslamistorientationfromothersisonceagainboththedegreetowhichIslamistcritiquesbreakwiththeirpastandpresentandtheiraspirationto remake theworld in accordancewith their understandingof immutable divine com-mandsThisismarkedlydifferentfromhowthelsquoulamamightcritiqueparticularaspectsoftheirscholarlytraditionintheinterestofastrongersenseofcontinuitywiththattraditionorinordertomakeitmorereceptivetowhattheyseeasthecommunityrsquoschangingneedsItisalsoverydifferentfromhowMuslimmodernistsoftenbreakwiththescholarlytradi-tioninordertoadaptMuslimnormsandinstitutionstothedominantpoliticalandculturalinstitutionsoftheircontemporaryworld

15

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

novationinmattersofreligionSuchaviewofIslamjettisonsmuchofwhatwouldnormallycountasitshistoryandcivilizationldquoThehistoryoflsquoIslamrsquordquoQutbtellshisreadersldquoisthehistoryofthetrueapplicationofIslammdashinpeoplersquosconceptionsandtheirpracticesintheirlivesandtheirsocialsystemsIslamisthefixedaxisaroundwhichpeoplersquoslivesrevolveinafixedframeWhentheygooutofthisframeorwhentheycategorically abandon this axis what then do they have to do withIslamrdquo (Qutb 1967a vol 2 part 4 169 quotation marks aroundldquoIslamrdquoinoriginal)ItisforthefixedaxistheplainIslammdashandinoppo-sition to much of its historymdashthat the Islamist professes to stand (cfGrunebaum1962251ndash52)

Qutbhoweverisfarfromconsistentinhisattitudetowardtheschol-arlytraditionorinhowheseekstoarticulatehisownauthorityinrela-tiontoitHisfaithinthetransparencyandthetransformativeimmedi-acyofGodrsquoswordswouldappeartomakeallexegesissuperfluousyethehimselfhadproceededtowriteamajorcommentaryIn the Shade of the QurrsquoanthatwouldexceedfourthousandpagesinprintThejustifi-cationheoffers for it intheopening linesof thecommentary isauda-ciousnotapologetic

LifeintheshadeoftheQurrsquoanisablessingItisablessingunknownto anyonewhohasnrsquot tasted itAll praisebe toGodHehasgrantedmetheopportunitytoliveintheshadeoftheQurrsquoanforaperiodoftimeduringwhichIhavetastedHisblessingsasIneverhadearlierinmylifeIhavelistenedtoGodtheexaltedconvers-ingwithmethroughthisQurrsquoanmdashwithmeasmalllittleslaveIhavelivedintheshadeoftheQurrsquoanlookingfromanelevationatthejahiliyya[paganignorance]raginginthelandandthepettycon-cernsof itspeople [Fromthisvantage] Ihave seen thepride thepeopleofthisjahiliyyatakeintheirchildishknowledgetheirchild-ishideastheirchildishpreoccupations[Ihavelookeduponthem]likeanelderlooksuponthefrivolitiesofchildrenupontheireffortsandupontheirlisps(Qutb1967a13)

Theseresoundingwordsserveinteraliatoexplainwhyanewcom-mentaryshouldhavebeenneededatallthemind-numbingimpactofthejahiliyyahasmadepeopleincapableofrespondingtoeventhemostdi-rectofdivinesummonsandonlysomeonewhohaslivedldquointheshadeoftheQurrsquoanrdquocanunderstandtheirplightandremedyitFromtheper-spectiveQutbadoptshereanyappealtothescholarlytraditionanyef-forttoresthisauthorityonitwouldappearaltogetheroutofplaceYetQutbrsquosclaimstoauthoritydonotderiveexclusivelyfromhisconversingwithGodthroughtheQurrsquoanTosomedegreetheyalsodependonhisbeingseenashavingmasteryovertheveryexegeticaltraditionofwhichheisotherwisefrequentlydismissiveQutbcitesasmallnumberofearliercommentators and other authorities when it suits his purpose to do

16

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

so11justashesidestepstheexegeticaltraditionwhendoingsooffersarhetoricallymoreeffectivewayofarrivingataconclusionMoretradi-tionalexegetespastandpresentalsopickandchooseofcourseButtheyhavetypicallydonesowithinanoverallframeworkthatisdefinedbyacontinuousengagementwiththeexegeticaltraditionasawhole(cfSaleh2004)BycontrastQutbandotherIslamistexegeteswriteoutsideandofteninconsciousoppositiontoanysuchframeworkTheconversa-tionisnotwiththeearlierexegetesbutdirectlywithGodthoughthismightonoccasionbeaidedbyillustrationsfromtheearlierexegeticaltradition

If thereareunacknowledgedambiguities inQutbrsquosrelationshipwiththe Islamic traditionaswehaveobserveda frequentlyacerbic stancedoesnonetheless remain characteristicofhowheviews itmostof thetimeQutbisanythingbutuniqueinthisrespectYetifIslamistssharealmostbydefinitionacriticalstancetowardfacetsofthistraditionthereismuchthatalsoseparatesthemfromoneanotherinpreciselyhowthiscritique and its implications are articulated in different instances Al-thoughthemerepresenceofdisagreementamongIslamist intellectualsandactivistsishardlyremarkablethescopeandimplicationsofsomeofthedisagreementsinasmuchastheyrelatetothescholarlytraditionarenonethelessworthexamininghereFortheysuggestthatwhileIslamistsshare the conviction that particular institutions practices and normsneedtoberefashionedinlightofimmutabledivinecommandsthiscon-victionoftenrestsonquitedifferentviewsofIslamichistoryandciviliza-tionofcontemporaryMuslimsocietiesandnotleastofreligiousau-thorityanditslociNowhereperhapsisthismoreevidentthaninsomeofthewritingsofYusufal-QaradawiLikeQutbQaradawiisamongthemostinfluentialIslamistideologuesintheSunniworldHeisalsooneofQutbrsquosseverestcriticsfromwithintheIslamistcamp(seeespeciallyQa-radawi1994101ndash31)

ThatldquoMuslimrdquosocietieslackedaproperIslamicfoundationmadeitfutileQutbhadarguedtodebatespecificquestionsofIslamiclawand

11TheseincludeinteraliaMuhammadibnIshaq(d767)theauthoroftheSirat rasul AllahoneoftheearliestbiographiesoftheProphetMuhammadal-Tabari(d923)theauthorofJamilsquo alshybayan lishytarsquowil ay alshyQurrsquoanoneofthemostinfluentialcommentariesoftheQurrsquoaneverproducedal-Baghawi(d1117)whosecommentaryistitledMalsquoalim alshytanzilal-Qurtubi(d1273)theauthorofaworkalshyJamilsquo lishyahkam alshyQurrsquoanwhichises-peciallyattentivetothelegalcontentoftheQurrsquoanandIbnKathir(d1373)theauthorofaQurrsquoan commentaryTafsir alshyQurrsquoan alshylsquoazimwhichhasbeenpopular amongmanyMuslimsofaSalafiorientationOnoccasionQutbalsocitesinfluentialfellowIslamistsSeeforexampleQutbFi zilal alshyQurrsquoanvol2part4132(Mawdudi)vol2part525(Nadwi)vol2part6143and150ndash53(lsquoAbdal-QadirlsquoAwdaanEgyptianIslamistandlegalscholarexecutedundertheNasserregimein1954)OccasionallyQutbcitesRidarsquosTafsir alshymanaraswell thoughmoreoftenthannot toregisterhisdisagreementswithRidaandwiththelatterrsquosmentorMuhammadlsquoAbduhForadetailedcomparisonbetweenthecommentariesofRidaandQutbseeCarreacute2003

17

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

howitdealtwithparticularsocialoreconomicissuesThelsquoulamawerepatheticallydeludediftheythoughtthattheinterestsofIslamcouldbefurtheredthroughdisquisitionsonthesharilsquoainsuchconditionsofper-vasiveungodliness(Qutb1967b183ndash90)WhatpeopleneededbeforeanythingelsewasareturntothebasicsofthefaithThetaskofrighteouspreacherswastoinstructtheminthesemattersandtohelpthemrecog-nizewhatthesovereigntyofGoddemandedofthem(Qutb199135cfQaradawi1994102ndash4)Allothermattersincludingthenicetiesofjuris-ticdiscussionwerebestpostponeduntilaproperlyIslamicsocietybasedonthisfoundationhadbeenrealized

Qaradawi vehemently disagrees with Qutb arguing that educatedMuslimsarenotpagansbutbelieversandassuchdonotneedtobetu-toredinthefundamentalsoftheirfaithWhattheyoftendonotunder-standverywellmdashandhereQaradawiconcurswithotherIslamistsmdashisthenatureofIslamasanizam (socialandpoliticalsystem)TheproblemofMuslimsinotherwordsisnotgodlessnessbutsimplyignorance(whichiswhat the term jahiliyya literallymeans)of the teachingsof Islam intheircomprehensiveall-encompassingdimensionsAsQaradawiseesitmanyldquocaptivesofWesternthoughtrdquohavedoubtsnotabouttheessentialsoftheirfaithbutratheraboutIslamasacomprehensivesystemanditistheirunaddressedmisunderstandingstheirignoranceonthelatterscorethatsometimesopens thedoor todoubtsaboutmattersofbelief itself(Qaradawi1994113ndash14)Tocontinuetoexpoundonthesocialpoliti-calandotherteachingsofIslamwhilethesocietyisyetimperfectisnottoendorseorstrengthenthejahiliorderasQutbhadallegedbutonlytohelpordinarypeopleintheirefforttoleadvirtuouslivesevenininiqui-touscircumstances

ThisviewrepresentsanappealtowhatQaradawihasrepeatedlyre-ferredtoasthemoderatepathoralshymadrasa alshywasatiyya(theldquocentristschoolrdquocfQaradawi2006137ndash217)mdashonethatlocatesitselfonaputa-tivemiddlegroundbetweenacompleterejectionoftheworldincludingMuslimsocietiesanditstotalembraceQaradawiisequallyconcernedwithrescuingIslamichistoryandcivilizationfromoutrightdismissalatthehandsofIslamistslikeQutb12TheideathatjahilinormshadbeguntocreepbackintotheMuslimcommunityshortlyafterthedeathoftheProphetandthattheyhaveremainedunchallengedformuchofIslamrsquoshistoryignoresallthoseQaradawisayswhohavecontinuedtorepre-sentthepathofrighteousnessthroughoutthehistoryofIslamContrarytotheconvictionoftheSunnisthatldquothecommunitywillneveragreeonerrorrdquomdashastheProphetissaidtohavepromisedmdashthenotionofaperva-

12AmongleadingfiguresQaradawisinglesoutforcriticisminthisregardarebesidesQutbMawdudiandtheEgyptianIslamistscholarMuhammadal-Ghazali(d1996)SeeQaradawi2005b46ndash64It isworthnotingthatdespitetheseandotherdisagreementsQaradawihaswrittenrespectfullyofallthreedevotinganentirebooktohislongassocia-tionwithMuhammadal-Ghazali(seeQaradawi1995)

18

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INTRODUCTION

sivejahiliyyasuggestsmoreoverthatthecommunitydidindeedagreeonerror13Mostgrievouslyperhaps Islamist critiques tend to suggestthatthesharilsquoahasalmostneverbeenimplementedinMuslimsocietiesaftertheveryfirstyearsofIslamIronicallysaysQaradawisuchindis-criminaterejectionofIslamichistoryinadvertentlyreinforcessecularist argumentsthatthesharilsquoaisunsuitedtopracticalapplication(Qaradawi2005b46)QaradawirsquoscritiqueofQutbandotherIslamistsisfinallyanargumentforthecontinuingcentralityofthelsquoulamatothetaskofpro-viding authoritative guidance to the communityHisunderstandingofwhoconstitutesthelsquoulamaisfarmoreexpansivethanthatofmostDeo-bandilsquoulamaofSouthAsiaButlikethemheisinnodoubtthatseriousreligiousscholarsasdistinguishedfromamateurishautodidactsarecru-cialtothetaskofprovidingauthoritativereligiousandmoralguidancetothecommunity

AlthoughwehavesoughttoillustratecertainfacetsoftheIslamistcri-tiqueof the scholarly traditionandof theworldas somekey IslamistthinkershavearticulateditwedonotwishtosuggestofcoursethatIslamists are necessarily ldquointellectualsrdquo Whatever Qutb KhomeiniMawdudiandQaradawimightthinkofotherscholarsandintellectualsorofthemselvesinrelationtothemtheformerobviouslyarereligiousintellectualsThesameishardlytrueofmanyotherIslamistsYeteventhosewithlittleornointellectualpretensionsareoftenrecognizableas IslamistsnotonlyfortheircommitmenttothepublicimplementationofIslamicnormsgroundedinthefoundationaltextsbutalsomdashandasacor-ollaryoftheformermdashfortheiroftenself-consciouscritiqueofanddisen-gagementfromthenormsandmorestheyseearoundthemIncontempo-raryLebanonforinstanceShilsquoiIslamistshaveoftenseentheirtext-basedreligiouscommitmentsasmarkingacleardeparturefromearlierandex-isting religious practicesAs anthropologist LaraDeeb (2006 20) ob-servesldquoTheyvieweditasnewanddifferentmdashdifferentfromwhattheyoftenreferredtoenigmaticallyaslsquobeforersquoorlsquohowwewerersquoanddifferentfromwhattheycalledalshytaqalid(traditions)Inlieuofpracticesandbeliefscastastraditionaltheyespoused [an] lsquoauthenticatedrsquoIslamexpressedinpublicpietyrdquo14ManyIslamists living inrefugeecampsinGazahavehadasimilarviewTothemldquoPalestinianshadeitherbe-comelostinforeignideologiesortheyhadbecomelsquoMuslimsbycon-

13Theconvictionthatthecommunityatlargeisdivinelyprotectedfromerrorisanim-portantbasisoftheauthorityofldquoconsensusrdquoasamajorsourceofjuridicalnormsinSunniIslamFormoderndebateson consensus and someof the literatureon this subject seeZaman2006

14Theldquotraditionsrdquohereprimarilyrefer tocustomarynormsanddevotionalpracticesratherthantothecenturies-olddiscursivetraditionfromwhichthelsquoulamabothShilsquoiandSunniderivetheirauthorityIslamistcritiquesareoftendirectedasmuchhoweverattra-ditionsinthesenseofldquoinauthenticrdquoculturallyrootedreligiouspracticesastheyareatthescholarlytraditionofthelsquoulamawhichtothemisequallyinauthenticinhavingobscuredthesimpleandfundamentalteachingsofthefoundationaltexts

19

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

ventionrsquowhowentalongwiththefastorprayednowandthenbecausethiswaslsquocustomandtraditionrsquo(lsquoada wa taqlid)ThislackofconsciouszealousadherencetoIslamhadresultedinsocialweaknessleadingtode-featatthehandsofIsraelrdquo(Lybarger2007211)ThereismuchthatsuchanalysessharewiththewritingsandpronouncementsoftheleadingIs-lamistintellectuals

Islamists and Salafi s

JustasitisnotalwayseasytodifferentiatelsquoulamafromIslamistsorIs-lamists frommodernists it is sometimesdifficult to clearlydistinguishbetweenIslamistsandtheSalafisThelatterderivethisself-designationfromclaimsofstrictadherencetothenormativepracticeofalshysalaf alshysalih(thepiousforbears)usuallyunderstoodastheMuslimsofthefirstgenerations of Islam The guiding Salafi assumption is that these firstMuslims inbeingcontemporariesof theProphetMuhammadandtheimmediatesuccessorsofthosecontemporariesexemplifymostperfectlywhatitmeanstobeavirtuousMuslimandthatlatergenerationscandonobetterthanemulatetheexampleofthesefirstgenerationsSomever-sionofthisviewwouldfindbroadresonanceamongIslamistsbutalsoordinary believers though the Shilsquoa of various doctrinal orientationshavealwayshada farmore restrictiveviewofpreciselywho isworthemulating Again like the Islamists the Salafis insist on deriving theirnormsdirectlyfromtheIslamicfoundationaltextstheQurrsquoanandtheexampleoftheProphetMuhammadunmediatedbythemedievalschoolsoflawThismeansdoingawaywiththesortofhistoricallyarticulatedscholarlytraditionfromwhichthelsquoulamahavetendedtodrawmuchoftheirauthorityTheSalafisdohavetheirownlsquoulamamdashQaradawiisano-tableinstanceasaremembersoftheSaudireligiousestablishmentmdashbuteventheirauthorityisbasedfarmoreondirectlyinterpretingthefounda-tional texts than it is on any systematic engagement with the Islamicscholarlytradition

AllthissoundsagooddealnotjustliketheIslamistsbutalsolikethemodernistsThisshouldnotbesurprisingfortheSalafiorientationisanimportantpartofthegenealogyofbothmodernismandIslamismTheSalafi reformer Muhammad lsquoAbduh though a traditionally educatedscholarwhoservedtowardtheendofhislifeasthegrandmuftiofEgyptwasakeyinfluenceinthedevelopmentofIslamicmodernismButwhilesomeoflsquoAbduhrsquosdisciplesdevelopedhisideasinthedirectionofsecularnationalismothersmdashnotablytheSalafijournalistandQurrsquoancommenta-torRashidRidamdasheventuallytookthemdespitehismodernistproclivi-tiesinadecidedlyconservativedirection(Hourani1983alsocfDallal2000)Hasan al-Banna the founder of the MuslimBrotherhoodwasclose to many Egyptian Salafis Muhibb al-din al-Khatib (d 1969) aleadingSalafiofthetimeandtheowneroftheSalafiPublishingHousein

20

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INTRODUCTION

CairowasinchargeofoneoftheBrotherhoodrsquosfirstjournals(Mitchell1993185)andafterRidarsquosdeathin1935itwasatBannarsquosinitiativethatRidarsquosinfluentialjournalalshyManarwouldcontinuetobepublishedforsomeyears(RMitchell1993186)

ForalltheiraffinitieshoweverSalafiscannotsimplybesubsumedwiththeIslamistsanymorethantheycanwiththemodernistsUnliketheearlySalafisandothermodernists Islamistshavealmost invariablysought toaddressthemselvestoawidepopularaudienceratherthantotheintellec-tualelite(cfRMitchell1993211)TheSalafishavealsobeenfarmorepreoccupiedwithmattersofcorrectbeliefthenuancesofdoctrinethanhaveeither the Islamistsor themodernists (cfHaykel2009 [forthcom-ing])BythesametokenwhilemanyIslamistshavehadasomewhatam-bivalentrelationshipwithSufismSalafishaveusuallybeenunrelentinglyhostile to devotional Sufi practices But if it is useful to distinguish theSalafisfromothercompetingorientationsinmodernIslamitisimportantalsotorecognizethatthereismuchonwhichSalafisthemselveshavedis-agreedsometimessharplyInquestionintheseldquointernalrdquodifferencesisnottheiroverallorientationmdashtowardtheIslamicfoundational textsandthepristinenormsofIslamrsquosfirstgenerationsmdashbutratherthepreciseimplica-tionsofthisorientationforbeliefandconductinthepresentAconsider-ationofsomeofthesedifferencesshouldinturnfurtherillustratehowtheSalafisoughttobedistinguishedfromothercompetingcamps

WheremanySalafisseetheschoolsoflawasobstructingandindeeddistortingthesimplemessageofthefoundationaltextsothersviewthelegaltraditionasrepresentingIslamrsquosrichintellectuallegacyfromwhichMuslimsought todrawboth inspirationandguidanceQaradawi forinstance has been critical not just of the Muslimmodernists but alsooffellowSalafisfortheirirreverencetowardtherichesofthelegaltradi-tiontheiruneducatedproclivitytosetitasidealltoocallouslyOnthisviewarejectionofthetaqlid-boundlsquoulamashouldnotleadtotheotherextrememdashexemplifiedbynotafewSalafismdashofjettisoningthescholarlytraditionaltogether SalafisalsodifferamongthemselvesintheirattitudestowardmodernWesterninstitutionsandpracticesInthelatenineteenthandearlytwen-tieth centuries Salafi reformers like Muhammad lsquoAbduh and RashidRidainEgyptandJamalal-dinal-Qasimi(d1914)inSyriahadcalledforareorientationtowardthefoundationaltextsasawayofjustifyingnotresistingchangesinlawandeducationaswellasotherfacetsofso-cialreform(cfHourani1983Commins1990)OnthisviewadirectrecoursetotheQurrsquoanandthesunnaofferedthebestwayofdemonstrat-ing the accord between their teachings and the reformist project15 In

15SymptomaticofotherdisagreementsamongtheSalafisistheveryquestionofpreciselywhothesalafarewhoseexampleoughttobeemulatedThenarrowerviewslimitthesalaftothefirstthreegenerationsofIslammdashtheageoftheProphetMuhammadandhiscompan-ionstheirsuccessorsandthelatterrsquosimmediatesuccessorsmdashbuteventhesenarrowviews

21

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INTRODUCTION

contemporaryEuropeTariqRamadananinfluentialSwissArabphilos-opherhasarguedthatMuslimslivinginWesternsocietiesoughttofeelathomeinandcontributetoward thosesocietieswhileretainingandcultivatingtheirdistinctIslamicidentityHetooappearstoseehimselfinthegenealogyofwhathecharacterizesasldquoSalafireformismrdquo(onthischaracterization see Ramadan 2004 26ndash27) and he has echoed Qa-radawiinsomeofhisviews(cfRamadan199993ndash99) Other Salafis have remained staunchly opposed to institutions andpracticesofaWesternprovenanceAnespeciallyinfluentialfigureinthegenealogyofthelatterpositionistheeighteenth-centurypuritanicalre-former Muhammad ibn lsquoAbd al-Wahhab (d 1792) whose alliance in1744 with Muhammad ibn Salsquoud contributed to the establishment ofthefirstSaudistateinthelateeighteenthcenturyIbnlsquoAbdal-WahhabwashostilenotonlytoShilsquoismandtoSufidevotionalismbutalsotoany-thinghedeemednottobeinstrictconformitywiththeteachingsofthefoundationaltextsTherewasmuchthatseemedtohimtofailthisstan-dardallofwhichhebrandedasoneoranotherformofunbeliefTheWahhabismdashas the followers of Ibn lsquoAbd al-Wahhab are oftenknownthoughtheyprefertothinkofthemselvessimplyasgoodMuslimsoratbestasSalafismdashoftenadheretothelegalnormsoftheHanbalischooloflawthoughitistheteachingsofthefoundationaltextsirrespectiveofthisoranyotherschooldoctrinethattheyprofesstofollowThemoststringentoftheSaudiSalafisaswellasotherselsewhereareaveryfarcryindeedfromwhatQaradawiwouldcharacterizeasldquocentristrdquoSalafireformersletalonefromtheearlytwentieth-centurySalafimodernists

ThepoliticalviewsoftheWahhabisandmorebroadlyoftheSalafisare likewiseanythingbutuniformInSaudiArabiaWahhabireligiousscholarshavelongaffirmedaquietistpoliticalstancewhichhasmeantleavingmattersofthestatetotherulingfamilyFormuchofthehistoryofmodernSaudiArabiatherulingelitefor itsparthas imposedfewconstraintsontheSaudilsquoulamainmattersofreligiouslifetheregulationofsocialnormsandjudicialadministration(cfVogel2000)Onseveraloccasions however this relationship has come under severe strain In1979agroupofWahhabiswhorejectedthelegitimacyoftheSaudistateyethadtieswithsomeprominentreligiousscholarsmdashincludinglsquoAbdal-

feelconstrainedtomakeroomforsuchreveredfiguresasAhmadibnHanbaltheputativefounderoftheHanbalischooloflawandthefourteenth-centuryDamascenescholarIbnTaymiyya(d1328)OtherviewsarerathermoreexpansivenotjustinchronologicalbutalsoandcruciallyinintellectualtermsThusMuhammadlsquoAbduhthoughtthesalaftoalsoincludesuchtheologiansasal-Ashlsquoari(d935)al-Baqillani(d1013)andal-Maturidi(d944)SeeHourani1983149SuchaviewobviouslyopensthedoorforpreciselythesortoftheologicaldebatesthatotherSalafisaswellasIslamistsoftenfrownuponfortakingthebelieversveryfarfromthesimpleanddirectwordsofGod lsquoAbduhrsquosdiscipleRidaagaintookanarrowerviewofthesalafandlaterinhiscareerbecameastrongdefenderoftheWahhabisCfHourani1983230ndash32

22

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INTRODUCTION

lsquoAzizBinBaz(d1999)laterthegrandmuftiofSaudiArabiamdashtookoverthesacredprecinctsoftheKalsquobainMeccainashort-livedbutextremelyembarrassingchallenge toSaudi royalauthority (cfHegghammerandLacroix2007)In1990KingFahdrsquosdecisiontoinviteAmericantroopstodefendthekingdomagainstthethreatofanIraqiinvasioncreatedwide-spreadresentmentamongSaudis theeffectsofwhichcontinue to thisdayThestationingofnon-MuslimmilitarypersonnelinIslamrsquosholiestlandwasdeemedbythekingrsquoscriticstobescandalousandevensacrile-giousAnumberofprominentSaudiSalafispubliclycriticizedthekingrsquosdecisiononthisoccasioncallinguponhimaswellasonBinBazandoth-ersatthehelmoftheSaudireligiousestablishmenttoreorienttheSaudipolitytowarditstruereligiousfoundationsManyofthesedissidentsmdashwhowerealsojoinedbyldquosecularrdquoSaudicriticsoftheroyalfamilymdashwereandhaveremainedrestrainedintheircriticismevenastheycalledforstricterconformitytoIslamicnormsasthepanaceaforallills(cfFandy1999)OthershoweverhavedenouncedtheroyalfamilyanditsWesternalliesinnouncertaintermsBinLadenisonlythemostnotoriousofthosewhobrokewiththeroyalfamilyinthewakeofKingFahdrsquosdecisiontoinviteWesterntroopsin1990andwhocalledfortheoverthrowoftheroyal familyand for jihadagainstWesternpowers Such strident callshavebeencontinuedbyotherSalafisbothbeforeandaftertheterroristattacksofSeptember112001aswellasintheaftermathoftheUS-ledinvasionofIraq(al-Rasheed2007)

ItshouldbeclearinlightoftheforegoingthatanyunderstandingofthedifferencesbetweenIslamistsandtheSalafismustrestontakingac-countofthediversityamongtheSalafisSalafiswhooftenrejectmuchoftheIslamicscholarlytraditioninfavorofadirectrecoursetothefoun-dationaltextsarenotnecessarilyrenderedldquoIslamistrdquosimplybyvirtueofthisstanceForasnotedmanyoftheseSalafiscontinuetoprofessareso-lutelyquietiststancewhichinthecaseoftheSaudiSalafismeansaf-firmingallegiancetotheSaudiroyalfamilyThispositionisrepresentedforinstancebyBinBaztheerstwhilegrandmuftiaswellasbyotherleading members of the Saudi religious establishment A pro-regimestanceoroneindifferenttopoliticsisnolessldquopoliticalrdquoofcoursethana position of strident hostility to the established order at home andabroadForourpurposeshoweveritisonlywhentheSalafisrejecttheexistingdispensationandbeginstrivingmdashthoughnotnecessarilythroughmilitantmeansmdashforanewreligio-politicalorderthattheycanbesaidtojointheranksoftheIslamists

ItisworthnotingfinallythatSalafipositionsamongSaudisandelse-wherearemarkednotonlybydiversitybutalsobyconsiderablefluidity(al-Rasheed 2007) The same activist or intellectual might at varioustimesmoveamongavarietyofseeminglyincompatiblepositionsmdashap-pearingtobemoreldquomoderaterdquoonsomeissuesthanonothersForallhiscriticismofradicalIslamistsQaradawiforinstancehashimselfwrittenin justificationofsuicidebombingsbyPalestiniansagainst Israelis (see

23

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INTRODUCTION

chapter 9 on Qaradawi) And Saudi Salafis like Safar al-Hawali andSalmanal-lsquoAwdamdashwhocame toprominence in the early1990smdashhavealternatedbetweencriticismoftheSaudipoliciesanddenunciationsofradicalSalaficallstojihadagainsttheSaudiregime(seeal-Rasheed200759ndash101onal-HawalialsoseeReichmuth2006)Theirshiftingviewsreflect changes in their relations with the Saudi regime but they alsopointtothebroadspectrumofpositionswhichSalafishavetakenatdif-ferenttimesindifferentcontextsandbeforedifferentaudiencesThusevenasal-Hawaliandal-lsquoAwdahavecondemnedterroristactsdirectedagainstSaudiArabiaandadvisedSaudisnottofightAmericantroopsinpostndashSaddamHusseinIraqtheyhavecalledupontheIraqisthemselvestoresistAmericantroopsandhavecharacterizedthateffortasaldquodefen-sivejihadrdquo(al-Rasheed200794ndash95)

Sufi s and Islamists

ItseemsmuchsimpleronthefaceofittodistinguishbetweenIslamistsandSufisThecharacteristicSuficonvictionthattherearelevelsofmean-ingintheQurrsquoanthatgobeyondtheliteralandtheobviousandthataselectfewmdashtheldquofriendsofGodrdquomdashareendowedwiththeuniqueabilityto discern them is anathema to all those who insist that God intendsHisteachingstobeequallyintelligibletoallDespitetheirtendencytoviewthemselvesasbearersof true Islam Islamists typicallyregard theSufi idea that somepeoplehaveaprivileged relationshipwithGodassuspectthebasisnotonlyforsanctioninginterpretationsofIslamthatlackwarrantintheplainteachingsofGodandtheProphetbutalsoforpracticallyldquoworshipingrdquothesefriendsofGodIslamists(andmodernists)havefrequentlyalsobeencriticalofthewaySufidevotionalismcanyieldaturningawayfromtheworldratherthananefforttochangeitaswellasapreoccupationwithpersonalspiritualtransformationattheexpenseofconcernsforthewelfareofthecommunityatlarge SufipracticesandtheteachingsoftheSufimastershavevariedenor-mouslythroughoutthehistoryofIslamyetIslamistcritiquesofSufismareseldomattentivetoitsnuancesortothecomplexwaysithasrelatedtootherfacetsofIslamNorhaveIslamiststakenmuchaccountofthefactthatmanyleadingfiguresofearliertimeswerebesidesmuchelseSufisaswellThisistrueevenofIbnTaymiyya(d1328)whoseprestigeinIslamistandSalaficirclesismatchedbyfewothersandwhowasinhisdayamemberoftheQadiriSufiorder(Makdisi1974)EvenifonearguesmdashasanIslamistmightbeinclinedtomdashthatldquogoodrdquoSufismisnoth-ingbutproperIslamitselftheveryfactthatsuchfigureshadaSufiiden-tityatallnecessarilycomplicateswhatissupposedtobethepristinesim-plicityofafaithsharedequallybyallbelievers

Complicatingthingsstillfurtheristhevarietyofwaysinwhichsomeleading Islamists relate to Sufism Ayatollah Khomeini was a lifelongstudentofIslamicmysticismandtheinfluenceofthemedievalSpanish

24

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INTRODUCTION

Sufi Ibn lsquoArabi loomed especially large in his thought To Khomeinimysticismmdashoften referred to as lsquoirfan (gnosis) especially when inter-twinedwithIslamicphilosophyandtheology(Knysh1992632)mdashwascrucialtoaproperunderstandingofGodrsquosrelationshipwiththeworldandwiththehumanbeingItwasalsoessentialforonersquosethicalforma-tionforamasteryovertheselfandultimatelyforrealizinginoneselftheattributesofwhat Ibn lsquoArabihadcalledldquotheperfectmanrdquo (cfKnysh1992 635 also Mottahedeh 1985 180ndash85) Some of the austerity ofKhomeinirsquospersonallifeprobablyalsoderivedfromSufiasceticismAndthoughheanchoredhisconceptionofIslamicgovernmentinanexposi-tionofShilsquoijuridicalthoughtratherthaninIslamicmysticismthesortofreligiousauthorityhecametoenjoyonthebasisofhisreformulationofShilsquoipoliticaltheologyseemstoechomysticalideasoftheperfectmanwho embodies and upholds the moral order as the microcosm of theuniverse

UnlikeKhomeiniQutbwasnotaSufiandhegivesnoindicationofsharinganyofKhomeinirsquosenthusiasmforthegreatSufithinkersofear-liertimesEvensoechoesofamysticrsquosdirectencounterwiththefoun-tainheadoftruthandknowledgearehardtomissinQutbrsquoswritingses-peciallyinhiscommentaryontheQurrsquoan(cfCarreacute200395ndash97)TheveryfirstsentenceofhiscommentarymdashldquolifeintheshadeoftheQurrsquoanisablessingunknowntoanyonewhohasnrsquottasteditrdquomdashevokesthefa-miliarSufiideathatincontrovertibleknowledgeofRealityisultimatelyacquired only through direct personal experience (dhawq that is theldquotasterdquooftheTruth)ThegreatmedievalSufial-Ghazali(d1111)hadauthoredafamousautobiographicalaccountofhowitwasonlythroughthe immediacyofhispersonalmysticalexperience thathewasable toovercomehisdebilitatingepistemologicaldoubtsandreassurehimselfofthenecessarytruths(Watt199857)QutbdoesnotmentionGhazaliinthiscontextbutitisdifficultnottobestruckbythemysticalresonanceofsomeofhislanguageHereisoneexamplewhichoccursinhiscom-mentaryonsura(chapter)53oftheQurrsquoan16

16TheearlyversesinthissuraoftheQurrsquoanhavebeenunderstoodbyMuslimexegetesasreferringtotheProphetrsquosrevelatoryexperienceaswellastohisldquonightjourneyrdquoandhisascensiontoheavenormilsquoraj inthecourseofonenighthewastransportedfirstfromMeccatoJerusalemandthentothepresenceofGodbeforebeingreturnedtoMecca

UnrelatedtothenightjourneybutrelatedtohisrevelatoryexperiencestheexegeticalsignificanceofthisQurrsquoanicsuraalsoliesinitsconnectionwiththeso-calledSatanicVersesAccordingtocertainexegeticalreportsMuhammadwasinthecourseofreceivingarevela-tionwhenSataninterpolatedsomeversesintoitmdashversespraisingthreegoddessesreveredbythepolytheistsofMeccaItwasnotuntilsometimelaterthatMuhammadrealizedhiserrorwhereupontheversesinterpolatedbySatanwereremovedTheepisodeoftheldquoSa-tanicVersesrdquohasbeenacontroversialoneinIslamichistorylongbeforeSalmanRushdiersquosnovelofthatnameandKhomeinirsquosjuridicalruling(fatwa)callingforRushdiersquosdeathMostMuslimscholarshavefoundittooshockingtobelievethattheProphetcouldhavemadesuchagrievouserrorandhavedeniedthatanysuch incidentever tookplaceYetsome

25

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

IwaschattingoneeveningwithsomecompanionswhentoourearscamethesoundofsomeonerecitingtheQurrsquoannearbyrecitingtheSuraoftheStar[al-Najm]andweinterruptedourconversationtolistentotheNobleQurrsquoanLittlebylittlemyheartenteredintowhatwasbeing recited into theheartofMuhammadashe jour-neyedtotheHeavenlyHostIwaswithhimashesawGabrielintheangelicforminwhichGodhadcreatedhimIwaswithhiminhis loftyandfree-flying journey to theLoteTreeof theBoundaryandtheGardenoftheRefugeIwaswithhimtotheextentthatmyimaginationcouldformavisionofitandtotheextentthatmyfeelings couldbear itThen came the final cry andmywholebeingshookatthefearfulreproachldquoDoyoumarvelatthisdiscourseanddoyoulaughandnotweepandmakemerryrdquo[Q5359ndash61]WhenIheardldquoBowdownbeforeGodandserveHimrdquo[Q5362]thetremblinginmyhearthadbecomeaphysicalandvisibletremblingthroughoutmybodythatIcouldnotresistMybodykeptshakingandIcouldnotcontrolitNorcouldIholdbackthetearsthatwerepouringforthhowevermuchItried(QutbZilalvol7part2774ndash75quotedfromCarreacute2003333ndash34withminorchanges)

TheQurrsquoanrsquosprofoundimpactontheaestheticsensibilitiesofitslisten-ersisafamiliarmotifindiscussionsofitsliteraryqualities(cfGrahamandKermani2006)AssomeonewhoseearlywritingswereconcernedwithArabicliterarycriticismandspecificallywiththeliteraryexcellenceoftheIslamicscripture(Qutb1949b)QutbwasespeciallyreceptivetothisaspectoftheQurrsquoanThesenseofbeingtransportedbacktothetimeoftheProphetandtowitnessingtheProphetrsquosascension(milsquoraj)tothepresence of Godmdashwhich is how the passage being commented on byQutbherehascommonlybeeninterpretedbytheexegetesmdashcanlikewisebeseenasanillustrationoftheoverpoweringimpactthewordsoftheQurrsquoancanhaveonthebelieverQutbrsquosaccountofconversingwithGodthrough the Qurrsquoan (cited earlier) is again something he may havewantedtoseeallbelieversdoYetallbelieverscanscarcelydosoany-morethanallaspirantsevenontheSufipathcanexperiencethetransfor-mativemysticalldquostatesrdquothatGodbestowsonHisspecialfriends(awlshyiya)IrrespectiveofwhetherhesawitinquitethiswayQutbrsquosassertionthatheisabletoenterldquointotheheartofMuhammadrdquoandtoseeGabrielasMuhammad sawhimsurelygiveshimaperspective thatothers en-counteringthewordofGoddonothave

ThepointisnotofcoursethatQutbwaseverrecognizedbyhisfol-lowersasaSufimasterbutthatsomeofthehermeneuticalauthorityheclaimshasadistinctiveSufiringtoitMorebroadlythesortofunques-

leadingscholarsofearlyandmedievalIslammdashincludingIbnTaymiyyamdashacceptedthehisto-ricityofthisincidentSeeSAhmed1998

26

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INTRODUCTION

tioningreligio-politicalauthorityIslamistleadershaveoftenenjoyedovertheirfollowersisnotunlikethatoftheSufimasteroverhisfollowersBe-ginningwithHasanal-BannathefounderoftheMuslimBrotherhoodandoncehimselfamemberofaSufiordertheleaderofthisorganizationis formally referred to as themurshid (guide)ormore specificallyalshymurshid alshylsquoam (thegeneralguide[RMitchell1993165])whichisafamiliartermforthemasterinSuficontextsForhispartAbdessalamYassine the founder and leader of lsquoAdl warsquol-Ihsan Party of Morocco(oftenreferredtoastheJusticeandSpiritualityAssociationorJSA)haslike Khomeini gone well beyond simply echoing Sufi conceptions ofauthorityinhisowndiscoursesHetoowasonceamemberofaMoroc-canSufiorderandhehascontinuedtodrawonSufithemesinhiswrit-ingsTheverynameofYassinersquospoliticalorganizationevokesacentralSufiideanamelyihsanThisisaQurrsquoanicterm(cfQ756)thattrans-latedliterallymeansldquotodogoodrdquothoughSufishaveunderstoodittomeanmuchmore thanthatFollowingawell-knownstatementattrib-uted to theProphetMuhammad theyhaveoften interpreted ihsan tomeangoingbeyondtheexternalsofIslamicritualpracticestoldquoworshipGodasifyouseeHimrdquo(Schimmel197529)thatiscultivatingasenseof personal communion and intimacy with God Even as Yassine hassoughttodistancehimselffromwhathedeemstobetheexcessesofSu-fismthereislittledoubtthathispoliticalappealowesmuchtocarefullycalibratedeffortstocombinedistinctiveSufiideaswithhisownbrandofIslamism(cfLauziegravere2005seealsochapter12onNadiaYassineinthisvolume)

FinallyMawdudirsquosJamalsquoat-iIslamimdashoneoftheearliestIslamistorga-nizations in the Sunni worldmdashillustrates both the Islamistsrsquo complexrelationshipwith Sufismand their pragmatic recognitionof its appealinmanyMuslimsocietiesMawdudihadoncebeenaharshcriticofSu-fismblamingitformanyillsafflictingMuslimsocietiesYettheJama-lsquoat-iIslamigraduallycametosoftenitsstanceonSufipracticesconsider-ablynodoubtintheinterestofbroadeningsomeofitssupportbaseinPakistanwheresaintsandSufishrinesareanimportantpartofthereli-giousandpoliticallandscapeAlreadyinMawdudirsquoslifetimeMianTufaylMuhammadhissuccessorastheheadoftheJamalsquoat-iIslamihadtakentheextraordinaryinitiativeoftranslatinganearlySuficlassictheKashf alshymahjub into Urdu The author of this work Shaykh lsquoAli Hujwiri(d1072)isburiedinLahoreinPakistanandhismuch-frequentedshrineishometoprecisely thesortofdevotionalpractices that Islamistsandmodernist reformers letaloneSalafishaveoften frownedupon (Nasr1996124)

ThesediverseexamplesarenotintendedtoobscuretherealdifferencesbetweenthegeneralityofIslamistsandmostSufisTheirsignificanceliesratherinillustratingthedifficultyofdistinguishingbetweenIslamismandotherreligiousintellectualandpoliticaltrendsintermsofneatcharac-

27

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

terizationsofgrandtranslocalgeneralizationsAstheforegoingsuggeststhesameistrueandmoresowhenitcomestocharacterizingIslamistsinrelationtothelsquoulamatheMuslimmodernistsandtheSalafisIndeedasLorenLybargerhasarguedwithreferencetothoseusuallycharacter-izedasldquosecularnationalistrdquoorldquoIslamistrdquoPalestiniansintheWestBankandGazadifferenceswithintheranksofyoungsecularnationalistsandIslamistscansometimesalsoshadeintosignificantsimilaritiesbetweenthesesupposedlyrivalorientations(Lybarger2007)ManyIslamistshavesoughttodistancethemselvesfromwhattheyseeastherigidityandau-thoritarianismofotherIslamistsandtoarguenotjustfortheimplemen-tationofthesharilsquoabutalsofordemocracyandpluralismConverselynot a few of the younger secular nationalists have ldquoadopted IslamisttheodiciesthatexplainedthefailuretoovercomeIsraelastheresultoffallingawayfrompietytheirconclusionsmirroredIslamistonestootheroadbackfromthebrinkhadtotraceitscoursethrougharenewedcom-mitmenttoIslambutnotnecessarilyinthemannerthattheIslamistmove-mentsmighthaveintendedrdquo(Lybarger2007237ndash38quotationat238)

Yet ifneatcategoriesremainelusiveacombinationoftheIslamistsrsquoself-consciouslypoliticalgoalstheirmultifacetedifnotalwaysexplicitpoliticalcritiquesofmanypastandpresentwaysofunderstandingandlivingIslamandanunshakeableconfidenceintheirownabilitytodis-cern Godrsquos will from the foundational texts do often provide enoughgrounds tobroadlydistinguish themfromotheractivists intellectualsand orientations in the Muslim public sphere What this combinationamountstovariesfromonesocialpoliticalreligiousandculturalcon-texttoanotherandsothereforedothewaysinwhichIslamistsrelatetooneanotherorcompeteandoverlapwithothergroupsandorientations

The Politics of Islamism

FromAeneasrsquosmythicalfoundingofRometothedeathandresurrectionofJesusChristtoMuhammadrsquosmigrationtoMedinafoundationalnar-rativesareascommontocollectivelifeasthemovementsthatperiodi-callyarisetorevivethemandclaimantstothemantleoflegitimacytheyconferSounderstoodIslamistsrsquopoliticalaspirationstorestorefounda-tionslocatedinamythicalpastarefarfromuniqueNorareIslamistsaloneintheirconvictionthatscripturalauthorityisguaranteedbyitsdi-vineauthormdashforinthatallMuslimsagreeRatherthechaptersinthisvolumesuggest thatwhatmakes Islamistpoliticsdistinctive (ifnotsui generis)istheclaimtorecuperateanldquoauthenticIslamrdquocomprisedofself-evidenttruthspurgedofalienandcorruptinginfluencesalongwithaninsistenceonremakingthefoundationsofthestateinitsimageGiventhelimitsofhumanunderstandingrelativetoGodrsquosknowledgeIslamistssimultaneouslydepictsuchfidelitytotheunadulteratedwordofAllahas

28

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

theultimateexpressionofdeferencetodivineomniscienceandportrayhumilityasaconstitutivefeatureofthehumanconditionAspirationstofullyknowandmasterthenaturalandsocialworldsthusentailnotonlyahumanhubrisdeaftotheQurrsquoanicadmonitionthatldquoAllahknowsbutandyoudonotknowrdquo(Q366)butalsoatransgressionagainstadi-vinely-ordainedontologicalorder

ItisnotablehoweverthattheIslamistemphasisonthelimitsofhumanknowledgerequireshumilityonlyinrelationtoAllahitrarelyyieldshu-milityinregardtotheirownclaimstospeakinHisnameortowardotherhumanbeingswhodissentfromthepremiseofdivineomnipotenceandIslamistaccountsofwhat it requiresThis suggests thatwhile IslamistchallengestostatepowerareobviouslypoliticaltheIslamistclaimtoau-thenticityisalsopolitical inthecoercivepoweritroutinelyenactsandjustifiesmostnotablybywayofthesilencesitimposesandthedebatesitforeclosesAzizal-Azmehpointsoutthatldquothenotionofauthenticityisnotsomuchadeterminateconceptasitisanodeofassociationsandin-terpellationsatropebymeansofwhichthehistoricalworldisreducedtoaparticularorderandatokenwhichmarksoffsocialandpoliticalgroupsandforgesandreconstituteshistoricalidentitiesrdquo(al-Azmeh199341)WhetherintheserviceofArabnationalismChristianfundamental-ismEuropeanromanticismorMuslimmodernismtheclaimofauthen-ticityisanactofpowerthatfunctionsnotjusttoreflecttheworldbuttoconstructitbydeterminingwhoisincludedandexcludedwhomayandmaynotspeakauthoritativelywhatistheproperrealmofdebateandwhatisbeyondcontestation

ItiscertainlythecasethatasingleldquoIslamrdquocapturesandorganizestheperspectivesofmillionswhoself-identifyasMuslim(amongotherthings)yetwhattravelsunderitsrubricisinescapablydiversemultiethnicanddefined asmuchbydisagreement as consensus Just as theTorah andBible lend themselves toat times radicallydivergent interpretationsofwhatitmeanstobeJewishorChristiantheQurrsquoanandhaditharecom-plexandsusceptibletomanydifferentandattimescontradictoryenact-mentsSounderstoodIslamislessafixedessencethanalivingtraditionthatcaptureswhatisimaginedascontinuousandunitaryindialecticalrelationshiptothoseconcretearticulationsandpracticesbywhichitistransformedandadaptedindifferentcontextsforpluralpurposesItispreciselythisunderstandingofreligionthatisanathematoIslamistswhoseek tofix theparametersof Islamicauthenticityonceandforallandtherebyarrogateforthemselvestherighttodeterminewhoqualifiesasagood Muslim to discredit those lsquoulama unable or unwilling to purgeIslamofpurportedimpietiestodeclarenominallyMuslimrulersapos-tatesunfittogovernandtocharacterizeallwhodisagreeascorrupthe-reticalguiltyofunbelieforvictimsoffalseconsciousness

Thesegeneralpoliticaltendencieshowevermustbecarefullysituatedwithinadialecticoftheglobalandthevernacularunderstoodtoreflect

29

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INTRODUCTION

thewaysinwhichunifyingmacrohistoricaldynamicsinformandareinturntransformedbydiversecontingentandfluidlocalcircumstancesInaworldstampedbyWesterndominanceandtheconsolidationofpostco-lonial authoritarian regimes Islamists confront a common set of con-straintsandchallengesInasmuchassuchconstraintsandchallengeshavemade Islamist thinkers (often reluctant) participants in conversationsacrossbothcultureandhistorytheireffortstoremakethefoundationsofcollectiveliferevealasharedinterpretiveframeworkandcommonreli-gio-political grammar At the same time this frame and grammar arecontinuallybeingreworkedinrelationtothedistinctpublicspheresinwhichIslamistsoperateandtowhichtheycarefullycalibratetheirpoliti-calcommitments

Attention to this complex dynamic suggests that the Islamist move-mentcannotsimplybecharacterizedasviolentantidemocraticandop-pressiveofwomenlabelsinvokedsofrequentlyinscholarlyandpopularliterature on the subject that they have become virtually synonymouswithIslamistpoliticsSuchcharacterizationsdocapturecrucialdimen-sionsofIslamistpoliticsyettheyalsosidesteptheparadoxesitsvarie-gatedandoftencontradictoryexpressionspresentInsteadwearguethatIslamistpoliticscanbeproductivelyreadin terms ofandagainst the grain ofsuchbroadcategorizationsasantidemocraticantiwomanorviolentmdashthat is as commitments that at different moments in various localesbothencourageandconstrainbroad-basedpoliticalparticipationdisruptandratifyhierarchicalgendernormsresistandreproducestate-sanctionedbrutalityThepointofreadingIslamistpoliticsinthiswayisnottosug-gestthatIslamistsaresecretlydemocraticfeministandopposedtovio-lenceRatherthepointistodrawattentiontothecomplexityandcon-tradictionserasedbyeasygeneralizationsontheonehandandtheoftenunacknowledgedfluidityandculturaladaptabilityofotherwisefamiliarpoliticalcategoriesontheother

Islamism and Democracy

DespiteimportantdifferencesamongIslamistthinkerstheyhaveincom-monatendencytoviewhumansovereigntyastransgressiveofdivinelawandsharetheaspirationtoestablishsharilsquoaastheprimaryorsolesourceofauthorityAsisoftennotedsuchpremisesandaspirationsrunafoulofassumptionsaboutpopularruleattheheartofdemocracynamelythathumanbeingshavetherighttolegislaterulesforcollectivebehaviorandarecapableofthewisdomrequiredtodevisejustlawsInrecentyearspolicymakersandcommentatorshaveevincedaparticularpreoccupa-tionwiththewaysinwhichIslamistnotionsofdivineauthoritythrottlethespiritandpracticeofpopularsovereigntySomehaveevengonesofarastocharacterizeIslamistsasldquoIslamo-fascistsrdquoanimatedbyhatredoftheldquodemocratic Westrdquo psychologically unable to contend with the fluidity

30

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

andindeterminacythatmarkpopularruleandeagertoconvertelectionsintoaldquoone-manone-voteone-timerdquomechanismforestablishinganIs-lamicstate(Murdock2002MRubin2005Kramer1993)

SuchviewsareechoedbythoseIslamistskeentoportraydemocracynotonlyasantitheticaltothesupremacyofdivinelawbutasaTrojanhorseforWesternimperialismFormanyIslamistsincludingseveralinthis volumedemocracy is justone symptomofametastasizingmoralandspiritualbankruptcywherebymoraltransgressionsaretransfiguredintonaturalurgescrassself-interestbecomesthebedrockofcollectivelifeandthedivineplanfortheuniverseandallthingsinitisreducedtoa system of physical causality just waiting to be mastered by way ofhumaningenuity(REuben2007)Qutbcallsthisdiseasedviewoftheworldjahiliyyaanditsignalsnotonlyhumanarrogancebutatransgres-sionagainstdivineauthoritythescopeofwhichencompassesbothpub-licandprivatedomainsofhumanaffairsaswellasbothvisibleandun-seendimensionsoftheuniverseFormanyIslamistssuchtransgressionisattherootofmuchofwhatpassesforMuslimruleinthecontemporaryworldmdashnationalistdemocraticandmonarchicalalikeSucharroganceisalsosaidtobethepatternunderlyingalonghistoryofunrelievedWest-ernaggressionagainstIslaminwhichtheChristianCrusadesEuropeancolonialismIsraelitreatmentofPalestiniansethniccleansinginBosniaGermananti-TurkishviolencetheAmericaninvasionofIraqandDutchcartoonsofMuhammadarebutafewexamples

YetthereisarangeofviewsamongIslamistsaboutboththesubstanceofdemocracyanditscompatibilitywiththereligio-politicalrenewaltheyadvocateAccordingtoQaradawiforexampleldquotheessenceofdemoc-racyisthatpeoplechoosewhorulesoverthemandmanagestheiraf-fairsthatnorulerorregimetheydislikeisforceduponthemthattheyhavetherighttocalltherulertoaccountifheerrsandtoremovehimfromofficeincaseofmisconductandthatpeoplearenotforcedineco-nomicsocialculturalorpoliticaldirectionsthattheyneitherrecognizenor acceptrdquo (Qaradawi1997132 also chapter9 in this volume)TohimthereisnoheavierburdenoppressingMuslimsinthecontemporaryworld thandespotism indeed it is throughdespoticgovernments thatMuslimshavebeenforcedtosubmittootherillsincludingtheneglectofthesharilsquoaandthecoerciveimpositionofsecularismandwesternizationDemocracy then recommends itself to Qaradawi as the most effectiveavailableantidotetodespotismandtheafflictionsofwhichitservesasavehicle

WheremanyamongtheIslamistsandthelsquoulamahaveseenconsider-able tensionbetween IslamanddemocracyQaradawiprofesses to seenoneAswesuggestedearlierbyfarthemostcommonoftheIslamistreservationsaboutademocraticsystemrelatestothesovereigntyofthepeoplewhichistakentocontravenetheideathatGodaloneissovereignQaradawi however is unperturbedby such concernsThe rule of the

31

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

peopleoughttobeseenhearguesnotinoppositiontotheruleofGodbutratherinoppositiontotheruleofthedespotMorefundamentallyQaradawirsquos view of democracy does not necessarily require that thepeopleshouldbeabletooverturndivinelyinstitutednormsRatherhisassumptionisthatpeopleexercisetheirsovereigntywithinconstitutionalboundsandMuslimslivinginapredominantlyMuslimdemocraticpol-itywouldlikewisenotwishtotransgresstheparametersoflegitimatehumanactionlaiddownintheIslamicfoundationaltexts(seeQaradawichapter9inthisvolumeandcfFeldman2007)

NadiaYassineofMoroccorsquosJusticeandSpiritualityAssociationisan-othercaseinpointWhilecriticalofthedemocraticgesturesembracedbyamonarchythatshedepictsasallergictogenuinelypopularsovereigntyYassineinsiststhatthemodelofMuslimruleadumbratedintheummafoundedbytheProphetMuhammadandinparticulartheConstitutionofMedina17isnothingshortofdemocratic(NYassine2005d2005e)UnliketheMuslimdynastiesthatarosetousurpitYassinecontendsthiscommunity was participatory egalitarian committed to freedom andexpressiveofGodrsquosmercyMostimportantitwasgovernedalwaysbytheQurrsquoanicprincipleofshura (consultation)bywhichYassinemeansaphilosophy of power that places sovereignty in the community ratherthaninanyindividuallinksvirtuetodeliberationratherthanobedienceandexhortsbelieverstocontinuallyadaptQurrsquoanicprinciplesthroughijtihad rather than adhere reflexively to precedent (N Yassine 2006a182ndash862005d)ManyscholarsandjournalistsremainskepticaloftheJSArsquosasyetuntestedcommitment toproceduraldemocracyandworrythatNadiaandher fatherAbdessalamultimatelyseektoestablishanIslamic state inhospitable to tolerance pluralism and civil liberties(Maghraoui2001Brandon2007Whitlock2006)YetothersarguethattheJSAisagenuinelypopulistorganizationthatrepresentstheunrepre-sentedtendstothewelfareofthedispossessedandbothexpressesandcontributestoanincreasinglyvibrantcivilsocietyinMorocco(Cavatorta2006Entelis2002)

QaradawirsquosandYassinersquosargumentstogethersuggestthatdemocracycanandhasservedaseitheracosmeticcoverfordespotismoranauthen-ticallyIslamiccheckuponcorruptandarbitraryruleAtissueinIslamistargumentsforandagainstdemocracythenarenotonlywhatcountsasldquoauthenticIslamrdquoandtheintentionsofthosewhoclaimtoknowitbutalsothecontentandcharacterofdemocracyitselfParadoxicallybothIslamistsopposedtodemocracyandthosewhotakeIslamismasinher-entlyantidemocraticregardthisasasimplematterwithanobviousan-swerdemocracyisanexpressionofandevensynonymouswithliberal-ismcapitalismandtheWestYetdemocracyisbothmorecapaciousand

17TheConstitutionofMedinawasanagreementtheProphethadenteredintowiththelocalcommunitiesincludingJewishtribesuponhisemigrationfromMeccatoMedina

32

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

moredistinctthanthispresumptionsuggestsTheworditselfofcoursederivesfromtheancientGreekdemokratiawhichmeansrule(kratos)ofthepeople(demos)andmanyderivetheequationofdemocracyandtheWestfromthisassociationwithclassicalGreeceYetancientGreekphi-losopherssuchasPlatosawindemocracythespecterofmobrulepartic-ularly vulnerable to demagoguery and despotism (a suspicion notablyechoedbyAmerican founder JamesMadison)Contrary to thedemo-cratic idealof inclusivenessmoreover citizenship inGreekdemocracyexcludedasubstantialpartofthepopulationincludingwomenslavesandforeignersFinallytheextenttowhichtheancientGreeksmayevenbecalledWesternisamatterofgreatdisputeparticularlyastheldquoWestrdquoisacategoryofrelativelyrecentprovenancethroughwhichhistoryandgeographyhavebeenretroactivelyorganized18DespitedepictionsoftheHellenicworldasWesternancientGreeksdidnotinfactviewthem-selvesintheseterms19

TheequationofdemocracywiththeWestalsopresupposestheexis-tenceofacoherentldquoWesterncivilizationrdquowitheitherculturallyhomoge-neousrootsorclearlydelineatedhistoricalandcontemporarybounda-riesorbothYetwhatiscalledtheWestisanamalgamationofmultipletraditionsincludingtheGreekRomanJudaicChristianandIslamicmdashtraditionsthatarethemselvespolyvalentratherthanhomogeneousmdashandistodaycharacterizedbyporousbordershybridsubculturesandmyriaddebtstodiversecivilizationspastandpresent20AsageographicmarkeritisvirtuallyimpossibletopinpointexactlywheretheWestbeginsandendsandthisisespeciallysonowthatpeoplesinformationandmate-rial goods crisscross cultural andnational borders atwill creating allkindsoftransnationalsubnationalandmultipleidentitiesthatshiftandreconstitutethemselvesinunpredictablewaysEventhosevaluesidenti-fiedasWesternoftenappearelsewhereinotherguisesIndeedscholarssuggestthatavarietyoftheldquostandardsexportedbytheWestanditscul-turalindustriesthemselvesturnouttobeofculturallymixedcharacterifweexaminetheirculturallineagesrdquo(Pieterse199553)

Manyalsoarguethatdemocracyisnotonlydistinctfrombutinten-sionwithboththetheoryandpracticeofpoliticsinldquoWesternrdquosocieties

18MichaelGillespie(19997ndash10)arguesthattherereadingofhistorygeographyandculturethroughtheprismofthissenseofldquotheWestrdquobegannoearlierthanthenineteenthcenturyTheideaofatimelessandbrightlinebetweenWestandEastisalsochallengedbyJeremyBrottonrsquosstudy(19989096ndash97)ofthediplomaticandintellectualexchangesbe-tweenEuropeandtheOttomanEmpireintheearlymodernperiodBrottonshowsnotonlytheextentandamityofsuchexchangesbutapersistentuncertaintyaboutwherepreciselyEuropeldquoendedrdquoandAsialdquobeganrdquo

19AncientGreeksunderstoodthemselvesasgeographicallywestofthebarbariansbutnotWesterninthecontemporarysensethatisasbothaculturalandhistoricalcategory

20StevenRuncimanrsquoswork(19543480)ontheCrusadesforexampledemonstratesaldquolongsequenceofinteractionandfusionbetweenOrientandOccidentoutofwhichourcivilizationhasgrownrdquo

33

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

many of which are more accurately classified as liberal and capitalist(Wood1994Wolin2001BallandDagger1999)Whileitisnowcom-monplacetospeakofldquoliberaldemocracyrdquoinasinglebreathliberalismanddemocracyareconceptsandpracticeswithverydifferenthistoriesandpresuppositionsUnlikedemocracyforexampleliberalismemergedfromthecrucibleofChristianreligiouswarsandintandemwiththeas-cendanceofamiddleclassthatpresagedtheendofEuropeanfeudalismTheliberalnation-statecanthusbeviewedasbothanexpressionandaconsolidationofcapitalismontheonehandandtheprincipleofasepa-rationbetweenchurchandstateontheotherBycontrastthereisnoth-ingaboutdemocracyeitherasasystemofgovernanceoracultureofpar-ticipationthatisinherentlysecularIndeedAlexisdeTocquevillefamouslyinsistedthatAmericandemocracycannotandshouldnotbesecularasreligionhelpsshiftattentionawayfromimmediatematerialpreoccupa-tionstolargerconcernsofcommunitycooperationandmoralityInfactmanydemocratictheoristsarguethatgenuinelyinclusivepopularsover-eignty is antithetical to the sharp inequalities of wealth and politicalpowerthatcapitalismoftenproducesandlegitimates

SuchongoingdefinitionalandsubstantivedebatessuggestthatthereismuchmoreatstakeindemocraticpoliticsthanprocedurespertainingtogovernmentauthorityandorderandpointtoawidespreadifelusiveunderstandingofdemocracynotjustasasetofinstitutionsbutasTocque-villesuggestsawayoflifeSeveralpoliticaltheoristshavecharacterizedthiselusiveunderstandingintermsofaldquodemocraticethosrdquoBythistheymeanbothanidealandanargumentforacultureofparticipationactivepowersharingmutualaccountabilityinclusivenessanddeliberationinwhichcitizensmayroutinelyandsafelychallengenotonlyspecificpoli-ciesandpolitical institutionsbutalso thevalues thatgoverncollectivelifeprinciplesofinclusionandexclusionandthepremisesofauthorityitself(Connolly1995JPEuben2003Sadiki2004)AdemocraticethosismuchmoredifficulttomeasureorquantifythanforexampleSamuelHuntingtonrsquosparsimoniousdefinitionofdemocracyasapolityinwhichtherehavebeentwoconsecutivepeacefulchangesofgovernmentbywayof freeand fairelections (Huntington1991)21Yetademocraticethosmakesitpossibletobothrecognizeanddisaggregatethepreconditionsaspirations mechanisms and institutions bundled into ldquodemocracyrdquotherebybringingintofocusforexamplethefrequentlyantidemocratic

21Manypoliticalscientistsprefertodefinedemocracyintermsofproceduresdesignedtorealizepopularruleincludingfreecompetitiveandfairelectionsalongwithstateprotec-tionofcertainrightsandlibertiesSuchaformalminimalistdefinitionhastheadvantageofdetachingdemocracyfromquestionsoforiginsandofferingastandardtowhichallgov-ernmentsmaybeheldregardlessofcultureandplaceAsKeithTopper(2005205ndash7)ar-gueshoweveritalsotendstosidestepknottyquestionsaboutthesubstanceofrepresenta-tion power responsiveness and accountability that are arguably central to democraticpolitics

34

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

casttoelectionsimposedbyelitesorforeignpowersthefeltimpotenceofmanycitizensinestablisheddemocraciesandthosehighlyparticipa-torycivilsocietiesthatflourishevenundermonarchicortheocraticrule

Forourpurposes inparticularademocraticethosmakesvisible theparadoxofanIslamistmovementthatseekstomobilizeordinaryMus-limsagainstcoercivepowerbutinthenameofareligio-politicalorderlargelyimmunizedfromchallengeQutbisanaptillustrationhereashistendencytogroundhisownspecialauthorityandinsightintheunsulliedwisdomofordinarybelieversmakesitpossibletoreadhisworkaseitherabriefagainstdemocracy(amongotherthings)oranenactmentofitIn-asmuchasdemocracyasaformofgovernanceisidentifiedwithpopularsovereigntyQutbrsquosbasicpremisethat thefoundationof legitimateau-thoritymustbedivineratherthanhumansuggeststhatheisunambigu-ouslyantidemocraticMoreoverQutbrsquoseffortstopluralizereligiousandpolitical authority express not a confidence in common wisdom butratheradesiretoclaimforhimselfthestatureofareligiousexpertwhodespitehislackofIslamicacademiccredentialscanclearlyseewhatoth-erscannotQutbcharacterizestherealIslamasself-evidentbuthealsoassumesthatonlyasmallvanguardofbelieversbesideshimselfwillhavetheabilitytorecognizeitandactdecisivelytoremaketheworldinitsimageSounderstoodthesignofldquochosennessrdquoisunyieldingcommitmenttoestablishingareligio-politicalorderthatsimultaneouslypresumesthesupremacyofthefewcapableoftrueknowledgeandpromisesaworldinwhichdissentitselfwillbecomebothunnecessaryandillegitimate

Yetifdemocracyrefersnotonlytoasystemofgovernanceorsetofprocedurestorealizepopularsovereigntybutalsotopracticesthatdis-ruptthoseforceswhichconcentratepowerandestablishpoliticalexclu-sionthecharacterizationofQutbrsquosworkassimplyantidemocraticmissesa crucial dimensionof its significance and appealAs the sacred textscontaintherulesandregulationsmeanttogovernbothpublicandpri-vateaffairsQutbrsquosinsistencethatordinaryuntrainedMuslimsmusten-gagethemdirectlyisinmanywaysademocratizationofaccesstoau-thoritySuchaccesscandisruptdeeplyentrenchedpatternsofpowerandpowerlessness particularlywhen conjoined to Islamist arguments thatarbitrarypowerisun-Islamicthatreligiousknowledgedependsoncom-mitmentratherthantrainingorexpertise thatMuslimshavetherightandobligationtodeterminewhenrulersareillegitimateandthatthosewhopreferordertojusticesecuritytofreedomandmoneytopietyhaveforfeitedanyclaimtoauthority

ThisaspectofIslamismhasfrequentlybeencomparedtotheProtestantReformationandmorespecificallytoCalvinistsrsquoattemptstotransferldquore-ligiousauthorityawayfromofficiallysanctionedindividualswhointer-prettextstoordinarycitizensrdquo(EGoldberg19913alsocfLoimeier2005)Suchaparallelhassparkedagreatdealofscholarlyspeculation

35

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

regardingapossibleldquoIslamicReformationrdquo22andarangeofargumentsaboutwhetherandhowIslamismmightfacilitatethedemocratizationofMuslim societies much as the Protestant Reformation is said to haveheralded the emergence of European ldquoliberal democracyrdquo While suchcomparisonsareevocativeafullerunderstandingof IslamismrequiresfirstsituatingitinrelationtoahistoricalshiftinthenatureandlocusofreligiousauthorityinIslambeginninginthenineteenthcenturyAsschol-arsofMuslimsocietieshavepointedouttheimpactofmasseducationnewtechnologiesfordisseminatingknowledgeandinformationanddra-matically changed social economic and political contexts have madeavailabletoamateurswhathadpreviouslybeenthepurviewofreligiousexpertsAtthesametimeithasinauguratedafragmentationofauthor-itywithintheveryranksofthelsquoulamathatcontinuestothepresentday23

InthiscontexttheascendanceandinfluenceofautodidactssuchasQutbHasanal-BannalsquoAbdal-SalamFarajandBinLadensimultaneouslyex-pressandaccelerateanongoingrenegotiationofauthorityoverwhomayspeakforIslamandonwhatbasisthepathofwhichisstillunfoldingandtheoutcomeasyetuncertain

Islamism and Gender

One already apparent consequence of this ongoing renegotiation overwhomayspeakforIslamandonwhatbasisistheentryofwomenintothe interpretive fray This development is increasingly unsettling thoseunwrittengendernormsarguablyattheveryheartofIslamistthoughtdisruptingthestandardsofmasculinityandfemininitythatreflecthowparticularculturesorganizehumanbeingsrsquosocialandreproductiveactiv-itiesintorolesthatareinturnthoughttoexpresstheldquonaturerdquoofmenand women Such norms are frequently considered tangential to theknottyproblemsofdefiningIslamismandadumbratingitscentralideasyetarangeofscholarshiponculturespastandpresenthasshownthatgenderisconsistentlytheterrainoverwhichbattlesforpoliticalcontrolandculturalidentityarefoughtMorespecificallyresearchindisciplinessuchasanthropologyhistoryclassicsandpostcolonialstudieshasdem-onstratedthatculturesinwhichfemalebodiesandbehaviorareregardedas indicesofmoralpurity tend to symbolically transformwomen intoconduitsof cultural corruption in timesof internal crisis and externalthreat(Papenek1994Chatterjee1990Tavakoli-Targhi1991Just1989Cohen1991Welter1966Bloch1978)Thisisespeciallytrueofcontem-

22Foralatenineteenth-centuryassessmentoftheprospectsforaldquoMuhammadanRefor-mationrdquoseeBlunt1882132ndash73

23EickelmanandPiscatori199637ndash39131ndash35Zaman2006Suchfragmentationhasinmanywaysbeenacceleratedbytheexplosionofdigitalcultureswhichpromoteamongotherthingsaldquoformofempoweredamateurismrdquo(Mirzoeff20026)

36

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

poraryreligio-politicalmovementswhosememberstendtoldquoidealizepa-triarchalstructuresofauthorityandmoralityrdquoendorsegenderdualismasgod-givenornaturalandcondemnvigorouslyrecentchangesingen-derrelationsasasymptomandsymbolofsecularistmoralbankruptcy(Riesebrodt1993Moghadam1992Hawley1994)

SeveralchaptersinthisvolumeilluminateIslamistgendernormsbyre-vealing thecharacterandcontentof Islamistconcernsabout theplaceandpurityofMuslimwomenmdashpreoccupationsFatimaMernissi(199199)hasgonesofarastocharacterizeasanobsessionDespiteimportantdifferences among Islamists thinkers many endorse gender norms inwhichthefairlyconventionalinsistencethatfemalenatureisdefinedinand through reproduction undergirds an understanding of women assymbolsofmoralvirtueandvesselsofculturalpurityThisviewsustainstheclaimthatmenandwomenareequalinreligiousbeliefbutperformfundamentallydifferentandcomplementaryfunctionsinsocietyWhilemenarenaturallymadetoruleinboththepublicandprivatedomainawomanbelongsinthedomesticrealmwhereherprimaryroleistobeawifeandmotheraswellastoinsuretheintegrityofthefamilythefirstschoolofmoraleducationAssuchfunctionsarerootedinaninescap-ablehumannaturefashionedbyGodawomanrsquosinabilityorunwilling-nesstoperformherdutiessignalsadisobediencetothedivinewillandpresages the corruption of the Muslim family from within From thisvantagepointtheWesterninsistenceonfullequalitybetweenthesexesisdoubly pernicious it at once liberates women from basic moral con-straintsandenslavesthemtomutuallyreinforcingsexualandcapitalistexploitationAsMurtazaMutahhari(1998xxxi)arguescapitalismmakesuseofwomentomarket itsgoodsldquoby trading inhonourandrespectthrough[their]powertoenticerdquotherebyldquotransform[ing]manintoaninvoluntaryagentofconsumptionrdquoInasmuchaswomenareresponsiblefor producing the next generation of Muslim men destined to restoreIslamtoitsformergloryitisnotonlythevirtueofwomenortheinteg-rityofthefamilythathangsinthebalancebutthefutureofIslamiccivili-zationitself

Zaynab al-Ghazali andMutahharimake several of these argumentsexplicitlyandindetail(seechapters10and11)butinmuchofIslamistrhetoricthenatureandsignificanceofwomenareestablishedindirectlyandsymbolicallyandthroughthreerecurrentimagesinparticularThefirstisofwomenassilentsymbolsofculturalmoralandsexualvulnera-bilityvoicelessfiguresinneedofmasculineprotectionorwhenitistoolatedefiledbodiesthatmutelydemandvengeanceSoforexamplelsquoAb-dallahlsquoAzzam(oneofBinLadenrsquosmentorsseechapter18)graphicallydetailstheagonizinghumiliationofyoungmenunabletoactwhentheAfghanwoman isldquocryingout forhelpher childrenarebeing slaugh-tered her women are being raped the innocent are killed and theircorpsesscatteredrdquo(lsquoAzzam1987a)Inthesecondimagewomenfunction

37

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

muchlikeachorusthatspeaksinpermittedcadencestoratifymasculineendeavorsSuchisthecaseforexampleinBinLadenrsquos1996ldquoDeclara-tionofWaragainsttheAmericansOccupyingtheLandoftheTwoHolyPlacesrdquo(seechapter18)wherethewomenexhortmentojihadinthefollowing way ldquoPrepare yourself like a struggler the matter is biggerthanwordsAreyougoingtoleaveusforthewolvesofKufr[unbe-lief]eatingourwingsWherearethefreemendefendingfreewomenbyarmsDeath isbetter than life inhumiliation Some scandals andshameswillneverbeotherwiseeradicatedrdquo24InthethirdimagewomenarecreaturesnotofthisworldbutofanothervirginalrewardsforthecourageousmartyrintheafterlifeThisisevidentinthefinalinstructionsforthe911hijackersforexamplewhereMuslimldquobrothersrdquoareurgedto purify their carnal impulses sharpen their knives for the dhabh (slaughter)andheedthecallofthehur lsquoayn (theblack-eyedones)await-ingtheminParadise(seechapter19)

Such rhetoric primarily registers women as an extensionmirror ormeasure of masculinity and together with explicit Islamist argumentsabouthumannatureandthefamilyarticulatesIslamistgendernormsinwhichmenandwomeneachhaveaproperlocationandpurposeinadi-vinely ordained social hierarchy Deviance from this gendered scriptthussignalsdisruptionofamuchbroaderreligio-politicalorderitbothpresumes and seeks to bring into existence The disruption caused byforeign aggression in particular exacerbates the tendency to translateconflict into an assault on Muslim masculinity and to conceptualizewomenaspotentialvehiclesforWesterncorruptioninneedofguidingand guarding Women such as Zaynab al-Ghazali and Nadia Yassinewho seek a prominent place and voice within the Islamist movementhavehadlittlechoicebuttocontendwiththisgenderedscriptDoingsohasentailedamongotherthingsnavigatingcarefullybetweenIslamistcharacterizations of womenrsquos visibility and agency as symptomatic ofthe new jahiliyya on the one hand and essentializing arguments thatequateIslamwithveilingfemalegenitalmutilationandhonorkillingsontheother

AsthechaptersonGhazaliandYassinesuggestIslamistwomenhavenegotiatedbetweensuchconstraintsandpressuresandtheirownambi-tionsindifferentwaysApioneeringdalsquoiya(onewhoinvitesMuslimstogreater piety)Ghazalirsquos own life reveals a fierce resistance to conven-tionalnormsofdomesticityevenasmuchofher(earlier)workappearsto embrace an Islamist gender ideology that defines women as wivesmothers andldquobuilders ofmenrdquo (al-Hashimi 1990 118)By contrastYassineisawifeandmotherwhoembracesanldquoIslamicfeminismrdquothatrequiresldquoreappropriatingtheinstrumentsofclassicaltheologyrdquoanden-

24TheIslamistjournalSawt alshyJihadhasgonesofarastofeatureldquowomenrsquosvoicesrdquointheformofrolemodelsnamedforexampleumm alshyshahid(motherofthemartyr)al-thoughitisunclearthattheseldquovoicesrdquoareactuallywomenrsquos(SUsher2004)

38

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INTRODUCTION

gaging the textsdirectly through ijtihad (NYassine2003) In this re-spect Yassine must be understood as part of a broader effort amongMuslimwomenwithdifferentpoliticalcommitmentstosimultaneouslyadvocateandenacttheirrighttorecuperatetheldquooriginalintentrdquooftheIslamictextsIfwomenandmendoinfacthavedistinctperspectivesontheworldYassinesuggestswomenhaveaspecialobligationtoexcavatewhattheyseeasthegenderparityoftheQurrsquoanburiedbeneaththoseldquomachointerpretationsrdquoofIslamuponwhichmenhavebuilttheirprivi-legeandpower(Khalaf2006)25

ManyAnglo-AmericanandEuropean feministsworry that Islamistsseekonly to secureor restorepatriarchalpowerConverselymany Is-lamist women view feminism as a term and a movement inescapablyWesterninoriginfreightedwiththelegacyofcolonialismanduneasilyimplicatedinculturalimperialismThisapplieseventoYassinewhoisunwillingtoadoptwithoutqualificationalabelsheassociateswithagen-dasopposedtoherowntheWesttheMoroccanstateMaghribi(North-westAfrican)elitesYetfeminismitselfisahighlycontestedtermwithin theso-calledWestitisthebearerofmultiplemeaningssomeofwhichareevenopposedandischaracterizedbydeepdisagreementsaboutwhowomenarewhatwomenneedwhoisauthorizedtoworkonwomenrsquosbehalf andbywhatmeans Inasmuch as these various feminismsmayshareonlyastatedconcernforwomenrsquoswelfarethereisnothinginco-herentinmodifyingldquofeminismrdquowithldquoIslamicrdquoldquoMuslimrdquoorevenldquoIs-lamistrdquounlessone iscommitted toarguing thatfirst Islam isanun-changingessencebeyondhistorypoliticsandculturesecondthereisaneutralobjectivevantagefromwhichtoidentifythisessenceonceandforallandfinallytheIslamicessencesoidentifiedisfundamentallyin-compatiblewitheffortstoimprovetheconditionsandqualityofwomenrsquoslivesBythesametokenIslamistwomenwhorejectthetermfeminismcanbe(althoughnotalwaysare)deeplycommittedtoimprovingwom-enrsquoswelfareaswellasactivelyresistanttoeffortsthatreduceortrans-formthemintosilentaccessoriesofmalepower

YassineandGhazalidifferaboutwhatwomenareandshouldbeyetbroadlyspeakingbothmaybeconsideredpartofarecenttrendtowardthe feminizationofdalsquowa Dalsquowa literallymeanscallappealor sum-monsbutthetermhascometosignifyavarietyofpracticesandargu-mentsmeanttoexhortinviteandguideMuslimstowhatisregardedasproperconductandmoraldevotionWomenrsquosparticipationindalsquowais

25WomenrsquosparticipationintheldquoproductionofofficialIslamicknowledgerdquohasalonghistoryalthoughtheyhaveoftendonesoinrelativeobscurityandwithoutthebenefitofeducation in the Islamicsciences thathas legitimateddirectengagementwith thesacredtexts (Cooke 2001 xiv Badran and Cooke 2004) Pioneering attempts to read genderequalityinIslamarealsonotconfinedtowritingbywomenasevincedbyQasimAminrsquosTahrir alshymarrsquoa [TheLiberationofWoman] (1899)andMumtaz lsquoAlirsquosHuquqshye niswan [TheRightsofWomen](1898)

39

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

notabrandnewphenomenonasisevidentinGhazalirsquosworkwiththeEgyptianSocietyofMuslimLadiesinthe1930sYetfromEgypttoPaki-stantoSaudiArabiatotheUnitedStatesthenumberoffemaledalsquoiyashasproliferatedexponentially inrecentyears(Cooke2001Mahmood2005Hirschkind2006)Thisreflectsinpartcurrentdoctrinalempha-sesondalsquowaasincumbentuponbothmenandwomenanddependentlessupontechnicalknowledgethanmoralvirtueandpracticalfamiliaritywiththeIslamictradition(Mahmood200565ndash66)It isalsoaconse-quenceofrecentpoliticalandsocioeconomictransformationsinMuslimsocietiesincludingtheexpansionofmasseducationthathasnotonlyin-creasedwomenrsquosliteracyandsocialmobilitybutalsomadeIslamictextsmoreaccessibletheproliferationoftechnologiesmdashfromthecassettetapetotheInternetmdashthatfacilitatethecirculationofreligiousknowledgeevenamongthosewhocannotreadortraveltheprecedentsetbythevigorousparticipationof IranianwomeninpostrevolutiondebatesaboutIslamandthemodeloflegalactivismevidentintheIslamistmovementrsquosownchallenge to the lsquoulamarsquos status as gatekeepers of religious knowledge(Singerman2005Mir-Hosseini1999)

If Ghazali and Yassine exemplify the feminization of dalsquowa amongelitesthemosquemovementinEgyptillustratesthegrowingparticipa-tionofwomenfromdiversesocialbackgroundsinreligiousclassesde-votedtostudyinganddebatingwhatIslamrequiresforawomantobeldquomorallyuprightrdquointhecontemporaryworld(Mahmood2005)Con-ceptualizingpiety in termsof adeepandholistic commitment to self-transformationparticipantsinthemosquemovementareconcernedlesswithmattersofsovereigntyandpoliticsconventionallyunderstoodandmorewiththeldquomoralcultivationrdquoofthosedailypracticesseenascrucialtobecomingclosertoGod(Mahmood2005)SomeIslamistshavecriti-cizedthis focusonpracticesofworshipasapoliticalandoverlypriva-tizedyetsuchcriticismmissestheforceofIslamistsrsquoowninsistenceondin(religion)asawayoflifeinwhichthedomainsofpublicandprivateare inextricably linked26AsSabaMahmood (2005193194) showsthesewomenrsquosintenseeffortsatldquoretrainingethicalsensibilitiesrdquohavealdquosociopoliticalforcerdquothatextendswellbeyondmattersofgovernancefacilitatingnolessthantheemergenceofaldquonewsocialandmoralorderrdquoEvidenceofitstransformativepowermaybefoundnotonlyinthesheernumbersandvarietyofwomenmdashwealthyandpoor literateand illiter-atemdashparticipatinginthemosquemovementbutalsointherhetoricalandpoliticaleffortsbythestateandsomeIslamiststocurtailcontrolordis-creditit(Mahmood200571194)

26ParticipantsinthemosquemovementinturnareoftencriticalofwhattheyseeasthereductionofIslamtotokensofculturalauthenticityorofitsinstrumentalizationbybothnationalistsandIslamiststheycharacterizeasmoreinterestedinpoliticalmaneuveringthanreligiouspiety

40

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

Understoodtoincludebothwrittenandembodiedpracticesthefemi-nizationof dalsquowa illustrates theways inwhichwomen fromdifferentperspectivesandsocialclassesareinsistingonengagingthesacredtextsdirectly for and with one another without the mediating authority ofmenwhohavetraditionallyheldthemonopolyonsuchactivitiesAsSu-danese Islamist Lubabah al-Fadl argues ldquoAs an insan [human being]whohappenstobeawomanIhavearighttorejectthemanipulativeexegesesofoursharilsquoa thatthreatenmyexistenceinawaythat isnotconsistentwiththeGodlywayandtoapplymyownijtihadtorectifyer-roneoustendenciesbysomeshuyukh[pluralofshaykh]rdquo(Sadiki2004290)DespitetheproliferationofvoicesintentonclaimingforthemselvestheauthoritytodemarcatewhatisauthenticallyIslamicandun-Islamiconceandforallcontestationoveritsscopeandmeaningproceedsapacefacilitatedatleastinpartbywomenformerlyexcludedfromtheconver-sationAtthesametimeIslamistwomenrsquosagencyandclaimstoauthorityarefrequentlystillpredicatedonawillingnesstofollowfairlypatriarchalrulesaboutwherehowandwithwhomtheymaypracticetheirvocation(Hirschkind2003Sadiki2004283)

Islamism and Violence

IfgenderisfrequentlyanimplicitpreoccupationamongIslamistsjihadisarguably Islamistsrsquomost consistently explicit concern Jihad is derivedfromtheArabicverbthatmeanstostruggleortostriveyetitisaparticu-larkindofstruggle that isofconcern tomanyof thefigurescollectedheretheoftenviolentstruggleagainstapostatesandinfidelsbothathomeandabroadtowhicheveryindividualMuslimmustcontributeTheclaimthatfightingunbelieversisthepreeminentenactmentofindividualMus-limpiety seems to justify characterizationsof Islam ingeneral and Is-lamisminparticularassanctioningevenencouragingviolenceYetwhatIslamistsrepresentasjihadtout courtisahistoricallyspecificunderstand-ingderivedfromahighlyselectiveuseoftextsandprecedentsprominentamongthemaformerlyobscureclaimbytheinfluentialfourteenth-cen-tury jurist IbnTaymiyya thatMongol rulerswhohad contravened Is-lamiclawcouldbesubjecttoforcibleremovalFarfromadefinitiveex-pressionof Islamldquoproperlyunderstoodrdquo such Islamist argumentsnotonlymarkasignificantdeparturefrommuchofantecedentdoctrineandpractice but also diminish the importance of ongoing disagreementsamongMuslimsabouttheformandpurposesofjihad

TobeginwithMuslimscholarshavetendedtoconsiderjihadagainstforeignenemiesafard kifaya(collectiveobligation)thatisadutyagroupofpeoplewithinthecommunitymayperformonbehalfoftherestandonethatpresupposesalegitimateMuslimleadertodeclareorleadthechargeJuristshavedistinguishedthisfromthefard lsquoayn(individualduty)thatmustbefulfilledbyeverysingleMuslimincasesofdefensivejihad

41

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

thatiswhentheummaisunderattackManyIslamistsincludedheretakeamuchlessnuancedviewofjihadAsamodeofpoliticalactionQutbarguesjihadmustberegardedasaldquopermanentconditionnotanocca-sionalconcernrdquoonethatincurrentcircumstancesrequiresdeedsratherthanwordsstruggleratherthancontemplationrevolutionathomeaswellasresistanceabroad(Qutb199167ndash6882)lsquoAbdal-SalamFarajarguesalongsimilarlinesthatthenatureoftheattackonIslammakespolitical authorization by a caliph (ldquodeputyrdquo referring to a legitimatesuccessortotheProphetrsquosleadership)unnecessaryafterallldquoleadershipovertheMuslimsis(always)intheirownhandsifonlytheymakethismanifestIfthereissomethinglackingintheleadershipwellthereisnothingthatcannotbeacquiredrdquo(Jansen1986asec93)

SuchargumentsareadeliberaterejectionofearlyMuslimmodernistswhohademphasizedthelargelydefensivecharacterofjihadandsoughttoshowthatrelationsbetweenMuslimsandnon-MuslimswerenormallypeacefulratherthanantagonisticMahmudShaltut(d1963)therectorof al-Azhar from 1958 to 1963 had argued for example that theQurrsquoanicversesonfightingldquoprohibittheprovocationofhostilityandthisprohibitionisreinforcedbyGodrsquosrepugnancetoaggressionandbyhisdislikeofthosewhoprovokehostilityrdquo(Peters199674onShaltutseeZebiri1993)ConversionbyforceisanathematoIslamShaltutaversandfightingiscommandedonlyindefenseinresponsetoaggressionini-tiatedbyothersEvendefensivejihadmustaimatldquotheterminationoftheaggressionandtheestablishmentofreligiouslibertydevotedtoGodandfreefromanypressureorforcerdquo(Peters199675)

ManyIslamistsexplicitlydismisssuchargumentsasasymptomoffalseconsciousnessoneamongmanydestructiveeffectsofcolonialdomina-tionMawdudiargues for example thatwhile imperialists ravage theworld to satisfy their greed jihad alone ldquoconjures up the vision of amarching band of religious fanatics with savage beards and fiery eyesbrandishingdrawnswordsandattackingtheinfidelswherevertheymeetthemrdquoHavinginternalizedthis imageMuslimsrushtoapologizeandrenouncearmedstruggleInthiswayhelamentscolonialistsretaintheexclusiverighttoldquofightwitharmsandammunitionwhilewearecon-tented with our pen and our tonguerdquo (Mawdudi 1948 1ndash3) SayyidQutbforhispartagreedthatIslamdoesnotcountenancespreadingitsmessagebyforceandcoercionyethehadlittlepatiencewiththosewhosoughttopresentjihadaslegitimateonlyinself-defense

IfweinsistoncallingIslamicjihadadefensivemovementthenwemustchangethemeaningofthewordldquodefenserdquoandmeanbyitldquothedefenseofmanrdquoagainstallthoseforcesthatlimithisfreedomWhenwetakethisbroadmeaningofthewordldquodefenserdquoweunder-standthetruecharacterofIslaminthatitproclaimstheuniversalfreedomofeverypersonandcommunityfromservitudetoanyother

42

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

individualorsocietytheendofmanrsquosarroganceandselfishnesstheestablishmentofthesovereigntyofAllahandHisLordshipthrough-outtheworldandtheruleofthedivinesharilsquoainhumanaffairs(Qutb199050)

Qutbdoesnotnameanynamesincastigatingtheldquowriterswithdefeatistandapologeticmentalities[who]writeaboutlsquojihadinIslamrsquoandtrytoremovethislsquoblotrsquofromIslamrdquo(Qutb199046)buthecouldverywellhavehadhisdistinguishedfellowEgyptianMahmudShaltutinmind

These arguments about jihad may be said to constitute a commongrammarandframeworkofanalysisformanyIslamistsalthoughseveralthinkers in this volume carefully calibrate such claims to suit variouspurposesanddifferentpublicspheresInhisjustificationfortheassassi-nationofEgyptianpresidentAnwaral-SadatforexamplelsquoAbdal-SalamFarajdepictsthestruggletoreclaimthemoralfoundationsoftheEgyp-tianstateasafightagainstjahiliyyafromwithinarguingthatthejihadagainstacorruptnationalistregimeathomemusttakeprecedenceoverfightingenemieselsewhereTheCharterofHamas(seechapter15)how-everinsiststhatallMuslimsrecognizetheprimacyofthejihadforJeru-salemweldingIslamistrhetorictothatofnationalistresistanceinanef-fortbothtofightIsraelioccupationandtocompeteforadherentswiththePalestinianLiberationOrganization(PLO)IncontrasttobothFarajandHamasBinLadenembracesaglobaljihadthatessentiallycollapsesdistinctionsbetweennationalandinternationaloffensiveanddefensivefightingenemiesathomeandthosefromafar

Yet despite such differences these arguments tend to presume thatviolent jihad is a necessary response to the pervasive power of thosewithdemonstratedhostilitytoMuslimliveslandspietiesandsensibili-tiesaformofretaliationwhoseurgencyandlegitimacyderivefromtheviolencemdashpsychologicalandeconomicaswellasphysicalmdashoftheinitialassaultThisviewofjihadsubsumesindividualsintoarchetypesofldquoin-fidelsrdquoandldquobelieversrdquoandinsodoingvitiatesmoreconventionaldis-tinctionsbetweenforexamplesoldierandcivilianorcollectiveandin-dividual responsibility It is far from inevitable that thosewhoharborsuchviewswillautomaticallyactuponthemyetthecarnagewroughtbytheattacksontheWorldTradeCenterandthePentagonin2001aBalinightclub in 2002 Madrid commuter trains in 2004 and throughoutIraqonadailybasissuggestjusthowlethalsuchclaimscanbegiventheright circumstances The fact that such violence does not discriminateamongvictimsonlyfurtherfuelsrhetoriccharacterizingIslamistsasirra-tional fanatics ldquoin love with deathrdquo terrorists animated by a religioncharacterizedbyapropensityforviolenceandauthoritarianism27

27AnxietiesabouttheparticularsusceptibilityofMuslimstoirrationalityinsularityandfanaticismhavealonganddistinguishedpedigreeinEuro-AmericanhistoryandpoliticalthoughtSeeforexampleRenan18833

43

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

AsinsomanyothermattershoweverIslamistsarehardlyofonemindonthesubjectofjihadindeedthereareIslamistswhoexplicitlyrejectthereductionof struggle toviolenceAcase inpoint isNadiaYassine(20032005c)whoinsiststhatjihadisthededicatedstruggleagainstisshytikbar(arrogance)particularlyinitscommonformasthelustforpoweranddominationAsjihadagainstistikbarisbothafinalgoalandapre-scriptionforactionYassinesuggestsitisantitheticaltoviolentpracticesthataimatdominationTheprimaryinstrumentsofjihadarenotbombsbutwords particularly thosedeployed in the art of persuasion (Fara-marzi2005NYassine2006a)WhenIslamistssuchaslsquoAbdal-SalamFarajandlsquoUmarlsquoAbdal-RahmanseektolegitimizeviolentrevolutionbyrecoursetoIslamictextsshearguestheycontravenethetruemeaningofjihadtoservetheirownarrogantendsBythesametokenBinLadenrsquosdecisiontoldquofightevilwithevilandbarbaritywithbarbarityrdquonotonlyviolatesspecificIslamicprohibitionsagainstharmingcivilianswomenandchildrenbutalsobetraystheethicalimperativetoembodythemes-sageofamercifulGodwhocautionsbelieversthat(Q8822)ldquoYouhavenopoweroverthemrdquo(NYassine2005cDaily Excelsior2002)

SuchpersistentdisagreementsamongMuslimspastandpresentsug-gest that Islam isnomore inherently violent andbloody-minded thanitmdashorChristianityor Judaism for thatmattermdashis inherentlypeacefulIslamists often claim to speak for an unchanging authentic Islam thatexistsoutsideoftimeandspaceyetthepoliticalpurchaseoftheirper-spective derives from the ways it assembles disparate yet recognizablecontemporaryexperiencesofsufferingfrustrationandlossintoanex-planationthatresonateswithMuslimswholiveincommunitiescultur-allylinguisticallyandgeographicallydistantfromoneanotherTheex-tenttowhichIslamistargumentsresonatebroadlyacrossMuslimsocie-tiesthusdependsuponasetofexperiencesandphenomenathatmarkthisparticularmomentinhistoryincludingthewaysinwhichcontempo-raryglobalinequalitiescompoundalegacyofhistoricalasymmetriestocontinuallyreproduceasenseofMuslimpowerlessnessmdashbothrealandimaginedmdashrelativetotheWestcontinuingEuro-Americanpoliticalandfinancialsupportofcorruptautocratsmanyofwhompresideoverna-tion-statesbrutallystitchedtogetherbyWesternfiat thepersistenceofauthoritarian regimes eager to control domestic unrest by catalyzingldquoMuslimragerdquotowardexternaltargetsthesenseofemasculationpro-ducedbydecadesofpoliticalrepressionandeconomicfrustrationandthecontinualflowofimagesofbloodiedMuslimbodiesdeliveredbyaburgeoningarrayofvideosatelliteandelectronicmedia

It is notable that the understanding of jihad many Islamists proffermirrorstheverystate-sanctionedviolenceagainstwhichtheyhavestrug-gledforalmostacenturyAlongwiththousandsofMuslimscaughtinthemachineryoftwentieth-centurystateviolenceprominentIslamistsfromQutbtoGhazalitoAymanal-Zawahirimdashal-Qalsquoidarsquossecondincommandmdash

44

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

arewellknowntohavebeenradicalizedbyextendedandoftenbrutaltermsofincarcerationinEgyptSyriaIraqJordanIsraelAlgeriaandelsewhere(onal-ZawahiriandprisoncfKepelandMilelli2008152ndash54)ItisthusfarfromsurprisingthatIslamistsforgedbyinterrogationtortureinprisoncampswouldconcludethatthepreeminentenactmentofMuslimpietyisviolentstruggleldquoPrisonrdquoasPalestinianKhaledAbuHilalhassaidldquoismyuniversityrdquo(Erlanger2007)anargumentmadeingreaterdetailinadifferenttimeandplacebyRussianwriterandrevolu-tionaryMaximGorky(1868ndash1936)

Apeoplebroughtupinaschoolthatremindsoneofthetormentsofhellonasmallscaleapeopleaccustomedtotheclenched-fistprisonandthewhipwillnotbeblestwithatenderheartApeoplethatthepoliceagentshaveriddenoverwillbecapableintheirturnofwalk-ingoverthebodiesofothersInacountrywhereunresthasreignedsolongit isdifficultforthepeopletorealizefromonedaytothenextthepowerofrightOnecannotdemandfromamanwhohasneverknownjusticethatheshouldbejust(Gorky1920)

InthiscontextasTimothyMitchell(1990195ndash96199207ndash8)suggestsIslamistviewsoftheworldcanbecharacterizedasbothamodeofresis-tancetostatemechanismsofcoercionandanexpressionofthemSuchisthedynamic evident inGhazalirsquosmemoirs for examplewhen shede-scribeshowtheldquodarknessofprisonsthebladesoftortureandthevi-ciousbeatingsonly increasetheenduranceandresolveofthefaithfulrdquo(Ghazali19786)

There is no doubt a great deal of pragmatism at work in IslamistargumentsaboutviolenceAsQutb(19916447ndash48)drylynotesthepathtofreedommustoccasionallybehewnbywayoftheswordbecausetyrants are not reasoned out of power and ldquojahiliyya is not lsquoabstracttheoryrsquo[it]consciouslyorunconsciouslystrivestopreserveitsownexistence to defend its essence to annihilate dangerous elementswhichthreatenitsverybeingrdquoYetitisalsothecasethatformanyoftheseIslamistsjihadisbothameansandanendanefforttoeradicatethoseobstacles torestoringa justcommunityonearththatsimultane-ouslybringshumanaction intoaccordwithGodrsquosplansandpurposes(Haddad198321)While theQurrsquoan (2256) states thatldquothere isnocompulsioninreligionrdquoIslamistscontendthatonlyinastateinwhichIslamiclawreignssupremearehumanbeingsfreefromenslavementtooneanotherrsquosruleandallareequalbyvirtueoftheircommonsubmissiontoGodAsQutb(1991107ndash8)argues

WhenthehighestauthorityinsocietyisGodalonemdashexpressedintheruleofdivinelawmdashonlythenishumanitytrulyandcompletelyliber-atedfromslaverytomenOnlythisisldquohumancivilizationrdquobecausetheessentialfoundationofhumancivilizationisthetrueandcom-

45

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

pletefreedomofhumanityandtheabsolutedignityofeveryindivid-ualinsocietyThereisnotruefreedomanddignityforhumanityortheindividualinasocietywheresomepeoplearelordswholegislateandothersareslaveswhoobey

From this perspective the realization of justice liberty equality andchoiceitselfnecessitatestheforcibleremovaloftheconstraintsimposedbyjahiliyyaalongwiththosewhoaidandabetitno matter the costAsMawdudi(1954160ndash61)writes

[W]hyisitthatinreligionsuchimportanceisgiventojihadthattheQurrsquoanpronouncesthejudgmentofhypocrisyuponthosewhoshirkandevadeitJihadisbutanothernamefortheattempttoerectthesystemoftruthandtheQurrsquoandeclaresjihadtobeatouchstoneonthesamefootingwithamanrsquosfaithInotherwordshewhohasfaithinhisheartwillneitherbecontentwiththedominationofthesystemofevilnorwillhegrudgetheexpenditureoflifeandwealthinthestruggleforerectingthesystemoftruthIfoneshowsweaknessinthismatterhisfaithitselfisdoubtfulWhatcananythingelsebesidethenprofithimThemanwhoprofesses faith in this religioncannotfulfillhisdutyonlybytryingasfaraspossibletopatternhislifeonIslamThenatureofhisfaithitselfrequiresthatheshouldconcentrateallhiseffortuponwrestingleadershipfromunbelievingandcorruptmentoentrustittotherighteousanduponerectingthesystemoftruththathasbeenordainedfortheconductoftheworldaccordingtothewillofGodBecausethisendisunattainablewith-out thehighestdegreeofcollectiveeffort theremustexistarigh-teouscommunitycommittedtotheprincipleoftruthanddevotedtothesolepurposeintheworldoferectingmaintainingandproperlyrealizingthesystemoftruth

ThefactthatsomeIslamistthinkerssanctifyviolentstruggleinsuchtermsdoesnotmeanofcoursethatallthosewhoadvocateorengageinjihadendorseviolence28NordoesitimplythatthosewhoclaimtokillforIslamareentirelywithoutulteriormotivesthosemanipulativepur-poses andpsychologicalmotivations that even themost rarified scrip-turalargumentscanexpressorserveWhattheprecedinganalysisdoessuggesthoweveristhatthereductionofthisviewofjihadtoirrationalbloodlusttheself-interestedgrabfortemporalpoweroradoorthroughwhichtopassintothehereaftermissesacrucialdimensionofitssignifi-canceandappealfortruebelieversjihadisnolessthananenactmentof

28EvenashespokeofaneweraofjahiliyyaandofjihadMawdudihimselfstoppedwellshortof recommendingor condoning the actual resort to violence in themannermanyotherIslamistsdidAsNasr(199670)observesMawdudirsquosorganizationtheJamalsquoat-iIs-lamildquohasavoidedviolentsocialchangeandhasinsteadviewedthepathtotheIslamicstateaslyingwithintheexistingsociopoliticalorderrdquoAlsoseethechapters5and3onQutbandMawdudiinthisvolume

46

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

adivineimperativetoremakethefoundationsofcollectivelifeInthisre-spectIslamistviewsofjihadcanbeseenaspartofalong-standingasso-ciationbetweenviolenceandpoliticalfoundingsuponwhichnoparticu-larcultureorhistoricalepochhasamonopolyThisassociationandtheldquolegacyofviolencerdquoitbequeathstofuturegenerationsarenolessappar-entinthoseradicalrevolutionsofrenewalthatmovebywayoftheswordfromthemarginstothecenterthanthosepoliticalfoundingsthatclaimtocreatesomethingoutofnothing(Connolly1995251)Ineithercasethetollofsuchbrutalitycanbeimmeasurableforinadditiontothevic-timswhosufferdirectlytheldquopracticeofviolencelikeallactionchangestheworldbutthemostprobablechangeistoamoreviolentworldrdquo(Ar-endt1972177)

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ltFEFF00560065007200770065006e00640065006e0020005300690065002000640069006500730065002000450069006e007300740065006c006c0075006e00670065006e0020007a0075006d002000450072007300740065006c006c0065006e00200076006f006e002000410064006f006200650020005000440046002d0044006f006b0075006d0065006e00740065006e002c00200076006f006e002000640065006e0065006e002000530069006500200068006f006300680077006500720074006900670065002000500072006500700072006500730073002d0044007200750063006b0065002000650072007a0065007500670065006e0020006d00f60063006800740065006e002e002000450072007300740065006c006c007400650020005000440046002d0044006f006b0075006d0065006e007400650020006b00f6006e006e0065006e0020006d006900740020004100630072006f00620061007400200075006e0064002000410064006f00620065002000520065006100640065007200200035002e00300020006f0064006500720020006800f600680065007200200067006500f600660066006e00650074002000770065007200640065006e002egt ESP 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 ITA 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ltFEFF9ad854c18cea306a30d730ea30d730ec30b951fa529b7528002000410064006f0062006500200050004400460020658766f8306e4f5c6210306b4f7f75283057307e305930023053306e8a2d5b9a30674f5c62103055308c305f0020005000440046002030d530a130a430eb306f3001004100630072006f0062006100740020304a30883073002000410064006f00620065002000520065006100640065007200200035002e003000204ee5964d3067958b304f30533068304c3067304d307e305930023053306e8a2d5b9a306b306f30d530a930f330c8306e57cb30818fbc307f304c5fc59808306730593002gt KOR ltFEFFc7740020c124c815c7440020c0acc6a9d558c5ec0020ace0d488c9c80020c2dcd5d80020c778c1c4c5d00020ac00c7a50020c801d569d55c002000410064006f0062006500200050004400460020bb38c11cb97c0020c791c131d569b2c8b2e4002e0020c774b807ac8c0020c791c131b41c00200050004400460020bb38c11cb2940020004100630072006f0062006100740020bc0f002000410064006f00620065002000520065006100640065007200200035002e00300020c774c0c1c5d0c11c0020c5f40020c2180020c788c2b5b2c8b2e4002egt NLD (Gebruik deze instellingen om Adobe PDF-documenten te maken die zijn geoptimaliseerd voor prepress-afdrukken van hoge kwaliteit De gemaakte PDF-documenten kunnen worden geopend met Acrobat en Adobe Reader 50 en hoger) NOR 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 PTB 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 SUO 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Page 11: Chapter 1 INTRODUCTION - assets.press.princeton.eduassets.press.princeton.edu/chapters/s9067.pdf · Chapter 1 INTRODUCTION This volume is intended as a broad introduction to the evolution

11

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

concurintheirconceptionofthesharilsquoa(Islamiclaw)andtheIslamistsrsquoastuterecognitionofthelsquoulamarsquosconsiderablestandinginsocietyUnsur-prisinglysomeleadingIslamistshavesoughttoblurdistinctionsbetweenthemselves and the lsquoulama to enhance their own authority Usama binLaden(b1957)styledhisfamous1996ldquoDeclarationofWaragainsttheAmericansOccupyingtheLandoftheTwoHolyPlacesrdquoasafatwathatisajuridicalopiniontherebyrhetoricallyobscuringthehistoricalfactthatfatwashavetypicallybeenthepreserveofthe lsquoulamaandmorespecifi-callyofthefuqahaormuftis(jurists)amongthemBinLadenhoweverhasnoformalscholarlycredentialsinmattersIslamicMawdudiwascom-monly styledasmawlana a commonhonorific for the lsquoulama inSouthAsiaAdeliberateblurringofdistinctionsislikewiseevidentinthestate-ment of the Sudanese Islamist Hasan al-Turabi (b 1932) ldquoBecause allknowledgeisdivineandreligiousachemistanengineeraneconomistorajuristarealllsquoulamardquo(Turabi1983245alsochapter8inthisvolume) YetthereareleadingIslamistsmdashinthisvolumeKhomeiniMutahhariBaqiral-SadrFadlallah lsquoAliNadwi lsquoUmar lsquoAbdal-RahmanandQa-radawimdashwhoweretrainedaslsquoulamawhichmeansthatporousbounda-riesbetweenIslamistsandthelsquoulamaarenotjustamatterofself-servingrhetoricbyautodidactsGiventhisfactthedistinctionbetweenIslamistsandlsquoulamaturnslessonstarkdifferencesineducationalbackgroundandmoreonthecharacterandcontentoftheirpoliticalcommitmentsMorethananythingelseIslamistsseektoimplementIslamiclawthroughtheagencyofthestateNotallarewillingtoresorttoviolentmeansinpur-suitofthisendManysuchasYusufal-Qaradawi(b1926)ahighlyin-fluentialIslamistandoneofthemostprominentlsquoulamaofcontemporaryIslam(Skovgaard-Petersen2004Kraumlmer2006)professdemocraticcom-mitmentsButwhateverthestancetowardeitherdemocracyorviolencethepublicimplementationofthesharilsquoaisattheheartofallIslamisminbothitsShilsquoiandSunniformsThissuggestsanimportantcontrastwithmanyamongthelsquoulama

SincethefirstcenturiesofIslamthelsquoulamahaveoftensoughttomain-tainacarefuldistancefromtherulingelitejealouslyguardingtheirinsti-tutionsandpracticesfromgovernmentalinterferenceThelsquoulamagener-allyrecognizedthatthefunctioningoflegalandotherIslamicinstitutionspresupposedtheexistenceofaMuslimgovernmentandtheydefinedalegitimategovernmentasonethatoversawtheimplementationofsharilsquoanormsButtheyhavetypicallyunderstoodthegovernmentrsquoscommitmenttothesharilsquoatomeanthattherulerdefendedthebordersofthepolityregulatedpublicmoralitysuppressedhereticsandappointedthosepro-ficientinlegalmatterstoimplementthelaw(cfCrone2004286ndash314)TheyhavenotunderstoodanyofthistomeaneitherthattherulershouldbeabletoofferabsoluteinterpretationsofGodrsquoslaworthattherealmofpoliticsandstatecraftshouldbecomesynonymouswithIslamitselfYetthis ispreciselyhowIslamistshaveoftenconceivedof therelationship

12

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

betweenIslamandpoliticsandmorespecificallybetweenIslamandthestatenocallingishigherthanstrivingtowardtheestablishmentofanIs-lamicstateandoncebroughtaboutallwillbeinaccordancewithGodrsquospurposesMawdudi(1960177)claimedthatldquothestruggleforobtainingcontrolovertheorgansofthestatewhenmotivatedbytheurgetoestab-lishthedin[religion]andtheIslamicSharilsquoahandtoenforcetheIslamicinjunctionsisnotonlypermissiblebutpositivelydesirableandassuchobligatoryrdquo

Tomanylsquoulamathisamountstonothinglessthanmakingreligiousnorms subservient topolitical goalsAsMuftiMuhammadTaqi lsquoUth-manialeadingDeobandischolarofPakistannotesinhisrejoindertoviewssuchasMawdudirsquos

Intheirzealtorefutesecularismsomewritersandthinkersofthepresentagehavegonesofarastocharacterizepoliticsandgovern-ment as the true objective of Islam the reason why the prophetsweresent[byGodtothepeople]indeedtheveryreasonforthecre-ationofthehumanbeingAndtheyhavenotonlygivenotherIs-lamiccommandmentsmdashforinstanceonmattersofworshipmdashasec-ondarypositiontheyhaveevendeemedthemtobemeremeansforpoliticalendsjustawayoftrainingpeople[towardpoliticalmobili-zation](lsquoUthmani199825ndash26cfZaman2008116ndash18)

NotalllsquoulamasharesuchmisgivingsaboutthesubordinationofIslamtopoliticsthoughitshouldbenotedthattheywouldseethisintermsnotofanysuchsubordinationbutratheroftheutterinseparabilityofthere-ligiousandthepoliticalByfarthemostnotableoftheseamongtheShilsquoaisAyatollahKhomeini(d1989)ofIranAgainstalong-standingtradi-tionofShilsquoipoliticalquietismintheabsenceofthehiddenShilsquoiimamKhomeiniarguedthattheShilsquoi lsquoulamaoughttoassumedirectpoliticalleadershipandhethenproceededtospearheadthemovementthatcul-minatedinthefalloftheIranianmonarchyandtheestablishmentoftheIslamicRepublicofIran9Hisdoctrineofthevelayatshye faqih(guardian-shipofthejurist)isaradicalrethinkingofShilsquoipoliticaltheologyblur-ringanymeaningfulboundarybetweenreligiousandpoliticalauthority(seechapter6)ItispreciselyKhomeinirsquoscommitmenttoestablishinganIslamic statealong these lines thatwarrantshis classificationasan Is-

9TheImamiorIthnalsquoashariShilsquoabelievethatthetwelfthandlastoftheirimamswentintoghayba(hiding)in874andthathewilleventuallyreturnasthemahdimdashamessianicfigurewhoalonecanrestoreproperordertotheworldinaugurateaneraofunalloyedjus-ticeandreclaimfortheShilsquoatherightsofwhichtheyhavebeendispossessedbytheSunnisandbycorruptrulersformuchofthehistoryofIslamShilsquoischolarshavelongdebatedthequestionofwhatsortofauthoritytheleadingreligiousscholarsoughttohaveinofficiatingintheimamrsquosabsenceKhomeinirsquosviewdisputedbymanyotherscholarswasthatthelead-ingscholar(s)oughttodischargethefullrangeoftheimamrsquosfunctionsincludingthepoliti-calheadshipofthecommunity

13

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

lamistnotwithstandinghiswell-recognizedstatusasoneoftheleadingShilsquoilsquoulamaofhisgeneration

The Azhar-educated Yusuf al-Qaradawi has for his part criticizedmanyfellowIslamistsonseveralissuesbutnotonthefundamentalques-tion of their political orientation Just as Khomeini had chastised theldquopropagandainstitutionsofimperialism[fortrying]topersuadeusthatthereligiousleadersmustnotinterfereinsocialmattersandthatthefuqaha[jurists]donothavethedutyofoverseeingthedestinyoftheIslamicnationrdquo(Algar1981141)Qaradawiinsiststhatdenyingthepo-liticalorientationofIslamamountstoitswillfuldistortion

Amongtheinterpretationswithwhichthesecularists[lsquoalmaniyyun]andthemodernists[alshyhadathiyyun]calumniate[Islamproperlyun-derstood and those committed to it] is the notion of ldquopoliticalIslamrdquowhichwithoutdoubtisanideaalientoourIslamicsocietyBy[politicalIslam]theymeananIslamthatconcernsitselfwiththeinternalandexternalaffairsoftheMuslimcommunity[Theymeanbyit]actionsaimedatfreeingthecommunityfromtheforeignpowerthatdirects [Muslim]affairsphysicallyandmorallyas itpleases[Theyalsomeanbyit]actionsseekingtocleansethecommunityofthecultural socialand legalsedimentsofWesterncolonialismsothatthecommunitycanreturnonceagaintosubmissiontoGodrsquoslawindifferentareasoflifeTheyusethischaracterizationofldquopoliticalIslamrdquoinordertoalienatepeoplefromits[aforementioned]contentandto frighten themawayfromthosecalling toacomprehensiveconceptionofIslammdashonethatisinclusiveofbeliefandlawworshipandsocialinteractionproselytismandthestate(Qaradawi200793)

Islamistpoliticalcommitmentsareoftenintertwinedwithcritiquesofthescholarlytraditionanditsattendant institutionsandpracticesandthiscriticismprovidesusacrucialwayof thinkingfurtherbothaboutwhatdistinguishesIslamistsfromthelsquoulamaandabouthowtoviewIs-lamismitselfWhatthelsquoulamacannotbutseeasacavalierattitudeto-wardtheirscholarlytraditioniswesuggestbetterviewedaspartofalargerIslamistcritiqueonethatgoestotheheartofhowIslamismoughttobeunderstoodasaphenomenonItisacritiqueofparticularMuslimbeliefspracticesmoresandinstitutionsthataredeemedtohaveonlyatenuousbasis inldquotruerdquoandldquoauthenticrdquo Islamof the repeatedwrongturnsMuslimshavetakenthroughouttheirlonghistoryofthecorrupt-ingldquoforeignrdquoinfluencesmdashfromSufismtoGreekphilosophytothelureofmodernWesternculturesmdashbywhichMuslimshaveallowedthemselvestobeseducedandoftheirunwillingnesstodowhateverittakestoestab-lish thehakimiyya (sovereignty)ofGodonearthThat it is the sover-eigntyofGodthatIslamistsseekultimatelytoaffirmintheirindividualandpubliclivesremindsusthattheircritiqueofthepastandthepresentisapoliticalcritiqueanchoredinanddrivenbyaspirationstoinstitutea

14

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

newreligio-politicalorderWhetherthiscritiqueisarticulatedinconcreteor vague terms in a seeminglymoderateorplainlymilitant languagethere is no mistaking either its principal targetmdashfacets of the Islamictraditionmdashoritsfundamentallypoliticalorientation10

IslamistshaveofteninsistedthatthewordofGodcanandshouldbeapproacheddirectlywithoutthemediationofpresentorpastscholarsandwithoutanyneedfortheedifyingtalesthephilologicaldebatesandthelong-windedtheologicaldisquisitionssooftenfoundinmedievalexe-geticalliteratureamajorfacetoftheIslamicscholarlytradition(cfCarreacute200318)ShukriMustafaanEgyptianIslamistexecutedin1977forthemurderousactivitiesofhisSocietyofMuslims(popularlyknownastheSociety of Excommunication and Emigration) had famously assertedthatalloneneededtoresolveuncertaintiesinonersquosunderstandingofthewordofGodwasadictionary(Kepel199379)SayyidQutbdidnotgoquite that farButhe tooaffirmed that the fundamental teachingsofIslamwereentirelytransparentldquoWhatwearesayingaboutIslamisnoinventionofoursoranynewinterpretationofitsessenceIt issimplyplainIslamasitwasunderstoodbyitsfirstadherentMuhammadandhissincereCompanionsandthoseclosetoitsauthenticsourcerdquo(Qutb19969withminorchange)

TheimplicationofQutbrsquosstrikingassertionistwofoldFirstbehindarhetoric of humility in relation to divine knowledge Qutb implicitlyclaimsthefullbackingofGodandHisProphetfortheldquoplainIslamrdquohesetsforthMorespecificallyheessentiallydepictshisownunderstandingofIslamassynonymouswithGodrsquoseternalintentmuchasKhomeinirsquospronouncementsasthevalishyye faqih(guardianjurist)presumedtoarticu-latewhatIslamitselfstoodfororrequiredonanygivenmatterSecondthestatementimpliesnotonlythatviewsotherthanhisaremereinter-pretationsbutthattheyarethemorereprehensibleforbeingldquonovelrdquomdashasuggestionthatevokesthenotionofbidlsquoathatisofillicitcapriciousin-

10ThatIslamismshouldbeseenasawide-rangingcritiqueoftheworldandoftheIslamictraditionisareminderofcoursethatcritiqueisnotaninherentlysecularphenomenonnordoesitnecessitateasecularframeworkAsTalalAsad(2008)hasobservedgivenawidevarietyofldquopossibleinstancesofcritiquecriticismwhatwehaveisafamilyconceptforwhichitisnotpossibletoprovideasingletheorybecausethepracticesthatconstitutethemdifferradicallyrdquo(alsocfMahmood2008Taylor2008)NorshouldourviewingIs-lamism as a politically motivated critique suggest that other competing orientations inmodernIslamcannotalsobeseenascritiquesofparticularpracticesparticularformsofknowledgeWhatdoesdistinguishanIslamistorientationfromothersisonceagainboththedegreetowhichIslamistcritiquesbreakwiththeirpastandpresentandtheiraspirationto remake theworld in accordancewith their understandingof immutable divine com-mandsThisismarkedlydifferentfromhowthelsquoulamamightcritiqueparticularaspectsoftheirscholarlytraditionintheinterestofastrongersenseofcontinuitywiththattraditionorinordertomakeitmorereceptivetowhattheyseeasthecommunityrsquoschangingneedsItisalsoverydifferentfromhowMuslimmodernistsoftenbreakwiththescholarlytradi-tioninordertoadaptMuslimnormsandinstitutionstothedominantpoliticalandculturalinstitutionsoftheircontemporaryworld

15

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

novationinmattersofreligionSuchaviewofIslamjettisonsmuchofwhatwouldnormallycountasitshistoryandcivilizationldquoThehistoryoflsquoIslamrsquordquoQutbtellshisreadersldquoisthehistoryofthetrueapplicationofIslammdashinpeoplersquosconceptionsandtheirpracticesintheirlivesandtheirsocialsystemsIslamisthefixedaxisaroundwhichpeoplersquoslivesrevolveinafixedframeWhentheygooutofthisframeorwhentheycategorically abandon this axis what then do they have to do withIslamrdquo (Qutb 1967a vol 2 part 4 169 quotation marks aroundldquoIslamrdquoinoriginal)ItisforthefixedaxistheplainIslammdashandinoppo-sition to much of its historymdashthat the Islamist professes to stand (cfGrunebaum1962251ndash52)

Qutbhoweverisfarfromconsistentinhisattitudetowardtheschol-arlytraditionorinhowheseekstoarticulatehisownauthorityinrela-tiontoitHisfaithinthetransparencyandthetransformativeimmedi-acyofGodrsquoswordswouldappeartomakeallexegesissuperfluousyethehimselfhadproceededtowriteamajorcommentaryIn the Shade of the QurrsquoanthatwouldexceedfourthousandpagesinprintThejustifi-cationheoffers for it intheopening linesof thecommentary isauda-ciousnotapologetic

LifeintheshadeoftheQurrsquoanisablessingItisablessingunknownto anyonewhohasnrsquot tasted itAll praisebe toGodHehasgrantedmetheopportunitytoliveintheshadeoftheQurrsquoanforaperiodoftimeduringwhichIhavetastedHisblessingsasIneverhadearlierinmylifeIhavelistenedtoGodtheexaltedconvers-ingwithmethroughthisQurrsquoanmdashwithmeasmalllittleslaveIhavelivedintheshadeoftheQurrsquoanlookingfromanelevationatthejahiliyya[paganignorance]raginginthelandandthepettycon-cernsof itspeople [Fromthisvantage] Ihave seen thepride thepeopleofthisjahiliyyatakeintheirchildishknowledgetheirchild-ishideastheirchildishpreoccupations[Ihavelookeduponthem]likeanelderlooksuponthefrivolitiesofchildrenupontheireffortsandupontheirlisps(Qutb1967a13)

Theseresoundingwordsserveinteraliatoexplainwhyanewcom-mentaryshouldhavebeenneededatallthemind-numbingimpactofthejahiliyyahasmadepeopleincapableofrespondingtoeventhemostdi-rectofdivinesummonsandonlysomeonewhohaslivedldquointheshadeoftheQurrsquoanrdquocanunderstandtheirplightandremedyitFromtheper-spectiveQutbadoptshereanyappealtothescholarlytraditionanyef-forttoresthisauthorityonitwouldappearaltogetheroutofplaceYetQutbrsquosclaimstoauthoritydonotderiveexclusivelyfromhisconversingwithGodthroughtheQurrsquoanTosomedegreetheyalsodependonhisbeingseenashavingmasteryovertheveryexegeticaltraditionofwhichheisotherwisefrequentlydismissiveQutbcitesasmallnumberofearliercommentators and other authorities when it suits his purpose to do

16

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

so11justashesidestepstheexegeticaltraditionwhendoingsooffersarhetoricallymoreeffectivewayofarrivingataconclusionMoretradi-tionalexegetespastandpresentalsopickandchooseofcourseButtheyhavetypicallydonesowithinanoverallframeworkthatisdefinedbyacontinuousengagementwiththeexegeticaltraditionasawhole(cfSaleh2004)BycontrastQutbandotherIslamistexegeteswriteoutsideandofteninconsciousoppositiontoanysuchframeworkTheconversa-tionisnotwiththeearlierexegetesbutdirectlywithGodthoughthismightonoccasionbeaidedbyillustrationsfromtheearlierexegeticaltradition

If thereareunacknowledgedambiguities inQutbrsquosrelationshipwiththe Islamic traditionaswehaveobserveda frequentlyacerbic stancedoesnonetheless remain characteristicofhowheviews itmostof thetimeQutbisanythingbutuniqueinthisrespectYetifIslamistssharealmostbydefinitionacriticalstancetowardfacetsofthistraditionthereismuchthatalsoseparatesthemfromoneanotherinpreciselyhowthiscritique and its implications are articulated in different instances Al-thoughthemerepresenceofdisagreementamongIslamist intellectualsandactivistsishardlyremarkablethescopeandimplicationsofsomeofthedisagreementsinasmuchastheyrelatetothescholarlytraditionarenonethelessworthexamininghereFortheysuggestthatwhileIslamistsshare the conviction that particular institutions practices and normsneedtoberefashionedinlightofimmutabledivinecommandsthiscon-victionoftenrestsonquitedifferentviewsofIslamichistoryandciviliza-tionofcontemporaryMuslimsocietiesandnotleastofreligiousau-thorityanditslociNowhereperhapsisthismoreevidentthaninsomeofthewritingsofYusufal-QaradawiLikeQutbQaradawiisamongthemostinfluentialIslamistideologuesintheSunniworldHeisalsooneofQutbrsquosseverestcriticsfromwithintheIslamistcamp(seeespeciallyQa-radawi1994101ndash31)

ThatldquoMuslimrdquosocietieslackedaproperIslamicfoundationmadeitfutileQutbhadarguedtodebatespecificquestionsofIslamiclawand

11TheseincludeinteraliaMuhammadibnIshaq(d767)theauthoroftheSirat rasul AllahoneoftheearliestbiographiesoftheProphetMuhammadal-Tabari(d923)theauthorofJamilsquo alshybayan lishytarsquowil ay alshyQurrsquoanoneofthemostinfluentialcommentariesoftheQurrsquoaneverproducedal-Baghawi(d1117)whosecommentaryistitledMalsquoalim alshytanzilal-Qurtubi(d1273)theauthorofaworkalshyJamilsquo lishyahkam alshyQurrsquoanwhichises-peciallyattentivetothelegalcontentoftheQurrsquoanandIbnKathir(d1373)theauthorofaQurrsquoan commentaryTafsir alshyQurrsquoan alshylsquoazimwhichhasbeenpopular amongmanyMuslimsofaSalafiorientationOnoccasionQutbalsocitesinfluentialfellowIslamistsSeeforexampleQutbFi zilal alshyQurrsquoanvol2part4132(Mawdudi)vol2part525(Nadwi)vol2part6143and150ndash53(lsquoAbdal-QadirlsquoAwdaanEgyptianIslamistandlegalscholarexecutedundertheNasserregimein1954)OccasionallyQutbcitesRidarsquosTafsir alshymanaraswell thoughmoreoftenthannot toregisterhisdisagreementswithRidaandwiththelatterrsquosmentorMuhammadlsquoAbduhForadetailedcomparisonbetweenthecommentariesofRidaandQutbseeCarreacute2003

17

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

howitdealtwithparticularsocialoreconomicissuesThelsquoulamawerepatheticallydeludediftheythoughtthattheinterestsofIslamcouldbefurtheredthroughdisquisitionsonthesharilsquoainsuchconditionsofper-vasiveungodliness(Qutb1967b183ndash90)WhatpeopleneededbeforeanythingelsewasareturntothebasicsofthefaithThetaskofrighteouspreacherswastoinstructtheminthesemattersandtohelpthemrecog-nizewhatthesovereigntyofGoddemandedofthem(Qutb199135cfQaradawi1994102ndash4)Allothermattersincludingthenicetiesofjuris-ticdiscussionwerebestpostponeduntilaproperlyIslamicsocietybasedonthisfoundationhadbeenrealized

Qaradawi vehemently disagrees with Qutb arguing that educatedMuslimsarenotpagansbutbelieversandassuchdonotneedtobetu-toredinthefundamentalsoftheirfaithWhattheyoftendonotunder-standverywellmdashandhereQaradawiconcurswithotherIslamistsmdashisthenatureofIslamasanizam (socialandpoliticalsystem)TheproblemofMuslimsinotherwordsisnotgodlessnessbutsimplyignorance(whichiswhat the term jahiliyya literallymeans)of the teachingsof Islam intheircomprehensiveall-encompassingdimensionsAsQaradawiseesitmanyldquocaptivesofWesternthoughtrdquohavedoubtsnotabouttheessentialsoftheirfaithbutratheraboutIslamasacomprehensivesystemanditistheirunaddressedmisunderstandingstheirignoranceonthelatterscorethatsometimesopens thedoor todoubtsaboutmattersofbelief itself(Qaradawi1994113ndash14)Tocontinuetoexpoundonthesocialpoliti-calandotherteachingsofIslamwhilethesocietyisyetimperfectisnottoendorseorstrengthenthejahiliorderasQutbhadallegedbutonlytohelpordinarypeopleintheirefforttoleadvirtuouslivesevenininiqui-touscircumstances

ThisviewrepresentsanappealtowhatQaradawihasrepeatedlyre-ferredtoasthemoderatepathoralshymadrasa alshywasatiyya(theldquocentristschoolrdquocfQaradawi2006137ndash217)mdashonethatlocatesitselfonaputa-tivemiddlegroundbetweenacompleterejectionoftheworldincludingMuslimsocietiesanditstotalembraceQaradawiisequallyconcernedwithrescuingIslamichistoryandcivilizationfromoutrightdismissalatthehandsofIslamistslikeQutb12TheideathatjahilinormshadbeguntocreepbackintotheMuslimcommunityshortlyafterthedeathoftheProphetandthattheyhaveremainedunchallengedformuchofIslamrsquoshistoryignoresallthoseQaradawisayswhohavecontinuedtorepre-sentthepathofrighteousnessthroughoutthehistoryofIslamContrarytotheconvictionoftheSunnisthatldquothecommunitywillneveragreeonerrorrdquomdashastheProphetissaidtohavepromisedmdashthenotionofaperva-

12AmongleadingfiguresQaradawisinglesoutforcriticisminthisregardarebesidesQutbMawdudiandtheEgyptianIslamistscholarMuhammadal-Ghazali(d1996)SeeQaradawi2005b46ndash64It isworthnotingthatdespitetheseandotherdisagreementsQaradawihaswrittenrespectfullyofallthreedevotinganentirebooktohislongassocia-tionwithMuhammadal-Ghazali(seeQaradawi1995)

18

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INTRODUCTION

sivejahiliyyasuggestsmoreoverthatthecommunitydidindeedagreeonerror13Mostgrievouslyperhaps Islamist critiques tend to suggestthatthesharilsquoahasalmostneverbeenimplementedinMuslimsocietiesaftertheveryfirstyearsofIslamIronicallysaysQaradawisuchindis-criminaterejectionofIslamichistoryinadvertentlyreinforcessecularist argumentsthatthesharilsquoaisunsuitedtopracticalapplication(Qaradawi2005b46)QaradawirsquoscritiqueofQutbandotherIslamistsisfinallyanargumentforthecontinuingcentralityofthelsquoulamatothetaskofpro-viding authoritative guidance to the communityHisunderstandingofwhoconstitutesthelsquoulamaisfarmoreexpansivethanthatofmostDeo-bandilsquoulamaofSouthAsiaButlikethemheisinnodoubtthatseriousreligiousscholarsasdistinguishedfromamateurishautodidactsarecru-cialtothetaskofprovidingauthoritativereligiousandmoralguidancetothecommunity

AlthoughwehavesoughttoillustratecertainfacetsoftheIslamistcri-tiqueof the scholarly traditionandof theworldas somekey IslamistthinkershavearticulateditwedonotwishtosuggestofcoursethatIslamists are necessarily ldquointellectualsrdquo Whatever Qutb KhomeiniMawdudiandQaradawimightthinkofotherscholarsandintellectualsorofthemselvesinrelationtothemtheformerobviouslyarereligiousintellectualsThesameishardlytrueofmanyotherIslamistsYeteventhosewithlittleornointellectualpretensionsareoftenrecognizableas IslamistsnotonlyfortheircommitmenttothepublicimplementationofIslamicnormsgroundedinthefoundationaltextsbutalsomdashandasacor-ollaryoftheformermdashfortheiroftenself-consciouscritiqueofanddisen-gagementfromthenormsandmorestheyseearoundthemIncontempo-raryLebanonforinstanceShilsquoiIslamistshaveoftenseentheirtext-basedreligiouscommitmentsasmarkingacleardeparturefromearlierandex-isting religious practicesAs anthropologist LaraDeeb (2006 20) ob-servesldquoTheyvieweditasnewanddifferentmdashdifferentfromwhattheyoftenreferredtoenigmaticallyaslsquobeforersquoorlsquohowwewerersquoanddifferentfromwhattheycalledalshytaqalid(traditions)Inlieuofpracticesandbeliefscastastraditionaltheyespoused [an] lsquoauthenticatedrsquoIslamexpressedinpublicpietyrdquo14ManyIslamists living inrefugeecampsinGazahavehadasimilarviewTothemldquoPalestinianshadeitherbe-comelostinforeignideologiesortheyhadbecomelsquoMuslimsbycon-

13Theconvictionthatthecommunityatlargeisdivinelyprotectedfromerrorisanim-portantbasisoftheauthorityofldquoconsensusrdquoasamajorsourceofjuridicalnormsinSunniIslamFormoderndebateson consensus and someof the literatureon this subject seeZaman2006

14Theldquotraditionsrdquohereprimarilyrefer tocustomarynormsanddevotionalpracticesratherthantothecenturies-olddiscursivetraditionfromwhichthelsquoulamabothShilsquoiandSunniderivetheirauthorityIslamistcritiquesareoftendirectedasmuchhoweverattra-ditionsinthesenseofldquoinauthenticrdquoculturallyrootedreligiouspracticesastheyareatthescholarlytraditionofthelsquoulamawhichtothemisequallyinauthenticinhavingobscuredthesimpleandfundamentalteachingsofthefoundationaltexts

19

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

ventionrsquowhowentalongwiththefastorprayednowandthenbecausethiswaslsquocustomandtraditionrsquo(lsquoada wa taqlid)ThislackofconsciouszealousadherencetoIslamhadresultedinsocialweaknessleadingtode-featatthehandsofIsraelrdquo(Lybarger2007211)ThereismuchthatsuchanalysessharewiththewritingsandpronouncementsoftheleadingIs-lamistintellectuals

Islamists and Salafi s

JustasitisnotalwayseasytodifferentiatelsquoulamafromIslamistsorIs-lamists frommodernists it is sometimesdifficult to clearlydistinguishbetweenIslamistsandtheSalafisThelatterderivethisself-designationfromclaimsofstrictadherencetothenormativepracticeofalshysalaf alshysalih(thepiousforbears)usuallyunderstoodastheMuslimsofthefirstgenerations of Islam The guiding Salafi assumption is that these firstMuslims inbeingcontemporariesof theProphetMuhammadandtheimmediatesuccessorsofthosecontemporariesexemplifymostperfectlywhatitmeanstobeavirtuousMuslimandthatlatergenerationscandonobetterthanemulatetheexampleofthesefirstgenerationsSomever-sionofthisviewwouldfindbroadresonanceamongIslamistsbutalsoordinary believers though the Shilsquoa of various doctrinal orientationshavealwayshada farmore restrictiveviewofpreciselywho isworthemulating Again like the Islamists the Salafis insist on deriving theirnormsdirectlyfromtheIslamicfoundationaltextstheQurrsquoanandtheexampleoftheProphetMuhammadunmediatedbythemedievalschoolsoflawThismeansdoingawaywiththesortofhistoricallyarticulatedscholarlytraditionfromwhichthelsquoulamahavetendedtodrawmuchoftheirauthorityTheSalafisdohavetheirownlsquoulamamdashQaradawiisano-tableinstanceasaremembersoftheSaudireligiousestablishmentmdashbuteventheirauthorityisbasedfarmoreondirectlyinterpretingthefounda-tional texts than it is on any systematic engagement with the Islamicscholarlytradition

AllthissoundsagooddealnotjustliketheIslamistsbutalsolikethemodernistsThisshouldnotbesurprisingfortheSalafiorientationisanimportantpartofthegenealogyofbothmodernismandIslamismTheSalafi reformer Muhammad lsquoAbduh though a traditionally educatedscholarwhoservedtowardtheendofhislifeasthegrandmuftiofEgyptwasakeyinfluenceinthedevelopmentofIslamicmodernismButwhilesomeoflsquoAbduhrsquosdisciplesdevelopedhisideasinthedirectionofsecularnationalismothersmdashnotablytheSalafijournalistandQurrsquoancommenta-torRashidRidamdasheventuallytookthemdespitehismodernistproclivi-tiesinadecidedlyconservativedirection(Hourani1983alsocfDallal2000)Hasan al-Banna the founder of the MuslimBrotherhoodwasclose to many Egyptian Salafis Muhibb al-din al-Khatib (d 1969) aleadingSalafiofthetimeandtheowneroftheSalafiPublishingHousein

20

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

CairowasinchargeofoneoftheBrotherhoodrsquosfirstjournals(Mitchell1993185)andafterRidarsquosdeathin1935itwasatBannarsquosinitiativethatRidarsquosinfluentialjournalalshyManarwouldcontinuetobepublishedforsomeyears(RMitchell1993186)

ForalltheiraffinitieshoweverSalafiscannotsimplybesubsumedwiththeIslamistsanymorethantheycanwiththemodernistsUnliketheearlySalafisandothermodernists Islamistshavealmost invariablysought toaddressthemselvestoawidepopularaudienceratherthantotheintellec-tualelite(cfRMitchell1993211)TheSalafishavealsobeenfarmorepreoccupiedwithmattersofcorrectbeliefthenuancesofdoctrinethanhaveeither the Islamistsor themodernists (cfHaykel2009 [forthcom-ing])BythesametokenwhilemanyIslamistshavehadasomewhatam-bivalentrelationshipwithSufismSalafishaveusuallybeenunrelentinglyhostile to devotional Sufi practices But if it is useful to distinguish theSalafisfromothercompetingorientationsinmodernIslamitisimportantalsotorecognizethatthereismuchonwhichSalafisthemselveshavedis-agreedsometimessharplyInquestionintheseldquointernalrdquodifferencesisnottheiroverallorientationmdashtowardtheIslamicfoundational textsandthepristinenormsofIslamrsquosfirstgenerationsmdashbutratherthepreciseimplica-tionsofthisorientationforbeliefandconductinthepresentAconsider-ationofsomeofthesedifferencesshouldinturnfurtherillustratehowtheSalafisoughttobedistinguishedfromothercompetingcamps

WheremanySalafisseetheschoolsoflawasobstructingandindeeddistortingthesimplemessageofthefoundationaltextsothersviewthelegaltraditionasrepresentingIslamrsquosrichintellectuallegacyfromwhichMuslimsought todrawboth inspirationandguidanceQaradawi forinstance has been critical not just of the Muslimmodernists but alsooffellowSalafisfortheirirreverencetowardtherichesofthelegaltradi-tiontheiruneducatedproclivitytosetitasidealltoocallouslyOnthisviewarejectionofthetaqlid-boundlsquoulamashouldnotleadtotheotherextrememdashexemplifiedbynotafewSalafismdashofjettisoningthescholarlytraditionaltogether SalafisalsodifferamongthemselvesintheirattitudestowardmodernWesterninstitutionsandpracticesInthelatenineteenthandearlytwen-tieth centuries Salafi reformers like Muhammad lsquoAbduh and RashidRidainEgyptandJamalal-dinal-Qasimi(d1914)inSyriahadcalledforareorientationtowardthefoundationaltextsasawayofjustifyingnotresistingchangesinlawandeducationaswellasotherfacetsofso-cialreform(cfHourani1983Commins1990)OnthisviewadirectrecoursetotheQurrsquoanandthesunnaofferedthebestwayofdemonstrat-ing the accord between their teachings and the reformist project15 In

15SymptomaticofotherdisagreementsamongtheSalafisistheveryquestionofpreciselywhothesalafarewhoseexampleoughttobeemulatedThenarrowerviewslimitthesalaftothefirstthreegenerationsofIslammdashtheageoftheProphetMuhammadandhiscompan-ionstheirsuccessorsandthelatterrsquosimmediatesuccessorsmdashbuteventhesenarrowviews

21

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

contemporaryEuropeTariqRamadananinfluentialSwissArabphilos-opherhasarguedthatMuslimslivinginWesternsocietiesoughttofeelathomeinandcontributetoward thosesocietieswhileretainingandcultivatingtheirdistinctIslamicidentityHetooappearstoseehimselfinthegenealogyofwhathecharacterizesasldquoSalafireformismrdquo(onthischaracterization see Ramadan 2004 26ndash27) and he has echoed Qa-radawiinsomeofhisviews(cfRamadan199993ndash99) Other Salafis have remained staunchly opposed to institutions andpracticesofaWesternprovenanceAnespeciallyinfluentialfigureinthegenealogyofthelatterpositionistheeighteenth-centurypuritanicalre-former Muhammad ibn lsquoAbd al-Wahhab (d 1792) whose alliance in1744 with Muhammad ibn Salsquoud contributed to the establishment ofthefirstSaudistateinthelateeighteenthcenturyIbnlsquoAbdal-WahhabwashostilenotonlytoShilsquoismandtoSufidevotionalismbutalsotoany-thinghedeemednottobeinstrictconformitywiththeteachingsofthefoundationaltextsTherewasmuchthatseemedtohimtofailthisstan-dardallofwhichhebrandedasoneoranotherformofunbeliefTheWahhabismdashas the followers of Ibn lsquoAbd al-Wahhab are oftenknownthoughtheyprefertothinkofthemselvessimplyasgoodMuslimsoratbestasSalafismdashoftenadheretothelegalnormsoftheHanbalischooloflawthoughitistheteachingsofthefoundationaltextsirrespectiveofthisoranyotherschooldoctrinethattheyprofesstofollowThemoststringentoftheSaudiSalafisaswellasotherselsewhereareaveryfarcryindeedfromwhatQaradawiwouldcharacterizeasldquocentristrdquoSalafireformersletalonefromtheearlytwentieth-centurySalafimodernists

ThepoliticalviewsoftheWahhabisandmorebroadlyoftheSalafisare likewiseanythingbutuniformInSaudiArabiaWahhabireligiousscholarshavelongaffirmedaquietistpoliticalstancewhichhasmeantleavingmattersofthestatetotherulingfamilyFormuchofthehistoryofmodernSaudiArabiatherulingelitefor itsparthas imposedfewconstraintsontheSaudilsquoulamainmattersofreligiouslifetheregulationofsocialnormsandjudicialadministration(cfVogel2000)Onseveraloccasions however this relationship has come under severe strain In1979agroupofWahhabiswhorejectedthelegitimacyoftheSaudistateyethadtieswithsomeprominentreligiousscholarsmdashincludinglsquoAbdal-

feelconstrainedtomakeroomforsuchreveredfiguresasAhmadibnHanbaltheputativefounderoftheHanbalischooloflawandthefourteenth-centuryDamascenescholarIbnTaymiyya(d1328)OtherviewsarerathermoreexpansivenotjustinchronologicalbutalsoandcruciallyinintellectualtermsThusMuhammadlsquoAbduhthoughtthesalaftoalsoincludesuchtheologiansasal-Ashlsquoari(d935)al-Baqillani(d1013)andal-Maturidi(d944)SeeHourani1983149SuchaviewobviouslyopensthedoorforpreciselythesortoftheologicaldebatesthatotherSalafisaswellasIslamistsoftenfrownuponfortakingthebelieversveryfarfromthesimpleanddirectwordsofGod lsquoAbduhrsquosdiscipleRidaagaintookanarrowerviewofthesalafandlaterinhiscareerbecameastrongdefenderoftheWahhabisCfHourani1983230ndash32

22

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

lsquoAzizBinBaz(d1999)laterthegrandmuftiofSaudiArabiamdashtookoverthesacredprecinctsoftheKalsquobainMeccainashort-livedbutextremelyembarrassingchallenge toSaudi royalauthority (cfHegghammerandLacroix2007)In1990KingFahdrsquosdecisiontoinviteAmericantroopstodefendthekingdomagainstthethreatofanIraqiinvasioncreatedwide-spreadresentmentamongSaudis theeffectsofwhichcontinue to thisdayThestationingofnon-MuslimmilitarypersonnelinIslamrsquosholiestlandwasdeemedbythekingrsquoscriticstobescandalousandevensacrile-giousAnumberofprominentSaudiSalafispubliclycriticizedthekingrsquosdecisiononthisoccasioncallinguponhimaswellasonBinBazandoth-ersatthehelmoftheSaudireligiousestablishmenttoreorienttheSaudipolitytowarditstruereligiousfoundationsManyofthesedissidentsmdashwhowerealsojoinedbyldquosecularrdquoSaudicriticsoftheroyalfamilymdashwereandhaveremainedrestrainedintheircriticismevenastheycalledforstricterconformitytoIslamicnormsasthepanaceaforallills(cfFandy1999)OthershoweverhavedenouncedtheroyalfamilyanditsWesternalliesinnouncertaintermsBinLadenisonlythemostnotoriousofthosewhobrokewiththeroyalfamilyinthewakeofKingFahdrsquosdecisiontoinviteWesterntroopsin1990andwhocalledfortheoverthrowoftheroyal familyand for jihadagainstWesternpowers Such strident callshavebeencontinuedbyotherSalafisbothbeforeandaftertheterroristattacksofSeptember112001aswellasintheaftermathoftheUS-ledinvasionofIraq(al-Rasheed2007)

ItshouldbeclearinlightoftheforegoingthatanyunderstandingofthedifferencesbetweenIslamistsandtheSalafismustrestontakingac-countofthediversityamongtheSalafisSalafiswhooftenrejectmuchoftheIslamicscholarlytraditioninfavorofadirectrecoursetothefoun-dationaltextsarenotnecessarilyrenderedldquoIslamistrdquosimplybyvirtueofthisstanceForasnotedmanyoftheseSalafiscontinuetoprofessareso-lutelyquietiststancewhichinthecaseoftheSaudiSalafismeansaf-firmingallegiancetotheSaudiroyalfamilyThispositionisrepresentedforinstancebyBinBaztheerstwhilegrandmuftiaswellasbyotherleading members of the Saudi religious establishment A pro-regimestanceoroneindifferenttopoliticsisnolessldquopoliticalrdquoofcoursethana position of strident hostility to the established order at home andabroadForourpurposeshoweveritisonlywhentheSalafisrejecttheexistingdispensationandbeginstrivingmdashthoughnotnecessarilythroughmilitantmeansmdashforanewreligio-politicalorderthattheycanbesaidtojointheranksoftheIslamists

ItisworthnotingfinallythatSalafipositionsamongSaudisandelse-wherearemarkednotonlybydiversitybutalsobyconsiderablefluidity(al-Rasheed 2007) The same activist or intellectual might at varioustimesmoveamongavarietyofseeminglyincompatiblepositionsmdashap-pearingtobemoreldquomoderaterdquoonsomeissuesthanonothersForallhiscriticismofradicalIslamistsQaradawiforinstancehashimselfwrittenin justificationofsuicidebombingsbyPalestiniansagainst Israelis (see

23

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

chapter 9 on Qaradawi) And Saudi Salafis like Safar al-Hawali andSalmanal-lsquoAwdamdashwhocame toprominence in the early1990smdashhavealternatedbetweencriticismoftheSaudipoliciesanddenunciationsofradicalSalaficallstojihadagainsttheSaudiregime(seeal-Rasheed200759ndash101onal-HawalialsoseeReichmuth2006)Theirshiftingviewsreflect changes in their relations with the Saudi regime but they alsopointtothebroadspectrumofpositionswhichSalafishavetakenatdif-ferenttimesindifferentcontextsandbeforedifferentaudiencesThusevenasal-Hawaliandal-lsquoAwdahavecondemnedterroristactsdirectedagainstSaudiArabiaandadvisedSaudisnottofightAmericantroopsinpostndashSaddamHusseinIraqtheyhavecalledupontheIraqisthemselvestoresistAmericantroopsandhavecharacterizedthateffortasaldquodefen-sivejihadrdquo(al-Rasheed200794ndash95)

Sufi s and Islamists

ItseemsmuchsimpleronthefaceofittodistinguishbetweenIslamistsandSufisThecharacteristicSuficonvictionthattherearelevelsofmean-ingintheQurrsquoanthatgobeyondtheliteralandtheobviousandthataselectfewmdashtheldquofriendsofGodrdquomdashareendowedwiththeuniqueabilityto discern them is anathema to all those who insist that God intendsHisteachingstobeequallyintelligibletoallDespitetheirtendencytoviewthemselvesasbearersof true Islam Islamists typicallyregard theSufi idea that somepeoplehaveaprivileged relationshipwithGodassuspectthebasisnotonlyforsanctioninginterpretationsofIslamthatlackwarrantintheplainteachingsofGodandtheProphetbutalsoforpracticallyldquoworshipingrdquothesefriendsofGodIslamists(andmodernists)havefrequentlyalsobeencriticalofthewaySufidevotionalismcanyieldaturningawayfromtheworldratherthananefforttochangeitaswellasapreoccupationwithpersonalspiritualtransformationattheexpenseofconcernsforthewelfareofthecommunityatlarge SufipracticesandtheteachingsoftheSufimastershavevariedenor-mouslythroughoutthehistoryofIslamyetIslamistcritiquesofSufismareseldomattentivetoitsnuancesortothecomplexwaysithasrelatedtootherfacetsofIslamNorhaveIslamiststakenmuchaccountofthefactthatmanyleadingfiguresofearliertimeswerebesidesmuchelseSufisaswellThisistrueevenofIbnTaymiyya(d1328)whoseprestigeinIslamistandSalaficirclesismatchedbyfewothersandwhowasinhisdayamemberoftheQadiriSufiorder(Makdisi1974)EvenifonearguesmdashasanIslamistmightbeinclinedtomdashthatldquogoodrdquoSufismisnoth-ingbutproperIslamitselftheveryfactthatsuchfigureshadaSufiiden-tityatallnecessarilycomplicateswhatissupposedtobethepristinesim-plicityofafaithsharedequallybyallbelievers

Complicatingthingsstillfurtheristhevarietyofwaysinwhichsomeleading Islamists relate to Sufism Ayatollah Khomeini was a lifelongstudentofIslamicmysticismandtheinfluenceofthemedievalSpanish

24

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

Sufi Ibn lsquoArabi loomed especially large in his thought To Khomeinimysticismmdashoften referred to as lsquoirfan (gnosis) especially when inter-twinedwithIslamicphilosophyandtheology(Knysh1992632)mdashwascrucialtoaproperunderstandingofGodrsquosrelationshipwiththeworldandwiththehumanbeingItwasalsoessentialforonersquosethicalforma-tionforamasteryovertheselfandultimatelyforrealizinginoneselftheattributesofwhat Ibn lsquoArabihadcalledldquotheperfectmanrdquo (cfKnysh1992 635 also Mottahedeh 1985 180ndash85) Some of the austerity ofKhomeinirsquospersonallifeprobablyalsoderivedfromSufiasceticismAndthoughheanchoredhisconceptionofIslamicgovernmentinanexposi-tionofShilsquoijuridicalthoughtratherthaninIslamicmysticismthesortofreligiousauthorityhecametoenjoyonthebasisofhisreformulationofShilsquoipoliticaltheologyseemstoechomysticalideasoftheperfectmanwho embodies and upholds the moral order as the microcosm of theuniverse

UnlikeKhomeiniQutbwasnotaSufiandhegivesnoindicationofsharinganyofKhomeinirsquosenthusiasmforthegreatSufithinkersofear-liertimesEvensoechoesofamysticrsquosdirectencounterwiththefoun-tainheadoftruthandknowledgearehardtomissinQutbrsquoswritingses-peciallyinhiscommentaryontheQurrsquoan(cfCarreacute200395ndash97)TheveryfirstsentenceofhiscommentarymdashldquolifeintheshadeoftheQurrsquoanisablessingunknowntoanyonewhohasnrsquottasteditrdquomdashevokesthefa-miliarSufiideathatincontrovertibleknowledgeofRealityisultimatelyacquired only through direct personal experience (dhawq that is theldquotasterdquooftheTruth)ThegreatmedievalSufial-Ghazali(d1111)hadauthoredafamousautobiographicalaccountofhowitwasonlythroughthe immediacyofhispersonalmysticalexperience thathewasable toovercomehisdebilitatingepistemologicaldoubtsandreassurehimselfofthenecessarytruths(Watt199857)QutbdoesnotmentionGhazaliinthiscontextbutitisdifficultnottobestruckbythemysticalresonanceofsomeofhislanguageHereisoneexamplewhichoccursinhiscom-mentaryonsura(chapter)53oftheQurrsquoan16

16TheearlyversesinthissuraoftheQurrsquoanhavebeenunderstoodbyMuslimexegetesasreferringtotheProphetrsquosrevelatoryexperienceaswellastohisldquonightjourneyrdquoandhisascensiontoheavenormilsquoraj inthecourseofonenighthewastransportedfirstfromMeccatoJerusalemandthentothepresenceofGodbeforebeingreturnedtoMecca

UnrelatedtothenightjourneybutrelatedtohisrevelatoryexperiencestheexegeticalsignificanceofthisQurrsquoanicsuraalsoliesinitsconnectionwiththeso-calledSatanicVersesAccordingtocertainexegeticalreportsMuhammadwasinthecourseofreceivingarevela-tionwhenSataninterpolatedsomeversesintoitmdashversespraisingthreegoddessesreveredbythepolytheistsofMeccaItwasnotuntilsometimelaterthatMuhammadrealizedhiserrorwhereupontheversesinterpolatedbySatanwereremovedTheepisodeoftheldquoSa-tanicVersesrdquohasbeenacontroversialoneinIslamichistorylongbeforeSalmanRushdiersquosnovelofthatnameandKhomeinirsquosjuridicalruling(fatwa)callingforRushdiersquosdeathMostMuslimscholarshavefoundittooshockingtobelievethattheProphetcouldhavemadesuchagrievouserrorandhavedeniedthatanysuch incidentever tookplaceYetsome

25

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INTRODUCTION

IwaschattingoneeveningwithsomecompanionswhentoourearscamethesoundofsomeonerecitingtheQurrsquoannearbyrecitingtheSuraoftheStar[al-Najm]andweinterruptedourconversationtolistentotheNobleQurrsquoanLittlebylittlemyheartenteredintowhatwasbeing recited into theheartofMuhammadashe jour-neyedtotheHeavenlyHostIwaswithhimashesawGabrielintheangelicforminwhichGodhadcreatedhimIwaswithhiminhis loftyandfree-flying journey to theLoteTreeof theBoundaryandtheGardenoftheRefugeIwaswithhimtotheextentthatmyimaginationcouldformavisionofitandtotheextentthatmyfeelings couldbear itThen came the final cry andmywholebeingshookatthefearfulreproachldquoDoyoumarvelatthisdiscourseanddoyoulaughandnotweepandmakemerryrdquo[Q5359ndash61]WhenIheardldquoBowdownbeforeGodandserveHimrdquo[Q5362]thetremblinginmyhearthadbecomeaphysicalandvisibletremblingthroughoutmybodythatIcouldnotresistMybodykeptshakingandIcouldnotcontrolitNorcouldIholdbackthetearsthatwerepouringforthhowevermuchItried(QutbZilalvol7part2774ndash75quotedfromCarreacute2003333ndash34withminorchanges)

TheQurrsquoanrsquosprofoundimpactontheaestheticsensibilitiesofitslisten-ersisafamiliarmotifindiscussionsofitsliteraryqualities(cfGrahamandKermani2006)AssomeonewhoseearlywritingswereconcernedwithArabicliterarycriticismandspecificallywiththeliteraryexcellenceoftheIslamicscripture(Qutb1949b)QutbwasespeciallyreceptivetothisaspectoftheQurrsquoanThesenseofbeingtransportedbacktothetimeoftheProphetandtowitnessingtheProphetrsquosascension(milsquoraj)tothepresence of Godmdashwhich is how the passage being commented on byQutbherehascommonlybeeninterpretedbytheexegetesmdashcanlikewisebeseenasanillustrationoftheoverpoweringimpactthewordsoftheQurrsquoancanhaveonthebelieverQutbrsquosaccountofconversingwithGodthrough the Qurrsquoan (cited earlier) is again something he may havewantedtoseeallbelieversdoYetallbelieverscanscarcelydosoany-morethanallaspirantsevenontheSufipathcanexperiencethetransfor-mativemysticalldquostatesrdquothatGodbestowsonHisspecialfriends(awlshyiya)IrrespectiveofwhetherhesawitinquitethiswayQutbrsquosassertionthatheisabletoenterldquointotheheartofMuhammadrdquoandtoseeGabrielasMuhammad sawhimsurelygiveshimaperspective thatothers en-counteringthewordofGoddonothave

ThepointisnotofcoursethatQutbwaseverrecognizedbyhisfol-lowersasaSufimasterbutthatsomeofthehermeneuticalauthorityheclaimshasadistinctiveSufiringtoitMorebroadlythesortofunques-

leadingscholarsofearlyandmedievalIslammdashincludingIbnTaymiyyamdashacceptedthehisto-ricityofthisincidentSeeSAhmed1998

26

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INTRODUCTION

tioningreligio-politicalauthorityIslamistleadershaveoftenenjoyedovertheirfollowersisnotunlikethatoftheSufimasteroverhisfollowersBe-ginningwithHasanal-BannathefounderoftheMuslimBrotherhoodandoncehimselfamemberofaSufiordertheleaderofthisorganizationis formally referred to as themurshid (guide)ormore specificallyalshymurshid alshylsquoam (thegeneralguide[RMitchell1993165])whichisafamiliartermforthemasterinSuficontextsForhispartAbdessalamYassine the founder and leader of lsquoAdl warsquol-Ihsan Party of Morocco(oftenreferredtoastheJusticeandSpiritualityAssociationorJSA)haslike Khomeini gone well beyond simply echoing Sufi conceptions ofauthorityinhisowndiscoursesHetoowasonceamemberofaMoroc-canSufiorderandhehascontinuedtodrawonSufithemesinhiswrit-ingsTheverynameofYassinersquospoliticalorganizationevokesacentralSufiideanamelyihsanThisisaQurrsquoanicterm(cfQ756)thattrans-latedliterallymeansldquotodogoodrdquothoughSufishaveunderstoodittomeanmuchmore thanthatFollowingawell-knownstatementattrib-uted to theProphetMuhammad theyhaveoften interpreted ihsan tomeangoingbeyondtheexternalsofIslamicritualpracticestoldquoworshipGodasifyouseeHimrdquo(Schimmel197529)thatiscultivatingasenseof personal communion and intimacy with God Even as Yassine hassoughttodistancehimselffromwhathedeemstobetheexcessesofSu-fismthereislittledoubtthathispoliticalappealowesmuchtocarefullycalibratedeffortstocombinedistinctiveSufiideaswithhisownbrandofIslamism(cfLauziegravere2005seealsochapter12onNadiaYassineinthisvolume)

FinallyMawdudirsquosJamalsquoat-iIslamimdashoneoftheearliestIslamistorga-nizations in the Sunni worldmdashillustrates both the Islamistsrsquo complexrelationshipwith Sufismand their pragmatic recognitionof its appealinmanyMuslimsocietiesMawdudihadoncebeenaharshcriticofSu-fismblamingitformanyillsafflictingMuslimsocietiesYettheJama-lsquoat-iIslamigraduallycametosoftenitsstanceonSufipracticesconsider-ablynodoubtintheinterestofbroadeningsomeofitssupportbaseinPakistanwheresaintsandSufishrinesareanimportantpartofthereli-giousandpoliticallandscapeAlreadyinMawdudirsquoslifetimeMianTufaylMuhammadhissuccessorastheheadoftheJamalsquoat-iIslamihadtakentheextraordinaryinitiativeoftranslatinganearlySuficlassictheKashf alshymahjub into Urdu The author of this work Shaykh lsquoAli Hujwiri(d1072)isburiedinLahoreinPakistanandhismuch-frequentedshrineishometoprecisely thesortofdevotionalpractices that Islamistsandmodernist reformers letaloneSalafishaveoften frownedupon (Nasr1996124)

ThesediverseexamplesarenotintendedtoobscuretherealdifferencesbetweenthegeneralityofIslamistsandmostSufisTheirsignificanceliesratherinillustratingthedifficultyofdistinguishingbetweenIslamismandotherreligiousintellectualandpoliticaltrendsintermsofneatcharac-

27

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INTRODUCTION

terizationsofgrandtranslocalgeneralizationsAstheforegoingsuggeststhesameistrueandmoresowhenitcomestocharacterizingIslamistsinrelationtothelsquoulamatheMuslimmodernistsandtheSalafisIndeedasLorenLybargerhasarguedwithreferencetothoseusuallycharacter-izedasldquosecularnationalistrdquoorldquoIslamistrdquoPalestiniansintheWestBankandGazadifferenceswithintheranksofyoungsecularnationalistsandIslamistscansometimesalsoshadeintosignificantsimilaritiesbetweenthesesupposedlyrivalorientations(Lybarger2007)ManyIslamistshavesoughttodistancethemselvesfromwhattheyseeastherigidityandau-thoritarianismofotherIslamistsandtoarguenotjustfortheimplemen-tationofthesharilsquoabutalsofordemocracyandpluralismConverselynot a few of the younger secular nationalists have ldquoadopted IslamisttheodiciesthatexplainedthefailuretoovercomeIsraelastheresultoffallingawayfrompietytheirconclusionsmirroredIslamistonestootheroadbackfromthebrinkhadtotraceitscoursethrougharenewedcom-mitmenttoIslambutnotnecessarilyinthemannerthattheIslamistmove-mentsmighthaveintendedrdquo(Lybarger2007237ndash38quotationat238)

Yet ifneatcategoriesremainelusiveacombinationoftheIslamistsrsquoself-consciouslypoliticalgoalstheirmultifacetedifnotalwaysexplicitpoliticalcritiquesofmanypastandpresentwaysofunderstandingandlivingIslamandanunshakeableconfidenceintheirownabilitytodis-cern Godrsquos will from the foundational texts do often provide enoughgrounds tobroadlydistinguish themfromotheractivists intellectualsand orientations in the Muslim public sphere What this combinationamountstovariesfromonesocialpoliticalreligiousandculturalcon-texttoanotherandsothereforedothewaysinwhichIslamistsrelatetooneanotherorcompeteandoverlapwithothergroupsandorientations

The Politics of Islamism

FromAeneasrsquosmythicalfoundingofRometothedeathandresurrectionofJesusChristtoMuhammadrsquosmigrationtoMedinafoundationalnar-rativesareascommontocollectivelifeasthemovementsthatperiodi-callyarisetorevivethemandclaimantstothemantleoflegitimacytheyconferSounderstoodIslamistsrsquopoliticalaspirationstorestorefounda-tionslocatedinamythicalpastarefarfromuniqueNorareIslamistsaloneintheirconvictionthatscripturalauthorityisguaranteedbyitsdi-vineauthormdashforinthatallMuslimsagreeRatherthechaptersinthisvolumesuggest thatwhatmakes Islamistpoliticsdistinctive (ifnotsui generis)istheclaimtorecuperateanldquoauthenticIslamrdquocomprisedofself-evidenttruthspurgedofalienandcorruptinginfluencesalongwithaninsistenceonremakingthefoundationsofthestateinitsimageGiventhelimitsofhumanunderstandingrelativetoGodrsquosknowledgeIslamistssimultaneouslydepictsuchfidelitytotheunadulteratedwordofAllahas

28

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INTRODUCTION

theultimateexpressionofdeferencetodivineomniscienceandportrayhumilityasaconstitutivefeatureofthehumanconditionAspirationstofullyknowandmasterthenaturalandsocialworldsthusentailnotonlyahumanhubrisdeaftotheQurrsquoanicadmonitionthatldquoAllahknowsbutandyoudonotknowrdquo(Q366)butalsoatransgressionagainstadi-vinely-ordainedontologicalorder

ItisnotablehoweverthattheIslamistemphasisonthelimitsofhumanknowledgerequireshumilityonlyinrelationtoAllahitrarelyyieldshu-milityinregardtotheirownclaimstospeakinHisnameortowardotherhumanbeingswhodissentfromthepremiseofdivineomnipotenceandIslamistaccountsofwhat it requiresThis suggests thatwhile IslamistchallengestostatepowerareobviouslypoliticaltheIslamistclaimtoau-thenticityisalsopolitical inthecoercivepoweritroutinelyenactsandjustifiesmostnotablybywayofthesilencesitimposesandthedebatesitforeclosesAzizal-Azmehpointsoutthatldquothenotionofauthenticityisnotsomuchadeterminateconceptasitisanodeofassociationsandin-terpellationsatropebymeansofwhichthehistoricalworldisreducedtoaparticularorderandatokenwhichmarksoffsocialandpoliticalgroupsandforgesandreconstituteshistoricalidentitiesrdquo(al-Azmeh199341)WhetherintheserviceofArabnationalismChristianfundamental-ismEuropeanromanticismorMuslimmodernismtheclaimofauthen-ticityisanactofpowerthatfunctionsnotjusttoreflecttheworldbuttoconstructitbydeterminingwhoisincludedandexcludedwhomayandmaynotspeakauthoritativelywhatistheproperrealmofdebateandwhatisbeyondcontestation

ItiscertainlythecasethatasingleldquoIslamrdquocapturesandorganizestheperspectivesofmillionswhoself-identifyasMuslim(amongotherthings)yetwhattravelsunderitsrubricisinescapablydiversemultiethnicanddefined asmuchbydisagreement as consensus Just as theTorah andBible lend themselves toat times radicallydivergent interpretationsofwhatitmeanstobeJewishorChristiantheQurrsquoanandhaditharecom-plexandsusceptibletomanydifferentandattimescontradictoryenact-mentsSounderstoodIslamislessafixedessencethanalivingtraditionthatcaptureswhatisimaginedascontinuousandunitaryindialecticalrelationshiptothoseconcretearticulationsandpracticesbywhichitistransformedandadaptedindifferentcontextsforpluralpurposesItispreciselythisunderstandingofreligionthatisanathematoIslamistswhoseek tofix theparametersof Islamicauthenticityonceandforallandtherebyarrogateforthemselvestherighttodeterminewhoqualifiesasagood Muslim to discredit those lsquoulama unable or unwilling to purgeIslamofpurportedimpietiestodeclarenominallyMuslimrulersapos-tatesunfittogovernandtocharacterizeallwhodisagreeascorrupthe-reticalguiltyofunbelieforvictimsoffalseconsciousness

Thesegeneralpoliticaltendencieshowevermustbecarefullysituatedwithinadialecticoftheglobalandthevernacularunderstoodtoreflect

29

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INTRODUCTION

thewaysinwhichunifyingmacrohistoricaldynamicsinformandareinturntransformedbydiversecontingentandfluidlocalcircumstancesInaworldstampedbyWesterndominanceandtheconsolidationofpostco-lonial authoritarian regimes Islamists confront a common set of con-straintsandchallengesInasmuchassuchconstraintsandchallengeshavemade Islamist thinkers (often reluctant) participants in conversationsacrossbothcultureandhistorytheireffortstoremakethefoundationsofcollectiveliferevealasharedinterpretiveframeworkandcommonreli-gio-political grammar At the same time this frame and grammar arecontinuallybeingreworkedinrelationtothedistinctpublicspheresinwhichIslamistsoperateandtowhichtheycarefullycalibratetheirpoliti-calcommitments

Attention to this complex dynamic suggests that the Islamist move-mentcannotsimplybecharacterizedasviolentantidemocraticandop-pressiveofwomenlabelsinvokedsofrequentlyinscholarlyandpopularliterature on the subject that they have become virtually synonymouswithIslamistpoliticsSuchcharacterizationsdocapturecrucialdimen-sionsofIslamistpoliticsyettheyalsosidesteptheparadoxesitsvarie-gatedandoftencontradictoryexpressionspresentInsteadwearguethatIslamistpoliticscanbeproductivelyreadin terms ofandagainst the grain ofsuchbroadcategorizationsasantidemocraticantiwomanorviolentmdashthat is as commitments that at different moments in various localesbothencourageandconstrainbroad-basedpoliticalparticipationdisruptandratifyhierarchicalgendernormsresistandreproducestate-sanctionedbrutalityThepointofreadingIslamistpoliticsinthiswayisnottosug-gestthatIslamistsaresecretlydemocraticfeministandopposedtovio-lenceRatherthepointistodrawattentiontothecomplexityandcon-tradictionserasedbyeasygeneralizationsontheonehandandtheoftenunacknowledgedfluidityandculturaladaptabilityofotherwisefamiliarpoliticalcategoriesontheother

Islamism and Democracy

DespiteimportantdifferencesamongIslamistthinkerstheyhaveincom-monatendencytoviewhumansovereigntyastransgressiveofdivinelawandsharetheaspirationtoestablishsharilsquoaastheprimaryorsolesourceofauthorityAsisoftennotedsuchpremisesandaspirationsrunafoulofassumptionsaboutpopularruleattheheartofdemocracynamelythathumanbeingshavetherighttolegislaterulesforcollectivebehaviorandarecapableofthewisdomrequiredtodevisejustlawsInrecentyearspolicymakersandcommentatorshaveevincedaparticularpreoccupa-tionwiththewaysinwhichIslamistnotionsofdivineauthoritythrottlethespiritandpracticeofpopularsovereigntySomehaveevengonesofarastocharacterizeIslamistsasldquoIslamo-fascistsrdquoanimatedbyhatredoftheldquodemocratic Westrdquo psychologically unable to contend with the fluidity

30

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INTRODUCTION

andindeterminacythatmarkpopularruleandeagertoconvertelectionsintoaldquoone-manone-voteone-timerdquomechanismforestablishinganIs-lamicstate(Murdock2002MRubin2005Kramer1993)

SuchviewsareechoedbythoseIslamistskeentoportraydemocracynotonlyasantitheticaltothesupremacyofdivinelawbutasaTrojanhorseforWesternimperialismFormanyIslamistsincludingseveralinthis volumedemocracy is justone symptomofametastasizingmoralandspiritualbankruptcywherebymoraltransgressionsaretransfiguredintonaturalurgescrassself-interestbecomesthebedrockofcollectivelifeandthedivineplanfortheuniverseandallthingsinitisreducedtoa system of physical causality just waiting to be mastered by way ofhumaningenuity(REuben2007)Qutbcallsthisdiseasedviewoftheworldjahiliyyaanditsignalsnotonlyhumanarrogancebutatransgres-sionagainstdivineauthoritythescopeofwhichencompassesbothpub-licandprivatedomainsofhumanaffairsaswellasbothvisibleandun-seendimensionsoftheuniverseFormanyIslamistssuchtransgressionisattherootofmuchofwhatpassesforMuslimruleinthecontemporaryworldmdashnationalistdemocraticandmonarchicalalikeSucharroganceisalsosaidtobethepatternunderlyingalonghistoryofunrelievedWest-ernaggressionagainstIslaminwhichtheChristianCrusadesEuropeancolonialismIsraelitreatmentofPalestiniansethniccleansinginBosniaGermananti-TurkishviolencetheAmericaninvasionofIraqandDutchcartoonsofMuhammadarebutafewexamples

YetthereisarangeofviewsamongIslamistsaboutboththesubstanceofdemocracyanditscompatibilitywiththereligio-politicalrenewaltheyadvocateAccordingtoQaradawiforexampleldquotheessenceofdemoc-racyisthatpeoplechoosewhorulesoverthemandmanagestheiraf-fairsthatnorulerorregimetheydislikeisforceduponthemthattheyhavetherighttocalltherulertoaccountifheerrsandtoremovehimfromofficeincaseofmisconductandthatpeoplearenotforcedineco-nomicsocialculturalorpoliticaldirectionsthattheyneitherrecognizenor acceptrdquo (Qaradawi1997132 also chapter9 in this volume)TohimthereisnoheavierburdenoppressingMuslimsinthecontemporaryworld thandespotism indeed it is throughdespoticgovernments thatMuslimshavebeenforcedtosubmittootherillsincludingtheneglectofthesharilsquoaandthecoerciveimpositionofsecularismandwesternizationDemocracy then recommends itself to Qaradawi as the most effectiveavailableantidotetodespotismandtheafflictionsofwhichitservesasavehicle

WheremanyamongtheIslamistsandthelsquoulamahaveseenconsider-able tensionbetween IslamanddemocracyQaradawiprofesses to seenoneAswesuggestedearlierbyfarthemostcommonoftheIslamistreservationsaboutademocraticsystemrelatestothesovereigntyofthepeoplewhichistakentocontravenetheideathatGodaloneissovereignQaradawi however is unperturbedby such concernsThe rule of the

31

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INTRODUCTION

peopleoughttobeseenhearguesnotinoppositiontotheruleofGodbutratherinoppositiontotheruleofthedespotMorefundamentallyQaradawirsquos view of democracy does not necessarily require that thepeopleshouldbeabletooverturndivinelyinstitutednormsRatherhisassumptionisthatpeopleexercisetheirsovereigntywithinconstitutionalboundsandMuslimslivinginapredominantlyMuslimdemocraticpol-itywouldlikewisenotwishtotransgresstheparametersoflegitimatehumanactionlaiddownintheIslamicfoundationaltexts(seeQaradawichapter9inthisvolumeandcfFeldman2007)

NadiaYassineofMoroccorsquosJusticeandSpiritualityAssociationisan-othercaseinpointWhilecriticalofthedemocraticgesturesembracedbyamonarchythatshedepictsasallergictogenuinelypopularsovereigntyYassineinsiststhatthemodelofMuslimruleadumbratedintheummafoundedbytheProphetMuhammadandinparticulartheConstitutionofMedina17isnothingshortofdemocratic(NYassine2005d2005e)UnliketheMuslimdynastiesthatarosetousurpitYassinecontendsthiscommunity was participatory egalitarian committed to freedom andexpressiveofGodrsquosmercyMostimportantitwasgovernedalwaysbytheQurrsquoanicprincipleofshura (consultation)bywhichYassinemeansaphilosophy of power that places sovereignty in the community ratherthaninanyindividuallinksvirtuetodeliberationratherthanobedienceandexhortsbelieverstocontinuallyadaptQurrsquoanicprinciplesthroughijtihad rather than adhere reflexively to precedent (N Yassine 2006a182ndash862005d)ManyscholarsandjournalistsremainskepticaloftheJSArsquosasyetuntestedcommitment toproceduraldemocracyandworrythatNadiaandher fatherAbdessalamultimatelyseektoestablishanIslamic state inhospitable to tolerance pluralism and civil liberties(Maghraoui2001Brandon2007Whitlock2006)YetothersarguethattheJSAisagenuinelypopulistorganizationthatrepresentstheunrepre-sentedtendstothewelfareofthedispossessedandbothexpressesandcontributestoanincreasinglyvibrantcivilsocietyinMorocco(Cavatorta2006Entelis2002)

QaradawirsquosandYassinersquosargumentstogethersuggestthatdemocracycanandhasservedaseitheracosmeticcoverfordespotismoranauthen-ticallyIslamiccheckuponcorruptandarbitraryruleAtissueinIslamistargumentsforandagainstdemocracythenarenotonlywhatcountsasldquoauthenticIslamrdquoandtheintentionsofthosewhoclaimtoknowitbutalsothecontentandcharacterofdemocracyitselfParadoxicallybothIslamistsopposedtodemocracyandthosewhotakeIslamismasinher-entlyantidemocraticregardthisasasimplematterwithanobviousan-swerdemocracyisanexpressionofandevensynonymouswithliberal-ismcapitalismandtheWestYetdemocracyisbothmorecapaciousand

17TheConstitutionofMedinawasanagreementtheProphethadenteredintowiththelocalcommunitiesincludingJewishtribesuponhisemigrationfromMeccatoMedina

32

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INTRODUCTION

moredistinctthanthispresumptionsuggestsTheworditselfofcoursederivesfromtheancientGreekdemokratiawhichmeansrule(kratos)ofthepeople(demos)andmanyderivetheequationofdemocracyandtheWestfromthisassociationwithclassicalGreeceYetancientGreekphi-losopherssuchasPlatosawindemocracythespecterofmobrulepartic-ularly vulnerable to demagoguery and despotism (a suspicion notablyechoedbyAmerican founder JamesMadison)Contrary to thedemo-cratic idealof inclusivenessmoreover citizenship inGreekdemocracyexcludedasubstantialpartofthepopulationincludingwomenslavesandforeignersFinallytheextenttowhichtheancientGreeksmayevenbecalledWesternisamatterofgreatdisputeparticularlyastheldquoWestrdquoisacategoryofrelativelyrecentprovenancethroughwhichhistoryandgeographyhavebeenretroactivelyorganized18DespitedepictionsoftheHellenicworldasWesternancientGreeksdidnotinfactviewthem-selvesintheseterms19

TheequationofdemocracywiththeWestalsopresupposestheexis-tenceofacoherentldquoWesterncivilizationrdquowitheitherculturallyhomoge-neousrootsorclearlydelineatedhistoricalandcontemporarybounda-riesorbothYetwhatiscalledtheWestisanamalgamationofmultipletraditionsincludingtheGreekRomanJudaicChristianandIslamicmdashtraditionsthatarethemselvespolyvalentratherthanhomogeneousmdashandistodaycharacterizedbyporousbordershybridsubculturesandmyriaddebtstodiversecivilizationspastandpresent20AsageographicmarkeritisvirtuallyimpossibletopinpointexactlywheretheWestbeginsandendsandthisisespeciallysonowthatpeoplesinformationandmate-rial goods crisscross cultural andnational borders atwill creating allkindsoftransnationalsubnationalandmultipleidentitiesthatshiftandreconstitutethemselvesinunpredictablewaysEventhosevaluesidenti-fiedasWesternoftenappearelsewhereinotherguisesIndeedscholarssuggestthatavarietyoftheldquostandardsexportedbytheWestanditscul-turalindustriesthemselvesturnouttobeofculturallymixedcharacterifweexaminetheirculturallineagesrdquo(Pieterse199553)

Manyalsoarguethatdemocracyisnotonlydistinctfrombutinten-sionwithboththetheoryandpracticeofpoliticsinldquoWesternrdquosocieties

18MichaelGillespie(19997ndash10)arguesthattherereadingofhistorygeographyandculturethroughtheprismofthissenseofldquotheWestrdquobegannoearlierthanthenineteenthcenturyTheideaofatimelessandbrightlinebetweenWestandEastisalsochallengedbyJeremyBrottonrsquosstudy(19989096ndash97)ofthediplomaticandintellectualexchangesbe-tweenEuropeandtheOttomanEmpireintheearlymodernperiodBrottonshowsnotonlytheextentandamityofsuchexchangesbutapersistentuncertaintyaboutwherepreciselyEuropeldquoendedrdquoandAsialdquobeganrdquo

19AncientGreeksunderstoodthemselvesasgeographicallywestofthebarbariansbutnotWesterninthecontemporarysensethatisasbothaculturalandhistoricalcategory

20StevenRuncimanrsquoswork(19543480)ontheCrusadesforexampledemonstratesaldquolongsequenceofinteractionandfusionbetweenOrientandOccidentoutofwhichourcivilizationhasgrownrdquo

33

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INTRODUCTION

many of which are more accurately classified as liberal and capitalist(Wood1994Wolin2001BallandDagger1999)Whileitisnowcom-monplacetospeakofldquoliberaldemocracyrdquoinasinglebreathliberalismanddemocracyareconceptsandpracticeswithverydifferenthistoriesandpresuppositionsUnlikedemocracyforexampleliberalismemergedfromthecrucibleofChristianreligiouswarsandintandemwiththeas-cendanceofamiddleclassthatpresagedtheendofEuropeanfeudalismTheliberalnation-statecanthusbeviewedasbothanexpressionandaconsolidationofcapitalismontheonehandandtheprincipleofasepa-rationbetweenchurchandstateontheotherBycontrastthereisnoth-ingaboutdemocracyeitherasasystemofgovernanceoracultureofpar-ticipationthatisinherentlysecularIndeedAlexisdeTocquevillefamouslyinsistedthatAmericandemocracycannotandshouldnotbesecularasreligionhelpsshiftattentionawayfromimmediatematerialpreoccupa-tionstolargerconcernsofcommunitycooperationandmoralityInfactmanydemocratictheoristsarguethatgenuinelyinclusivepopularsover-eignty is antithetical to the sharp inequalities of wealth and politicalpowerthatcapitalismoftenproducesandlegitimates

SuchongoingdefinitionalandsubstantivedebatessuggestthatthereismuchmoreatstakeindemocraticpoliticsthanprocedurespertainingtogovernmentauthorityandorderandpointtoawidespreadifelusiveunderstandingofdemocracynotjustasasetofinstitutionsbutasTocque-villesuggestsawayoflifeSeveralpoliticaltheoristshavecharacterizedthiselusiveunderstandingintermsofaldquodemocraticethosrdquoBythistheymeanbothanidealandanargumentforacultureofparticipationactivepowersharingmutualaccountabilityinclusivenessanddeliberationinwhichcitizensmayroutinelyandsafelychallengenotonlyspecificpoli-ciesandpolitical institutionsbutalso thevalues thatgoverncollectivelifeprinciplesofinclusionandexclusionandthepremisesofauthorityitself(Connolly1995JPEuben2003Sadiki2004)AdemocraticethosismuchmoredifficulttomeasureorquantifythanforexampleSamuelHuntingtonrsquosparsimoniousdefinitionofdemocracyasapolityinwhichtherehavebeentwoconsecutivepeacefulchangesofgovernmentbywayof freeand fairelections (Huntington1991)21Yetademocraticethosmakesitpossibletobothrecognizeanddisaggregatethepreconditionsaspirations mechanisms and institutions bundled into ldquodemocracyrdquotherebybringingintofocusforexamplethefrequentlyantidemocratic

21Manypoliticalscientistsprefertodefinedemocracyintermsofproceduresdesignedtorealizepopularruleincludingfreecompetitiveandfairelectionsalongwithstateprotec-tionofcertainrightsandlibertiesSuchaformalminimalistdefinitionhastheadvantageofdetachingdemocracyfromquestionsoforiginsandofferingastandardtowhichallgov-ernmentsmaybeheldregardlessofcultureandplaceAsKeithTopper(2005205ndash7)ar-gueshoweveritalsotendstosidestepknottyquestionsaboutthesubstanceofrepresenta-tion power responsiveness and accountability that are arguably central to democraticpolitics

34

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

casttoelectionsimposedbyelitesorforeignpowersthefeltimpotenceofmanycitizensinestablisheddemocraciesandthosehighlyparticipa-torycivilsocietiesthatflourishevenundermonarchicortheocraticrule

Forourpurposes inparticularademocraticethosmakesvisible theparadoxofanIslamistmovementthatseekstomobilizeordinaryMus-limsagainstcoercivepowerbutinthenameofareligio-politicalorderlargelyimmunizedfromchallengeQutbisanaptillustrationhereashistendencytogroundhisownspecialauthorityandinsightintheunsulliedwisdomofordinarybelieversmakesitpossibletoreadhisworkaseitherabriefagainstdemocracy(amongotherthings)oranenactmentofitIn-asmuchasdemocracyasaformofgovernanceisidentifiedwithpopularsovereigntyQutbrsquosbasicpremisethat thefoundationof legitimateau-thoritymustbedivineratherthanhumansuggeststhatheisunambigu-ouslyantidemocraticMoreoverQutbrsquoseffortstopluralizereligiousandpolitical authority express not a confidence in common wisdom butratheradesiretoclaimforhimselfthestatureofareligiousexpertwhodespitehislackofIslamicacademiccredentialscanclearlyseewhatoth-erscannotQutbcharacterizestherealIslamasself-evidentbuthealsoassumesthatonlyasmallvanguardofbelieversbesideshimselfwillhavetheabilitytorecognizeitandactdecisivelytoremaketheworldinitsimageSounderstoodthesignofldquochosennessrdquoisunyieldingcommitmenttoestablishingareligio-politicalorderthatsimultaneouslypresumesthesupremacyofthefewcapableoftrueknowledgeandpromisesaworldinwhichdissentitselfwillbecomebothunnecessaryandillegitimate

Yetifdemocracyrefersnotonlytoasystemofgovernanceorsetofprocedurestorealizepopularsovereigntybutalsotopracticesthatdis-ruptthoseforceswhichconcentratepowerandestablishpoliticalexclu-sionthecharacterizationofQutbrsquosworkassimplyantidemocraticmissesa crucial dimensionof its significance and appealAs the sacred textscontaintherulesandregulationsmeanttogovernbothpublicandpri-vateaffairsQutbrsquosinsistencethatordinaryuntrainedMuslimsmusten-gagethemdirectlyisinmanywaysademocratizationofaccesstoau-thoritySuchaccesscandisruptdeeplyentrenchedpatternsofpowerandpowerlessness particularlywhen conjoined to Islamist arguments thatarbitrarypowerisun-Islamicthatreligiousknowledgedependsoncom-mitmentratherthantrainingorexpertise thatMuslimshavetherightandobligationtodeterminewhenrulersareillegitimateandthatthosewhopreferordertojusticesecuritytofreedomandmoneytopietyhaveforfeitedanyclaimtoauthority

ThisaspectofIslamismhasfrequentlybeencomparedtotheProtestantReformationandmorespecificallytoCalvinistsrsquoattemptstotransferldquore-ligiousauthorityawayfromofficiallysanctionedindividualswhointer-prettextstoordinarycitizensrdquo(EGoldberg19913alsocfLoimeier2005)Suchaparallelhassparkedagreatdealofscholarlyspeculation

35

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

regardingapossibleldquoIslamicReformationrdquo22andarangeofargumentsaboutwhetherandhowIslamismmightfacilitatethedemocratizationofMuslim societies much as the Protestant Reformation is said to haveheralded the emergence of European ldquoliberal democracyrdquo While suchcomparisonsareevocativeafullerunderstandingof IslamismrequiresfirstsituatingitinrelationtoahistoricalshiftinthenatureandlocusofreligiousauthorityinIslambeginninginthenineteenthcenturyAsschol-arsofMuslimsocietieshavepointedouttheimpactofmasseducationnewtechnologiesfordisseminatingknowledgeandinformationanddra-matically changed social economic and political contexts have madeavailabletoamateurswhathadpreviouslybeenthepurviewofreligiousexpertsAtthesametimeithasinauguratedafragmentationofauthor-itywithintheveryranksofthelsquoulamathatcontinuestothepresentday23

InthiscontexttheascendanceandinfluenceofautodidactssuchasQutbHasanal-BannalsquoAbdal-SalamFarajandBinLadensimultaneouslyex-pressandaccelerateanongoingrenegotiationofauthorityoverwhomayspeakforIslamandonwhatbasisthepathofwhichisstillunfoldingandtheoutcomeasyetuncertain

Islamism and Gender

One already apparent consequence of this ongoing renegotiation overwhomayspeakforIslamandonwhatbasisistheentryofwomenintothe interpretive fray This development is increasingly unsettling thoseunwrittengendernormsarguablyattheveryheartofIslamistthoughtdisruptingthestandardsofmasculinityandfemininitythatreflecthowparticularculturesorganizehumanbeingsrsquosocialandreproductiveactiv-itiesintorolesthatareinturnthoughttoexpresstheldquonaturerdquoofmenand women Such norms are frequently considered tangential to theknottyproblemsofdefiningIslamismandadumbratingitscentralideasyetarangeofscholarshiponculturespastandpresenthasshownthatgenderisconsistentlytheterrainoverwhichbattlesforpoliticalcontrolandculturalidentityarefoughtMorespecificallyresearchindisciplinessuchasanthropologyhistoryclassicsandpostcolonialstudieshasdem-onstratedthatculturesinwhichfemalebodiesandbehaviorareregardedas indicesofmoralpurity tend to symbolically transformwomen intoconduitsof cultural corruption in timesof internal crisis and externalthreat(Papenek1994Chatterjee1990Tavakoli-Targhi1991Just1989Cohen1991Welter1966Bloch1978)Thisisespeciallytrueofcontem-

22Foralatenineteenth-centuryassessmentoftheprospectsforaldquoMuhammadanRefor-mationrdquoseeBlunt1882132ndash73

23EickelmanandPiscatori199637ndash39131ndash35Zaman2006Suchfragmentationhasinmanywaysbeenacceleratedbytheexplosionofdigitalcultureswhichpromoteamongotherthingsaldquoformofempoweredamateurismrdquo(Mirzoeff20026)

36

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

poraryreligio-politicalmovementswhosememberstendtoldquoidealizepa-triarchalstructuresofauthorityandmoralityrdquoendorsegenderdualismasgod-givenornaturalandcondemnvigorouslyrecentchangesingen-derrelationsasasymptomandsymbolofsecularistmoralbankruptcy(Riesebrodt1993Moghadam1992Hawley1994)

SeveralchaptersinthisvolumeilluminateIslamistgendernormsbyre-vealing thecharacterandcontentof Islamistconcernsabout theplaceandpurityofMuslimwomenmdashpreoccupationsFatimaMernissi(199199)hasgonesofarastocharacterizeasanobsessionDespiteimportantdifferences among Islamists thinkers many endorse gender norms inwhichthefairlyconventionalinsistencethatfemalenatureisdefinedinand through reproduction undergirds an understanding of women assymbolsofmoralvirtueandvesselsofculturalpurityThisviewsustainstheclaimthatmenandwomenareequalinreligiousbeliefbutperformfundamentallydifferentandcomplementaryfunctionsinsocietyWhilemenarenaturallymadetoruleinboththepublicandprivatedomainawomanbelongsinthedomesticrealmwhereherprimaryroleistobeawifeandmotheraswellastoinsuretheintegrityofthefamilythefirstschoolofmoraleducationAssuchfunctionsarerootedinaninescap-ablehumannaturefashionedbyGodawomanrsquosinabilityorunwilling-nesstoperformherdutiessignalsadisobediencetothedivinewillandpresages the corruption of the Muslim family from within From thisvantagepointtheWesterninsistenceonfullequalitybetweenthesexesisdoubly pernicious it at once liberates women from basic moral con-straintsandenslavesthemtomutuallyreinforcingsexualandcapitalistexploitationAsMurtazaMutahhari(1998xxxi)arguescapitalismmakesuseofwomentomarket itsgoodsldquoby trading inhonourandrespectthrough[their]powertoenticerdquotherebyldquotransform[ing]manintoaninvoluntaryagentofconsumptionrdquoInasmuchaswomenareresponsiblefor producing the next generation of Muslim men destined to restoreIslamtoitsformergloryitisnotonlythevirtueofwomenortheinteg-rityofthefamilythathangsinthebalancebutthefutureofIslamiccivili-zationitself

Zaynab al-Ghazali andMutahharimake several of these argumentsexplicitlyandindetail(seechapters10and11)butinmuchofIslamistrhetoricthenatureandsignificanceofwomenareestablishedindirectlyandsymbolicallyandthroughthreerecurrentimagesinparticularThefirstisofwomenassilentsymbolsofculturalmoralandsexualvulnera-bilityvoicelessfiguresinneedofmasculineprotectionorwhenitistoolatedefiledbodiesthatmutelydemandvengeanceSoforexamplelsquoAb-dallahlsquoAzzam(oneofBinLadenrsquosmentorsseechapter18)graphicallydetailstheagonizinghumiliationofyoungmenunabletoactwhentheAfghanwoman isldquocryingout forhelpher childrenarebeing slaugh-tered her women are being raped the innocent are killed and theircorpsesscatteredrdquo(lsquoAzzam1987a)Inthesecondimagewomenfunction

37

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

muchlikeachorusthatspeaksinpermittedcadencestoratifymasculineendeavorsSuchisthecaseforexampleinBinLadenrsquos1996ldquoDeclara-tionofWaragainsttheAmericansOccupyingtheLandoftheTwoHolyPlacesrdquo(seechapter18)wherethewomenexhortmentojihadinthefollowing way ldquoPrepare yourself like a struggler the matter is biggerthanwordsAreyougoingtoleaveusforthewolvesofKufr[unbe-lief]eatingourwingsWherearethefreemendefendingfreewomenbyarmsDeath isbetter than life inhumiliation Some scandals andshameswillneverbeotherwiseeradicatedrdquo24InthethirdimagewomenarecreaturesnotofthisworldbutofanothervirginalrewardsforthecourageousmartyrintheafterlifeThisisevidentinthefinalinstructionsforthe911hijackersforexamplewhereMuslimldquobrothersrdquoareurgedto purify their carnal impulses sharpen their knives for the dhabh (slaughter)andheedthecallofthehur lsquoayn (theblack-eyedones)await-ingtheminParadise(seechapter19)

Such rhetoric primarily registers women as an extensionmirror ormeasure of masculinity and together with explicit Islamist argumentsabouthumannatureandthefamilyarticulatesIslamistgendernormsinwhichmenandwomeneachhaveaproperlocationandpurposeinadi-vinely ordained social hierarchy Deviance from this gendered scriptthussignalsdisruptionofamuchbroaderreligio-politicalorderitbothpresumes and seeks to bring into existence The disruption caused byforeign aggression in particular exacerbates the tendency to translateconflict into an assault on Muslim masculinity and to conceptualizewomenaspotentialvehiclesforWesterncorruptioninneedofguidingand guarding Women such as Zaynab al-Ghazali and Nadia Yassinewho seek a prominent place and voice within the Islamist movementhavehadlittlechoicebuttocontendwiththisgenderedscriptDoingsohasentailedamongotherthingsnavigatingcarefullybetweenIslamistcharacterizations of womenrsquos visibility and agency as symptomatic ofthe new jahiliyya on the one hand and essentializing arguments thatequateIslamwithveilingfemalegenitalmutilationandhonorkillingsontheother

AsthechaptersonGhazaliandYassinesuggestIslamistwomenhavenegotiatedbetweensuchconstraintsandpressuresandtheirownambi-tionsindifferentwaysApioneeringdalsquoiya(onewhoinvitesMuslimstogreater piety)Ghazalirsquos own life reveals a fierce resistance to conven-tionalnormsofdomesticityevenasmuchofher(earlier)workappearsto embrace an Islamist gender ideology that defines women as wivesmothers andldquobuilders ofmenrdquo (al-Hashimi 1990 118)By contrastYassineisawifeandmotherwhoembracesanldquoIslamicfeminismrdquothatrequiresldquoreappropriatingtheinstrumentsofclassicaltheologyrdquoanden-

24TheIslamistjournalSawt alshyJihadhasgonesofarastofeatureldquowomenrsquosvoicesrdquointheformofrolemodelsnamedforexampleumm alshyshahid(motherofthemartyr)al-thoughitisunclearthattheseldquovoicesrdquoareactuallywomenrsquos(SUsher2004)

38

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INTRODUCTION

gaging the textsdirectly through ijtihad (NYassine2003) In this re-spect Yassine must be understood as part of a broader effort amongMuslimwomenwithdifferentpoliticalcommitmentstosimultaneouslyadvocateandenacttheirrighttorecuperatetheldquooriginalintentrdquooftheIslamictextsIfwomenandmendoinfacthavedistinctperspectivesontheworldYassinesuggestswomenhaveaspecialobligationtoexcavatewhattheyseeasthegenderparityoftheQurrsquoanburiedbeneaththoseldquomachointerpretationsrdquoofIslamuponwhichmenhavebuilttheirprivi-legeandpower(Khalaf2006)25

ManyAnglo-AmericanandEuropean feministsworry that Islamistsseekonly to secureor restorepatriarchalpowerConverselymany Is-lamist women view feminism as a term and a movement inescapablyWesterninoriginfreightedwiththelegacyofcolonialismanduneasilyimplicatedinculturalimperialismThisapplieseventoYassinewhoisunwillingtoadoptwithoutqualificationalabelsheassociateswithagen-dasopposedtoherowntheWesttheMoroccanstateMaghribi(North-westAfrican)elitesYetfeminismitselfisahighlycontestedtermwithin theso-calledWestitisthebearerofmultiplemeaningssomeofwhichareevenopposedandischaracterizedbydeepdisagreementsaboutwhowomenarewhatwomenneedwhoisauthorizedtoworkonwomenrsquosbehalf andbywhatmeans Inasmuch as these various feminismsmayshareonlyastatedconcernforwomenrsquoswelfarethereisnothinginco-herentinmodifyingldquofeminismrdquowithldquoIslamicrdquoldquoMuslimrdquoorevenldquoIs-lamistrdquounlessone iscommitted toarguing thatfirst Islam isanun-changingessencebeyondhistorypoliticsandculturesecondthereisaneutralobjectivevantagefromwhichtoidentifythisessenceonceandforallandfinallytheIslamicessencesoidentifiedisfundamentallyin-compatiblewitheffortstoimprovetheconditionsandqualityofwomenrsquoslivesBythesametokenIslamistwomenwhorejectthetermfeminismcanbe(althoughnotalwaysare)deeplycommittedtoimprovingwom-enrsquoswelfareaswellasactivelyresistanttoeffortsthatreduceortrans-formthemintosilentaccessoriesofmalepower

YassineandGhazalidifferaboutwhatwomenareandshouldbeyetbroadlyspeakingbothmaybeconsideredpartofarecenttrendtowardthe feminizationofdalsquowa Dalsquowa literallymeanscallappealor sum-monsbutthetermhascometosignifyavarietyofpracticesandargu-mentsmeanttoexhortinviteandguideMuslimstowhatisregardedasproperconductandmoraldevotionWomenrsquosparticipationindalsquowais

25WomenrsquosparticipationintheldquoproductionofofficialIslamicknowledgerdquohasalonghistoryalthoughtheyhaveoftendonesoinrelativeobscurityandwithoutthebenefitofeducation in the Islamicsciences thathas legitimateddirectengagementwith thesacredtexts (Cooke 2001 xiv Badran and Cooke 2004) Pioneering attempts to read genderequalityinIslamarealsonotconfinedtowritingbywomenasevincedbyQasimAminrsquosTahrir alshymarrsquoa [TheLiberationofWoman] (1899)andMumtaz lsquoAlirsquosHuquqshye niswan [TheRightsofWomen](1898)

39

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

notabrandnewphenomenonasisevidentinGhazalirsquosworkwiththeEgyptianSocietyofMuslimLadiesinthe1930sYetfromEgypttoPaki-stantoSaudiArabiatotheUnitedStatesthenumberoffemaledalsquoiyashasproliferatedexponentially inrecentyears(Cooke2001Mahmood2005Hirschkind2006)Thisreflectsinpartcurrentdoctrinalempha-sesondalsquowaasincumbentuponbothmenandwomenanddependentlessupontechnicalknowledgethanmoralvirtueandpracticalfamiliaritywiththeIslamictradition(Mahmood200565ndash66)It isalsoaconse-quenceofrecentpoliticalandsocioeconomictransformationsinMuslimsocietiesincludingtheexpansionofmasseducationthathasnotonlyin-creasedwomenrsquosliteracyandsocialmobilitybutalsomadeIslamictextsmoreaccessibletheproliferationoftechnologiesmdashfromthecassettetapetotheInternetmdashthatfacilitatethecirculationofreligiousknowledgeevenamongthosewhocannotreadortraveltheprecedentsetbythevigorousparticipationof IranianwomeninpostrevolutiondebatesaboutIslamandthemodeloflegalactivismevidentintheIslamistmovementrsquosownchallenge to the lsquoulamarsquos status as gatekeepers of religious knowledge(Singerman2005Mir-Hosseini1999)

If Ghazali and Yassine exemplify the feminization of dalsquowa amongelitesthemosquemovementinEgyptillustratesthegrowingparticipa-tionofwomenfromdiversesocialbackgroundsinreligiousclassesde-votedtostudyinganddebatingwhatIslamrequiresforawomantobeldquomorallyuprightrdquointhecontemporaryworld(Mahmood2005)Con-ceptualizingpiety in termsof adeepandholistic commitment to self-transformationparticipantsinthemosquemovementareconcernedlesswithmattersofsovereigntyandpoliticsconventionallyunderstoodandmorewiththeldquomoralcultivationrdquoofthosedailypracticesseenascrucialtobecomingclosertoGod(Mahmood2005)SomeIslamistshavecriti-cizedthis focusonpracticesofworshipasapoliticalandoverlypriva-tizedyetsuchcriticismmissestheforceofIslamistsrsquoowninsistenceondin(religion)asawayoflifeinwhichthedomainsofpublicandprivateare inextricably linked26AsSabaMahmood (2005193194) showsthesewomenrsquosintenseeffortsatldquoretrainingethicalsensibilitiesrdquohavealdquosociopoliticalforcerdquothatextendswellbeyondmattersofgovernancefacilitatingnolessthantheemergenceofaldquonewsocialandmoralorderrdquoEvidenceofitstransformativepowermaybefoundnotonlyinthesheernumbersandvarietyofwomenmdashwealthyandpoor literateand illiter-atemdashparticipatinginthemosquemovementbutalsointherhetoricalandpoliticaleffortsbythestateandsomeIslamiststocurtailcontrolordis-creditit(Mahmood200571194)

26ParticipantsinthemosquemovementinturnareoftencriticalofwhattheyseeasthereductionofIslamtotokensofculturalauthenticityorofitsinstrumentalizationbybothnationalistsandIslamiststheycharacterizeasmoreinterestedinpoliticalmaneuveringthanreligiouspiety

40

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

Understoodtoincludebothwrittenandembodiedpracticesthefemi-nizationof dalsquowa illustrates theways inwhichwomen fromdifferentperspectivesandsocialclassesareinsistingonengagingthesacredtextsdirectly for and with one another without the mediating authority ofmenwhohavetraditionallyheldthemonopolyonsuchactivitiesAsSu-danese Islamist Lubabah al-Fadl argues ldquoAs an insan [human being]whohappenstobeawomanIhavearighttorejectthemanipulativeexegesesofoursharilsquoa thatthreatenmyexistenceinawaythat isnotconsistentwiththeGodlywayandtoapplymyownijtihadtorectifyer-roneoustendenciesbysomeshuyukh[pluralofshaykh]rdquo(Sadiki2004290)DespitetheproliferationofvoicesintentonclaimingforthemselvestheauthoritytodemarcatewhatisauthenticallyIslamicandun-Islamiconceandforallcontestationoveritsscopeandmeaningproceedsapacefacilitatedatleastinpartbywomenformerlyexcludedfromtheconver-sationAtthesametimeIslamistwomenrsquosagencyandclaimstoauthorityarefrequentlystillpredicatedonawillingnesstofollowfairlypatriarchalrulesaboutwherehowandwithwhomtheymaypracticetheirvocation(Hirschkind2003Sadiki2004283)

Islamism and Violence

IfgenderisfrequentlyanimplicitpreoccupationamongIslamistsjihadisarguably Islamistsrsquomost consistently explicit concern Jihad is derivedfromtheArabicverbthatmeanstostruggleortostriveyetitisaparticu-larkindofstruggle that isofconcern tomanyof thefigurescollectedheretheoftenviolentstruggleagainstapostatesandinfidelsbothathomeandabroadtowhicheveryindividualMuslimmustcontributeTheclaimthatfightingunbelieversisthepreeminentenactmentofindividualMus-limpiety seems to justify characterizationsof Islam ingeneral and Is-lamisminparticularassanctioningevenencouragingviolenceYetwhatIslamistsrepresentasjihadtout courtisahistoricallyspecificunderstand-ingderivedfromahighlyselectiveuseoftextsandprecedentsprominentamongthemaformerlyobscureclaimbytheinfluentialfourteenth-cen-tury jurist IbnTaymiyya thatMongol rulerswhohad contravened Is-lamiclawcouldbesubjecttoforcibleremovalFarfromadefinitiveex-pressionof Islamldquoproperlyunderstoodrdquo such Islamist argumentsnotonlymarkasignificantdeparturefrommuchofantecedentdoctrineandpractice but also diminish the importance of ongoing disagreementsamongMuslimsabouttheformandpurposesofjihad

TobeginwithMuslimscholarshavetendedtoconsiderjihadagainstforeignenemiesafard kifaya(collectiveobligation)thatisadutyagroupofpeoplewithinthecommunitymayperformonbehalfoftherestandonethatpresupposesalegitimateMuslimleadertodeclareorleadthechargeJuristshavedistinguishedthisfromthefard lsquoayn(individualduty)thatmustbefulfilledbyeverysingleMuslimincasesofdefensivejihad

41

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

thatiswhentheummaisunderattackManyIslamistsincludedheretakeamuchlessnuancedviewofjihadAsamodeofpoliticalactionQutbarguesjihadmustberegardedasaldquopermanentconditionnotanocca-sionalconcernrdquoonethatincurrentcircumstancesrequiresdeedsratherthanwordsstruggleratherthancontemplationrevolutionathomeaswellasresistanceabroad(Qutb199167ndash6882)lsquoAbdal-SalamFarajarguesalongsimilarlinesthatthenatureoftheattackonIslammakespolitical authorization by a caliph (ldquodeputyrdquo referring to a legitimatesuccessortotheProphetrsquosleadership)unnecessaryafterallldquoleadershipovertheMuslimsis(always)intheirownhandsifonlytheymakethismanifestIfthereissomethinglackingintheleadershipwellthereisnothingthatcannotbeacquiredrdquo(Jansen1986asec93)

SuchargumentsareadeliberaterejectionofearlyMuslimmodernistswhohademphasizedthelargelydefensivecharacterofjihadandsoughttoshowthatrelationsbetweenMuslimsandnon-MuslimswerenormallypeacefulratherthanantagonisticMahmudShaltut(d1963)therectorof al-Azhar from 1958 to 1963 had argued for example that theQurrsquoanicversesonfightingldquoprohibittheprovocationofhostilityandthisprohibitionisreinforcedbyGodrsquosrepugnancetoaggressionandbyhisdislikeofthosewhoprovokehostilityrdquo(Peters199674onShaltutseeZebiri1993)ConversionbyforceisanathematoIslamShaltutaversandfightingiscommandedonlyindefenseinresponsetoaggressionini-tiatedbyothersEvendefensivejihadmustaimatldquotheterminationoftheaggressionandtheestablishmentofreligiouslibertydevotedtoGodandfreefromanypressureorforcerdquo(Peters199675)

ManyIslamistsexplicitlydismisssuchargumentsasasymptomoffalseconsciousnessoneamongmanydestructiveeffectsofcolonialdomina-tionMawdudiargues for example thatwhile imperialists ravage theworld to satisfy their greed jihad alone ldquoconjures up the vision of amarching band of religious fanatics with savage beards and fiery eyesbrandishingdrawnswordsandattackingtheinfidelswherevertheymeetthemrdquoHavinginternalizedthis imageMuslimsrushtoapologizeandrenouncearmedstruggleInthiswayhelamentscolonialistsretaintheexclusiverighttoldquofightwitharmsandammunitionwhilewearecon-tented with our pen and our tonguerdquo (Mawdudi 1948 1ndash3) SayyidQutbforhispartagreedthatIslamdoesnotcountenancespreadingitsmessagebyforceandcoercionyethehadlittlepatiencewiththosewhosoughttopresentjihadaslegitimateonlyinself-defense

IfweinsistoncallingIslamicjihadadefensivemovementthenwemustchangethemeaningofthewordldquodefenserdquoandmeanbyitldquothedefenseofmanrdquoagainstallthoseforcesthatlimithisfreedomWhenwetakethisbroadmeaningofthewordldquodefenserdquoweunder-standthetruecharacterofIslaminthatitproclaimstheuniversalfreedomofeverypersonandcommunityfromservitudetoanyother

42

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

individualorsocietytheendofmanrsquosarroganceandselfishnesstheestablishmentofthesovereigntyofAllahandHisLordshipthrough-outtheworldandtheruleofthedivinesharilsquoainhumanaffairs(Qutb199050)

Qutbdoesnotnameanynamesincastigatingtheldquowriterswithdefeatistandapologeticmentalities[who]writeaboutlsquojihadinIslamrsquoandtrytoremovethislsquoblotrsquofromIslamrdquo(Qutb199046)buthecouldverywellhavehadhisdistinguishedfellowEgyptianMahmudShaltutinmind

These arguments about jihad may be said to constitute a commongrammarandframeworkofanalysisformanyIslamistsalthoughseveralthinkers in this volume carefully calibrate such claims to suit variouspurposesanddifferentpublicspheresInhisjustificationfortheassassi-nationofEgyptianpresidentAnwaral-SadatforexamplelsquoAbdal-SalamFarajdepictsthestruggletoreclaimthemoralfoundationsoftheEgyp-tianstateasafightagainstjahiliyyafromwithinarguingthatthejihadagainstacorruptnationalistregimeathomemusttakeprecedenceoverfightingenemieselsewhereTheCharterofHamas(seechapter15)how-everinsiststhatallMuslimsrecognizetheprimacyofthejihadforJeru-salemweldingIslamistrhetorictothatofnationalistresistanceinanef-fortbothtofightIsraelioccupationandtocompeteforadherentswiththePalestinianLiberationOrganization(PLO)IncontrasttobothFarajandHamasBinLadenembracesaglobaljihadthatessentiallycollapsesdistinctionsbetweennationalandinternationaloffensiveanddefensivefightingenemiesathomeandthosefromafar

Yet despite such differences these arguments tend to presume thatviolent jihad is a necessary response to the pervasive power of thosewithdemonstratedhostilitytoMuslimliveslandspietiesandsensibili-tiesaformofretaliationwhoseurgencyandlegitimacyderivefromtheviolencemdashpsychologicalandeconomicaswellasphysicalmdashoftheinitialassaultThisviewofjihadsubsumesindividualsintoarchetypesofldquoin-fidelsrdquoandldquobelieversrdquoandinsodoingvitiatesmoreconventionaldis-tinctionsbetweenforexamplesoldierandcivilianorcollectiveandin-dividual responsibility It is far from inevitable that thosewhoharborsuchviewswillautomaticallyactuponthemyetthecarnagewroughtbytheattacksontheWorldTradeCenterandthePentagonin2001aBalinightclub in 2002 Madrid commuter trains in 2004 and throughoutIraqonadailybasissuggestjusthowlethalsuchclaimscanbegiventheright circumstances The fact that such violence does not discriminateamongvictimsonlyfurtherfuelsrhetoriccharacterizingIslamistsasirra-tional fanatics ldquoin love with deathrdquo terrorists animated by a religioncharacterizedbyapropensityforviolenceandauthoritarianism27

27AnxietiesabouttheparticularsusceptibilityofMuslimstoirrationalityinsularityandfanaticismhavealonganddistinguishedpedigreeinEuro-AmericanhistoryandpoliticalthoughtSeeforexampleRenan18833

43

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

AsinsomanyothermattershoweverIslamistsarehardlyofonemindonthesubjectofjihadindeedthereareIslamistswhoexplicitlyrejectthereductionof struggle toviolenceAcase inpoint isNadiaYassine(20032005c)whoinsiststhatjihadisthededicatedstruggleagainstisshytikbar(arrogance)particularlyinitscommonformasthelustforpoweranddominationAsjihadagainstistikbarisbothafinalgoalandapre-scriptionforactionYassinesuggestsitisantitheticaltoviolentpracticesthataimatdominationTheprimaryinstrumentsofjihadarenotbombsbutwords particularly thosedeployed in the art of persuasion (Fara-marzi2005NYassine2006a)WhenIslamistssuchaslsquoAbdal-SalamFarajandlsquoUmarlsquoAbdal-RahmanseektolegitimizeviolentrevolutionbyrecoursetoIslamictextsshearguestheycontravenethetruemeaningofjihadtoservetheirownarrogantendsBythesametokenBinLadenrsquosdecisiontoldquofightevilwithevilandbarbaritywithbarbarityrdquonotonlyviolatesspecificIslamicprohibitionsagainstharmingcivilianswomenandchildrenbutalsobetraystheethicalimperativetoembodythemes-sageofamercifulGodwhocautionsbelieversthat(Q8822)ldquoYouhavenopoweroverthemrdquo(NYassine2005cDaily Excelsior2002)

SuchpersistentdisagreementsamongMuslimspastandpresentsug-gest that Islam isnomore inherently violent andbloody-minded thanitmdashorChristianityor Judaism for thatmattermdashis inherentlypeacefulIslamists often claim to speak for an unchanging authentic Islam thatexistsoutsideoftimeandspaceyetthepoliticalpurchaseoftheirper-spective derives from the ways it assembles disparate yet recognizablecontemporaryexperiencesofsufferingfrustrationandlossintoanex-planationthatresonateswithMuslimswholiveincommunitiescultur-allylinguisticallyandgeographicallydistantfromoneanotherTheex-tenttowhichIslamistargumentsresonatebroadlyacrossMuslimsocie-tiesthusdependsuponasetofexperiencesandphenomenathatmarkthisparticularmomentinhistoryincludingthewaysinwhichcontempo-raryglobalinequalitiescompoundalegacyofhistoricalasymmetriestocontinuallyreproduceasenseofMuslimpowerlessnessmdashbothrealandimaginedmdashrelativetotheWestcontinuingEuro-Americanpoliticalandfinancialsupportofcorruptautocratsmanyofwhompresideoverna-tion-statesbrutallystitchedtogetherbyWesternfiat thepersistenceofauthoritarian regimes eager to control domestic unrest by catalyzingldquoMuslimragerdquotowardexternaltargetsthesenseofemasculationpro-ducedbydecadesofpoliticalrepressionandeconomicfrustrationandthecontinualflowofimagesofbloodiedMuslimbodiesdeliveredbyaburgeoningarrayofvideosatelliteandelectronicmedia

It is notable that the understanding of jihad many Islamists proffermirrorstheverystate-sanctionedviolenceagainstwhichtheyhavestrug-gledforalmostacenturyAlongwiththousandsofMuslimscaughtinthemachineryoftwentieth-centurystateviolenceprominentIslamistsfromQutbtoGhazalitoAymanal-Zawahirimdashal-Qalsquoidarsquossecondincommandmdash

44

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

arewellknowntohavebeenradicalizedbyextendedandoftenbrutaltermsofincarcerationinEgyptSyriaIraqJordanIsraelAlgeriaandelsewhere(onal-ZawahiriandprisoncfKepelandMilelli2008152ndash54)ItisthusfarfromsurprisingthatIslamistsforgedbyinterrogationtortureinprisoncampswouldconcludethatthepreeminentenactmentofMuslimpietyisviolentstruggleldquoPrisonrdquoasPalestinianKhaledAbuHilalhassaidldquoismyuniversityrdquo(Erlanger2007)anargumentmadeingreaterdetailinadifferenttimeandplacebyRussianwriterandrevolu-tionaryMaximGorky(1868ndash1936)

Apeoplebroughtupinaschoolthatremindsoneofthetormentsofhellonasmallscaleapeopleaccustomedtotheclenched-fistprisonandthewhipwillnotbeblestwithatenderheartApeoplethatthepoliceagentshaveriddenoverwillbecapableintheirturnofwalk-ingoverthebodiesofothersInacountrywhereunresthasreignedsolongit isdifficultforthepeopletorealizefromonedaytothenextthepowerofrightOnecannotdemandfromamanwhohasneverknownjusticethatheshouldbejust(Gorky1920)

InthiscontextasTimothyMitchell(1990195ndash96199207ndash8)suggestsIslamistviewsoftheworldcanbecharacterizedasbothamodeofresis-tancetostatemechanismsofcoercionandanexpressionofthemSuchisthedynamic evident inGhazalirsquosmemoirs for examplewhen shede-scribeshowtheldquodarknessofprisonsthebladesoftortureandthevi-ciousbeatingsonly increasetheenduranceandresolveofthefaithfulrdquo(Ghazali19786)

There is no doubt a great deal of pragmatism at work in IslamistargumentsaboutviolenceAsQutb(19916447ndash48)drylynotesthepathtofreedommustoccasionallybehewnbywayoftheswordbecausetyrants are not reasoned out of power and ldquojahiliyya is not lsquoabstracttheoryrsquo[it]consciouslyorunconsciouslystrivestopreserveitsownexistence to defend its essence to annihilate dangerous elementswhichthreatenitsverybeingrdquoYetitisalsothecasethatformanyoftheseIslamistsjihadisbothameansandanendanefforttoeradicatethoseobstacles torestoringa justcommunityonearththatsimultane-ouslybringshumanaction intoaccordwithGodrsquosplansandpurposes(Haddad198321)While theQurrsquoan (2256) states thatldquothere isnocompulsioninreligionrdquoIslamistscontendthatonlyinastateinwhichIslamiclawreignssupremearehumanbeingsfreefromenslavementtooneanotherrsquosruleandallareequalbyvirtueoftheircommonsubmissiontoGodAsQutb(1991107ndash8)argues

WhenthehighestauthorityinsocietyisGodalonemdashexpressedintheruleofdivinelawmdashonlythenishumanitytrulyandcompletelyliber-atedfromslaverytomenOnlythisisldquohumancivilizationrdquobecausetheessentialfoundationofhumancivilizationisthetrueandcom-

45

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

pletefreedomofhumanityandtheabsolutedignityofeveryindivid-ualinsocietyThereisnotruefreedomanddignityforhumanityortheindividualinasocietywheresomepeoplearelordswholegislateandothersareslaveswhoobey

From this perspective the realization of justice liberty equality andchoiceitselfnecessitatestheforcibleremovaloftheconstraintsimposedbyjahiliyyaalongwiththosewhoaidandabetitno matter the costAsMawdudi(1954160ndash61)writes

[W]hyisitthatinreligionsuchimportanceisgiventojihadthattheQurrsquoanpronouncesthejudgmentofhypocrisyuponthosewhoshirkandevadeitJihadisbutanothernamefortheattempttoerectthesystemoftruthandtheQurrsquoandeclaresjihadtobeatouchstoneonthesamefootingwithamanrsquosfaithInotherwordshewhohasfaithinhisheartwillneitherbecontentwiththedominationofthesystemofevilnorwillhegrudgetheexpenditureoflifeandwealthinthestruggleforerectingthesystemoftruthIfoneshowsweaknessinthismatterhisfaithitselfisdoubtfulWhatcananythingelsebesidethenprofithimThemanwhoprofesses faith in this religioncannotfulfillhisdutyonlybytryingasfaraspossibletopatternhislifeonIslamThenatureofhisfaithitselfrequiresthatheshouldconcentrateallhiseffortuponwrestingleadershipfromunbelievingandcorruptmentoentrustittotherighteousanduponerectingthesystemoftruththathasbeenordainedfortheconductoftheworldaccordingtothewillofGodBecausethisendisunattainablewith-out thehighestdegreeofcollectiveeffort theremustexistarigh-teouscommunitycommittedtotheprincipleoftruthanddevotedtothesolepurposeintheworldoferectingmaintainingandproperlyrealizingthesystemoftruth

ThefactthatsomeIslamistthinkerssanctifyviolentstruggleinsuchtermsdoesnotmeanofcoursethatallthosewhoadvocateorengageinjihadendorseviolence28NordoesitimplythatthosewhoclaimtokillforIslamareentirelywithoutulteriormotivesthosemanipulativepur-poses andpsychologicalmotivations that even themost rarified scrip-turalargumentscanexpressorserveWhattheprecedinganalysisdoessuggesthoweveristhatthereductionofthisviewofjihadtoirrationalbloodlusttheself-interestedgrabfortemporalpoweroradoorthroughwhichtopassintothehereaftermissesacrucialdimensionofitssignifi-canceandappealfortruebelieversjihadisnolessthananenactmentof

28EvenashespokeofaneweraofjahiliyyaandofjihadMawdudihimselfstoppedwellshortof recommendingor condoning the actual resort to violence in themannermanyotherIslamistsdidAsNasr(199670)observesMawdudirsquosorganizationtheJamalsquoat-iIs-lamildquohasavoidedviolentsocialchangeandhasinsteadviewedthepathtotheIslamicstateaslyingwithintheexistingsociopoliticalorderrdquoAlsoseethechapters5and3onQutbandMawdudiinthisvolume

46

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INTRODUCTION

adivineimperativetoremakethefoundationsofcollectivelifeInthisre-spectIslamistviewsofjihadcanbeseenaspartofalong-standingasso-ciationbetweenviolenceandpoliticalfoundingsuponwhichnoparticu-larcultureorhistoricalepochhasamonopolyThisassociationandtheldquolegacyofviolencerdquoitbequeathstofuturegenerationsarenolessappar-entinthoseradicalrevolutionsofrenewalthatmovebywayoftheswordfromthemarginstothecenterthanthosepoliticalfoundingsthatclaimtocreatesomethingoutofnothing(Connolly1995251)Ineithercasethetollofsuchbrutalitycanbeimmeasurableforinadditiontothevic-timswhosufferdirectlytheldquopracticeofviolencelikeallactionchangestheworldbutthemostprobablechangeistoamoreviolentworldrdquo(Ar-endt1972177)

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Page 12: Chapter 1 INTRODUCTION - assets.press.princeton.eduassets.press.princeton.edu/chapters/s9067.pdf · Chapter 1 INTRODUCTION This volume is intended as a broad introduction to the evolution

12

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

betweenIslamandpoliticsandmorespecificallybetweenIslamandthestatenocallingishigherthanstrivingtowardtheestablishmentofanIs-lamicstateandoncebroughtaboutallwillbeinaccordancewithGodrsquospurposesMawdudi(1960177)claimedthatldquothestruggleforobtainingcontrolovertheorgansofthestatewhenmotivatedbytheurgetoestab-lishthedin[religion]andtheIslamicSharilsquoahandtoenforcetheIslamicinjunctionsisnotonlypermissiblebutpositivelydesirableandassuchobligatoryrdquo

Tomanylsquoulamathisamountstonothinglessthanmakingreligiousnorms subservient topolitical goalsAsMuftiMuhammadTaqi lsquoUth-manialeadingDeobandischolarofPakistannotesinhisrejoindertoviewssuchasMawdudirsquos

Intheirzealtorefutesecularismsomewritersandthinkersofthepresentagehavegonesofarastocharacterizepoliticsandgovern-ment as the true objective of Islam the reason why the prophetsweresent[byGodtothepeople]indeedtheveryreasonforthecre-ationofthehumanbeingAndtheyhavenotonlygivenotherIs-lamiccommandmentsmdashforinstanceonmattersofworshipmdashasec-ondarypositiontheyhaveevendeemedthemtobemeremeansforpoliticalendsjustawayoftrainingpeople[towardpoliticalmobili-zation](lsquoUthmani199825ndash26cfZaman2008116ndash18)

NotalllsquoulamasharesuchmisgivingsaboutthesubordinationofIslamtopoliticsthoughitshouldbenotedthattheywouldseethisintermsnotofanysuchsubordinationbutratheroftheutterinseparabilityofthere-ligiousandthepoliticalByfarthemostnotableoftheseamongtheShilsquoaisAyatollahKhomeini(d1989)ofIranAgainstalong-standingtradi-tionofShilsquoipoliticalquietismintheabsenceofthehiddenShilsquoiimamKhomeiniarguedthattheShilsquoi lsquoulamaoughttoassumedirectpoliticalleadershipandhethenproceededtospearheadthemovementthatcul-minatedinthefalloftheIranianmonarchyandtheestablishmentoftheIslamicRepublicofIran9Hisdoctrineofthevelayatshye faqih(guardian-shipofthejurist)isaradicalrethinkingofShilsquoipoliticaltheologyblur-ringanymeaningfulboundarybetweenreligiousandpoliticalauthority(seechapter6)ItispreciselyKhomeinirsquoscommitmenttoestablishinganIslamic statealong these lines thatwarrantshis classificationasan Is-

9TheImamiorIthnalsquoashariShilsquoabelievethatthetwelfthandlastoftheirimamswentintoghayba(hiding)in874andthathewilleventuallyreturnasthemahdimdashamessianicfigurewhoalonecanrestoreproperordertotheworldinaugurateaneraofunalloyedjus-ticeandreclaimfortheShilsquoatherightsofwhichtheyhavebeendispossessedbytheSunnisandbycorruptrulersformuchofthehistoryofIslamShilsquoischolarshavelongdebatedthequestionofwhatsortofauthoritytheleadingreligiousscholarsoughttohaveinofficiatingintheimamrsquosabsenceKhomeinirsquosviewdisputedbymanyotherscholarswasthatthelead-ingscholar(s)oughttodischargethefullrangeoftheimamrsquosfunctionsincludingthepoliti-calheadshipofthecommunity

13

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

lamistnotwithstandinghiswell-recognizedstatusasoneoftheleadingShilsquoilsquoulamaofhisgeneration

The Azhar-educated Yusuf al-Qaradawi has for his part criticizedmanyfellowIslamistsonseveralissuesbutnotonthefundamentalques-tion of their political orientation Just as Khomeini had chastised theldquopropagandainstitutionsofimperialism[fortrying]topersuadeusthatthereligiousleadersmustnotinterfereinsocialmattersandthatthefuqaha[jurists]donothavethedutyofoverseeingthedestinyoftheIslamicnationrdquo(Algar1981141)Qaradawiinsiststhatdenyingthepo-liticalorientationofIslamamountstoitswillfuldistortion

Amongtheinterpretationswithwhichthesecularists[lsquoalmaniyyun]andthemodernists[alshyhadathiyyun]calumniate[Islamproperlyun-derstood and those committed to it] is the notion of ldquopoliticalIslamrdquowhichwithoutdoubtisanideaalientoourIslamicsocietyBy[politicalIslam]theymeananIslamthatconcernsitselfwiththeinternalandexternalaffairsoftheMuslimcommunity[Theymeanbyit]actionsaimedatfreeingthecommunityfromtheforeignpowerthatdirects [Muslim]affairsphysicallyandmorallyas itpleases[Theyalsomeanbyit]actionsseekingtocleansethecommunityofthecultural socialand legalsedimentsofWesterncolonialismsothatthecommunitycanreturnonceagaintosubmissiontoGodrsquoslawindifferentareasoflifeTheyusethischaracterizationofldquopoliticalIslamrdquoinordertoalienatepeoplefromits[aforementioned]contentandto frighten themawayfromthosecalling toacomprehensiveconceptionofIslammdashonethatisinclusiveofbeliefandlawworshipandsocialinteractionproselytismandthestate(Qaradawi200793)

Islamistpoliticalcommitmentsareoftenintertwinedwithcritiquesofthescholarlytraditionanditsattendant institutionsandpracticesandthiscriticismprovidesusacrucialwayof thinkingfurtherbothaboutwhatdistinguishesIslamistsfromthelsquoulamaandabouthowtoviewIs-lamismitselfWhatthelsquoulamacannotbutseeasacavalierattitudeto-wardtheirscholarlytraditioniswesuggestbetterviewedaspartofalargerIslamistcritiqueonethatgoestotheheartofhowIslamismoughttobeunderstoodasaphenomenonItisacritiqueofparticularMuslimbeliefspracticesmoresandinstitutionsthataredeemedtohaveonlyatenuousbasis inldquotruerdquoandldquoauthenticrdquo Islamof the repeatedwrongturnsMuslimshavetakenthroughouttheirlonghistoryofthecorrupt-ingldquoforeignrdquoinfluencesmdashfromSufismtoGreekphilosophytothelureofmodernWesternculturesmdashbywhichMuslimshaveallowedthemselvestobeseducedandoftheirunwillingnesstodowhateverittakestoestab-lish thehakimiyya (sovereignty)ofGodonearthThat it is the sover-eigntyofGodthatIslamistsseekultimatelytoaffirmintheirindividualandpubliclivesremindsusthattheircritiqueofthepastandthepresentisapoliticalcritiqueanchoredinanddrivenbyaspirationstoinstitutea

14

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INTRODUCTION

newreligio-politicalorderWhetherthiscritiqueisarticulatedinconcreteor vague terms in a seeminglymoderateorplainlymilitant languagethere is no mistaking either its principal targetmdashfacets of the Islamictraditionmdashoritsfundamentallypoliticalorientation10

IslamistshaveofteninsistedthatthewordofGodcanandshouldbeapproacheddirectlywithoutthemediationofpresentorpastscholarsandwithoutanyneedfortheedifyingtalesthephilologicaldebatesandthelong-windedtheologicaldisquisitionssooftenfoundinmedievalexe-geticalliteratureamajorfacetoftheIslamicscholarlytradition(cfCarreacute200318)ShukriMustafaanEgyptianIslamistexecutedin1977forthemurderousactivitiesofhisSocietyofMuslims(popularlyknownastheSociety of Excommunication and Emigration) had famously assertedthatalloneneededtoresolveuncertaintiesinonersquosunderstandingofthewordofGodwasadictionary(Kepel199379)SayyidQutbdidnotgoquite that farButhe tooaffirmed that the fundamental teachingsofIslamwereentirelytransparentldquoWhatwearesayingaboutIslamisnoinventionofoursoranynewinterpretationofitsessenceIt issimplyplainIslamasitwasunderstoodbyitsfirstadherentMuhammadandhissincereCompanionsandthoseclosetoitsauthenticsourcerdquo(Qutb19969withminorchange)

TheimplicationofQutbrsquosstrikingassertionistwofoldFirstbehindarhetoric of humility in relation to divine knowledge Qutb implicitlyclaimsthefullbackingofGodandHisProphetfortheldquoplainIslamrdquohesetsforthMorespecificallyheessentiallydepictshisownunderstandingofIslamassynonymouswithGodrsquoseternalintentmuchasKhomeinirsquospronouncementsasthevalishyye faqih(guardianjurist)presumedtoarticu-latewhatIslamitselfstoodfororrequiredonanygivenmatterSecondthestatementimpliesnotonlythatviewsotherthanhisaremereinter-pretationsbutthattheyarethemorereprehensibleforbeingldquonovelrdquomdashasuggestionthatevokesthenotionofbidlsquoathatisofillicitcapriciousin-

10ThatIslamismshouldbeseenasawide-rangingcritiqueoftheworldandoftheIslamictraditionisareminderofcoursethatcritiqueisnotaninherentlysecularphenomenonnordoesitnecessitateasecularframeworkAsTalalAsad(2008)hasobservedgivenawidevarietyofldquopossibleinstancesofcritiquecriticismwhatwehaveisafamilyconceptforwhichitisnotpossibletoprovideasingletheorybecausethepracticesthatconstitutethemdifferradicallyrdquo(alsocfMahmood2008Taylor2008)NorshouldourviewingIs-lamism as a politically motivated critique suggest that other competing orientations inmodernIslamcannotalsobeseenascritiquesofparticularpracticesparticularformsofknowledgeWhatdoesdistinguishanIslamistorientationfromothersisonceagainboththedegreetowhichIslamistcritiquesbreakwiththeirpastandpresentandtheiraspirationto remake theworld in accordancewith their understandingof immutable divine com-mandsThisismarkedlydifferentfromhowthelsquoulamamightcritiqueparticularaspectsoftheirscholarlytraditionintheinterestofastrongersenseofcontinuitywiththattraditionorinordertomakeitmorereceptivetowhattheyseeasthecommunityrsquoschangingneedsItisalsoverydifferentfromhowMuslimmodernistsoftenbreakwiththescholarlytradi-tioninordertoadaptMuslimnormsandinstitutionstothedominantpoliticalandculturalinstitutionsoftheircontemporaryworld

15

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INTRODUCTION

novationinmattersofreligionSuchaviewofIslamjettisonsmuchofwhatwouldnormallycountasitshistoryandcivilizationldquoThehistoryoflsquoIslamrsquordquoQutbtellshisreadersldquoisthehistoryofthetrueapplicationofIslammdashinpeoplersquosconceptionsandtheirpracticesintheirlivesandtheirsocialsystemsIslamisthefixedaxisaroundwhichpeoplersquoslivesrevolveinafixedframeWhentheygooutofthisframeorwhentheycategorically abandon this axis what then do they have to do withIslamrdquo (Qutb 1967a vol 2 part 4 169 quotation marks aroundldquoIslamrdquoinoriginal)ItisforthefixedaxistheplainIslammdashandinoppo-sition to much of its historymdashthat the Islamist professes to stand (cfGrunebaum1962251ndash52)

Qutbhoweverisfarfromconsistentinhisattitudetowardtheschol-arlytraditionorinhowheseekstoarticulatehisownauthorityinrela-tiontoitHisfaithinthetransparencyandthetransformativeimmedi-acyofGodrsquoswordswouldappeartomakeallexegesissuperfluousyethehimselfhadproceededtowriteamajorcommentaryIn the Shade of the QurrsquoanthatwouldexceedfourthousandpagesinprintThejustifi-cationheoffers for it intheopening linesof thecommentary isauda-ciousnotapologetic

LifeintheshadeoftheQurrsquoanisablessingItisablessingunknownto anyonewhohasnrsquot tasted itAll praisebe toGodHehasgrantedmetheopportunitytoliveintheshadeoftheQurrsquoanforaperiodoftimeduringwhichIhavetastedHisblessingsasIneverhadearlierinmylifeIhavelistenedtoGodtheexaltedconvers-ingwithmethroughthisQurrsquoanmdashwithmeasmalllittleslaveIhavelivedintheshadeoftheQurrsquoanlookingfromanelevationatthejahiliyya[paganignorance]raginginthelandandthepettycon-cernsof itspeople [Fromthisvantage] Ihave seen thepride thepeopleofthisjahiliyyatakeintheirchildishknowledgetheirchild-ishideastheirchildishpreoccupations[Ihavelookeduponthem]likeanelderlooksuponthefrivolitiesofchildrenupontheireffortsandupontheirlisps(Qutb1967a13)

Theseresoundingwordsserveinteraliatoexplainwhyanewcom-mentaryshouldhavebeenneededatallthemind-numbingimpactofthejahiliyyahasmadepeopleincapableofrespondingtoeventhemostdi-rectofdivinesummonsandonlysomeonewhohaslivedldquointheshadeoftheQurrsquoanrdquocanunderstandtheirplightandremedyitFromtheper-spectiveQutbadoptshereanyappealtothescholarlytraditionanyef-forttoresthisauthorityonitwouldappearaltogetheroutofplaceYetQutbrsquosclaimstoauthoritydonotderiveexclusivelyfromhisconversingwithGodthroughtheQurrsquoanTosomedegreetheyalsodependonhisbeingseenashavingmasteryovertheveryexegeticaltraditionofwhichheisotherwisefrequentlydismissiveQutbcitesasmallnumberofearliercommentators and other authorities when it suits his purpose to do

16

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

so11justashesidestepstheexegeticaltraditionwhendoingsooffersarhetoricallymoreeffectivewayofarrivingataconclusionMoretradi-tionalexegetespastandpresentalsopickandchooseofcourseButtheyhavetypicallydonesowithinanoverallframeworkthatisdefinedbyacontinuousengagementwiththeexegeticaltraditionasawhole(cfSaleh2004)BycontrastQutbandotherIslamistexegeteswriteoutsideandofteninconsciousoppositiontoanysuchframeworkTheconversa-tionisnotwiththeearlierexegetesbutdirectlywithGodthoughthismightonoccasionbeaidedbyillustrationsfromtheearlierexegeticaltradition

If thereareunacknowledgedambiguities inQutbrsquosrelationshipwiththe Islamic traditionaswehaveobserveda frequentlyacerbic stancedoesnonetheless remain characteristicofhowheviews itmostof thetimeQutbisanythingbutuniqueinthisrespectYetifIslamistssharealmostbydefinitionacriticalstancetowardfacetsofthistraditionthereismuchthatalsoseparatesthemfromoneanotherinpreciselyhowthiscritique and its implications are articulated in different instances Al-thoughthemerepresenceofdisagreementamongIslamist intellectualsandactivistsishardlyremarkablethescopeandimplicationsofsomeofthedisagreementsinasmuchastheyrelatetothescholarlytraditionarenonethelessworthexamininghereFortheysuggestthatwhileIslamistsshare the conviction that particular institutions practices and normsneedtoberefashionedinlightofimmutabledivinecommandsthiscon-victionoftenrestsonquitedifferentviewsofIslamichistoryandciviliza-tionofcontemporaryMuslimsocietiesandnotleastofreligiousau-thorityanditslociNowhereperhapsisthismoreevidentthaninsomeofthewritingsofYusufal-QaradawiLikeQutbQaradawiisamongthemostinfluentialIslamistideologuesintheSunniworldHeisalsooneofQutbrsquosseverestcriticsfromwithintheIslamistcamp(seeespeciallyQa-radawi1994101ndash31)

ThatldquoMuslimrdquosocietieslackedaproperIslamicfoundationmadeitfutileQutbhadarguedtodebatespecificquestionsofIslamiclawand

11TheseincludeinteraliaMuhammadibnIshaq(d767)theauthoroftheSirat rasul AllahoneoftheearliestbiographiesoftheProphetMuhammadal-Tabari(d923)theauthorofJamilsquo alshybayan lishytarsquowil ay alshyQurrsquoanoneofthemostinfluentialcommentariesoftheQurrsquoaneverproducedal-Baghawi(d1117)whosecommentaryistitledMalsquoalim alshytanzilal-Qurtubi(d1273)theauthorofaworkalshyJamilsquo lishyahkam alshyQurrsquoanwhichises-peciallyattentivetothelegalcontentoftheQurrsquoanandIbnKathir(d1373)theauthorofaQurrsquoan commentaryTafsir alshyQurrsquoan alshylsquoazimwhichhasbeenpopular amongmanyMuslimsofaSalafiorientationOnoccasionQutbalsocitesinfluentialfellowIslamistsSeeforexampleQutbFi zilal alshyQurrsquoanvol2part4132(Mawdudi)vol2part525(Nadwi)vol2part6143and150ndash53(lsquoAbdal-QadirlsquoAwdaanEgyptianIslamistandlegalscholarexecutedundertheNasserregimein1954)OccasionallyQutbcitesRidarsquosTafsir alshymanaraswell thoughmoreoftenthannot toregisterhisdisagreementswithRidaandwiththelatterrsquosmentorMuhammadlsquoAbduhForadetailedcomparisonbetweenthecommentariesofRidaandQutbseeCarreacute2003

17

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INTRODUCTION

howitdealtwithparticularsocialoreconomicissuesThelsquoulamawerepatheticallydeludediftheythoughtthattheinterestsofIslamcouldbefurtheredthroughdisquisitionsonthesharilsquoainsuchconditionsofper-vasiveungodliness(Qutb1967b183ndash90)WhatpeopleneededbeforeanythingelsewasareturntothebasicsofthefaithThetaskofrighteouspreacherswastoinstructtheminthesemattersandtohelpthemrecog-nizewhatthesovereigntyofGoddemandedofthem(Qutb199135cfQaradawi1994102ndash4)Allothermattersincludingthenicetiesofjuris-ticdiscussionwerebestpostponeduntilaproperlyIslamicsocietybasedonthisfoundationhadbeenrealized

Qaradawi vehemently disagrees with Qutb arguing that educatedMuslimsarenotpagansbutbelieversandassuchdonotneedtobetu-toredinthefundamentalsoftheirfaithWhattheyoftendonotunder-standverywellmdashandhereQaradawiconcurswithotherIslamistsmdashisthenatureofIslamasanizam (socialandpoliticalsystem)TheproblemofMuslimsinotherwordsisnotgodlessnessbutsimplyignorance(whichiswhat the term jahiliyya literallymeans)of the teachingsof Islam intheircomprehensiveall-encompassingdimensionsAsQaradawiseesitmanyldquocaptivesofWesternthoughtrdquohavedoubtsnotabouttheessentialsoftheirfaithbutratheraboutIslamasacomprehensivesystemanditistheirunaddressedmisunderstandingstheirignoranceonthelatterscorethatsometimesopens thedoor todoubtsaboutmattersofbelief itself(Qaradawi1994113ndash14)Tocontinuetoexpoundonthesocialpoliti-calandotherteachingsofIslamwhilethesocietyisyetimperfectisnottoendorseorstrengthenthejahiliorderasQutbhadallegedbutonlytohelpordinarypeopleintheirefforttoleadvirtuouslivesevenininiqui-touscircumstances

ThisviewrepresentsanappealtowhatQaradawihasrepeatedlyre-ferredtoasthemoderatepathoralshymadrasa alshywasatiyya(theldquocentristschoolrdquocfQaradawi2006137ndash217)mdashonethatlocatesitselfonaputa-tivemiddlegroundbetweenacompleterejectionoftheworldincludingMuslimsocietiesanditstotalembraceQaradawiisequallyconcernedwithrescuingIslamichistoryandcivilizationfromoutrightdismissalatthehandsofIslamistslikeQutb12TheideathatjahilinormshadbeguntocreepbackintotheMuslimcommunityshortlyafterthedeathoftheProphetandthattheyhaveremainedunchallengedformuchofIslamrsquoshistoryignoresallthoseQaradawisayswhohavecontinuedtorepre-sentthepathofrighteousnessthroughoutthehistoryofIslamContrarytotheconvictionoftheSunnisthatldquothecommunitywillneveragreeonerrorrdquomdashastheProphetissaidtohavepromisedmdashthenotionofaperva-

12AmongleadingfiguresQaradawisinglesoutforcriticisminthisregardarebesidesQutbMawdudiandtheEgyptianIslamistscholarMuhammadal-Ghazali(d1996)SeeQaradawi2005b46ndash64It isworthnotingthatdespitetheseandotherdisagreementsQaradawihaswrittenrespectfullyofallthreedevotinganentirebooktohislongassocia-tionwithMuhammadal-Ghazali(seeQaradawi1995)

18

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INTRODUCTION

sivejahiliyyasuggestsmoreoverthatthecommunitydidindeedagreeonerror13Mostgrievouslyperhaps Islamist critiques tend to suggestthatthesharilsquoahasalmostneverbeenimplementedinMuslimsocietiesaftertheveryfirstyearsofIslamIronicallysaysQaradawisuchindis-criminaterejectionofIslamichistoryinadvertentlyreinforcessecularist argumentsthatthesharilsquoaisunsuitedtopracticalapplication(Qaradawi2005b46)QaradawirsquoscritiqueofQutbandotherIslamistsisfinallyanargumentforthecontinuingcentralityofthelsquoulamatothetaskofpro-viding authoritative guidance to the communityHisunderstandingofwhoconstitutesthelsquoulamaisfarmoreexpansivethanthatofmostDeo-bandilsquoulamaofSouthAsiaButlikethemheisinnodoubtthatseriousreligiousscholarsasdistinguishedfromamateurishautodidactsarecru-cialtothetaskofprovidingauthoritativereligiousandmoralguidancetothecommunity

AlthoughwehavesoughttoillustratecertainfacetsoftheIslamistcri-tiqueof the scholarly traditionandof theworldas somekey IslamistthinkershavearticulateditwedonotwishtosuggestofcoursethatIslamists are necessarily ldquointellectualsrdquo Whatever Qutb KhomeiniMawdudiandQaradawimightthinkofotherscholarsandintellectualsorofthemselvesinrelationtothemtheformerobviouslyarereligiousintellectualsThesameishardlytrueofmanyotherIslamistsYeteventhosewithlittleornointellectualpretensionsareoftenrecognizableas IslamistsnotonlyfortheircommitmenttothepublicimplementationofIslamicnormsgroundedinthefoundationaltextsbutalsomdashandasacor-ollaryoftheformermdashfortheiroftenself-consciouscritiqueofanddisen-gagementfromthenormsandmorestheyseearoundthemIncontempo-raryLebanonforinstanceShilsquoiIslamistshaveoftenseentheirtext-basedreligiouscommitmentsasmarkingacleardeparturefromearlierandex-isting religious practicesAs anthropologist LaraDeeb (2006 20) ob-servesldquoTheyvieweditasnewanddifferentmdashdifferentfromwhattheyoftenreferredtoenigmaticallyaslsquobeforersquoorlsquohowwewerersquoanddifferentfromwhattheycalledalshytaqalid(traditions)Inlieuofpracticesandbeliefscastastraditionaltheyespoused [an] lsquoauthenticatedrsquoIslamexpressedinpublicpietyrdquo14ManyIslamists living inrefugeecampsinGazahavehadasimilarviewTothemldquoPalestinianshadeitherbe-comelostinforeignideologiesortheyhadbecomelsquoMuslimsbycon-

13Theconvictionthatthecommunityatlargeisdivinelyprotectedfromerrorisanim-portantbasisoftheauthorityofldquoconsensusrdquoasamajorsourceofjuridicalnormsinSunniIslamFormoderndebateson consensus and someof the literatureon this subject seeZaman2006

14Theldquotraditionsrdquohereprimarilyrefer tocustomarynormsanddevotionalpracticesratherthantothecenturies-olddiscursivetraditionfromwhichthelsquoulamabothShilsquoiandSunniderivetheirauthorityIslamistcritiquesareoftendirectedasmuchhoweverattra-ditionsinthesenseofldquoinauthenticrdquoculturallyrootedreligiouspracticesastheyareatthescholarlytraditionofthelsquoulamawhichtothemisequallyinauthenticinhavingobscuredthesimpleandfundamentalteachingsofthefoundationaltexts

19

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

ventionrsquowhowentalongwiththefastorprayednowandthenbecausethiswaslsquocustomandtraditionrsquo(lsquoada wa taqlid)ThislackofconsciouszealousadherencetoIslamhadresultedinsocialweaknessleadingtode-featatthehandsofIsraelrdquo(Lybarger2007211)ThereismuchthatsuchanalysessharewiththewritingsandpronouncementsoftheleadingIs-lamistintellectuals

Islamists and Salafi s

JustasitisnotalwayseasytodifferentiatelsquoulamafromIslamistsorIs-lamists frommodernists it is sometimesdifficult to clearlydistinguishbetweenIslamistsandtheSalafisThelatterderivethisself-designationfromclaimsofstrictadherencetothenormativepracticeofalshysalaf alshysalih(thepiousforbears)usuallyunderstoodastheMuslimsofthefirstgenerations of Islam The guiding Salafi assumption is that these firstMuslims inbeingcontemporariesof theProphetMuhammadandtheimmediatesuccessorsofthosecontemporariesexemplifymostperfectlywhatitmeanstobeavirtuousMuslimandthatlatergenerationscandonobetterthanemulatetheexampleofthesefirstgenerationsSomever-sionofthisviewwouldfindbroadresonanceamongIslamistsbutalsoordinary believers though the Shilsquoa of various doctrinal orientationshavealwayshada farmore restrictiveviewofpreciselywho isworthemulating Again like the Islamists the Salafis insist on deriving theirnormsdirectlyfromtheIslamicfoundationaltextstheQurrsquoanandtheexampleoftheProphetMuhammadunmediatedbythemedievalschoolsoflawThismeansdoingawaywiththesortofhistoricallyarticulatedscholarlytraditionfromwhichthelsquoulamahavetendedtodrawmuchoftheirauthorityTheSalafisdohavetheirownlsquoulamamdashQaradawiisano-tableinstanceasaremembersoftheSaudireligiousestablishmentmdashbuteventheirauthorityisbasedfarmoreondirectlyinterpretingthefounda-tional texts than it is on any systematic engagement with the Islamicscholarlytradition

AllthissoundsagooddealnotjustliketheIslamistsbutalsolikethemodernistsThisshouldnotbesurprisingfortheSalafiorientationisanimportantpartofthegenealogyofbothmodernismandIslamismTheSalafi reformer Muhammad lsquoAbduh though a traditionally educatedscholarwhoservedtowardtheendofhislifeasthegrandmuftiofEgyptwasakeyinfluenceinthedevelopmentofIslamicmodernismButwhilesomeoflsquoAbduhrsquosdisciplesdevelopedhisideasinthedirectionofsecularnationalismothersmdashnotablytheSalafijournalistandQurrsquoancommenta-torRashidRidamdasheventuallytookthemdespitehismodernistproclivi-tiesinadecidedlyconservativedirection(Hourani1983alsocfDallal2000)Hasan al-Banna the founder of the MuslimBrotherhoodwasclose to many Egyptian Salafis Muhibb al-din al-Khatib (d 1969) aleadingSalafiofthetimeandtheowneroftheSalafiPublishingHousein

20

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

CairowasinchargeofoneoftheBrotherhoodrsquosfirstjournals(Mitchell1993185)andafterRidarsquosdeathin1935itwasatBannarsquosinitiativethatRidarsquosinfluentialjournalalshyManarwouldcontinuetobepublishedforsomeyears(RMitchell1993186)

ForalltheiraffinitieshoweverSalafiscannotsimplybesubsumedwiththeIslamistsanymorethantheycanwiththemodernistsUnliketheearlySalafisandothermodernists Islamistshavealmost invariablysought toaddressthemselvestoawidepopularaudienceratherthantotheintellec-tualelite(cfRMitchell1993211)TheSalafishavealsobeenfarmorepreoccupiedwithmattersofcorrectbeliefthenuancesofdoctrinethanhaveeither the Islamistsor themodernists (cfHaykel2009 [forthcom-ing])BythesametokenwhilemanyIslamistshavehadasomewhatam-bivalentrelationshipwithSufismSalafishaveusuallybeenunrelentinglyhostile to devotional Sufi practices But if it is useful to distinguish theSalafisfromothercompetingorientationsinmodernIslamitisimportantalsotorecognizethatthereismuchonwhichSalafisthemselveshavedis-agreedsometimessharplyInquestionintheseldquointernalrdquodifferencesisnottheiroverallorientationmdashtowardtheIslamicfoundational textsandthepristinenormsofIslamrsquosfirstgenerationsmdashbutratherthepreciseimplica-tionsofthisorientationforbeliefandconductinthepresentAconsider-ationofsomeofthesedifferencesshouldinturnfurtherillustratehowtheSalafisoughttobedistinguishedfromothercompetingcamps

WheremanySalafisseetheschoolsoflawasobstructingandindeeddistortingthesimplemessageofthefoundationaltextsothersviewthelegaltraditionasrepresentingIslamrsquosrichintellectuallegacyfromwhichMuslimsought todrawboth inspirationandguidanceQaradawi forinstance has been critical not just of the Muslimmodernists but alsooffellowSalafisfortheirirreverencetowardtherichesofthelegaltradi-tiontheiruneducatedproclivitytosetitasidealltoocallouslyOnthisviewarejectionofthetaqlid-boundlsquoulamashouldnotleadtotheotherextrememdashexemplifiedbynotafewSalafismdashofjettisoningthescholarlytraditionaltogether SalafisalsodifferamongthemselvesintheirattitudestowardmodernWesterninstitutionsandpracticesInthelatenineteenthandearlytwen-tieth centuries Salafi reformers like Muhammad lsquoAbduh and RashidRidainEgyptandJamalal-dinal-Qasimi(d1914)inSyriahadcalledforareorientationtowardthefoundationaltextsasawayofjustifyingnotresistingchangesinlawandeducationaswellasotherfacetsofso-cialreform(cfHourani1983Commins1990)OnthisviewadirectrecoursetotheQurrsquoanandthesunnaofferedthebestwayofdemonstrat-ing the accord between their teachings and the reformist project15 In

15SymptomaticofotherdisagreementsamongtheSalafisistheveryquestionofpreciselywhothesalafarewhoseexampleoughttobeemulatedThenarrowerviewslimitthesalaftothefirstthreegenerationsofIslammdashtheageoftheProphetMuhammadandhiscompan-ionstheirsuccessorsandthelatterrsquosimmediatesuccessorsmdashbuteventhesenarrowviews

21

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

contemporaryEuropeTariqRamadananinfluentialSwissArabphilos-opherhasarguedthatMuslimslivinginWesternsocietiesoughttofeelathomeinandcontributetoward thosesocietieswhileretainingandcultivatingtheirdistinctIslamicidentityHetooappearstoseehimselfinthegenealogyofwhathecharacterizesasldquoSalafireformismrdquo(onthischaracterization see Ramadan 2004 26ndash27) and he has echoed Qa-radawiinsomeofhisviews(cfRamadan199993ndash99) Other Salafis have remained staunchly opposed to institutions andpracticesofaWesternprovenanceAnespeciallyinfluentialfigureinthegenealogyofthelatterpositionistheeighteenth-centurypuritanicalre-former Muhammad ibn lsquoAbd al-Wahhab (d 1792) whose alliance in1744 with Muhammad ibn Salsquoud contributed to the establishment ofthefirstSaudistateinthelateeighteenthcenturyIbnlsquoAbdal-WahhabwashostilenotonlytoShilsquoismandtoSufidevotionalismbutalsotoany-thinghedeemednottobeinstrictconformitywiththeteachingsofthefoundationaltextsTherewasmuchthatseemedtohimtofailthisstan-dardallofwhichhebrandedasoneoranotherformofunbeliefTheWahhabismdashas the followers of Ibn lsquoAbd al-Wahhab are oftenknownthoughtheyprefertothinkofthemselvessimplyasgoodMuslimsoratbestasSalafismdashoftenadheretothelegalnormsoftheHanbalischooloflawthoughitistheteachingsofthefoundationaltextsirrespectiveofthisoranyotherschooldoctrinethattheyprofesstofollowThemoststringentoftheSaudiSalafisaswellasotherselsewhereareaveryfarcryindeedfromwhatQaradawiwouldcharacterizeasldquocentristrdquoSalafireformersletalonefromtheearlytwentieth-centurySalafimodernists

ThepoliticalviewsoftheWahhabisandmorebroadlyoftheSalafisare likewiseanythingbutuniformInSaudiArabiaWahhabireligiousscholarshavelongaffirmedaquietistpoliticalstancewhichhasmeantleavingmattersofthestatetotherulingfamilyFormuchofthehistoryofmodernSaudiArabiatherulingelitefor itsparthas imposedfewconstraintsontheSaudilsquoulamainmattersofreligiouslifetheregulationofsocialnormsandjudicialadministration(cfVogel2000)Onseveraloccasions however this relationship has come under severe strain In1979agroupofWahhabiswhorejectedthelegitimacyoftheSaudistateyethadtieswithsomeprominentreligiousscholarsmdashincludinglsquoAbdal-

feelconstrainedtomakeroomforsuchreveredfiguresasAhmadibnHanbaltheputativefounderoftheHanbalischooloflawandthefourteenth-centuryDamascenescholarIbnTaymiyya(d1328)OtherviewsarerathermoreexpansivenotjustinchronologicalbutalsoandcruciallyinintellectualtermsThusMuhammadlsquoAbduhthoughtthesalaftoalsoincludesuchtheologiansasal-Ashlsquoari(d935)al-Baqillani(d1013)andal-Maturidi(d944)SeeHourani1983149SuchaviewobviouslyopensthedoorforpreciselythesortoftheologicaldebatesthatotherSalafisaswellasIslamistsoftenfrownuponfortakingthebelieversveryfarfromthesimpleanddirectwordsofGod lsquoAbduhrsquosdiscipleRidaagaintookanarrowerviewofthesalafandlaterinhiscareerbecameastrongdefenderoftheWahhabisCfHourani1983230ndash32

22

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

lsquoAzizBinBaz(d1999)laterthegrandmuftiofSaudiArabiamdashtookoverthesacredprecinctsoftheKalsquobainMeccainashort-livedbutextremelyembarrassingchallenge toSaudi royalauthority (cfHegghammerandLacroix2007)In1990KingFahdrsquosdecisiontoinviteAmericantroopstodefendthekingdomagainstthethreatofanIraqiinvasioncreatedwide-spreadresentmentamongSaudis theeffectsofwhichcontinue to thisdayThestationingofnon-MuslimmilitarypersonnelinIslamrsquosholiestlandwasdeemedbythekingrsquoscriticstobescandalousandevensacrile-giousAnumberofprominentSaudiSalafispubliclycriticizedthekingrsquosdecisiononthisoccasioncallinguponhimaswellasonBinBazandoth-ersatthehelmoftheSaudireligiousestablishmenttoreorienttheSaudipolitytowarditstruereligiousfoundationsManyofthesedissidentsmdashwhowerealsojoinedbyldquosecularrdquoSaudicriticsoftheroyalfamilymdashwereandhaveremainedrestrainedintheircriticismevenastheycalledforstricterconformitytoIslamicnormsasthepanaceaforallills(cfFandy1999)OthershoweverhavedenouncedtheroyalfamilyanditsWesternalliesinnouncertaintermsBinLadenisonlythemostnotoriousofthosewhobrokewiththeroyalfamilyinthewakeofKingFahdrsquosdecisiontoinviteWesterntroopsin1990andwhocalledfortheoverthrowoftheroyal familyand for jihadagainstWesternpowers Such strident callshavebeencontinuedbyotherSalafisbothbeforeandaftertheterroristattacksofSeptember112001aswellasintheaftermathoftheUS-ledinvasionofIraq(al-Rasheed2007)

ItshouldbeclearinlightoftheforegoingthatanyunderstandingofthedifferencesbetweenIslamistsandtheSalafismustrestontakingac-countofthediversityamongtheSalafisSalafiswhooftenrejectmuchoftheIslamicscholarlytraditioninfavorofadirectrecoursetothefoun-dationaltextsarenotnecessarilyrenderedldquoIslamistrdquosimplybyvirtueofthisstanceForasnotedmanyoftheseSalafiscontinuetoprofessareso-lutelyquietiststancewhichinthecaseoftheSaudiSalafismeansaf-firmingallegiancetotheSaudiroyalfamilyThispositionisrepresentedforinstancebyBinBaztheerstwhilegrandmuftiaswellasbyotherleading members of the Saudi religious establishment A pro-regimestanceoroneindifferenttopoliticsisnolessldquopoliticalrdquoofcoursethana position of strident hostility to the established order at home andabroadForourpurposeshoweveritisonlywhentheSalafisrejecttheexistingdispensationandbeginstrivingmdashthoughnotnecessarilythroughmilitantmeansmdashforanewreligio-politicalorderthattheycanbesaidtojointheranksoftheIslamists

ItisworthnotingfinallythatSalafipositionsamongSaudisandelse-wherearemarkednotonlybydiversitybutalsobyconsiderablefluidity(al-Rasheed 2007) The same activist or intellectual might at varioustimesmoveamongavarietyofseeminglyincompatiblepositionsmdashap-pearingtobemoreldquomoderaterdquoonsomeissuesthanonothersForallhiscriticismofradicalIslamistsQaradawiforinstancehashimselfwrittenin justificationofsuicidebombingsbyPalestiniansagainst Israelis (see

23

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INTRODUCTION

chapter 9 on Qaradawi) And Saudi Salafis like Safar al-Hawali andSalmanal-lsquoAwdamdashwhocame toprominence in the early1990smdashhavealternatedbetweencriticismoftheSaudipoliciesanddenunciationsofradicalSalaficallstojihadagainsttheSaudiregime(seeal-Rasheed200759ndash101onal-HawalialsoseeReichmuth2006)Theirshiftingviewsreflect changes in their relations with the Saudi regime but they alsopointtothebroadspectrumofpositionswhichSalafishavetakenatdif-ferenttimesindifferentcontextsandbeforedifferentaudiencesThusevenasal-Hawaliandal-lsquoAwdahavecondemnedterroristactsdirectedagainstSaudiArabiaandadvisedSaudisnottofightAmericantroopsinpostndashSaddamHusseinIraqtheyhavecalledupontheIraqisthemselvestoresistAmericantroopsandhavecharacterizedthateffortasaldquodefen-sivejihadrdquo(al-Rasheed200794ndash95)

Sufi s and Islamists

ItseemsmuchsimpleronthefaceofittodistinguishbetweenIslamistsandSufisThecharacteristicSuficonvictionthattherearelevelsofmean-ingintheQurrsquoanthatgobeyondtheliteralandtheobviousandthataselectfewmdashtheldquofriendsofGodrdquomdashareendowedwiththeuniqueabilityto discern them is anathema to all those who insist that God intendsHisteachingstobeequallyintelligibletoallDespitetheirtendencytoviewthemselvesasbearersof true Islam Islamists typicallyregard theSufi idea that somepeoplehaveaprivileged relationshipwithGodassuspectthebasisnotonlyforsanctioninginterpretationsofIslamthatlackwarrantintheplainteachingsofGodandtheProphetbutalsoforpracticallyldquoworshipingrdquothesefriendsofGodIslamists(andmodernists)havefrequentlyalsobeencriticalofthewaySufidevotionalismcanyieldaturningawayfromtheworldratherthananefforttochangeitaswellasapreoccupationwithpersonalspiritualtransformationattheexpenseofconcernsforthewelfareofthecommunityatlarge SufipracticesandtheteachingsoftheSufimastershavevariedenor-mouslythroughoutthehistoryofIslamyetIslamistcritiquesofSufismareseldomattentivetoitsnuancesortothecomplexwaysithasrelatedtootherfacetsofIslamNorhaveIslamiststakenmuchaccountofthefactthatmanyleadingfiguresofearliertimeswerebesidesmuchelseSufisaswellThisistrueevenofIbnTaymiyya(d1328)whoseprestigeinIslamistandSalaficirclesismatchedbyfewothersandwhowasinhisdayamemberoftheQadiriSufiorder(Makdisi1974)EvenifonearguesmdashasanIslamistmightbeinclinedtomdashthatldquogoodrdquoSufismisnoth-ingbutproperIslamitselftheveryfactthatsuchfigureshadaSufiiden-tityatallnecessarilycomplicateswhatissupposedtobethepristinesim-plicityofafaithsharedequallybyallbelievers

Complicatingthingsstillfurtheristhevarietyofwaysinwhichsomeleading Islamists relate to Sufism Ayatollah Khomeini was a lifelongstudentofIslamicmysticismandtheinfluenceofthemedievalSpanish

24

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INTRODUCTION

Sufi Ibn lsquoArabi loomed especially large in his thought To Khomeinimysticismmdashoften referred to as lsquoirfan (gnosis) especially when inter-twinedwithIslamicphilosophyandtheology(Knysh1992632)mdashwascrucialtoaproperunderstandingofGodrsquosrelationshipwiththeworldandwiththehumanbeingItwasalsoessentialforonersquosethicalforma-tionforamasteryovertheselfandultimatelyforrealizinginoneselftheattributesofwhat Ibn lsquoArabihadcalledldquotheperfectmanrdquo (cfKnysh1992 635 also Mottahedeh 1985 180ndash85) Some of the austerity ofKhomeinirsquospersonallifeprobablyalsoderivedfromSufiasceticismAndthoughheanchoredhisconceptionofIslamicgovernmentinanexposi-tionofShilsquoijuridicalthoughtratherthaninIslamicmysticismthesortofreligiousauthorityhecametoenjoyonthebasisofhisreformulationofShilsquoipoliticaltheologyseemstoechomysticalideasoftheperfectmanwho embodies and upholds the moral order as the microcosm of theuniverse

UnlikeKhomeiniQutbwasnotaSufiandhegivesnoindicationofsharinganyofKhomeinirsquosenthusiasmforthegreatSufithinkersofear-liertimesEvensoechoesofamysticrsquosdirectencounterwiththefoun-tainheadoftruthandknowledgearehardtomissinQutbrsquoswritingses-peciallyinhiscommentaryontheQurrsquoan(cfCarreacute200395ndash97)TheveryfirstsentenceofhiscommentarymdashldquolifeintheshadeoftheQurrsquoanisablessingunknowntoanyonewhohasnrsquottasteditrdquomdashevokesthefa-miliarSufiideathatincontrovertibleknowledgeofRealityisultimatelyacquired only through direct personal experience (dhawq that is theldquotasterdquooftheTruth)ThegreatmedievalSufial-Ghazali(d1111)hadauthoredafamousautobiographicalaccountofhowitwasonlythroughthe immediacyofhispersonalmysticalexperience thathewasable toovercomehisdebilitatingepistemologicaldoubtsandreassurehimselfofthenecessarytruths(Watt199857)QutbdoesnotmentionGhazaliinthiscontextbutitisdifficultnottobestruckbythemysticalresonanceofsomeofhislanguageHereisoneexamplewhichoccursinhiscom-mentaryonsura(chapter)53oftheQurrsquoan16

16TheearlyversesinthissuraoftheQurrsquoanhavebeenunderstoodbyMuslimexegetesasreferringtotheProphetrsquosrevelatoryexperienceaswellastohisldquonightjourneyrdquoandhisascensiontoheavenormilsquoraj inthecourseofonenighthewastransportedfirstfromMeccatoJerusalemandthentothepresenceofGodbeforebeingreturnedtoMecca

UnrelatedtothenightjourneybutrelatedtohisrevelatoryexperiencestheexegeticalsignificanceofthisQurrsquoanicsuraalsoliesinitsconnectionwiththeso-calledSatanicVersesAccordingtocertainexegeticalreportsMuhammadwasinthecourseofreceivingarevela-tionwhenSataninterpolatedsomeversesintoitmdashversespraisingthreegoddessesreveredbythepolytheistsofMeccaItwasnotuntilsometimelaterthatMuhammadrealizedhiserrorwhereupontheversesinterpolatedbySatanwereremovedTheepisodeoftheldquoSa-tanicVersesrdquohasbeenacontroversialoneinIslamichistorylongbeforeSalmanRushdiersquosnovelofthatnameandKhomeinirsquosjuridicalruling(fatwa)callingforRushdiersquosdeathMostMuslimscholarshavefoundittooshockingtobelievethattheProphetcouldhavemadesuchagrievouserrorandhavedeniedthatanysuch incidentever tookplaceYetsome

25

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INTRODUCTION

IwaschattingoneeveningwithsomecompanionswhentoourearscamethesoundofsomeonerecitingtheQurrsquoannearbyrecitingtheSuraoftheStar[al-Najm]andweinterruptedourconversationtolistentotheNobleQurrsquoanLittlebylittlemyheartenteredintowhatwasbeing recited into theheartofMuhammadashe jour-neyedtotheHeavenlyHostIwaswithhimashesawGabrielintheangelicforminwhichGodhadcreatedhimIwaswithhiminhis loftyandfree-flying journey to theLoteTreeof theBoundaryandtheGardenoftheRefugeIwaswithhimtotheextentthatmyimaginationcouldformavisionofitandtotheextentthatmyfeelings couldbear itThen came the final cry andmywholebeingshookatthefearfulreproachldquoDoyoumarvelatthisdiscourseanddoyoulaughandnotweepandmakemerryrdquo[Q5359ndash61]WhenIheardldquoBowdownbeforeGodandserveHimrdquo[Q5362]thetremblinginmyhearthadbecomeaphysicalandvisibletremblingthroughoutmybodythatIcouldnotresistMybodykeptshakingandIcouldnotcontrolitNorcouldIholdbackthetearsthatwerepouringforthhowevermuchItried(QutbZilalvol7part2774ndash75quotedfromCarreacute2003333ndash34withminorchanges)

TheQurrsquoanrsquosprofoundimpactontheaestheticsensibilitiesofitslisten-ersisafamiliarmotifindiscussionsofitsliteraryqualities(cfGrahamandKermani2006)AssomeonewhoseearlywritingswereconcernedwithArabicliterarycriticismandspecificallywiththeliteraryexcellenceoftheIslamicscripture(Qutb1949b)QutbwasespeciallyreceptivetothisaspectoftheQurrsquoanThesenseofbeingtransportedbacktothetimeoftheProphetandtowitnessingtheProphetrsquosascension(milsquoraj)tothepresence of Godmdashwhich is how the passage being commented on byQutbherehascommonlybeeninterpretedbytheexegetesmdashcanlikewisebeseenasanillustrationoftheoverpoweringimpactthewordsoftheQurrsquoancanhaveonthebelieverQutbrsquosaccountofconversingwithGodthrough the Qurrsquoan (cited earlier) is again something he may havewantedtoseeallbelieversdoYetallbelieverscanscarcelydosoany-morethanallaspirantsevenontheSufipathcanexperiencethetransfor-mativemysticalldquostatesrdquothatGodbestowsonHisspecialfriends(awlshyiya)IrrespectiveofwhetherhesawitinquitethiswayQutbrsquosassertionthatheisabletoenterldquointotheheartofMuhammadrdquoandtoseeGabrielasMuhammad sawhimsurelygiveshimaperspective thatothers en-counteringthewordofGoddonothave

ThepointisnotofcoursethatQutbwaseverrecognizedbyhisfol-lowersasaSufimasterbutthatsomeofthehermeneuticalauthorityheclaimshasadistinctiveSufiringtoitMorebroadlythesortofunques-

leadingscholarsofearlyandmedievalIslammdashincludingIbnTaymiyyamdashacceptedthehisto-ricityofthisincidentSeeSAhmed1998

26

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INTRODUCTION

tioningreligio-politicalauthorityIslamistleadershaveoftenenjoyedovertheirfollowersisnotunlikethatoftheSufimasteroverhisfollowersBe-ginningwithHasanal-BannathefounderoftheMuslimBrotherhoodandoncehimselfamemberofaSufiordertheleaderofthisorganizationis formally referred to as themurshid (guide)ormore specificallyalshymurshid alshylsquoam (thegeneralguide[RMitchell1993165])whichisafamiliartermforthemasterinSuficontextsForhispartAbdessalamYassine the founder and leader of lsquoAdl warsquol-Ihsan Party of Morocco(oftenreferredtoastheJusticeandSpiritualityAssociationorJSA)haslike Khomeini gone well beyond simply echoing Sufi conceptions ofauthorityinhisowndiscoursesHetoowasonceamemberofaMoroc-canSufiorderandhehascontinuedtodrawonSufithemesinhiswrit-ingsTheverynameofYassinersquospoliticalorganizationevokesacentralSufiideanamelyihsanThisisaQurrsquoanicterm(cfQ756)thattrans-latedliterallymeansldquotodogoodrdquothoughSufishaveunderstoodittomeanmuchmore thanthatFollowingawell-knownstatementattrib-uted to theProphetMuhammad theyhaveoften interpreted ihsan tomeangoingbeyondtheexternalsofIslamicritualpracticestoldquoworshipGodasifyouseeHimrdquo(Schimmel197529)thatiscultivatingasenseof personal communion and intimacy with God Even as Yassine hassoughttodistancehimselffromwhathedeemstobetheexcessesofSu-fismthereislittledoubtthathispoliticalappealowesmuchtocarefullycalibratedeffortstocombinedistinctiveSufiideaswithhisownbrandofIslamism(cfLauziegravere2005seealsochapter12onNadiaYassineinthisvolume)

FinallyMawdudirsquosJamalsquoat-iIslamimdashoneoftheearliestIslamistorga-nizations in the Sunni worldmdashillustrates both the Islamistsrsquo complexrelationshipwith Sufismand their pragmatic recognitionof its appealinmanyMuslimsocietiesMawdudihadoncebeenaharshcriticofSu-fismblamingitformanyillsafflictingMuslimsocietiesYettheJama-lsquoat-iIslamigraduallycametosoftenitsstanceonSufipracticesconsider-ablynodoubtintheinterestofbroadeningsomeofitssupportbaseinPakistanwheresaintsandSufishrinesareanimportantpartofthereli-giousandpoliticallandscapeAlreadyinMawdudirsquoslifetimeMianTufaylMuhammadhissuccessorastheheadoftheJamalsquoat-iIslamihadtakentheextraordinaryinitiativeoftranslatinganearlySuficlassictheKashf alshymahjub into Urdu The author of this work Shaykh lsquoAli Hujwiri(d1072)isburiedinLahoreinPakistanandhismuch-frequentedshrineishometoprecisely thesortofdevotionalpractices that Islamistsandmodernist reformers letaloneSalafishaveoften frownedupon (Nasr1996124)

ThesediverseexamplesarenotintendedtoobscuretherealdifferencesbetweenthegeneralityofIslamistsandmostSufisTheirsignificanceliesratherinillustratingthedifficultyofdistinguishingbetweenIslamismandotherreligiousintellectualandpoliticaltrendsintermsofneatcharac-

27

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INTRODUCTION

terizationsofgrandtranslocalgeneralizationsAstheforegoingsuggeststhesameistrueandmoresowhenitcomestocharacterizingIslamistsinrelationtothelsquoulamatheMuslimmodernistsandtheSalafisIndeedasLorenLybargerhasarguedwithreferencetothoseusuallycharacter-izedasldquosecularnationalistrdquoorldquoIslamistrdquoPalestiniansintheWestBankandGazadifferenceswithintheranksofyoungsecularnationalistsandIslamistscansometimesalsoshadeintosignificantsimilaritiesbetweenthesesupposedlyrivalorientations(Lybarger2007)ManyIslamistshavesoughttodistancethemselvesfromwhattheyseeastherigidityandau-thoritarianismofotherIslamistsandtoarguenotjustfortheimplemen-tationofthesharilsquoabutalsofordemocracyandpluralismConverselynot a few of the younger secular nationalists have ldquoadopted IslamisttheodiciesthatexplainedthefailuretoovercomeIsraelastheresultoffallingawayfrompietytheirconclusionsmirroredIslamistonestootheroadbackfromthebrinkhadtotraceitscoursethrougharenewedcom-mitmenttoIslambutnotnecessarilyinthemannerthattheIslamistmove-mentsmighthaveintendedrdquo(Lybarger2007237ndash38quotationat238)

Yet ifneatcategoriesremainelusiveacombinationoftheIslamistsrsquoself-consciouslypoliticalgoalstheirmultifacetedifnotalwaysexplicitpoliticalcritiquesofmanypastandpresentwaysofunderstandingandlivingIslamandanunshakeableconfidenceintheirownabilitytodis-cern Godrsquos will from the foundational texts do often provide enoughgrounds tobroadlydistinguish themfromotheractivists intellectualsand orientations in the Muslim public sphere What this combinationamountstovariesfromonesocialpoliticalreligiousandculturalcon-texttoanotherandsothereforedothewaysinwhichIslamistsrelatetooneanotherorcompeteandoverlapwithothergroupsandorientations

The Politics of Islamism

FromAeneasrsquosmythicalfoundingofRometothedeathandresurrectionofJesusChristtoMuhammadrsquosmigrationtoMedinafoundationalnar-rativesareascommontocollectivelifeasthemovementsthatperiodi-callyarisetorevivethemandclaimantstothemantleoflegitimacytheyconferSounderstoodIslamistsrsquopoliticalaspirationstorestorefounda-tionslocatedinamythicalpastarefarfromuniqueNorareIslamistsaloneintheirconvictionthatscripturalauthorityisguaranteedbyitsdi-vineauthormdashforinthatallMuslimsagreeRatherthechaptersinthisvolumesuggest thatwhatmakes Islamistpoliticsdistinctive (ifnotsui generis)istheclaimtorecuperateanldquoauthenticIslamrdquocomprisedofself-evidenttruthspurgedofalienandcorruptinginfluencesalongwithaninsistenceonremakingthefoundationsofthestateinitsimageGiventhelimitsofhumanunderstandingrelativetoGodrsquosknowledgeIslamistssimultaneouslydepictsuchfidelitytotheunadulteratedwordofAllahas

28

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INTRODUCTION

theultimateexpressionofdeferencetodivineomniscienceandportrayhumilityasaconstitutivefeatureofthehumanconditionAspirationstofullyknowandmasterthenaturalandsocialworldsthusentailnotonlyahumanhubrisdeaftotheQurrsquoanicadmonitionthatldquoAllahknowsbutandyoudonotknowrdquo(Q366)butalsoatransgressionagainstadi-vinely-ordainedontologicalorder

ItisnotablehoweverthattheIslamistemphasisonthelimitsofhumanknowledgerequireshumilityonlyinrelationtoAllahitrarelyyieldshu-milityinregardtotheirownclaimstospeakinHisnameortowardotherhumanbeingswhodissentfromthepremiseofdivineomnipotenceandIslamistaccountsofwhat it requiresThis suggests thatwhile IslamistchallengestostatepowerareobviouslypoliticaltheIslamistclaimtoau-thenticityisalsopolitical inthecoercivepoweritroutinelyenactsandjustifiesmostnotablybywayofthesilencesitimposesandthedebatesitforeclosesAzizal-Azmehpointsoutthatldquothenotionofauthenticityisnotsomuchadeterminateconceptasitisanodeofassociationsandin-terpellationsatropebymeansofwhichthehistoricalworldisreducedtoaparticularorderandatokenwhichmarksoffsocialandpoliticalgroupsandforgesandreconstituteshistoricalidentitiesrdquo(al-Azmeh199341)WhetherintheserviceofArabnationalismChristianfundamental-ismEuropeanromanticismorMuslimmodernismtheclaimofauthen-ticityisanactofpowerthatfunctionsnotjusttoreflecttheworldbuttoconstructitbydeterminingwhoisincludedandexcludedwhomayandmaynotspeakauthoritativelywhatistheproperrealmofdebateandwhatisbeyondcontestation

ItiscertainlythecasethatasingleldquoIslamrdquocapturesandorganizestheperspectivesofmillionswhoself-identifyasMuslim(amongotherthings)yetwhattravelsunderitsrubricisinescapablydiversemultiethnicanddefined asmuchbydisagreement as consensus Just as theTorah andBible lend themselves toat times radicallydivergent interpretationsofwhatitmeanstobeJewishorChristiantheQurrsquoanandhaditharecom-plexandsusceptibletomanydifferentandattimescontradictoryenact-mentsSounderstoodIslamislessafixedessencethanalivingtraditionthatcaptureswhatisimaginedascontinuousandunitaryindialecticalrelationshiptothoseconcretearticulationsandpracticesbywhichitistransformedandadaptedindifferentcontextsforpluralpurposesItispreciselythisunderstandingofreligionthatisanathematoIslamistswhoseek tofix theparametersof Islamicauthenticityonceandforallandtherebyarrogateforthemselvestherighttodeterminewhoqualifiesasagood Muslim to discredit those lsquoulama unable or unwilling to purgeIslamofpurportedimpietiestodeclarenominallyMuslimrulersapos-tatesunfittogovernandtocharacterizeallwhodisagreeascorrupthe-reticalguiltyofunbelieforvictimsoffalseconsciousness

Thesegeneralpoliticaltendencieshowevermustbecarefullysituatedwithinadialecticoftheglobalandthevernacularunderstoodtoreflect

29

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INTRODUCTION

thewaysinwhichunifyingmacrohistoricaldynamicsinformandareinturntransformedbydiversecontingentandfluidlocalcircumstancesInaworldstampedbyWesterndominanceandtheconsolidationofpostco-lonial authoritarian regimes Islamists confront a common set of con-straintsandchallengesInasmuchassuchconstraintsandchallengeshavemade Islamist thinkers (often reluctant) participants in conversationsacrossbothcultureandhistorytheireffortstoremakethefoundationsofcollectiveliferevealasharedinterpretiveframeworkandcommonreli-gio-political grammar At the same time this frame and grammar arecontinuallybeingreworkedinrelationtothedistinctpublicspheresinwhichIslamistsoperateandtowhichtheycarefullycalibratetheirpoliti-calcommitments

Attention to this complex dynamic suggests that the Islamist move-mentcannotsimplybecharacterizedasviolentantidemocraticandop-pressiveofwomenlabelsinvokedsofrequentlyinscholarlyandpopularliterature on the subject that they have become virtually synonymouswithIslamistpoliticsSuchcharacterizationsdocapturecrucialdimen-sionsofIslamistpoliticsyettheyalsosidesteptheparadoxesitsvarie-gatedandoftencontradictoryexpressionspresentInsteadwearguethatIslamistpoliticscanbeproductivelyreadin terms ofandagainst the grain ofsuchbroadcategorizationsasantidemocraticantiwomanorviolentmdashthat is as commitments that at different moments in various localesbothencourageandconstrainbroad-basedpoliticalparticipationdisruptandratifyhierarchicalgendernormsresistandreproducestate-sanctionedbrutalityThepointofreadingIslamistpoliticsinthiswayisnottosug-gestthatIslamistsaresecretlydemocraticfeministandopposedtovio-lenceRatherthepointistodrawattentiontothecomplexityandcon-tradictionserasedbyeasygeneralizationsontheonehandandtheoftenunacknowledgedfluidityandculturaladaptabilityofotherwisefamiliarpoliticalcategoriesontheother

Islamism and Democracy

DespiteimportantdifferencesamongIslamistthinkerstheyhaveincom-monatendencytoviewhumansovereigntyastransgressiveofdivinelawandsharetheaspirationtoestablishsharilsquoaastheprimaryorsolesourceofauthorityAsisoftennotedsuchpremisesandaspirationsrunafoulofassumptionsaboutpopularruleattheheartofdemocracynamelythathumanbeingshavetherighttolegislaterulesforcollectivebehaviorandarecapableofthewisdomrequiredtodevisejustlawsInrecentyearspolicymakersandcommentatorshaveevincedaparticularpreoccupa-tionwiththewaysinwhichIslamistnotionsofdivineauthoritythrottlethespiritandpracticeofpopularsovereigntySomehaveevengonesofarastocharacterizeIslamistsasldquoIslamo-fascistsrdquoanimatedbyhatredoftheldquodemocratic Westrdquo psychologically unable to contend with the fluidity

30

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INTRODUCTION

andindeterminacythatmarkpopularruleandeagertoconvertelectionsintoaldquoone-manone-voteone-timerdquomechanismforestablishinganIs-lamicstate(Murdock2002MRubin2005Kramer1993)

SuchviewsareechoedbythoseIslamistskeentoportraydemocracynotonlyasantitheticaltothesupremacyofdivinelawbutasaTrojanhorseforWesternimperialismFormanyIslamistsincludingseveralinthis volumedemocracy is justone symptomofametastasizingmoralandspiritualbankruptcywherebymoraltransgressionsaretransfiguredintonaturalurgescrassself-interestbecomesthebedrockofcollectivelifeandthedivineplanfortheuniverseandallthingsinitisreducedtoa system of physical causality just waiting to be mastered by way ofhumaningenuity(REuben2007)Qutbcallsthisdiseasedviewoftheworldjahiliyyaanditsignalsnotonlyhumanarrogancebutatransgres-sionagainstdivineauthoritythescopeofwhichencompassesbothpub-licandprivatedomainsofhumanaffairsaswellasbothvisibleandun-seendimensionsoftheuniverseFormanyIslamistssuchtransgressionisattherootofmuchofwhatpassesforMuslimruleinthecontemporaryworldmdashnationalistdemocraticandmonarchicalalikeSucharroganceisalsosaidtobethepatternunderlyingalonghistoryofunrelievedWest-ernaggressionagainstIslaminwhichtheChristianCrusadesEuropeancolonialismIsraelitreatmentofPalestiniansethniccleansinginBosniaGermananti-TurkishviolencetheAmericaninvasionofIraqandDutchcartoonsofMuhammadarebutafewexamples

YetthereisarangeofviewsamongIslamistsaboutboththesubstanceofdemocracyanditscompatibilitywiththereligio-politicalrenewaltheyadvocateAccordingtoQaradawiforexampleldquotheessenceofdemoc-racyisthatpeoplechoosewhorulesoverthemandmanagestheiraf-fairsthatnorulerorregimetheydislikeisforceduponthemthattheyhavetherighttocalltherulertoaccountifheerrsandtoremovehimfromofficeincaseofmisconductandthatpeoplearenotforcedineco-nomicsocialculturalorpoliticaldirectionsthattheyneitherrecognizenor acceptrdquo (Qaradawi1997132 also chapter9 in this volume)TohimthereisnoheavierburdenoppressingMuslimsinthecontemporaryworld thandespotism indeed it is throughdespoticgovernments thatMuslimshavebeenforcedtosubmittootherillsincludingtheneglectofthesharilsquoaandthecoerciveimpositionofsecularismandwesternizationDemocracy then recommends itself to Qaradawi as the most effectiveavailableantidotetodespotismandtheafflictionsofwhichitservesasavehicle

WheremanyamongtheIslamistsandthelsquoulamahaveseenconsider-able tensionbetween IslamanddemocracyQaradawiprofesses to seenoneAswesuggestedearlierbyfarthemostcommonoftheIslamistreservationsaboutademocraticsystemrelatestothesovereigntyofthepeoplewhichistakentocontravenetheideathatGodaloneissovereignQaradawi however is unperturbedby such concernsThe rule of the

31

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INTRODUCTION

peopleoughttobeseenhearguesnotinoppositiontotheruleofGodbutratherinoppositiontotheruleofthedespotMorefundamentallyQaradawirsquos view of democracy does not necessarily require that thepeopleshouldbeabletooverturndivinelyinstitutednormsRatherhisassumptionisthatpeopleexercisetheirsovereigntywithinconstitutionalboundsandMuslimslivinginapredominantlyMuslimdemocraticpol-itywouldlikewisenotwishtotransgresstheparametersoflegitimatehumanactionlaiddownintheIslamicfoundationaltexts(seeQaradawichapter9inthisvolumeandcfFeldman2007)

NadiaYassineofMoroccorsquosJusticeandSpiritualityAssociationisan-othercaseinpointWhilecriticalofthedemocraticgesturesembracedbyamonarchythatshedepictsasallergictogenuinelypopularsovereigntyYassineinsiststhatthemodelofMuslimruleadumbratedintheummafoundedbytheProphetMuhammadandinparticulartheConstitutionofMedina17isnothingshortofdemocratic(NYassine2005d2005e)UnliketheMuslimdynastiesthatarosetousurpitYassinecontendsthiscommunity was participatory egalitarian committed to freedom andexpressiveofGodrsquosmercyMostimportantitwasgovernedalwaysbytheQurrsquoanicprincipleofshura (consultation)bywhichYassinemeansaphilosophy of power that places sovereignty in the community ratherthaninanyindividuallinksvirtuetodeliberationratherthanobedienceandexhortsbelieverstocontinuallyadaptQurrsquoanicprinciplesthroughijtihad rather than adhere reflexively to precedent (N Yassine 2006a182ndash862005d)ManyscholarsandjournalistsremainskepticaloftheJSArsquosasyetuntestedcommitment toproceduraldemocracyandworrythatNadiaandher fatherAbdessalamultimatelyseektoestablishanIslamic state inhospitable to tolerance pluralism and civil liberties(Maghraoui2001Brandon2007Whitlock2006)YetothersarguethattheJSAisagenuinelypopulistorganizationthatrepresentstheunrepre-sentedtendstothewelfareofthedispossessedandbothexpressesandcontributestoanincreasinglyvibrantcivilsocietyinMorocco(Cavatorta2006Entelis2002)

QaradawirsquosandYassinersquosargumentstogethersuggestthatdemocracycanandhasservedaseitheracosmeticcoverfordespotismoranauthen-ticallyIslamiccheckuponcorruptandarbitraryruleAtissueinIslamistargumentsforandagainstdemocracythenarenotonlywhatcountsasldquoauthenticIslamrdquoandtheintentionsofthosewhoclaimtoknowitbutalsothecontentandcharacterofdemocracyitselfParadoxicallybothIslamistsopposedtodemocracyandthosewhotakeIslamismasinher-entlyantidemocraticregardthisasasimplematterwithanobviousan-swerdemocracyisanexpressionofandevensynonymouswithliberal-ismcapitalismandtheWestYetdemocracyisbothmorecapaciousand

17TheConstitutionofMedinawasanagreementtheProphethadenteredintowiththelocalcommunitiesincludingJewishtribesuponhisemigrationfromMeccatoMedina

32

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

moredistinctthanthispresumptionsuggestsTheworditselfofcoursederivesfromtheancientGreekdemokratiawhichmeansrule(kratos)ofthepeople(demos)andmanyderivetheequationofdemocracyandtheWestfromthisassociationwithclassicalGreeceYetancientGreekphi-losopherssuchasPlatosawindemocracythespecterofmobrulepartic-ularly vulnerable to demagoguery and despotism (a suspicion notablyechoedbyAmerican founder JamesMadison)Contrary to thedemo-cratic idealof inclusivenessmoreover citizenship inGreekdemocracyexcludedasubstantialpartofthepopulationincludingwomenslavesandforeignersFinallytheextenttowhichtheancientGreeksmayevenbecalledWesternisamatterofgreatdisputeparticularlyastheldquoWestrdquoisacategoryofrelativelyrecentprovenancethroughwhichhistoryandgeographyhavebeenretroactivelyorganized18DespitedepictionsoftheHellenicworldasWesternancientGreeksdidnotinfactviewthem-selvesintheseterms19

TheequationofdemocracywiththeWestalsopresupposestheexis-tenceofacoherentldquoWesterncivilizationrdquowitheitherculturallyhomoge-neousrootsorclearlydelineatedhistoricalandcontemporarybounda-riesorbothYetwhatiscalledtheWestisanamalgamationofmultipletraditionsincludingtheGreekRomanJudaicChristianandIslamicmdashtraditionsthatarethemselvespolyvalentratherthanhomogeneousmdashandistodaycharacterizedbyporousbordershybridsubculturesandmyriaddebtstodiversecivilizationspastandpresent20AsageographicmarkeritisvirtuallyimpossibletopinpointexactlywheretheWestbeginsandendsandthisisespeciallysonowthatpeoplesinformationandmate-rial goods crisscross cultural andnational borders atwill creating allkindsoftransnationalsubnationalandmultipleidentitiesthatshiftandreconstitutethemselvesinunpredictablewaysEventhosevaluesidenti-fiedasWesternoftenappearelsewhereinotherguisesIndeedscholarssuggestthatavarietyoftheldquostandardsexportedbytheWestanditscul-turalindustriesthemselvesturnouttobeofculturallymixedcharacterifweexaminetheirculturallineagesrdquo(Pieterse199553)

Manyalsoarguethatdemocracyisnotonlydistinctfrombutinten-sionwithboththetheoryandpracticeofpoliticsinldquoWesternrdquosocieties

18MichaelGillespie(19997ndash10)arguesthattherereadingofhistorygeographyandculturethroughtheprismofthissenseofldquotheWestrdquobegannoearlierthanthenineteenthcenturyTheideaofatimelessandbrightlinebetweenWestandEastisalsochallengedbyJeremyBrottonrsquosstudy(19989096ndash97)ofthediplomaticandintellectualexchangesbe-tweenEuropeandtheOttomanEmpireintheearlymodernperiodBrottonshowsnotonlytheextentandamityofsuchexchangesbutapersistentuncertaintyaboutwherepreciselyEuropeldquoendedrdquoandAsialdquobeganrdquo

19AncientGreeksunderstoodthemselvesasgeographicallywestofthebarbariansbutnotWesterninthecontemporarysensethatisasbothaculturalandhistoricalcategory

20StevenRuncimanrsquoswork(19543480)ontheCrusadesforexampledemonstratesaldquolongsequenceofinteractionandfusionbetweenOrientandOccidentoutofwhichourcivilizationhasgrownrdquo

33

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

many of which are more accurately classified as liberal and capitalist(Wood1994Wolin2001BallandDagger1999)Whileitisnowcom-monplacetospeakofldquoliberaldemocracyrdquoinasinglebreathliberalismanddemocracyareconceptsandpracticeswithverydifferenthistoriesandpresuppositionsUnlikedemocracyforexampleliberalismemergedfromthecrucibleofChristianreligiouswarsandintandemwiththeas-cendanceofamiddleclassthatpresagedtheendofEuropeanfeudalismTheliberalnation-statecanthusbeviewedasbothanexpressionandaconsolidationofcapitalismontheonehandandtheprincipleofasepa-rationbetweenchurchandstateontheotherBycontrastthereisnoth-ingaboutdemocracyeitherasasystemofgovernanceoracultureofpar-ticipationthatisinherentlysecularIndeedAlexisdeTocquevillefamouslyinsistedthatAmericandemocracycannotandshouldnotbesecularasreligionhelpsshiftattentionawayfromimmediatematerialpreoccupa-tionstolargerconcernsofcommunitycooperationandmoralityInfactmanydemocratictheoristsarguethatgenuinelyinclusivepopularsover-eignty is antithetical to the sharp inequalities of wealth and politicalpowerthatcapitalismoftenproducesandlegitimates

SuchongoingdefinitionalandsubstantivedebatessuggestthatthereismuchmoreatstakeindemocraticpoliticsthanprocedurespertainingtogovernmentauthorityandorderandpointtoawidespreadifelusiveunderstandingofdemocracynotjustasasetofinstitutionsbutasTocque-villesuggestsawayoflifeSeveralpoliticaltheoristshavecharacterizedthiselusiveunderstandingintermsofaldquodemocraticethosrdquoBythistheymeanbothanidealandanargumentforacultureofparticipationactivepowersharingmutualaccountabilityinclusivenessanddeliberationinwhichcitizensmayroutinelyandsafelychallengenotonlyspecificpoli-ciesandpolitical institutionsbutalso thevalues thatgoverncollectivelifeprinciplesofinclusionandexclusionandthepremisesofauthorityitself(Connolly1995JPEuben2003Sadiki2004)AdemocraticethosismuchmoredifficulttomeasureorquantifythanforexampleSamuelHuntingtonrsquosparsimoniousdefinitionofdemocracyasapolityinwhichtherehavebeentwoconsecutivepeacefulchangesofgovernmentbywayof freeand fairelections (Huntington1991)21Yetademocraticethosmakesitpossibletobothrecognizeanddisaggregatethepreconditionsaspirations mechanisms and institutions bundled into ldquodemocracyrdquotherebybringingintofocusforexamplethefrequentlyantidemocratic

21Manypoliticalscientistsprefertodefinedemocracyintermsofproceduresdesignedtorealizepopularruleincludingfreecompetitiveandfairelectionsalongwithstateprotec-tionofcertainrightsandlibertiesSuchaformalminimalistdefinitionhastheadvantageofdetachingdemocracyfromquestionsoforiginsandofferingastandardtowhichallgov-ernmentsmaybeheldregardlessofcultureandplaceAsKeithTopper(2005205ndash7)ar-gueshoweveritalsotendstosidestepknottyquestionsaboutthesubstanceofrepresenta-tion power responsiveness and accountability that are arguably central to democraticpolitics

34

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

casttoelectionsimposedbyelitesorforeignpowersthefeltimpotenceofmanycitizensinestablisheddemocraciesandthosehighlyparticipa-torycivilsocietiesthatflourishevenundermonarchicortheocraticrule

Forourpurposes inparticularademocraticethosmakesvisible theparadoxofanIslamistmovementthatseekstomobilizeordinaryMus-limsagainstcoercivepowerbutinthenameofareligio-politicalorderlargelyimmunizedfromchallengeQutbisanaptillustrationhereashistendencytogroundhisownspecialauthorityandinsightintheunsulliedwisdomofordinarybelieversmakesitpossibletoreadhisworkaseitherabriefagainstdemocracy(amongotherthings)oranenactmentofitIn-asmuchasdemocracyasaformofgovernanceisidentifiedwithpopularsovereigntyQutbrsquosbasicpremisethat thefoundationof legitimateau-thoritymustbedivineratherthanhumansuggeststhatheisunambigu-ouslyantidemocraticMoreoverQutbrsquoseffortstopluralizereligiousandpolitical authority express not a confidence in common wisdom butratheradesiretoclaimforhimselfthestatureofareligiousexpertwhodespitehislackofIslamicacademiccredentialscanclearlyseewhatoth-erscannotQutbcharacterizestherealIslamasself-evidentbuthealsoassumesthatonlyasmallvanguardofbelieversbesideshimselfwillhavetheabilitytorecognizeitandactdecisivelytoremaketheworldinitsimageSounderstoodthesignofldquochosennessrdquoisunyieldingcommitmenttoestablishingareligio-politicalorderthatsimultaneouslypresumesthesupremacyofthefewcapableoftrueknowledgeandpromisesaworldinwhichdissentitselfwillbecomebothunnecessaryandillegitimate

Yetifdemocracyrefersnotonlytoasystemofgovernanceorsetofprocedurestorealizepopularsovereigntybutalsotopracticesthatdis-ruptthoseforceswhichconcentratepowerandestablishpoliticalexclu-sionthecharacterizationofQutbrsquosworkassimplyantidemocraticmissesa crucial dimensionof its significance and appealAs the sacred textscontaintherulesandregulationsmeanttogovernbothpublicandpri-vateaffairsQutbrsquosinsistencethatordinaryuntrainedMuslimsmusten-gagethemdirectlyisinmanywaysademocratizationofaccesstoau-thoritySuchaccesscandisruptdeeplyentrenchedpatternsofpowerandpowerlessness particularlywhen conjoined to Islamist arguments thatarbitrarypowerisun-Islamicthatreligiousknowledgedependsoncom-mitmentratherthantrainingorexpertise thatMuslimshavetherightandobligationtodeterminewhenrulersareillegitimateandthatthosewhopreferordertojusticesecuritytofreedomandmoneytopietyhaveforfeitedanyclaimtoauthority

ThisaspectofIslamismhasfrequentlybeencomparedtotheProtestantReformationandmorespecificallytoCalvinistsrsquoattemptstotransferldquore-ligiousauthorityawayfromofficiallysanctionedindividualswhointer-prettextstoordinarycitizensrdquo(EGoldberg19913alsocfLoimeier2005)Suchaparallelhassparkedagreatdealofscholarlyspeculation

35

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

regardingapossibleldquoIslamicReformationrdquo22andarangeofargumentsaboutwhetherandhowIslamismmightfacilitatethedemocratizationofMuslim societies much as the Protestant Reformation is said to haveheralded the emergence of European ldquoliberal democracyrdquo While suchcomparisonsareevocativeafullerunderstandingof IslamismrequiresfirstsituatingitinrelationtoahistoricalshiftinthenatureandlocusofreligiousauthorityinIslambeginninginthenineteenthcenturyAsschol-arsofMuslimsocietieshavepointedouttheimpactofmasseducationnewtechnologiesfordisseminatingknowledgeandinformationanddra-matically changed social economic and political contexts have madeavailabletoamateurswhathadpreviouslybeenthepurviewofreligiousexpertsAtthesametimeithasinauguratedafragmentationofauthor-itywithintheveryranksofthelsquoulamathatcontinuestothepresentday23

InthiscontexttheascendanceandinfluenceofautodidactssuchasQutbHasanal-BannalsquoAbdal-SalamFarajandBinLadensimultaneouslyex-pressandaccelerateanongoingrenegotiationofauthorityoverwhomayspeakforIslamandonwhatbasisthepathofwhichisstillunfoldingandtheoutcomeasyetuncertain

Islamism and Gender

One already apparent consequence of this ongoing renegotiation overwhomayspeakforIslamandonwhatbasisistheentryofwomenintothe interpretive fray This development is increasingly unsettling thoseunwrittengendernormsarguablyattheveryheartofIslamistthoughtdisruptingthestandardsofmasculinityandfemininitythatreflecthowparticularculturesorganizehumanbeingsrsquosocialandreproductiveactiv-itiesintorolesthatareinturnthoughttoexpresstheldquonaturerdquoofmenand women Such norms are frequently considered tangential to theknottyproblemsofdefiningIslamismandadumbratingitscentralideasyetarangeofscholarshiponculturespastandpresenthasshownthatgenderisconsistentlytheterrainoverwhichbattlesforpoliticalcontrolandculturalidentityarefoughtMorespecificallyresearchindisciplinessuchasanthropologyhistoryclassicsandpostcolonialstudieshasdem-onstratedthatculturesinwhichfemalebodiesandbehaviorareregardedas indicesofmoralpurity tend to symbolically transformwomen intoconduitsof cultural corruption in timesof internal crisis and externalthreat(Papenek1994Chatterjee1990Tavakoli-Targhi1991Just1989Cohen1991Welter1966Bloch1978)Thisisespeciallytrueofcontem-

22Foralatenineteenth-centuryassessmentoftheprospectsforaldquoMuhammadanRefor-mationrdquoseeBlunt1882132ndash73

23EickelmanandPiscatori199637ndash39131ndash35Zaman2006Suchfragmentationhasinmanywaysbeenacceleratedbytheexplosionofdigitalcultureswhichpromoteamongotherthingsaldquoformofempoweredamateurismrdquo(Mirzoeff20026)

36

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

poraryreligio-politicalmovementswhosememberstendtoldquoidealizepa-triarchalstructuresofauthorityandmoralityrdquoendorsegenderdualismasgod-givenornaturalandcondemnvigorouslyrecentchangesingen-derrelationsasasymptomandsymbolofsecularistmoralbankruptcy(Riesebrodt1993Moghadam1992Hawley1994)

SeveralchaptersinthisvolumeilluminateIslamistgendernormsbyre-vealing thecharacterandcontentof Islamistconcernsabout theplaceandpurityofMuslimwomenmdashpreoccupationsFatimaMernissi(199199)hasgonesofarastocharacterizeasanobsessionDespiteimportantdifferences among Islamists thinkers many endorse gender norms inwhichthefairlyconventionalinsistencethatfemalenatureisdefinedinand through reproduction undergirds an understanding of women assymbolsofmoralvirtueandvesselsofculturalpurityThisviewsustainstheclaimthatmenandwomenareequalinreligiousbeliefbutperformfundamentallydifferentandcomplementaryfunctionsinsocietyWhilemenarenaturallymadetoruleinboththepublicandprivatedomainawomanbelongsinthedomesticrealmwhereherprimaryroleistobeawifeandmotheraswellastoinsuretheintegrityofthefamilythefirstschoolofmoraleducationAssuchfunctionsarerootedinaninescap-ablehumannaturefashionedbyGodawomanrsquosinabilityorunwilling-nesstoperformherdutiessignalsadisobediencetothedivinewillandpresages the corruption of the Muslim family from within From thisvantagepointtheWesterninsistenceonfullequalitybetweenthesexesisdoubly pernicious it at once liberates women from basic moral con-straintsandenslavesthemtomutuallyreinforcingsexualandcapitalistexploitationAsMurtazaMutahhari(1998xxxi)arguescapitalismmakesuseofwomentomarket itsgoodsldquoby trading inhonourandrespectthrough[their]powertoenticerdquotherebyldquotransform[ing]manintoaninvoluntaryagentofconsumptionrdquoInasmuchaswomenareresponsiblefor producing the next generation of Muslim men destined to restoreIslamtoitsformergloryitisnotonlythevirtueofwomenortheinteg-rityofthefamilythathangsinthebalancebutthefutureofIslamiccivili-zationitself

Zaynab al-Ghazali andMutahharimake several of these argumentsexplicitlyandindetail(seechapters10and11)butinmuchofIslamistrhetoricthenatureandsignificanceofwomenareestablishedindirectlyandsymbolicallyandthroughthreerecurrentimagesinparticularThefirstisofwomenassilentsymbolsofculturalmoralandsexualvulnera-bilityvoicelessfiguresinneedofmasculineprotectionorwhenitistoolatedefiledbodiesthatmutelydemandvengeanceSoforexamplelsquoAb-dallahlsquoAzzam(oneofBinLadenrsquosmentorsseechapter18)graphicallydetailstheagonizinghumiliationofyoungmenunabletoactwhentheAfghanwoman isldquocryingout forhelpher childrenarebeing slaugh-tered her women are being raped the innocent are killed and theircorpsesscatteredrdquo(lsquoAzzam1987a)Inthesecondimagewomenfunction

37

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

muchlikeachorusthatspeaksinpermittedcadencestoratifymasculineendeavorsSuchisthecaseforexampleinBinLadenrsquos1996ldquoDeclara-tionofWaragainsttheAmericansOccupyingtheLandoftheTwoHolyPlacesrdquo(seechapter18)wherethewomenexhortmentojihadinthefollowing way ldquoPrepare yourself like a struggler the matter is biggerthanwordsAreyougoingtoleaveusforthewolvesofKufr[unbe-lief]eatingourwingsWherearethefreemendefendingfreewomenbyarmsDeath isbetter than life inhumiliation Some scandals andshameswillneverbeotherwiseeradicatedrdquo24InthethirdimagewomenarecreaturesnotofthisworldbutofanothervirginalrewardsforthecourageousmartyrintheafterlifeThisisevidentinthefinalinstructionsforthe911hijackersforexamplewhereMuslimldquobrothersrdquoareurgedto purify their carnal impulses sharpen their knives for the dhabh (slaughter)andheedthecallofthehur lsquoayn (theblack-eyedones)await-ingtheminParadise(seechapter19)

Such rhetoric primarily registers women as an extensionmirror ormeasure of masculinity and together with explicit Islamist argumentsabouthumannatureandthefamilyarticulatesIslamistgendernormsinwhichmenandwomeneachhaveaproperlocationandpurposeinadi-vinely ordained social hierarchy Deviance from this gendered scriptthussignalsdisruptionofamuchbroaderreligio-politicalorderitbothpresumes and seeks to bring into existence The disruption caused byforeign aggression in particular exacerbates the tendency to translateconflict into an assault on Muslim masculinity and to conceptualizewomenaspotentialvehiclesforWesterncorruptioninneedofguidingand guarding Women such as Zaynab al-Ghazali and Nadia Yassinewho seek a prominent place and voice within the Islamist movementhavehadlittlechoicebuttocontendwiththisgenderedscriptDoingsohasentailedamongotherthingsnavigatingcarefullybetweenIslamistcharacterizations of womenrsquos visibility and agency as symptomatic ofthe new jahiliyya on the one hand and essentializing arguments thatequateIslamwithveilingfemalegenitalmutilationandhonorkillingsontheother

AsthechaptersonGhazaliandYassinesuggestIslamistwomenhavenegotiatedbetweensuchconstraintsandpressuresandtheirownambi-tionsindifferentwaysApioneeringdalsquoiya(onewhoinvitesMuslimstogreater piety)Ghazalirsquos own life reveals a fierce resistance to conven-tionalnormsofdomesticityevenasmuchofher(earlier)workappearsto embrace an Islamist gender ideology that defines women as wivesmothers andldquobuilders ofmenrdquo (al-Hashimi 1990 118)By contrastYassineisawifeandmotherwhoembracesanldquoIslamicfeminismrdquothatrequiresldquoreappropriatingtheinstrumentsofclassicaltheologyrdquoanden-

24TheIslamistjournalSawt alshyJihadhasgonesofarastofeatureldquowomenrsquosvoicesrdquointheformofrolemodelsnamedforexampleumm alshyshahid(motherofthemartyr)al-thoughitisunclearthattheseldquovoicesrdquoareactuallywomenrsquos(SUsher2004)

38

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INTRODUCTION

gaging the textsdirectly through ijtihad (NYassine2003) In this re-spect Yassine must be understood as part of a broader effort amongMuslimwomenwithdifferentpoliticalcommitmentstosimultaneouslyadvocateandenacttheirrighttorecuperatetheldquooriginalintentrdquooftheIslamictextsIfwomenandmendoinfacthavedistinctperspectivesontheworldYassinesuggestswomenhaveaspecialobligationtoexcavatewhattheyseeasthegenderparityoftheQurrsquoanburiedbeneaththoseldquomachointerpretationsrdquoofIslamuponwhichmenhavebuilttheirprivi-legeandpower(Khalaf2006)25

ManyAnglo-AmericanandEuropean feministsworry that Islamistsseekonly to secureor restorepatriarchalpowerConverselymany Is-lamist women view feminism as a term and a movement inescapablyWesterninoriginfreightedwiththelegacyofcolonialismanduneasilyimplicatedinculturalimperialismThisapplieseventoYassinewhoisunwillingtoadoptwithoutqualificationalabelsheassociateswithagen-dasopposedtoherowntheWesttheMoroccanstateMaghribi(North-westAfrican)elitesYetfeminismitselfisahighlycontestedtermwithin theso-calledWestitisthebearerofmultiplemeaningssomeofwhichareevenopposedandischaracterizedbydeepdisagreementsaboutwhowomenarewhatwomenneedwhoisauthorizedtoworkonwomenrsquosbehalf andbywhatmeans Inasmuch as these various feminismsmayshareonlyastatedconcernforwomenrsquoswelfarethereisnothinginco-herentinmodifyingldquofeminismrdquowithldquoIslamicrdquoldquoMuslimrdquoorevenldquoIs-lamistrdquounlessone iscommitted toarguing thatfirst Islam isanun-changingessencebeyondhistorypoliticsandculturesecondthereisaneutralobjectivevantagefromwhichtoidentifythisessenceonceandforallandfinallytheIslamicessencesoidentifiedisfundamentallyin-compatiblewitheffortstoimprovetheconditionsandqualityofwomenrsquoslivesBythesametokenIslamistwomenwhorejectthetermfeminismcanbe(althoughnotalwaysare)deeplycommittedtoimprovingwom-enrsquoswelfareaswellasactivelyresistanttoeffortsthatreduceortrans-formthemintosilentaccessoriesofmalepower

YassineandGhazalidifferaboutwhatwomenareandshouldbeyetbroadlyspeakingbothmaybeconsideredpartofarecenttrendtowardthe feminizationofdalsquowa Dalsquowa literallymeanscallappealor sum-monsbutthetermhascometosignifyavarietyofpracticesandargu-mentsmeanttoexhortinviteandguideMuslimstowhatisregardedasproperconductandmoraldevotionWomenrsquosparticipationindalsquowais

25WomenrsquosparticipationintheldquoproductionofofficialIslamicknowledgerdquohasalonghistoryalthoughtheyhaveoftendonesoinrelativeobscurityandwithoutthebenefitofeducation in the Islamicsciences thathas legitimateddirectengagementwith thesacredtexts (Cooke 2001 xiv Badran and Cooke 2004) Pioneering attempts to read genderequalityinIslamarealsonotconfinedtowritingbywomenasevincedbyQasimAminrsquosTahrir alshymarrsquoa [TheLiberationofWoman] (1899)andMumtaz lsquoAlirsquosHuquqshye niswan [TheRightsofWomen](1898)

39

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

notabrandnewphenomenonasisevidentinGhazalirsquosworkwiththeEgyptianSocietyofMuslimLadiesinthe1930sYetfromEgypttoPaki-stantoSaudiArabiatotheUnitedStatesthenumberoffemaledalsquoiyashasproliferatedexponentially inrecentyears(Cooke2001Mahmood2005Hirschkind2006)Thisreflectsinpartcurrentdoctrinalempha-sesondalsquowaasincumbentuponbothmenandwomenanddependentlessupontechnicalknowledgethanmoralvirtueandpracticalfamiliaritywiththeIslamictradition(Mahmood200565ndash66)It isalsoaconse-quenceofrecentpoliticalandsocioeconomictransformationsinMuslimsocietiesincludingtheexpansionofmasseducationthathasnotonlyin-creasedwomenrsquosliteracyandsocialmobilitybutalsomadeIslamictextsmoreaccessibletheproliferationoftechnologiesmdashfromthecassettetapetotheInternetmdashthatfacilitatethecirculationofreligiousknowledgeevenamongthosewhocannotreadortraveltheprecedentsetbythevigorousparticipationof IranianwomeninpostrevolutiondebatesaboutIslamandthemodeloflegalactivismevidentintheIslamistmovementrsquosownchallenge to the lsquoulamarsquos status as gatekeepers of religious knowledge(Singerman2005Mir-Hosseini1999)

If Ghazali and Yassine exemplify the feminization of dalsquowa amongelitesthemosquemovementinEgyptillustratesthegrowingparticipa-tionofwomenfromdiversesocialbackgroundsinreligiousclassesde-votedtostudyinganddebatingwhatIslamrequiresforawomantobeldquomorallyuprightrdquointhecontemporaryworld(Mahmood2005)Con-ceptualizingpiety in termsof adeepandholistic commitment to self-transformationparticipantsinthemosquemovementareconcernedlesswithmattersofsovereigntyandpoliticsconventionallyunderstoodandmorewiththeldquomoralcultivationrdquoofthosedailypracticesseenascrucialtobecomingclosertoGod(Mahmood2005)SomeIslamistshavecriti-cizedthis focusonpracticesofworshipasapoliticalandoverlypriva-tizedyetsuchcriticismmissestheforceofIslamistsrsquoowninsistenceondin(religion)asawayoflifeinwhichthedomainsofpublicandprivateare inextricably linked26AsSabaMahmood (2005193194) showsthesewomenrsquosintenseeffortsatldquoretrainingethicalsensibilitiesrdquohavealdquosociopoliticalforcerdquothatextendswellbeyondmattersofgovernancefacilitatingnolessthantheemergenceofaldquonewsocialandmoralorderrdquoEvidenceofitstransformativepowermaybefoundnotonlyinthesheernumbersandvarietyofwomenmdashwealthyandpoor literateand illiter-atemdashparticipatinginthemosquemovementbutalsointherhetoricalandpoliticaleffortsbythestateandsomeIslamiststocurtailcontrolordis-creditit(Mahmood200571194)

26ParticipantsinthemosquemovementinturnareoftencriticalofwhattheyseeasthereductionofIslamtotokensofculturalauthenticityorofitsinstrumentalizationbybothnationalistsandIslamiststheycharacterizeasmoreinterestedinpoliticalmaneuveringthanreligiouspiety

40

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

Understoodtoincludebothwrittenandembodiedpracticesthefemi-nizationof dalsquowa illustrates theways inwhichwomen fromdifferentperspectivesandsocialclassesareinsistingonengagingthesacredtextsdirectly for and with one another without the mediating authority ofmenwhohavetraditionallyheldthemonopolyonsuchactivitiesAsSu-danese Islamist Lubabah al-Fadl argues ldquoAs an insan [human being]whohappenstobeawomanIhavearighttorejectthemanipulativeexegesesofoursharilsquoa thatthreatenmyexistenceinawaythat isnotconsistentwiththeGodlywayandtoapplymyownijtihadtorectifyer-roneoustendenciesbysomeshuyukh[pluralofshaykh]rdquo(Sadiki2004290)DespitetheproliferationofvoicesintentonclaimingforthemselvestheauthoritytodemarcatewhatisauthenticallyIslamicandun-Islamiconceandforallcontestationoveritsscopeandmeaningproceedsapacefacilitatedatleastinpartbywomenformerlyexcludedfromtheconver-sationAtthesametimeIslamistwomenrsquosagencyandclaimstoauthorityarefrequentlystillpredicatedonawillingnesstofollowfairlypatriarchalrulesaboutwherehowandwithwhomtheymaypracticetheirvocation(Hirschkind2003Sadiki2004283)

Islamism and Violence

IfgenderisfrequentlyanimplicitpreoccupationamongIslamistsjihadisarguably Islamistsrsquomost consistently explicit concern Jihad is derivedfromtheArabicverbthatmeanstostruggleortostriveyetitisaparticu-larkindofstruggle that isofconcern tomanyof thefigurescollectedheretheoftenviolentstruggleagainstapostatesandinfidelsbothathomeandabroadtowhicheveryindividualMuslimmustcontributeTheclaimthatfightingunbelieversisthepreeminentenactmentofindividualMus-limpiety seems to justify characterizationsof Islam ingeneral and Is-lamisminparticularassanctioningevenencouragingviolenceYetwhatIslamistsrepresentasjihadtout courtisahistoricallyspecificunderstand-ingderivedfromahighlyselectiveuseoftextsandprecedentsprominentamongthemaformerlyobscureclaimbytheinfluentialfourteenth-cen-tury jurist IbnTaymiyya thatMongol rulerswhohad contravened Is-lamiclawcouldbesubjecttoforcibleremovalFarfromadefinitiveex-pressionof Islamldquoproperlyunderstoodrdquo such Islamist argumentsnotonlymarkasignificantdeparturefrommuchofantecedentdoctrineandpractice but also diminish the importance of ongoing disagreementsamongMuslimsabouttheformandpurposesofjihad

TobeginwithMuslimscholarshavetendedtoconsiderjihadagainstforeignenemiesafard kifaya(collectiveobligation)thatisadutyagroupofpeoplewithinthecommunitymayperformonbehalfoftherestandonethatpresupposesalegitimateMuslimleadertodeclareorleadthechargeJuristshavedistinguishedthisfromthefard lsquoayn(individualduty)thatmustbefulfilledbyeverysingleMuslimincasesofdefensivejihad

41

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

thatiswhentheummaisunderattackManyIslamistsincludedheretakeamuchlessnuancedviewofjihadAsamodeofpoliticalactionQutbarguesjihadmustberegardedasaldquopermanentconditionnotanocca-sionalconcernrdquoonethatincurrentcircumstancesrequiresdeedsratherthanwordsstruggleratherthancontemplationrevolutionathomeaswellasresistanceabroad(Qutb199167ndash6882)lsquoAbdal-SalamFarajarguesalongsimilarlinesthatthenatureoftheattackonIslammakespolitical authorization by a caliph (ldquodeputyrdquo referring to a legitimatesuccessortotheProphetrsquosleadership)unnecessaryafterallldquoleadershipovertheMuslimsis(always)intheirownhandsifonlytheymakethismanifestIfthereissomethinglackingintheleadershipwellthereisnothingthatcannotbeacquiredrdquo(Jansen1986asec93)

SuchargumentsareadeliberaterejectionofearlyMuslimmodernistswhohademphasizedthelargelydefensivecharacterofjihadandsoughttoshowthatrelationsbetweenMuslimsandnon-MuslimswerenormallypeacefulratherthanantagonisticMahmudShaltut(d1963)therectorof al-Azhar from 1958 to 1963 had argued for example that theQurrsquoanicversesonfightingldquoprohibittheprovocationofhostilityandthisprohibitionisreinforcedbyGodrsquosrepugnancetoaggressionandbyhisdislikeofthosewhoprovokehostilityrdquo(Peters199674onShaltutseeZebiri1993)ConversionbyforceisanathematoIslamShaltutaversandfightingiscommandedonlyindefenseinresponsetoaggressionini-tiatedbyothersEvendefensivejihadmustaimatldquotheterminationoftheaggressionandtheestablishmentofreligiouslibertydevotedtoGodandfreefromanypressureorforcerdquo(Peters199675)

ManyIslamistsexplicitlydismisssuchargumentsasasymptomoffalseconsciousnessoneamongmanydestructiveeffectsofcolonialdomina-tionMawdudiargues for example thatwhile imperialists ravage theworld to satisfy their greed jihad alone ldquoconjures up the vision of amarching band of religious fanatics with savage beards and fiery eyesbrandishingdrawnswordsandattackingtheinfidelswherevertheymeetthemrdquoHavinginternalizedthis imageMuslimsrushtoapologizeandrenouncearmedstruggleInthiswayhelamentscolonialistsretaintheexclusiverighttoldquofightwitharmsandammunitionwhilewearecon-tented with our pen and our tonguerdquo (Mawdudi 1948 1ndash3) SayyidQutbforhispartagreedthatIslamdoesnotcountenancespreadingitsmessagebyforceandcoercionyethehadlittlepatiencewiththosewhosoughttopresentjihadaslegitimateonlyinself-defense

IfweinsistoncallingIslamicjihadadefensivemovementthenwemustchangethemeaningofthewordldquodefenserdquoandmeanbyitldquothedefenseofmanrdquoagainstallthoseforcesthatlimithisfreedomWhenwetakethisbroadmeaningofthewordldquodefenserdquoweunder-standthetruecharacterofIslaminthatitproclaimstheuniversalfreedomofeverypersonandcommunityfromservitudetoanyother

42

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

individualorsocietytheendofmanrsquosarroganceandselfishnesstheestablishmentofthesovereigntyofAllahandHisLordshipthrough-outtheworldandtheruleofthedivinesharilsquoainhumanaffairs(Qutb199050)

Qutbdoesnotnameanynamesincastigatingtheldquowriterswithdefeatistandapologeticmentalities[who]writeaboutlsquojihadinIslamrsquoandtrytoremovethislsquoblotrsquofromIslamrdquo(Qutb199046)buthecouldverywellhavehadhisdistinguishedfellowEgyptianMahmudShaltutinmind

These arguments about jihad may be said to constitute a commongrammarandframeworkofanalysisformanyIslamistsalthoughseveralthinkers in this volume carefully calibrate such claims to suit variouspurposesanddifferentpublicspheresInhisjustificationfortheassassi-nationofEgyptianpresidentAnwaral-SadatforexamplelsquoAbdal-SalamFarajdepictsthestruggletoreclaimthemoralfoundationsoftheEgyp-tianstateasafightagainstjahiliyyafromwithinarguingthatthejihadagainstacorruptnationalistregimeathomemusttakeprecedenceoverfightingenemieselsewhereTheCharterofHamas(seechapter15)how-everinsiststhatallMuslimsrecognizetheprimacyofthejihadforJeru-salemweldingIslamistrhetorictothatofnationalistresistanceinanef-fortbothtofightIsraelioccupationandtocompeteforadherentswiththePalestinianLiberationOrganization(PLO)IncontrasttobothFarajandHamasBinLadenembracesaglobaljihadthatessentiallycollapsesdistinctionsbetweennationalandinternationaloffensiveanddefensivefightingenemiesathomeandthosefromafar

Yet despite such differences these arguments tend to presume thatviolent jihad is a necessary response to the pervasive power of thosewithdemonstratedhostilitytoMuslimliveslandspietiesandsensibili-tiesaformofretaliationwhoseurgencyandlegitimacyderivefromtheviolencemdashpsychologicalandeconomicaswellasphysicalmdashoftheinitialassaultThisviewofjihadsubsumesindividualsintoarchetypesofldquoin-fidelsrdquoandldquobelieversrdquoandinsodoingvitiatesmoreconventionaldis-tinctionsbetweenforexamplesoldierandcivilianorcollectiveandin-dividual responsibility It is far from inevitable that thosewhoharborsuchviewswillautomaticallyactuponthemyetthecarnagewroughtbytheattacksontheWorldTradeCenterandthePentagonin2001aBalinightclub in 2002 Madrid commuter trains in 2004 and throughoutIraqonadailybasissuggestjusthowlethalsuchclaimscanbegiventheright circumstances The fact that such violence does not discriminateamongvictimsonlyfurtherfuelsrhetoriccharacterizingIslamistsasirra-tional fanatics ldquoin love with deathrdquo terrorists animated by a religioncharacterizedbyapropensityforviolenceandauthoritarianism27

27AnxietiesabouttheparticularsusceptibilityofMuslimstoirrationalityinsularityandfanaticismhavealonganddistinguishedpedigreeinEuro-AmericanhistoryandpoliticalthoughtSeeforexampleRenan18833

43

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INTRODUCTION

AsinsomanyothermattershoweverIslamistsarehardlyofonemindonthesubjectofjihadindeedthereareIslamistswhoexplicitlyrejectthereductionof struggle toviolenceAcase inpoint isNadiaYassine(20032005c)whoinsiststhatjihadisthededicatedstruggleagainstisshytikbar(arrogance)particularlyinitscommonformasthelustforpoweranddominationAsjihadagainstistikbarisbothafinalgoalandapre-scriptionforactionYassinesuggestsitisantitheticaltoviolentpracticesthataimatdominationTheprimaryinstrumentsofjihadarenotbombsbutwords particularly thosedeployed in the art of persuasion (Fara-marzi2005NYassine2006a)WhenIslamistssuchaslsquoAbdal-SalamFarajandlsquoUmarlsquoAbdal-RahmanseektolegitimizeviolentrevolutionbyrecoursetoIslamictextsshearguestheycontravenethetruemeaningofjihadtoservetheirownarrogantendsBythesametokenBinLadenrsquosdecisiontoldquofightevilwithevilandbarbaritywithbarbarityrdquonotonlyviolatesspecificIslamicprohibitionsagainstharmingcivilianswomenandchildrenbutalsobetraystheethicalimperativetoembodythemes-sageofamercifulGodwhocautionsbelieversthat(Q8822)ldquoYouhavenopoweroverthemrdquo(NYassine2005cDaily Excelsior2002)

SuchpersistentdisagreementsamongMuslimspastandpresentsug-gest that Islam isnomore inherently violent andbloody-minded thanitmdashorChristianityor Judaism for thatmattermdashis inherentlypeacefulIslamists often claim to speak for an unchanging authentic Islam thatexistsoutsideoftimeandspaceyetthepoliticalpurchaseoftheirper-spective derives from the ways it assembles disparate yet recognizablecontemporaryexperiencesofsufferingfrustrationandlossintoanex-planationthatresonateswithMuslimswholiveincommunitiescultur-allylinguisticallyandgeographicallydistantfromoneanotherTheex-tenttowhichIslamistargumentsresonatebroadlyacrossMuslimsocie-tiesthusdependsuponasetofexperiencesandphenomenathatmarkthisparticularmomentinhistoryincludingthewaysinwhichcontempo-raryglobalinequalitiescompoundalegacyofhistoricalasymmetriestocontinuallyreproduceasenseofMuslimpowerlessnessmdashbothrealandimaginedmdashrelativetotheWestcontinuingEuro-Americanpoliticalandfinancialsupportofcorruptautocratsmanyofwhompresideoverna-tion-statesbrutallystitchedtogetherbyWesternfiat thepersistenceofauthoritarian regimes eager to control domestic unrest by catalyzingldquoMuslimragerdquotowardexternaltargetsthesenseofemasculationpro-ducedbydecadesofpoliticalrepressionandeconomicfrustrationandthecontinualflowofimagesofbloodiedMuslimbodiesdeliveredbyaburgeoningarrayofvideosatelliteandelectronicmedia

It is notable that the understanding of jihad many Islamists proffermirrorstheverystate-sanctionedviolenceagainstwhichtheyhavestrug-gledforalmostacenturyAlongwiththousandsofMuslimscaughtinthemachineryoftwentieth-centurystateviolenceprominentIslamistsfromQutbtoGhazalitoAymanal-Zawahirimdashal-Qalsquoidarsquossecondincommandmdash

44

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

arewellknowntohavebeenradicalizedbyextendedandoftenbrutaltermsofincarcerationinEgyptSyriaIraqJordanIsraelAlgeriaandelsewhere(onal-ZawahiriandprisoncfKepelandMilelli2008152ndash54)ItisthusfarfromsurprisingthatIslamistsforgedbyinterrogationtortureinprisoncampswouldconcludethatthepreeminentenactmentofMuslimpietyisviolentstruggleldquoPrisonrdquoasPalestinianKhaledAbuHilalhassaidldquoismyuniversityrdquo(Erlanger2007)anargumentmadeingreaterdetailinadifferenttimeandplacebyRussianwriterandrevolu-tionaryMaximGorky(1868ndash1936)

Apeoplebroughtupinaschoolthatremindsoneofthetormentsofhellonasmallscaleapeopleaccustomedtotheclenched-fistprisonandthewhipwillnotbeblestwithatenderheartApeoplethatthepoliceagentshaveriddenoverwillbecapableintheirturnofwalk-ingoverthebodiesofothersInacountrywhereunresthasreignedsolongit isdifficultforthepeopletorealizefromonedaytothenextthepowerofrightOnecannotdemandfromamanwhohasneverknownjusticethatheshouldbejust(Gorky1920)

InthiscontextasTimothyMitchell(1990195ndash96199207ndash8)suggestsIslamistviewsoftheworldcanbecharacterizedasbothamodeofresis-tancetostatemechanismsofcoercionandanexpressionofthemSuchisthedynamic evident inGhazalirsquosmemoirs for examplewhen shede-scribeshowtheldquodarknessofprisonsthebladesoftortureandthevi-ciousbeatingsonly increasetheenduranceandresolveofthefaithfulrdquo(Ghazali19786)

There is no doubt a great deal of pragmatism at work in IslamistargumentsaboutviolenceAsQutb(19916447ndash48)drylynotesthepathtofreedommustoccasionallybehewnbywayoftheswordbecausetyrants are not reasoned out of power and ldquojahiliyya is not lsquoabstracttheoryrsquo[it]consciouslyorunconsciouslystrivestopreserveitsownexistence to defend its essence to annihilate dangerous elementswhichthreatenitsverybeingrdquoYetitisalsothecasethatformanyoftheseIslamistsjihadisbothameansandanendanefforttoeradicatethoseobstacles torestoringa justcommunityonearththatsimultane-ouslybringshumanaction intoaccordwithGodrsquosplansandpurposes(Haddad198321)While theQurrsquoan (2256) states thatldquothere isnocompulsioninreligionrdquoIslamistscontendthatonlyinastateinwhichIslamiclawreignssupremearehumanbeingsfreefromenslavementtooneanotherrsquosruleandallareequalbyvirtueoftheircommonsubmissiontoGodAsQutb(1991107ndash8)argues

WhenthehighestauthorityinsocietyisGodalonemdashexpressedintheruleofdivinelawmdashonlythenishumanitytrulyandcompletelyliber-atedfromslaverytomenOnlythisisldquohumancivilizationrdquobecausetheessentialfoundationofhumancivilizationisthetrueandcom-

45

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

pletefreedomofhumanityandtheabsolutedignityofeveryindivid-ualinsocietyThereisnotruefreedomanddignityforhumanityortheindividualinasocietywheresomepeoplearelordswholegislateandothersareslaveswhoobey

From this perspective the realization of justice liberty equality andchoiceitselfnecessitatestheforcibleremovaloftheconstraintsimposedbyjahiliyyaalongwiththosewhoaidandabetitno matter the costAsMawdudi(1954160ndash61)writes

[W]hyisitthatinreligionsuchimportanceisgiventojihadthattheQurrsquoanpronouncesthejudgmentofhypocrisyuponthosewhoshirkandevadeitJihadisbutanothernamefortheattempttoerectthesystemoftruthandtheQurrsquoandeclaresjihadtobeatouchstoneonthesamefootingwithamanrsquosfaithInotherwordshewhohasfaithinhisheartwillneitherbecontentwiththedominationofthesystemofevilnorwillhegrudgetheexpenditureoflifeandwealthinthestruggleforerectingthesystemoftruthIfoneshowsweaknessinthismatterhisfaithitselfisdoubtfulWhatcananythingelsebesidethenprofithimThemanwhoprofesses faith in this religioncannotfulfillhisdutyonlybytryingasfaraspossibletopatternhislifeonIslamThenatureofhisfaithitselfrequiresthatheshouldconcentrateallhiseffortuponwrestingleadershipfromunbelievingandcorruptmentoentrustittotherighteousanduponerectingthesystemoftruththathasbeenordainedfortheconductoftheworldaccordingtothewillofGodBecausethisendisunattainablewith-out thehighestdegreeofcollectiveeffort theremustexistarigh-teouscommunitycommittedtotheprincipleoftruthanddevotedtothesolepurposeintheworldoferectingmaintainingandproperlyrealizingthesystemoftruth

ThefactthatsomeIslamistthinkerssanctifyviolentstruggleinsuchtermsdoesnotmeanofcoursethatallthosewhoadvocateorengageinjihadendorseviolence28NordoesitimplythatthosewhoclaimtokillforIslamareentirelywithoutulteriormotivesthosemanipulativepur-poses andpsychologicalmotivations that even themost rarified scrip-turalargumentscanexpressorserveWhattheprecedinganalysisdoessuggesthoweveristhatthereductionofthisviewofjihadtoirrationalbloodlusttheself-interestedgrabfortemporalpoweroradoorthroughwhichtopassintothehereaftermissesacrucialdimensionofitssignifi-canceandappealfortruebelieversjihadisnolessthananenactmentof

28EvenashespokeofaneweraofjahiliyyaandofjihadMawdudihimselfstoppedwellshortof recommendingor condoning the actual resort to violence in themannermanyotherIslamistsdidAsNasr(199670)observesMawdudirsquosorganizationtheJamalsquoat-iIs-lamildquohasavoidedviolentsocialchangeandhasinsteadviewedthepathtotheIslamicstateaslyingwithintheexistingsociopoliticalorderrdquoAlsoseethechapters5and3onQutbandMawdudiinthisvolume

46

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

adivineimperativetoremakethefoundationsofcollectivelifeInthisre-spectIslamistviewsofjihadcanbeseenaspartofalong-standingasso-ciationbetweenviolenceandpoliticalfoundingsuponwhichnoparticu-larcultureorhistoricalepochhasamonopolyThisassociationandtheldquolegacyofviolencerdquoitbequeathstofuturegenerationsarenolessappar-entinthoseradicalrevolutionsofrenewalthatmovebywayoftheswordfromthemarginstothecenterthanthosepoliticalfoundingsthatclaimtocreatesomethingoutofnothing(Connolly1995251)Ineithercasethetollofsuchbrutalitycanbeimmeasurableforinadditiontothevic-timswhosufferdirectlytheldquopracticeofviolencelikeallactionchangestheworldbutthemostprobablechangeistoamoreviolentworldrdquo(Ar-endt1972177)

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 ENU (Use these settings to create Adobe PDF documents best suited for high-quality prepress printing Created PDF documents can be opened with Acrobat and Adobe Reader 50 and later) gtgt Namespace [ 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Page 13: Chapter 1 INTRODUCTION - assets.press.princeton.eduassets.press.princeton.edu/chapters/s9067.pdf · Chapter 1 INTRODUCTION This volume is intended as a broad introduction to the evolution

13

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INTRODUCTION

lamistnotwithstandinghiswell-recognizedstatusasoneoftheleadingShilsquoilsquoulamaofhisgeneration

The Azhar-educated Yusuf al-Qaradawi has for his part criticizedmanyfellowIslamistsonseveralissuesbutnotonthefundamentalques-tion of their political orientation Just as Khomeini had chastised theldquopropagandainstitutionsofimperialism[fortrying]topersuadeusthatthereligiousleadersmustnotinterfereinsocialmattersandthatthefuqaha[jurists]donothavethedutyofoverseeingthedestinyoftheIslamicnationrdquo(Algar1981141)Qaradawiinsiststhatdenyingthepo-liticalorientationofIslamamountstoitswillfuldistortion

Amongtheinterpretationswithwhichthesecularists[lsquoalmaniyyun]andthemodernists[alshyhadathiyyun]calumniate[Islamproperlyun-derstood and those committed to it] is the notion of ldquopoliticalIslamrdquowhichwithoutdoubtisanideaalientoourIslamicsocietyBy[politicalIslam]theymeananIslamthatconcernsitselfwiththeinternalandexternalaffairsoftheMuslimcommunity[Theymeanbyit]actionsaimedatfreeingthecommunityfromtheforeignpowerthatdirects [Muslim]affairsphysicallyandmorallyas itpleases[Theyalsomeanbyit]actionsseekingtocleansethecommunityofthecultural socialand legalsedimentsofWesterncolonialismsothatthecommunitycanreturnonceagaintosubmissiontoGodrsquoslawindifferentareasoflifeTheyusethischaracterizationofldquopoliticalIslamrdquoinordertoalienatepeoplefromits[aforementioned]contentandto frighten themawayfromthosecalling toacomprehensiveconceptionofIslammdashonethatisinclusiveofbeliefandlawworshipandsocialinteractionproselytismandthestate(Qaradawi200793)

Islamistpoliticalcommitmentsareoftenintertwinedwithcritiquesofthescholarlytraditionanditsattendant institutionsandpracticesandthiscriticismprovidesusacrucialwayof thinkingfurtherbothaboutwhatdistinguishesIslamistsfromthelsquoulamaandabouthowtoviewIs-lamismitselfWhatthelsquoulamacannotbutseeasacavalierattitudeto-wardtheirscholarlytraditioniswesuggestbetterviewedaspartofalargerIslamistcritiqueonethatgoestotheheartofhowIslamismoughttobeunderstoodasaphenomenonItisacritiqueofparticularMuslimbeliefspracticesmoresandinstitutionsthataredeemedtohaveonlyatenuousbasis inldquotruerdquoandldquoauthenticrdquo Islamof the repeatedwrongturnsMuslimshavetakenthroughouttheirlonghistoryofthecorrupt-ingldquoforeignrdquoinfluencesmdashfromSufismtoGreekphilosophytothelureofmodernWesternculturesmdashbywhichMuslimshaveallowedthemselvestobeseducedandoftheirunwillingnesstodowhateverittakestoestab-lish thehakimiyya (sovereignty)ofGodonearthThat it is the sover-eigntyofGodthatIslamistsseekultimatelytoaffirmintheirindividualandpubliclivesremindsusthattheircritiqueofthepastandthepresentisapoliticalcritiqueanchoredinanddrivenbyaspirationstoinstitutea

14

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

newreligio-politicalorderWhetherthiscritiqueisarticulatedinconcreteor vague terms in a seeminglymoderateorplainlymilitant languagethere is no mistaking either its principal targetmdashfacets of the Islamictraditionmdashoritsfundamentallypoliticalorientation10

IslamistshaveofteninsistedthatthewordofGodcanandshouldbeapproacheddirectlywithoutthemediationofpresentorpastscholarsandwithoutanyneedfortheedifyingtalesthephilologicaldebatesandthelong-windedtheologicaldisquisitionssooftenfoundinmedievalexe-geticalliteratureamajorfacetoftheIslamicscholarlytradition(cfCarreacute200318)ShukriMustafaanEgyptianIslamistexecutedin1977forthemurderousactivitiesofhisSocietyofMuslims(popularlyknownastheSociety of Excommunication and Emigration) had famously assertedthatalloneneededtoresolveuncertaintiesinonersquosunderstandingofthewordofGodwasadictionary(Kepel199379)SayyidQutbdidnotgoquite that farButhe tooaffirmed that the fundamental teachingsofIslamwereentirelytransparentldquoWhatwearesayingaboutIslamisnoinventionofoursoranynewinterpretationofitsessenceIt issimplyplainIslamasitwasunderstoodbyitsfirstadherentMuhammadandhissincereCompanionsandthoseclosetoitsauthenticsourcerdquo(Qutb19969withminorchange)

TheimplicationofQutbrsquosstrikingassertionistwofoldFirstbehindarhetoric of humility in relation to divine knowledge Qutb implicitlyclaimsthefullbackingofGodandHisProphetfortheldquoplainIslamrdquohesetsforthMorespecificallyheessentiallydepictshisownunderstandingofIslamassynonymouswithGodrsquoseternalintentmuchasKhomeinirsquospronouncementsasthevalishyye faqih(guardianjurist)presumedtoarticu-latewhatIslamitselfstoodfororrequiredonanygivenmatterSecondthestatementimpliesnotonlythatviewsotherthanhisaremereinter-pretationsbutthattheyarethemorereprehensibleforbeingldquonovelrdquomdashasuggestionthatevokesthenotionofbidlsquoathatisofillicitcapriciousin-

10ThatIslamismshouldbeseenasawide-rangingcritiqueoftheworldandoftheIslamictraditionisareminderofcoursethatcritiqueisnotaninherentlysecularphenomenonnordoesitnecessitateasecularframeworkAsTalalAsad(2008)hasobservedgivenawidevarietyofldquopossibleinstancesofcritiquecriticismwhatwehaveisafamilyconceptforwhichitisnotpossibletoprovideasingletheorybecausethepracticesthatconstitutethemdifferradicallyrdquo(alsocfMahmood2008Taylor2008)NorshouldourviewingIs-lamism as a politically motivated critique suggest that other competing orientations inmodernIslamcannotalsobeseenascritiquesofparticularpracticesparticularformsofknowledgeWhatdoesdistinguishanIslamistorientationfromothersisonceagainboththedegreetowhichIslamistcritiquesbreakwiththeirpastandpresentandtheiraspirationto remake theworld in accordancewith their understandingof immutable divine com-mandsThisismarkedlydifferentfromhowthelsquoulamamightcritiqueparticularaspectsoftheirscholarlytraditionintheinterestofastrongersenseofcontinuitywiththattraditionorinordertomakeitmorereceptivetowhattheyseeasthecommunityrsquoschangingneedsItisalsoverydifferentfromhowMuslimmodernistsoftenbreakwiththescholarlytradi-tioninordertoadaptMuslimnormsandinstitutionstothedominantpoliticalandculturalinstitutionsoftheircontemporaryworld

15

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

novationinmattersofreligionSuchaviewofIslamjettisonsmuchofwhatwouldnormallycountasitshistoryandcivilizationldquoThehistoryoflsquoIslamrsquordquoQutbtellshisreadersldquoisthehistoryofthetrueapplicationofIslammdashinpeoplersquosconceptionsandtheirpracticesintheirlivesandtheirsocialsystemsIslamisthefixedaxisaroundwhichpeoplersquoslivesrevolveinafixedframeWhentheygooutofthisframeorwhentheycategorically abandon this axis what then do they have to do withIslamrdquo (Qutb 1967a vol 2 part 4 169 quotation marks aroundldquoIslamrdquoinoriginal)ItisforthefixedaxistheplainIslammdashandinoppo-sition to much of its historymdashthat the Islamist professes to stand (cfGrunebaum1962251ndash52)

Qutbhoweverisfarfromconsistentinhisattitudetowardtheschol-arlytraditionorinhowheseekstoarticulatehisownauthorityinrela-tiontoitHisfaithinthetransparencyandthetransformativeimmedi-acyofGodrsquoswordswouldappeartomakeallexegesissuperfluousyethehimselfhadproceededtowriteamajorcommentaryIn the Shade of the QurrsquoanthatwouldexceedfourthousandpagesinprintThejustifi-cationheoffers for it intheopening linesof thecommentary isauda-ciousnotapologetic

LifeintheshadeoftheQurrsquoanisablessingItisablessingunknownto anyonewhohasnrsquot tasted itAll praisebe toGodHehasgrantedmetheopportunitytoliveintheshadeoftheQurrsquoanforaperiodoftimeduringwhichIhavetastedHisblessingsasIneverhadearlierinmylifeIhavelistenedtoGodtheexaltedconvers-ingwithmethroughthisQurrsquoanmdashwithmeasmalllittleslaveIhavelivedintheshadeoftheQurrsquoanlookingfromanelevationatthejahiliyya[paganignorance]raginginthelandandthepettycon-cernsof itspeople [Fromthisvantage] Ihave seen thepride thepeopleofthisjahiliyyatakeintheirchildishknowledgetheirchild-ishideastheirchildishpreoccupations[Ihavelookeduponthem]likeanelderlooksuponthefrivolitiesofchildrenupontheireffortsandupontheirlisps(Qutb1967a13)

Theseresoundingwordsserveinteraliatoexplainwhyanewcom-mentaryshouldhavebeenneededatallthemind-numbingimpactofthejahiliyyahasmadepeopleincapableofrespondingtoeventhemostdi-rectofdivinesummonsandonlysomeonewhohaslivedldquointheshadeoftheQurrsquoanrdquocanunderstandtheirplightandremedyitFromtheper-spectiveQutbadoptshereanyappealtothescholarlytraditionanyef-forttoresthisauthorityonitwouldappearaltogetheroutofplaceYetQutbrsquosclaimstoauthoritydonotderiveexclusivelyfromhisconversingwithGodthroughtheQurrsquoanTosomedegreetheyalsodependonhisbeingseenashavingmasteryovertheveryexegeticaltraditionofwhichheisotherwisefrequentlydismissiveQutbcitesasmallnumberofearliercommentators and other authorities when it suits his purpose to do

16

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

so11justashesidestepstheexegeticaltraditionwhendoingsooffersarhetoricallymoreeffectivewayofarrivingataconclusionMoretradi-tionalexegetespastandpresentalsopickandchooseofcourseButtheyhavetypicallydonesowithinanoverallframeworkthatisdefinedbyacontinuousengagementwiththeexegeticaltraditionasawhole(cfSaleh2004)BycontrastQutbandotherIslamistexegeteswriteoutsideandofteninconsciousoppositiontoanysuchframeworkTheconversa-tionisnotwiththeearlierexegetesbutdirectlywithGodthoughthismightonoccasionbeaidedbyillustrationsfromtheearlierexegeticaltradition

If thereareunacknowledgedambiguities inQutbrsquosrelationshipwiththe Islamic traditionaswehaveobserveda frequentlyacerbic stancedoesnonetheless remain characteristicofhowheviews itmostof thetimeQutbisanythingbutuniqueinthisrespectYetifIslamistssharealmostbydefinitionacriticalstancetowardfacetsofthistraditionthereismuchthatalsoseparatesthemfromoneanotherinpreciselyhowthiscritique and its implications are articulated in different instances Al-thoughthemerepresenceofdisagreementamongIslamist intellectualsandactivistsishardlyremarkablethescopeandimplicationsofsomeofthedisagreementsinasmuchastheyrelatetothescholarlytraditionarenonethelessworthexamininghereFortheysuggestthatwhileIslamistsshare the conviction that particular institutions practices and normsneedtoberefashionedinlightofimmutabledivinecommandsthiscon-victionoftenrestsonquitedifferentviewsofIslamichistoryandciviliza-tionofcontemporaryMuslimsocietiesandnotleastofreligiousau-thorityanditslociNowhereperhapsisthismoreevidentthaninsomeofthewritingsofYusufal-QaradawiLikeQutbQaradawiisamongthemostinfluentialIslamistideologuesintheSunniworldHeisalsooneofQutbrsquosseverestcriticsfromwithintheIslamistcamp(seeespeciallyQa-radawi1994101ndash31)

ThatldquoMuslimrdquosocietieslackedaproperIslamicfoundationmadeitfutileQutbhadarguedtodebatespecificquestionsofIslamiclawand

11TheseincludeinteraliaMuhammadibnIshaq(d767)theauthoroftheSirat rasul AllahoneoftheearliestbiographiesoftheProphetMuhammadal-Tabari(d923)theauthorofJamilsquo alshybayan lishytarsquowil ay alshyQurrsquoanoneofthemostinfluentialcommentariesoftheQurrsquoaneverproducedal-Baghawi(d1117)whosecommentaryistitledMalsquoalim alshytanzilal-Qurtubi(d1273)theauthorofaworkalshyJamilsquo lishyahkam alshyQurrsquoanwhichises-peciallyattentivetothelegalcontentoftheQurrsquoanandIbnKathir(d1373)theauthorofaQurrsquoan commentaryTafsir alshyQurrsquoan alshylsquoazimwhichhasbeenpopular amongmanyMuslimsofaSalafiorientationOnoccasionQutbalsocitesinfluentialfellowIslamistsSeeforexampleQutbFi zilal alshyQurrsquoanvol2part4132(Mawdudi)vol2part525(Nadwi)vol2part6143and150ndash53(lsquoAbdal-QadirlsquoAwdaanEgyptianIslamistandlegalscholarexecutedundertheNasserregimein1954)OccasionallyQutbcitesRidarsquosTafsir alshymanaraswell thoughmoreoftenthannot toregisterhisdisagreementswithRidaandwiththelatterrsquosmentorMuhammadlsquoAbduhForadetailedcomparisonbetweenthecommentariesofRidaandQutbseeCarreacute2003

17

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

howitdealtwithparticularsocialoreconomicissuesThelsquoulamawerepatheticallydeludediftheythoughtthattheinterestsofIslamcouldbefurtheredthroughdisquisitionsonthesharilsquoainsuchconditionsofper-vasiveungodliness(Qutb1967b183ndash90)WhatpeopleneededbeforeanythingelsewasareturntothebasicsofthefaithThetaskofrighteouspreacherswastoinstructtheminthesemattersandtohelpthemrecog-nizewhatthesovereigntyofGoddemandedofthem(Qutb199135cfQaradawi1994102ndash4)Allothermattersincludingthenicetiesofjuris-ticdiscussionwerebestpostponeduntilaproperlyIslamicsocietybasedonthisfoundationhadbeenrealized

Qaradawi vehemently disagrees with Qutb arguing that educatedMuslimsarenotpagansbutbelieversandassuchdonotneedtobetu-toredinthefundamentalsoftheirfaithWhattheyoftendonotunder-standverywellmdashandhereQaradawiconcurswithotherIslamistsmdashisthenatureofIslamasanizam (socialandpoliticalsystem)TheproblemofMuslimsinotherwordsisnotgodlessnessbutsimplyignorance(whichiswhat the term jahiliyya literallymeans)of the teachingsof Islam intheircomprehensiveall-encompassingdimensionsAsQaradawiseesitmanyldquocaptivesofWesternthoughtrdquohavedoubtsnotabouttheessentialsoftheirfaithbutratheraboutIslamasacomprehensivesystemanditistheirunaddressedmisunderstandingstheirignoranceonthelatterscorethatsometimesopens thedoor todoubtsaboutmattersofbelief itself(Qaradawi1994113ndash14)Tocontinuetoexpoundonthesocialpoliti-calandotherteachingsofIslamwhilethesocietyisyetimperfectisnottoendorseorstrengthenthejahiliorderasQutbhadallegedbutonlytohelpordinarypeopleintheirefforttoleadvirtuouslivesevenininiqui-touscircumstances

ThisviewrepresentsanappealtowhatQaradawihasrepeatedlyre-ferredtoasthemoderatepathoralshymadrasa alshywasatiyya(theldquocentristschoolrdquocfQaradawi2006137ndash217)mdashonethatlocatesitselfonaputa-tivemiddlegroundbetweenacompleterejectionoftheworldincludingMuslimsocietiesanditstotalembraceQaradawiisequallyconcernedwithrescuingIslamichistoryandcivilizationfromoutrightdismissalatthehandsofIslamistslikeQutb12TheideathatjahilinormshadbeguntocreepbackintotheMuslimcommunityshortlyafterthedeathoftheProphetandthattheyhaveremainedunchallengedformuchofIslamrsquoshistoryignoresallthoseQaradawisayswhohavecontinuedtorepre-sentthepathofrighteousnessthroughoutthehistoryofIslamContrarytotheconvictionoftheSunnisthatldquothecommunitywillneveragreeonerrorrdquomdashastheProphetissaidtohavepromisedmdashthenotionofaperva-

12AmongleadingfiguresQaradawisinglesoutforcriticisminthisregardarebesidesQutbMawdudiandtheEgyptianIslamistscholarMuhammadal-Ghazali(d1996)SeeQaradawi2005b46ndash64It isworthnotingthatdespitetheseandotherdisagreementsQaradawihaswrittenrespectfullyofallthreedevotinganentirebooktohislongassocia-tionwithMuhammadal-Ghazali(seeQaradawi1995)

18

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INTRODUCTION

sivejahiliyyasuggestsmoreoverthatthecommunitydidindeedagreeonerror13Mostgrievouslyperhaps Islamist critiques tend to suggestthatthesharilsquoahasalmostneverbeenimplementedinMuslimsocietiesaftertheveryfirstyearsofIslamIronicallysaysQaradawisuchindis-criminaterejectionofIslamichistoryinadvertentlyreinforcessecularist argumentsthatthesharilsquoaisunsuitedtopracticalapplication(Qaradawi2005b46)QaradawirsquoscritiqueofQutbandotherIslamistsisfinallyanargumentforthecontinuingcentralityofthelsquoulamatothetaskofpro-viding authoritative guidance to the communityHisunderstandingofwhoconstitutesthelsquoulamaisfarmoreexpansivethanthatofmostDeo-bandilsquoulamaofSouthAsiaButlikethemheisinnodoubtthatseriousreligiousscholarsasdistinguishedfromamateurishautodidactsarecru-cialtothetaskofprovidingauthoritativereligiousandmoralguidancetothecommunity

AlthoughwehavesoughttoillustratecertainfacetsoftheIslamistcri-tiqueof the scholarly traditionandof theworldas somekey IslamistthinkershavearticulateditwedonotwishtosuggestofcoursethatIslamists are necessarily ldquointellectualsrdquo Whatever Qutb KhomeiniMawdudiandQaradawimightthinkofotherscholarsandintellectualsorofthemselvesinrelationtothemtheformerobviouslyarereligiousintellectualsThesameishardlytrueofmanyotherIslamistsYeteventhosewithlittleornointellectualpretensionsareoftenrecognizableas IslamistsnotonlyfortheircommitmenttothepublicimplementationofIslamicnormsgroundedinthefoundationaltextsbutalsomdashandasacor-ollaryoftheformermdashfortheiroftenself-consciouscritiqueofanddisen-gagementfromthenormsandmorestheyseearoundthemIncontempo-raryLebanonforinstanceShilsquoiIslamistshaveoftenseentheirtext-basedreligiouscommitmentsasmarkingacleardeparturefromearlierandex-isting religious practicesAs anthropologist LaraDeeb (2006 20) ob-servesldquoTheyvieweditasnewanddifferentmdashdifferentfromwhattheyoftenreferredtoenigmaticallyaslsquobeforersquoorlsquohowwewerersquoanddifferentfromwhattheycalledalshytaqalid(traditions)Inlieuofpracticesandbeliefscastastraditionaltheyespoused [an] lsquoauthenticatedrsquoIslamexpressedinpublicpietyrdquo14ManyIslamists living inrefugeecampsinGazahavehadasimilarviewTothemldquoPalestinianshadeitherbe-comelostinforeignideologiesortheyhadbecomelsquoMuslimsbycon-

13Theconvictionthatthecommunityatlargeisdivinelyprotectedfromerrorisanim-portantbasisoftheauthorityofldquoconsensusrdquoasamajorsourceofjuridicalnormsinSunniIslamFormoderndebateson consensus and someof the literatureon this subject seeZaman2006

14Theldquotraditionsrdquohereprimarilyrefer tocustomarynormsanddevotionalpracticesratherthantothecenturies-olddiscursivetraditionfromwhichthelsquoulamabothShilsquoiandSunniderivetheirauthorityIslamistcritiquesareoftendirectedasmuchhoweverattra-ditionsinthesenseofldquoinauthenticrdquoculturallyrootedreligiouspracticesastheyareatthescholarlytraditionofthelsquoulamawhichtothemisequallyinauthenticinhavingobscuredthesimpleandfundamentalteachingsofthefoundationaltexts

19

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

ventionrsquowhowentalongwiththefastorprayednowandthenbecausethiswaslsquocustomandtraditionrsquo(lsquoada wa taqlid)ThislackofconsciouszealousadherencetoIslamhadresultedinsocialweaknessleadingtode-featatthehandsofIsraelrdquo(Lybarger2007211)ThereismuchthatsuchanalysessharewiththewritingsandpronouncementsoftheleadingIs-lamistintellectuals

Islamists and Salafi s

JustasitisnotalwayseasytodifferentiatelsquoulamafromIslamistsorIs-lamists frommodernists it is sometimesdifficult to clearlydistinguishbetweenIslamistsandtheSalafisThelatterderivethisself-designationfromclaimsofstrictadherencetothenormativepracticeofalshysalaf alshysalih(thepiousforbears)usuallyunderstoodastheMuslimsofthefirstgenerations of Islam The guiding Salafi assumption is that these firstMuslims inbeingcontemporariesof theProphetMuhammadandtheimmediatesuccessorsofthosecontemporariesexemplifymostperfectlywhatitmeanstobeavirtuousMuslimandthatlatergenerationscandonobetterthanemulatetheexampleofthesefirstgenerationsSomever-sionofthisviewwouldfindbroadresonanceamongIslamistsbutalsoordinary believers though the Shilsquoa of various doctrinal orientationshavealwayshada farmore restrictiveviewofpreciselywho isworthemulating Again like the Islamists the Salafis insist on deriving theirnormsdirectlyfromtheIslamicfoundationaltextstheQurrsquoanandtheexampleoftheProphetMuhammadunmediatedbythemedievalschoolsoflawThismeansdoingawaywiththesortofhistoricallyarticulatedscholarlytraditionfromwhichthelsquoulamahavetendedtodrawmuchoftheirauthorityTheSalafisdohavetheirownlsquoulamamdashQaradawiisano-tableinstanceasaremembersoftheSaudireligiousestablishmentmdashbuteventheirauthorityisbasedfarmoreondirectlyinterpretingthefounda-tional texts than it is on any systematic engagement with the Islamicscholarlytradition

AllthissoundsagooddealnotjustliketheIslamistsbutalsolikethemodernistsThisshouldnotbesurprisingfortheSalafiorientationisanimportantpartofthegenealogyofbothmodernismandIslamismTheSalafi reformer Muhammad lsquoAbduh though a traditionally educatedscholarwhoservedtowardtheendofhislifeasthegrandmuftiofEgyptwasakeyinfluenceinthedevelopmentofIslamicmodernismButwhilesomeoflsquoAbduhrsquosdisciplesdevelopedhisideasinthedirectionofsecularnationalismothersmdashnotablytheSalafijournalistandQurrsquoancommenta-torRashidRidamdasheventuallytookthemdespitehismodernistproclivi-tiesinadecidedlyconservativedirection(Hourani1983alsocfDallal2000)Hasan al-Banna the founder of the MuslimBrotherhoodwasclose to many Egyptian Salafis Muhibb al-din al-Khatib (d 1969) aleadingSalafiofthetimeandtheowneroftheSalafiPublishingHousein

20

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

CairowasinchargeofoneoftheBrotherhoodrsquosfirstjournals(Mitchell1993185)andafterRidarsquosdeathin1935itwasatBannarsquosinitiativethatRidarsquosinfluentialjournalalshyManarwouldcontinuetobepublishedforsomeyears(RMitchell1993186)

ForalltheiraffinitieshoweverSalafiscannotsimplybesubsumedwiththeIslamistsanymorethantheycanwiththemodernistsUnliketheearlySalafisandothermodernists Islamistshavealmost invariablysought toaddressthemselvestoawidepopularaudienceratherthantotheintellec-tualelite(cfRMitchell1993211)TheSalafishavealsobeenfarmorepreoccupiedwithmattersofcorrectbeliefthenuancesofdoctrinethanhaveeither the Islamistsor themodernists (cfHaykel2009 [forthcom-ing])BythesametokenwhilemanyIslamistshavehadasomewhatam-bivalentrelationshipwithSufismSalafishaveusuallybeenunrelentinglyhostile to devotional Sufi practices But if it is useful to distinguish theSalafisfromothercompetingorientationsinmodernIslamitisimportantalsotorecognizethatthereismuchonwhichSalafisthemselveshavedis-agreedsometimessharplyInquestionintheseldquointernalrdquodifferencesisnottheiroverallorientationmdashtowardtheIslamicfoundational textsandthepristinenormsofIslamrsquosfirstgenerationsmdashbutratherthepreciseimplica-tionsofthisorientationforbeliefandconductinthepresentAconsider-ationofsomeofthesedifferencesshouldinturnfurtherillustratehowtheSalafisoughttobedistinguishedfromothercompetingcamps

WheremanySalafisseetheschoolsoflawasobstructingandindeeddistortingthesimplemessageofthefoundationaltextsothersviewthelegaltraditionasrepresentingIslamrsquosrichintellectuallegacyfromwhichMuslimsought todrawboth inspirationandguidanceQaradawi forinstance has been critical not just of the Muslimmodernists but alsooffellowSalafisfortheirirreverencetowardtherichesofthelegaltradi-tiontheiruneducatedproclivitytosetitasidealltoocallouslyOnthisviewarejectionofthetaqlid-boundlsquoulamashouldnotleadtotheotherextrememdashexemplifiedbynotafewSalafismdashofjettisoningthescholarlytraditionaltogether SalafisalsodifferamongthemselvesintheirattitudestowardmodernWesterninstitutionsandpracticesInthelatenineteenthandearlytwen-tieth centuries Salafi reformers like Muhammad lsquoAbduh and RashidRidainEgyptandJamalal-dinal-Qasimi(d1914)inSyriahadcalledforareorientationtowardthefoundationaltextsasawayofjustifyingnotresistingchangesinlawandeducationaswellasotherfacetsofso-cialreform(cfHourani1983Commins1990)OnthisviewadirectrecoursetotheQurrsquoanandthesunnaofferedthebestwayofdemonstrat-ing the accord between their teachings and the reformist project15 In

15SymptomaticofotherdisagreementsamongtheSalafisistheveryquestionofpreciselywhothesalafarewhoseexampleoughttobeemulatedThenarrowerviewslimitthesalaftothefirstthreegenerationsofIslammdashtheageoftheProphetMuhammadandhiscompan-ionstheirsuccessorsandthelatterrsquosimmediatesuccessorsmdashbuteventhesenarrowviews

21

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INTRODUCTION

contemporaryEuropeTariqRamadananinfluentialSwissArabphilos-opherhasarguedthatMuslimslivinginWesternsocietiesoughttofeelathomeinandcontributetoward thosesocietieswhileretainingandcultivatingtheirdistinctIslamicidentityHetooappearstoseehimselfinthegenealogyofwhathecharacterizesasldquoSalafireformismrdquo(onthischaracterization see Ramadan 2004 26ndash27) and he has echoed Qa-radawiinsomeofhisviews(cfRamadan199993ndash99) Other Salafis have remained staunchly opposed to institutions andpracticesofaWesternprovenanceAnespeciallyinfluentialfigureinthegenealogyofthelatterpositionistheeighteenth-centurypuritanicalre-former Muhammad ibn lsquoAbd al-Wahhab (d 1792) whose alliance in1744 with Muhammad ibn Salsquoud contributed to the establishment ofthefirstSaudistateinthelateeighteenthcenturyIbnlsquoAbdal-WahhabwashostilenotonlytoShilsquoismandtoSufidevotionalismbutalsotoany-thinghedeemednottobeinstrictconformitywiththeteachingsofthefoundationaltextsTherewasmuchthatseemedtohimtofailthisstan-dardallofwhichhebrandedasoneoranotherformofunbeliefTheWahhabismdashas the followers of Ibn lsquoAbd al-Wahhab are oftenknownthoughtheyprefertothinkofthemselvessimplyasgoodMuslimsoratbestasSalafismdashoftenadheretothelegalnormsoftheHanbalischooloflawthoughitistheteachingsofthefoundationaltextsirrespectiveofthisoranyotherschooldoctrinethattheyprofesstofollowThemoststringentoftheSaudiSalafisaswellasotherselsewhereareaveryfarcryindeedfromwhatQaradawiwouldcharacterizeasldquocentristrdquoSalafireformersletalonefromtheearlytwentieth-centurySalafimodernists

ThepoliticalviewsoftheWahhabisandmorebroadlyoftheSalafisare likewiseanythingbutuniformInSaudiArabiaWahhabireligiousscholarshavelongaffirmedaquietistpoliticalstancewhichhasmeantleavingmattersofthestatetotherulingfamilyFormuchofthehistoryofmodernSaudiArabiatherulingelitefor itsparthas imposedfewconstraintsontheSaudilsquoulamainmattersofreligiouslifetheregulationofsocialnormsandjudicialadministration(cfVogel2000)Onseveraloccasions however this relationship has come under severe strain In1979agroupofWahhabiswhorejectedthelegitimacyoftheSaudistateyethadtieswithsomeprominentreligiousscholarsmdashincludinglsquoAbdal-

feelconstrainedtomakeroomforsuchreveredfiguresasAhmadibnHanbaltheputativefounderoftheHanbalischooloflawandthefourteenth-centuryDamascenescholarIbnTaymiyya(d1328)OtherviewsarerathermoreexpansivenotjustinchronologicalbutalsoandcruciallyinintellectualtermsThusMuhammadlsquoAbduhthoughtthesalaftoalsoincludesuchtheologiansasal-Ashlsquoari(d935)al-Baqillani(d1013)andal-Maturidi(d944)SeeHourani1983149SuchaviewobviouslyopensthedoorforpreciselythesortoftheologicaldebatesthatotherSalafisaswellasIslamistsoftenfrownuponfortakingthebelieversveryfarfromthesimpleanddirectwordsofGod lsquoAbduhrsquosdiscipleRidaagaintookanarrowerviewofthesalafandlaterinhiscareerbecameastrongdefenderoftheWahhabisCfHourani1983230ndash32

22

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INTRODUCTION

lsquoAzizBinBaz(d1999)laterthegrandmuftiofSaudiArabiamdashtookoverthesacredprecinctsoftheKalsquobainMeccainashort-livedbutextremelyembarrassingchallenge toSaudi royalauthority (cfHegghammerandLacroix2007)In1990KingFahdrsquosdecisiontoinviteAmericantroopstodefendthekingdomagainstthethreatofanIraqiinvasioncreatedwide-spreadresentmentamongSaudis theeffectsofwhichcontinue to thisdayThestationingofnon-MuslimmilitarypersonnelinIslamrsquosholiestlandwasdeemedbythekingrsquoscriticstobescandalousandevensacrile-giousAnumberofprominentSaudiSalafispubliclycriticizedthekingrsquosdecisiononthisoccasioncallinguponhimaswellasonBinBazandoth-ersatthehelmoftheSaudireligiousestablishmenttoreorienttheSaudipolitytowarditstruereligiousfoundationsManyofthesedissidentsmdashwhowerealsojoinedbyldquosecularrdquoSaudicriticsoftheroyalfamilymdashwereandhaveremainedrestrainedintheircriticismevenastheycalledforstricterconformitytoIslamicnormsasthepanaceaforallills(cfFandy1999)OthershoweverhavedenouncedtheroyalfamilyanditsWesternalliesinnouncertaintermsBinLadenisonlythemostnotoriousofthosewhobrokewiththeroyalfamilyinthewakeofKingFahdrsquosdecisiontoinviteWesterntroopsin1990andwhocalledfortheoverthrowoftheroyal familyand for jihadagainstWesternpowers Such strident callshavebeencontinuedbyotherSalafisbothbeforeandaftertheterroristattacksofSeptember112001aswellasintheaftermathoftheUS-ledinvasionofIraq(al-Rasheed2007)

ItshouldbeclearinlightoftheforegoingthatanyunderstandingofthedifferencesbetweenIslamistsandtheSalafismustrestontakingac-countofthediversityamongtheSalafisSalafiswhooftenrejectmuchoftheIslamicscholarlytraditioninfavorofadirectrecoursetothefoun-dationaltextsarenotnecessarilyrenderedldquoIslamistrdquosimplybyvirtueofthisstanceForasnotedmanyoftheseSalafiscontinuetoprofessareso-lutelyquietiststancewhichinthecaseoftheSaudiSalafismeansaf-firmingallegiancetotheSaudiroyalfamilyThispositionisrepresentedforinstancebyBinBaztheerstwhilegrandmuftiaswellasbyotherleading members of the Saudi religious establishment A pro-regimestanceoroneindifferenttopoliticsisnolessldquopoliticalrdquoofcoursethana position of strident hostility to the established order at home andabroadForourpurposeshoweveritisonlywhentheSalafisrejecttheexistingdispensationandbeginstrivingmdashthoughnotnecessarilythroughmilitantmeansmdashforanewreligio-politicalorderthattheycanbesaidtojointheranksoftheIslamists

ItisworthnotingfinallythatSalafipositionsamongSaudisandelse-wherearemarkednotonlybydiversitybutalsobyconsiderablefluidity(al-Rasheed 2007) The same activist or intellectual might at varioustimesmoveamongavarietyofseeminglyincompatiblepositionsmdashap-pearingtobemoreldquomoderaterdquoonsomeissuesthanonothersForallhiscriticismofradicalIslamistsQaradawiforinstancehashimselfwrittenin justificationofsuicidebombingsbyPalestiniansagainst Israelis (see

23

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INTRODUCTION

chapter 9 on Qaradawi) And Saudi Salafis like Safar al-Hawali andSalmanal-lsquoAwdamdashwhocame toprominence in the early1990smdashhavealternatedbetweencriticismoftheSaudipoliciesanddenunciationsofradicalSalaficallstojihadagainsttheSaudiregime(seeal-Rasheed200759ndash101onal-HawalialsoseeReichmuth2006)Theirshiftingviewsreflect changes in their relations with the Saudi regime but they alsopointtothebroadspectrumofpositionswhichSalafishavetakenatdif-ferenttimesindifferentcontextsandbeforedifferentaudiencesThusevenasal-Hawaliandal-lsquoAwdahavecondemnedterroristactsdirectedagainstSaudiArabiaandadvisedSaudisnottofightAmericantroopsinpostndashSaddamHusseinIraqtheyhavecalledupontheIraqisthemselvestoresistAmericantroopsandhavecharacterizedthateffortasaldquodefen-sivejihadrdquo(al-Rasheed200794ndash95)

Sufi s and Islamists

ItseemsmuchsimpleronthefaceofittodistinguishbetweenIslamistsandSufisThecharacteristicSuficonvictionthattherearelevelsofmean-ingintheQurrsquoanthatgobeyondtheliteralandtheobviousandthataselectfewmdashtheldquofriendsofGodrdquomdashareendowedwiththeuniqueabilityto discern them is anathema to all those who insist that God intendsHisteachingstobeequallyintelligibletoallDespitetheirtendencytoviewthemselvesasbearersof true Islam Islamists typicallyregard theSufi idea that somepeoplehaveaprivileged relationshipwithGodassuspectthebasisnotonlyforsanctioninginterpretationsofIslamthatlackwarrantintheplainteachingsofGodandtheProphetbutalsoforpracticallyldquoworshipingrdquothesefriendsofGodIslamists(andmodernists)havefrequentlyalsobeencriticalofthewaySufidevotionalismcanyieldaturningawayfromtheworldratherthananefforttochangeitaswellasapreoccupationwithpersonalspiritualtransformationattheexpenseofconcernsforthewelfareofthecommunityatlarge SufipracticesandtheteachingsoftheSufimastershavevariedenor-mouslythroughoutthehistoryofIslamyetIslamistcritiquesofSufismareseldomattentivetoitsnuancesortothecomplexwaysithasrelatedtootherfacetsofIslamNorhaveIslamiststakenmuchaccountofthefactthatmanyleadingfiguresofearliertimeswerebesidesmuchelseSufisaswellThisistrueevenofIbnTaymiyya(d1328)whoseprestigeinIslamistandSalaficirclesismatchedbyfewothersandwhowasinhisdayamemberoftheQadiriSufiorder(Makdisi1974)EvenifonearguesmdashasanIslamistmightbeinclinedtomdashthatldquogoodrdquoSufismisnoth-ingbutproperIslamitselftheveryfactthatsuchfigureshadaSufiiden-tityatallnecessarilycomplicateswhatissupposedtobethepristinesim-plicityofafaithsharedequallybyallbelievers

Complicatingthingsstillfurtheristhevarietyofwaysinwhichsomeleading Islamists relate to Sufism Ayatollah Khomeini was a lifelongstudentofIslamicmysticismandtheinfluenceofthemedievalSpanish

24

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INTRODUCTION

Sufi Ibn lsquoArabi loomed especially large in his thought To Khomeinimysticismmdashoften referred to as lsquoirfan (gnosis) especially when inter-twinedwithIslamicphilosophyandtheology(Knysh1992632)mdashwascrucialtoaproperunderstandingofGodrsquosrelationshipwiththeworldandwiththehumanbeingItwasalsoessentialforonersquosethicalforma-tionforamasteryovertheselfandultimatelyforrealizinginoneselftheattributesofwhat Ibn lsquoArabihadcalledldquotheperfectmanrdquo (cfKnysh1992 635 also Mottahedeh 1985 180ndash85) Some of the austerity ofKhomeinirsquospersonallifeprobablyalsoderivedfromSufiasceticismAndthoughheanchoredhisconceptionofIslamicgovernmentinanexposi-tionofShilsquoijuridicalthoughtratherthaninIslamicmysticismthesortofreligiousauthorityhecametoenjoyonthebasisofhisreformulationofShilsquoipoliticaltheologyseemstoechomysticalideasoftheperfectmanwho embodies and upholds the moral order as the microcosm of theuniverse

UnlikeKhomeiniQutbwasnotaSufiandhegivesnoindicationofsharinganyofKhomeinirsquosenthusiasmforthegreatSufithinkersofear-liertimesEvensoechoesofamysticrsquosdirectencounterwiththefoun-tainheadoftruthandknowledgearehardtomissinQutbrsquoswritingses-peciallyinhiscommentaryontheQurrsquoan(cfCarreacute200395ndash97)TheveryfirstsentenceofhiscommentarymdashldquolifeintheshadeoftheQurrsquoanisablessingunknowntoanyonewhohasnrsquottasteditrdquomdashevokesthefa-miliarSufiideathatincontrovertibleknowledgeofRealityisultimatelyacquired only through direct personal experience (dhawq that is theldquotasterdquooftheTruth)ThegreatmedievalSufial-Ghazali(d1111)hadauthoredafamousautobiographicalaccountofhowitwasonlythroughthe immediacyofhispersonalmysticalexperience thathewasable toovercomehisdebilitatingepistemologicaldoubtsandreassurehimselfofthenecessarytruths(Watt199857)QutbdoesnotmentionGhazaliinthiscontextbutitisdifficultnottobestruckbythemysticalresonanceofsomeofhislanguageHereisoneexamplewhichoccursinhiscom-mentaryonsura(chapter)53oftheQurrsquoan16

16TheearlyversesinthissuraoftheQurrsquoanhavebeenunderstoodbyMuslimexegetesasreferringtotheProphetrsquosrevelatoryexperienceaswellastohisldquonightjourneyrdquoandhisascensiontoheavenormilsquoraj inthecourseofonenighthewastransportedfirstfromMeccatoJerusalemandthentothepresenceofGodbeforebeingreturnedtoMecca

UnrelatedtothenightjourneybutrelatedtohisrevelatoryexperiencestheexegeticalsignificanceofthisQurrsquoanicsuraalsoliesinitsconnectionwiththeso-calledSatanicVersesAccordingtocertainexegeticalreportsMuhammadwasinthecourseofreceivingarevela-tionwhenSataninterpolatedsomeversesintoitmdashversespraisingthreegoddessesreveredbythepolytheistsofMeccaItwasnotuntilsometimelaterthatMuhammadrealizedhiserrorwhereupontheversesinterpolatedbySatanwereremovedTheepisodeoftheldquoSa-tanicVersesrdquohasbeenacontroversialoneinIslamichistorylongbeforeSalmanRushdiersquosnovelofthatnameandKhomeinirsquosjuridicalruling(fatwa)callingforRushdiersquosdeathMostMuslimscholarshavefoundittooshockingtobelievethattheProphetcouldhavemadesuchagrievouserrorandhavedeniedthatanysuch incidentever tookplaceYetsome

25

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INTRODUCTION

IwaschattingoneeveningwithsomecompanionswhentoourearscamethesoundofsomeonerecitingtheQurrsquoannearbyrecitingtheSuraoftheStar[al-Najm]andweinterruptedourconversationtolistentotheNobleQurrsquoanLittlebylittlemyheartenteredintowhatwasbeing recited into theheartofMuhammadashe jour-neyedtotheHeavenlyHostIwaswithhimashesawGabrielintheangelicforminwhichGodhadcreatedhimIwaswithhiminhis loftyandfree-flying journey to theLoteTreeof theBoundaryandtheGardenoftheRefugeIwaswithhimtotheextentthatmyimaginationcouldformavisionofitandtotheextentthatmyfeelings couldbear itThen came the final cry andmywholebeingshookatthefearfulreproachldquoDoyoumarvelatthisdiscourseanddoyoulaughandnotweepandmakemerryrdquo[Q5359ndash61]WhenIheardldquoBowdownbeforeGodandserveHimrdquo[Q5362]thetremblinginmyhearthadbecomeaphysicalandvisibletremblingthroughoutmybodythatIcouldnotresistMybodykeptshakingandIcouldnotcontrolitNorcouldIholdbackthetearsthatwerepouringforthhowevermuchItried(QutbZilalvol7part2774ndash75quotedfromCarreacute2003333ndash34withminorchanges)

TheQurrsquoanrsquosprofoundimpactontheaestheticsensibilitiesofitslisten-ersisafamiliarmotifindiscussionsofitsliteraryqualities(cfGrahamandKermani2006)AssomeonewhoseearlywritingswereconcernedwithArabicliterarycriticismandspecificallywiththeliteraryexcellenceoftheIslamicscripture(Qutb1949b)QutbwasespeciallyreceptivetothisaspectoftheQurrsquoanThesenseofbeingtransportedbacktothetimeoftheProphetandtowitnessingtheProphetrsquosascension(milsquoraj)tothepresence of Godmdashwhich is how the passage being commented on byQutbherehascommonlybeeninterpretedbytheexegetesmdashcanlikewisebeseenasanillustrationoftheoverpoweringimpactthewordsoftheQurrsquoancanhaveonthebelieverQutbrsquosaccountofconversingwithGodthrough the Qurrsquoan (cited earlier) is again something he may havewantedtoseeallbelieversdoYetallbelieverscanscarcelydosoany-morethanallaspirantsevenontheSufipathcanexperiencethetransfor-mativemysticalldquostatesrdquothatGodbestowsonHisspecialfriends(awlshyiya)IrrespectiveofwhetherhesawitinquitethiswayQutbrsquosassertionthatheisabletoenterldquointotheheartofMuhammadrdquoandtoseeGabrielasMuhammad sawhimsurelygiveshimaperspective thatothers en-counteringthewordofGoddonothave

ThepointisnotofcoursethatQutbwaseverrecognizedbyhisfol-lowersasaSufimasterbutthatsomeofthehermeneuticalauthorityheclaimshasadistinctiveSufiringtoitMorebroadlythesortofunques-

leadingscholarsofearlyandmedievalIslammdashincludingIbnTaymiyyamdashacceptedthehisto-ricityofthisincidentSeeSAhmed1998

26

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INTRODUCTION

tioningreligio-politicalauthorityIslamistleadershaveoftenenjoyedovertheirfollowersisnotunlikethatoftheSufimasteroverhisfollowersBe-ginningwithHasanal-BannathefounderoftheMuslimBrotherhoodandoncehimselfamemberofaSufiordertheleaderofthisorganizationis formally referred to as themurshid (guide)ormore specificallyalshymurshid alshylsquoam (thegeneralguide[RMitchell1993165])whichisafamiliartermforthemasterinSuficontextsForhispartAbdessalamYassine the founder and leader of lsquoAdl warsquol-Ihsan Party of Morocco(oftenreferredtoastheJusticeandSpiritualityAssociationorJSA)haslike Khomeini gone well beyond simply echoing Sufi conceptions ofauthorityinhisowndiscoursesHetoowasonceamemberofaMoroc-canSufiorderandhehascontinuedtodrawonSufithemesinhiswrit-ingsTheverynameofYassinersquospoliticalorganizationevokesacentralSufiideanamelyihsanThisisaQurrsquoanicterm(cfQ756)thattrans-latedliterallymeansldquotodogoodrdquothoughSufishaveunderstoodittomeanmuchmore thanthatFollowingawell-knownstatementattrib-uted to theProphetMuhammad theyhaveoften interpreted ihsan tomeangoingbeyondtheexternalsofIslamicritualpracticestoldquoworshipGodasifyouseeHimrdquo(Schimmel197529)thatiscultivatingasenseof personal communion and intimacy with God Even as Yassine hassoughttodistancehimselffromwhathedeemstobetheexcessesofSu-fismthereislittledoubtthathispoliticalappealowesmuchtocarefullycalibratedeffortstocombinedistinctiveSufiideaswithhisownbrandofIslamism(cfLauziegravere2005seealsochapter12onNadiaYassineinthisvolume)

FinallyMawdudirsquosJamalsquoat-iIslamimdashoneoftheearliestIslamistorga-nizations in the Sunni worldmdashillustrates both the Islamistsrsquo complexrelationshipwith Sufismand their pragmatic recognitionof its appealinmanyMuslimsocietiesMawdudihadoncebeenaharshcriticofSu-fismblamingitformanyillsafflictingMuslimsocietiesYettheJama-lsquoat-iIslamigraduallycametosoftenitsstanceonSufipracticesconsider-ablynodoubtintheinterestofbroadeningsomeofitssupportbaseinPakistanwheresaintsandSufishrinesareanimportantpartofthereli-giousandpoliticallandscapeAlreadyinMawdudirsquoslifetimeMianTufaylMuhammadhissuccessorastheheadoftheJamalsquoat-iIslamihadtakentheextraordinaryinitiativeoftranslatinganearlySuficlassictheKashf alshymahjub into Urdu The author of this work Shaykh lsquoAli Hujwiri(d1072)isburiedinLahoreinPakistanandhismuch-frequentedshrineishometoprecisely thesortofdevotionalpractices that Islamistsandmodernist reformers letaloneSalafishaveoften frownedupon (Nasr1996124)

ThesediverseexamplesarenotintendedtoobscuretherealdifferencesbetweenthegeneralityofIslamistsandmostSufisTheirsignificanceliesratherinillustratingthedifficultyofdistinguishingbetweenIslamismandotherreligiousintellectualandpoliticaltrendsintermsofneatcharac-

27

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INTRODUCTION

terizationsofgrandtranslocalgeneralizationsAstheforegoingsuggeststhesameistrueandmoresowhenitcomestocharacterizingIslamistsinrelationtothelsquoulamatheMuslimmodernistsandtheSalafisIndeedasLorenLybargerhasarguedwithreferencetothoseusuallycharacter-izedasldquosecularnationalistrdquoorldquoIslamistrdquoPalestiniansintheWestBankandGazadifferenceswithintheranksofyoungsecularnationalistsandIslamistscansometimesalsoshadeintosignificantsimilaritiesbetweenthesesupposedlyrivalorientations(Lybarger2007)ManyIslamistshavesoughttodistancethemselvesfromwhattheyseeastherigidityandau-thoritarianismofotherIslamistsandtoarguenotjustfortheimplemen-tationofthesharilsquoabutalsofordemocracyandpluralismConverselynot a few of the younger secular nationalists have ldquoadopted IslamisttheodiciesthatexplainedthefailuretoovercomeIsraelastheresultoffallingawayfrompietytheirconclusionsmirroredIslamistonestootheroadbackfromthebrinkhadtotraceitscoursethrougharenewedcom-mitmenttoIslambutnotnecessarilyinthemannerthattheIslamistmove-mentsmighthaveintendedrdquo(Lybarger2007237ndash38quotationat238)

Yet ifneatcategoriesremainelusiveacombinationoftheIslamistsrsquoself-consciouslypoliticalgoalstheirmultifacetedifnotalwaysexplicitpoliticalcritiquesofmanypastandpresentwaysofunderstandingandlivingIslamandanunshakeableconfidenceintheirownabilitytodis-cern Godrsquos will from the foundational texts do often provide enoughgrounds tobroadlydistinguish themfromotheractivists intellectualsand orientations in the Muslim public sphere What this combinationamountstovariesfromonesocialpoliticalreligiousandculturalcon-texttoanotherandsothereforedothewaysinwhichIslamistsrelatetooneanotherorcompeteandoverlapwithothergroupsandorientations

The Politics of Islamism

FromAeneasrsquosmythicalfoundingofRometothedeathandresurrectionofJesusChristtoMuhammadrsquosmigrationtoMedinafoundationalnar-rativesareascommontocollectivelifeasthemovementsthatperiodi-callyarisetorevivethemandclaimantstothemantleoflegitimacytheyconferSounderstoodIslamistsrsquopoliticalaspirationstorestorefounda-tionslocatedinamythicalpastarefarfromuniqueNorareIslamistsaloneintheirconvictionthatscripturalauthorityisguaranteedbyitsdi-vineauthormdashforinthatallMuslimsagreeRatherthechaptersinthisvolumesuggest thatwhatmakes Islamistpoliticsdistinctive (ifnotsui generis)istheclaimtorecuperateanldquoauthenticIslamrdquocomprisedofself-evidenttruthspurgedofalienandcorruptinginfluencesalongwithaninsistenceonremakingthefoundationsofthestateinitsimageGiventhelimitsofhumanunderstandingrelativetoGodrsquosknowledgeIslamistssimultaneouslydepictsuchfidelitytotheunadulteratedwordofAllahas

28

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

theultimateexpressionofdeferencetodivineomniscienceandportrayhumilityasaconstitutivefeatureofthehumanconditionAspirationstofullyknowandmasterthenaturalandsocialworldsthusentailnotonlyahumanhubrisdeaftotheQurrsquoanicadmonitionthatldquoAllahknowsbutandyoudonotknowrdquo(Q366)butalsoatransgressionagainstadi-vinely-ordainedontologicalorder

ItisnotablehoweverthattheIslamistemphasisonthelimitsofhumanknowledgerequireshumilityonlyinrelationtoAllahitrarelyyieldshu-milityinregardtotheirownclaimstospeakinHisnameortowardotherhumanbeingswhodissentfromthepremiseofdivineomnipotenceandIslamistaccountsofwhat it requiresThis suggests thatwhile IslamistchallengestostatepowerareobviouslypoliticaltheIslamistclaimtoau-thenticityisalsopolitical inthecoercivepoweritroutinelyenactsandjustifiesmostnotablybywayofthesilencesitimposesandthedebatesitforeclosesAzizal-Azmehpointsoutthatldquothenotionofauthenticityisnotsomuchadeterminateconceptasitisanodeofassociationsandin-terpellationsatropebymeansofwhichthehistoricalworldisreducedtoaparticularorderandatokenwhichmarksoffsocialandpoliticalgroupsandforgesandreconstituteshistoricalidentitiesrdquo(al-Azmeh199341)WhetherintheserviceofArabnationalismChristianfundamental-ismEuropeanromanticismorMuslimmodernismtheclaimofauthen-ticityisanactofpowerthatfunctionsnotjusttoreflecttheworldbuttoconstructitbydeterminingwhoisincludedandexcludedwhomayandmaynotspeakauthoritativelywhatistheproperrealmofdebateandwhatisbeyondcontestation

ItiscertainlythecasethatasingleldquoIslamrdquocapturesandorganizestheperspectivesofmillionswhoself-identifyasMuslim(amongotherthings)yetwhattravelsunderitsrubricisinescapablydiversemultiethnicanddefined asmuchbydisagreement as consensus Just as theTorah andBible lend themselves toat times radicallydivergent interpretationsofwhatitmeanstobeJewishorChristiantheQurrsquoanandhaditharecom-plexandsusceptibletomanydifferentandattimescontradictoryenact-mentsSounderstoodIslamislessafixedessencethanalivingtraditionthatcaptureswhatisimaginedascontinuousandunitaryindialecticalrelationshiptothoseconcretearticulationsandpracticesbywhichitistransformedandadaptedindifferentcontextsforpluralpurposesItispreciselythisunderstandingofreligionthatisanathematoIslamistswhoseek tofix theparametersof Islamicauthenticityonceandforallandtherebyarrogateforthemselvestherighttodeterminewhoqualifiesasagood Muslim to discredit those lsquoulama unable or unwilling to purgeIslamofpurportedimpietiestodeclarenominallyMuslimrulersapos-tatesunfittogovernandtocharacterizeallwhodisagreeascorrupthe-reticalguiltyofunbelieforvictimsoffalseconsciousness

Thesegeneralpoliticaltendencieshowevermustbecarefullysituatedwithinadialecticoftheglobalandthevernacularunderstoodtoreflect

29

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

thewaysinwhichunifyingmacrohistoricaldynamicsinformandareinturntransformedbydiversecontingentandfluidlocalcircumstancesInaworldstampedbyWesterndominanceandtheconsolidationofpostco-lonial authoritarian regimes Islamists confront a common set of con-straintsandchallengesInasmuchassuchconstraintsandchallengeshavemade Islamist thinkers (often reluctant) participants in conversationsacrossbothcultureandhistorytheireffortstoremakethefoundationsofcollectiveliferevealasharedinterpretiveframeworkandcommonreli-gio-political grammar At the same time this frame and grammar arecontinuallybeingreworkedinrelationtothedistinctpublicspheresinwhichIslamistsoperateandtowhichtheycarefullycalibratetheirpoliti-calcommitments

Attention to this complex dynamic suggests that the Islamist move-mentcannotsimplybecharacterizedasviolentantidemocraticandop-pressiveofwomenlabelsinvokedsofrequentlyinscholarlyandpopularliterature on the subject that they have become virtually synonymouswithIslamistpoliticsSuchcharacterizationsdocapturecrucialdimen-sionsofIslamistpoliticsyettheyalsosidesteptheparadoxesitsvarie-gatedandoftencontradictoryexpressionspresentInsteadwearguethatIslamistpoliticscanbeproductivelyreadin terms ofandagainst the grain ofsuchbroadcategorizationsasantidemocraticantiwomanorviolentmdashthat is as commitments that at different moments in various localesbothencourageandconstrainbroad-basedpoliticalparticipationdisruptandratifyhierarchicalgendernormsresistandreproducestate-sanctionedbrutalityThepointofreadingIslamistpoliticsinthiswayisnottosug-gestthatIslamistsaresecretlydemocraticfeministandopposedtovio-lenceRatherthepointistodrawattentiontothecomplexityandcon-tradictionserasedbyeasygeneralizationsontheonehandandtheoftenunacknowledgedfluidityandculturaladaptabilityofotherwisefamiliarpoliticalcategoriesontheother

Islamism and Democracy

DespiteimportantdifferencesamongIslamistthinkerstheyhaveincom-monatendencytoviewhumansovereigntyastransgressiveofdivinelawandsharetheaspirationtoestablishsharilsquoaastheprimaryorsolesourceofauthorityAsisoftennotedsuchpremisesandaspirationsrunafoulofassumptionsaboutpopularruleattheheartofdemocracynamelythathumanbeingshavetherighttolegislaterulesforcollectivebehaviorandarecapableofthewisdomrequiredtodevisejustlawsInrecentyearspolicymakersandcommentatorshaveevincedaparticularpreoccupa-tionwiththewaysinwhichIslamistnotionsofdivineauthoritythrottlethespiritandpracticeofpopularsovereigntySomehaveevengonesofarastocharacterizeIslamistsasldquoIslamo-fascistsrdquoanimatedbyhatredoftheldquodemocratic Westrdquo psychologically unable to contend with the fluidity

30

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INTRODUCTION

andindeterminacythatmarkpopularruleandeagertoconvertelectionsintoaldquoone-manone-voteone-timerdquomechanismforestablishinganIs-lamicstate(Murdock2002MRubin2005Kramer1993)

SuchviewsareechoedbythoseIslamistskeentoportraydemocracynotonlyasantitheticaltothesupremacyofdivinelawbutasaTrojanhorseforWesternimperialismFormanyIslamistsincludingseveralinthis volumedemocracy is justone symptomofametastasizingmoralandspiritualbankruptcywherebymoraltransgressionsaretransfiguredintonaturalurgescrassself-interestbecomesthebedrockofcollectivelifeandthedivineplanfortheuniverseandallthingsinitisreducedtoa system of physical causality just waiting to be mastered by way ofhumaningenuity(REuben2007)Qutbcallsthisdiseasedviewoftheworldjahiliyyaanditsignalsnotonlyhumanarrogancebutatransgres-sionagainstdivineauthoritythescopeofwhichencompassesbothpub-licandprivatedomainsofhumanaffairsaswellasbothvisibleandun-seendimensionsoftheuniverseFormanyIslamistssuchtransgressionisattherootofmuchofwhatpassesforMuslimruleinthecontemporaryworldmdashnationalistdemocraticandmonarchicalalikeSucharroganceisalsosaidtobethepatternunderlyingalonghistoryofunrelievedWest-ernaggressionagainstIslaminwhichtheChristianCrusadesEuropeancolonialismIsraelitreatmentofPalestiniansethniccleansinginBosniaGermananti-TurkishviolencetheAmericaninvasionofIraqandDutchcartoonsofMuhammadarebutafewexamples

YetthereisarangeofviewsamongIslamistsaboutboththesubstanceofdemocracyanditscompatibilitywiththereligio-politicalrenewaltheyadvocateAccordingtoQaradawiforexampleldquotheessenceofdemoc-racyisthatpeoplechoosewhorulesoverthemandmanagestheiraf-fairsthatnorulerorregimetheydislikeisforceduponthemthattheyhavetherighttocalltherulertoaccountifheerrsandtoremovehimfromofficeincaseofmisconductandthatpeoplearenotforcedineco-nomicsocialculturalorpoliticaldirectionsthattheyneitherrecognizenor acceptrdquo (Qaradawi1997132 also chapter9 in this volume)TohimthereisnoheavierburdenoppressingMuslimsinthecontemporaryworld thandespotism indeed it is throughdespoticgovernments thatMuslimshavebeenforcedtosubmittootherillsincludingtheneglectofthesharilsquoaandthecoerciveimpositionofsecularismandwesternizationDemocracy then recommends itself to Qaradawi as the most effectiveavailableantidotetodespotismandtheafflictionsofwhichitservesasavehicle

WheremanyamongtheIslamistsandthelsquoulamahaveseenconsider-able tensionbetween IslamanddemocracyQaradawiprofesses to seenoneAswesuggestedearlierbyfarthemostcommonoftheIslamistreservationsaboutademocraticsystemrelatestothesovereigntyofthepeoplewhichistakentocontravenetheideathatGodaloneissovereignQaradawi however is unperturbedby such concernsThe rule of the

31

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INTRODUCTION

peopleoughttobeseenhearguesnotinoppositiontotheruleofGodbutratherinoppositiontotheruleofthedespotMorefundamentallyQaradawirsquos view of democracy does not necessarily require that thepeopleshouldbeabletooverturndivinelyinstitutednormsRatherhisassumptionisthatpeopleexercisetheirsovereigntywithinconstitutionalboundsandMuslimslivinginapredominantlyMuslimdemocraticpol-itywouldlikewisenotwishtotransgresstheparametersoflegitimatehumanactionlaiddownintheIslamicfoundationaltexts(seeQaradawichapter9inthisvolumeandcfFeldman2007)

NadiaYassineofMoroccorsquosJusticeandSpiritualityAssociationisan-othercaseinpointWhilecriticalofthedemocraticgesturesembracedbyamonarchythatshedepictsasallergictogenuinelypopularsovereigntyYassineinsiststhatthemodelofMuslimruleadumbratedintheummafoundedbytheProphetMuhammadandinparticulartheConstitutionofMedina17isnothingshortofdemocratic(NYassine2005d2005e)UnliketheMuslimdynastiesthatarosetousurpitYassinecontendsthiscommunity was participatory egalitarian committed to freedom andexpressiveofGodrsquosmercyMostimportantitwasgovernedalwaysbytheQurrsquoanicprincipleofshura (consultation)bywhichYassinemeansaphilosophy of power that places sovereignty in the community ratherthaninanyindividuallinksvirtuetodeliberationratherthanobedienceandexhortsbelieverstocontinuallyadaptQurrsquoanicprinciplesthroughijtihad rather than adhere reflexively to precedent (N Yassine 2006a182ndash862005d)ManyscholarsandjournalistsremainskepticaloftheJSArsquosasyetuntestedcommitment toproceduraldemocracyandworrythatNadiaandher fatherAbdessalamultimatelyseektoestablishanIslamic state inhospitable to tolerance pluralism and civil liberties(Maghraoui2001Brandon2007Whitlock2006)YetothersarguethattheJSAisagenuinelypopulistorganizationthatrepresentstheunrepre-sentedtendstothewelfareofthedispossessedandbothexpressesandcontributestoanincreasinglyvibrantcivilsocietyinMorocco(Cavatorta2006Entelis2002)

QaradawirsquosandYassinersquosargumentstogethersuggestthatdemocracycanandhasservedaseitheracosmeticcoverfordespotismoranauthen-ticallyIslamiccheckuponcorruptandarbitraryruleAtissueinIslamistargumentsforandagainstdemocracythenarenotonlywhatcountsasldquoauthenticIslamrdquoandtheintentionsofthosewhoclaimtoknowitbutalsothecontentandcharacterofdemocracyitselfParadoxicallybothIslamistsopposedtodemocracyandthosewhotakeIslamismasinher-entlyantidemocraticregardthisasasimplematterwithanobviousan-swerdemocracyisanexpressionofandevensynonymouswithliberal-ismcapitalismandtheWestYetdemocracyisbothmorecapaciousand

17TheConstitutionofMedinawasanagreementtheProphethadenteredintowiththelocalcommunitiesincludingJewishtribesuponhisemigrationfromMeccatoMedina

32

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

moredistinctthanthispresumptionsuggestsTheworditselfofcoursederivesfromtheancientGreekdemokratiawhichmeansrule(kratos)ofthepeople(demos)andmanyderivetheequationofdemocracyandtheWestfromthisassociationwithclassicalGreeceYetancientGreekphi-losopherssuchasPlatosawindemocracythespecterofmobrulepartic-ularly vulnerable to demagoguery and despotism (a suspicion notablyechoedbyAmerican founder JamesMadison)Contrary to thedemo-cratic idealof inclusivenessmoreover citizenship inGreekdemocracyexcludedasubstantialpartofthepopulationincludingwomenslavesandforeignersFinallytheextenttowhichtheancientGreeksmayevenbecalledWesternisamatterofgreatdisputeparticularlyastheldquoWestrdquoisacategoryofrelativelyrecentprovenancethroughwhichhistoryandgeographyhavebeenretroactivelyorganized18DespitedepictionsoftheHellenicworldasWesternancientGreeksdidnotinfactviewthem-selvesintheseterms19

TheequationofdemocracywiththeWestalsopresupposestheexis-tenceofacoherentldquoWesterncivilizationrdquowitheitherculturallyhomoge-neousrootsorclearlydelineatedhistoricalandcontemporarybounda-riesorbothYetwhatiscalledtheWestisanamalgamationofmultipletraditionsincludingtheGreekRomanJudaicChristianandIslamicmdashtraditionsthatarethemselvespolyvalentratherthanhomogeneousmdashandistodaycharacterizedbyporousbordershybridsubculturesandmyriaddebtstodiversecivilizationspastandpresent20AsageographicmarkeritisvirtuallyimpossibletopinpointexactlywheretheWestbeginsandendsandthisisespeciallysonowthatpeoplesinformationandmate-rial goods crisscross cultural andnational borders atwill creating allkindsoftransnationalsubnationalandmultipleidentitiesthatshiftandreconstitutethemselvesinunpredictablewaysEventhosevaluesidenti-fiedasWesternoftenappearelsewhereinotherguisesIndeedscholarssuggestthatavarietyoftheldquostandardsexportedbytheWestanditscul-turalindustriesthemselvesturnouttobeofculturallymixedcharacterifweexaminetheirculturallineagesrdquo(Pieterse199553)

Manyalsoarguethatdemocracyisnotonlydistinctfrombutinten-sionwithboththetheoryandpracticeofpoliticsinldquoWesternrdquosocieties

18MichaelGillespie(19997ndash10)arguesthattherereadingofhistorygeographyandculturethroughtheprismofthissenseofldquotheWestrdquobegannoearlierthanthenineteenthcenturyTheideaofatimelessandbrightlinebetweenWestandEastisalsochallengedbyJeremyBrottonrsquosstudy(19989096ndash97)ofthediplomaticandintellectualexchangesbe-tweenEuropeandtheOttomanEmpireintheearlymodernperiodBrottonshowsnotonlytheextentandamityofsuchexchangesbutapersistentuncertaintyaboutwherepreciselyEuropeldquoendedrdquoandAsialdquobeganrdquo

19AncientGreeksunderstoodthemselvesasgeographicallywestofthebarbariansbutnotWesterninthecontemporarysensethatisasbothaculturalandhistoricalcategory

20StevenRuncimanrsquoswork(19543480)ontheCrusadesforexampledemonstratesaldquolongsequenceofinteractionandfusionbetweenOrientandOccidentoutofwhichourcivilizationhasgrownrdquo

33

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

many of which are more accurately classified as liberal and capitalist(Wood1994Wolin2001BallandDagger1999)Whileitisnowcom-monplacetospeakofldquoliberaldemocracyrdquoinasinglebreathliberalismanddemocracyareconceptsandpracticeswithverydifferenthistoriesandpresuppositionsUnlikedemocracyforexampleliberalismemergedfromthecrucibleofChristianreligiouswarsandintandemwiththeas-cendanceofamiddleclassthatpresagedtheendofEuropeanfeudalismTheliberalnation-statecanthusbeviewedasbothanexpressionandaconsolidationofcapitalismontheonehandandtheprincipleofasepa-rationbetweenchurchandstateontheotherBycontrastthereisnoth-ingaboutdemocracyeitherasasystemofgovernanceoracultureofpar-ticipationthatisinherentlysecularIndeedAlexisdeTocquevillefamouslyinsistedthatAmericandemocracycannotandshouldnotbesecularasreligionhelpsshiftattentionawayfromimmediatematerialpreoccupa-tionstolargerconcernsofcommunitycooperationandmoralityInfactmanydemocratictheoristsarguethatgenuinelyinclusivepopularsover-eignty is antithetical to the sharp inequalities of wealth and politicalpowerthatcapitalismoftenproducesandlegitimates

SuchongoingdefinitionalandsubstantivedebatessuggestthatthereismuchmoreatstakeindemocraticpoliticsthanprocedurespertainingtogovernmentauthorityandorderandpointtoawidespreadifelusiveunderstandingofdemocracynotjustasasetofinstitutionsbutasTocque-villesuggestsawayoflifeSeveralpoliticaltheoristshavecharacterizedthiselusiveunderstandingintermsofaldquodemocraticethosrdquoBythistheymeanbothanidealandanargumentforacultureofparticipationactivepowersharingmutualaccountabilityinclusivenessanddeliberationinwhichcitizensmayroutinelyandsafelychallengenotonlyspecificpoli-ciesandpolitical institutionsbutalso thevalues thatgoverncollectivelifeprinciplesofinclusionandexclusionandthepremisesofauthorityitself(Connolly1995JPEuben2003Sadiki2004)AdemocraticethosismuchmoredifficulttomeasureorquantifythanforexampleSamuelHuntingtonrsquosparsimoniousdefinitionofdemocracyasapolityinwhichtherehavebeentwoconsecutivepeacefulchangesofgovernmentbywayof freeand fairelections (Huntington1991)21Yetademocraticethosmakesitpossibletobothrecognizeanddisaggregatethepreconditionsaspirations mechanisms and institutions bundled into ldquodemocracyrdquotherebybringingintofocusforexamplethefrequentlyantidemocratic

21Manypoliticalscientistsprefertodefinedemocracyintermsofproceduresdesignedtorealizepopularruleincludingfreecompetitiveandfairelectionsalongwithstateprotec-tionofcertainrightsandlibertiesSuchaformalminimalistdefinitionhastheadvantageofdetachingdemocracyfromquestionsoforiginsandofferingastandardtowhichallgov-ernmentsmaybeheldregardlessofcultureandplaceAsKeithTopper(2005205ndash7)ar-gueshoweveritalsotendstosidestepknottyquestionsaboutthesubstanceofrepresenta-tion power responsiveness and accountability that are arguably central to democraticpolitics

34

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

casttoelectionsimposedbyelitesorforeignpowersthefeltimpotenceofmanycitizensinestablisheddemocraciesandthosehighlyparticipa-torycivilsocietiesthatflourishevenundermonarchicortheocraticrule

Forourpurposes inparticularademocraticethosmakesvisible theparadoxofanIslamistmovementthatseekstomobilizeordinaryMus-limsagainstcoercivepowerbutinthenameofareligio-politicalorderlargelyimmunizedfromchallengeQutbisanaptillustrationhereashistendencytogroundhisownspecialauthorityandinsightintheunsulliedwisdomofordinarybelieversmakesitpossibletoreadhisworkaseitherabriefagainstdemocracy(amongotherthings)oranenactmentofitIn-asmuchasdemocracyasaformofgovernanceisidentifiedwithpopularsovereigntyQutbrsquosbasicpremisethat thefoundationof legitimateau-thoritymustbedivineratherthanhumansuggeststhatheisunambigu-ouslyantidemocraticMoreoverQutbrsquoseffortstopluralizereligiousandpolitical authority express not a confidence in common wisdom butratheradesiretoclaimforhimselfthestatureofareligiousexpertwhodespitehislackofIslamicacademiccredentialscanclearlyseewhatoth-erscannotQutbcharacterizestherealIslamasself-evidentbuthealsoassumesthatonlyasmallvanguardofbelieversbesideshimselfwillhavetheabilitytorecognizeitandactdecisivelytoremaketheworldinitsimageSounderstoodthesignofldquochosennessrdquoisunyieldingcommitmenttoestablishingareligio-politicalorderthatsimultaneouslypresumesthesupremacyofthefewcapableoftrueknowledgeandpromisesaworldinwhichdissentitselfwillbecomebothunnecessaryandillegitimate

Yetifdemocracyrefersnotonlytoasystemofgovernanceorsetofprocedurestorealizepopularsovereigntybutalsotopracticesthatdis-ruptthoseforceswhichconcentratepowerandestablishpoliticalexclu-sionthecharacterizationofQutbrsquosworkassimplyantidemocraticmissesa crucial dimensionof its significance and appealAs the sacred textscontaintherulesandregulationsmeanttogovernbothpublicandpri-vateaffairsQutbrsquosinsistencethatordinaryuntrainedMuslimsmusten-gagethemdirectlyisinmanywaysademocratizationofaccesstoau-thoritySuchaccesscandisruptdeeplyentrenchedpatternsofpowerandpowerlessness particularlywhen conjoined to Islamist arguments thatarbitrarypowerisun-Islamicthatreligiousknowledgedependsoncom-mitmentratherthantrainingorexpertise thatMuslimshavetherightandobligationtodeterminewhenrulersareillegitimateandthatthosewhopreferordertojusticesecuritytofreedomandmoneytopietyhaveforfeitedanyclaimtoauthority

ThisaspectofIslamismhasfrequentlybeencomparedtotheProtestantReformationandmorespecificallytoCalvinistsrsquoattemptstotransferldquore-ligiousauthorityawayfromofficiallysanctionedindividualswhointer-prettextstoordinarycitizensrdquo(EGoldberg19913alsocfLoimeier2005)Suchaparallelhassparkedagreatdealofscholarlyspeculation

35

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

regardingapossibleldquoIslamicReformationrdquo22andarangeofargumentsaboutwhetherandhowIslamismmightfacilitatethedemocratizationofMuslim societies much as the Protestant Reformation is said to haveheralded the emergence of European ldquoliberal democracyrdquo While suchcomparisonsareevocativeafullerunderstandingof IslamismrequiresfirstsituatingitinrelationtoahistoricalshiftinthenatureandlocusofreligiousauthorityinIslambeginninginthenineteenthcenturyAsschol-arsofMuslimsocietieshavepointedouttheimpactofmasseducationnewtechnologiesfordisseminatingknowledgeandinformationanddra-matically changed social economic and political contexts have madeavailabletoamateurswhathadpreviouslybeenthepurviewofreligiousexpertsAtthesametimeithasinauguratedafragmentationofauthor-itywithintheveryranksofthelsquoulamathatcontinuestothepresentday23

InthiscontexttheascendanceandinfluenceofautodidactssuchasQutbHasanal-BannalsquoAbdal-SalamFarajandBinLadensimultaneouslyex-pressandaccelerateanongoingrenegotiationofauthorityoverwhomayspeakforIslamandonwhatbasisthepathofwhichisstillunfoldingandtheoutcomeasyetuncertain

Islamism and Gender

One already apparent consequence of this ongoing renegotiation overwhomayspeakforIslamandonwhatbasisistheentryofwomenintothe interpretive fray This development is increasingly unsettling thoseunwrittengendernormsarguablyattheveryheartofIslamistthoughtdisruptingthestandardsofmasculinityandfemininitythatreflecthowparticularculturesorganizehumanbeingsrsquosocialandreproductiveactiv-itiesintorolesthatareinturnthoughttoexpresstheldquonaturerdquoofmenand women Such norms are frequently considered tangential to theknottyproblemsofdefiningIslamismandadumbratingitscentralideasyetarangeofscholarshiponculturespastandpresenthasshownthatgenderisconsistentlytheterrainoverwhichbattlesforpoliticalcontrolandculturalidentityarefoughtMorespecificallyresearchindisciplinessuchasanthropologyhistoryclassicsandpostcolonialstudieshasdem-onstratedthatculturesinwhichfemalebodiesandbehaviorareregardedas indicesofmoralpurity tend to symbolically transformwomen intoconduitsof cultural corruption in timesof internal crisis and externalthreat(Papenek1994Chatterjee1990Tavakoli-Targhi1991Just1989Cohen1991Welter1966Bloch1978)Thisisespeciallytrueofcontem-

22Foralatenineteenth-centuryassessmentoftheprospectsforaldquoMuhammadanRefor-mationrdquoseeBlunt1882132ndash73

23EickelmanandPiscatori199637ndash39131ndash35Zaman2006Suchfragmentationhasinmanywaysbeenacceleratedbytheexplosionofdigitalcultureswhichpromoteamongotherthingsaldquoformofempoweredamateurismrdquo(Mirzoeff20026)

36

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

poraryreligio-politicalmovementswhosememberstendtoldquoidealizepa-triarchalstructuresofauthorityandmoralityrdquoendorsegenderdualismasgod-givenornaturalandcondemnvigorouslyrecentchangesingen-derrelationsasasymptomandsymbolofsecularistmoralbankruptcy(Riesebrodt1993Moghadam1992Hawley1994)

SeveralchaptersinthisvolumeilluminateIslamistgendernormsbyre-vealing thecharacterandcontentof Islamistconcernsabout theplaceandpurityofMuslimwomenmdashpreoccupationsFatimaMernissi(199199)hasgonesofarastocharacterizeasanobsessionDespiteimportantdifferences among Islamists thinkers many endorse gender norms inwhichthefairlyconventionalinsistencethatfemalenatureisdefinedinand through reproduction undergirds an understanding of women assymbolsofmoralvirtueandvesselsofculturalpurityThisviewsustainstheclaimthatmenandwomenareequalinreligiousbeliefbutperformfundamentallydifferentandcomplementaryfunctionsinsocietyWhilemenarenaturallymadetoruleinboththepublicandprivatedomainawomanbelongsinthedomesticrealmwhereherprimaryroleistobeawifeandmotheraswellastoinsuretheintegrityofthefamilythefirstschoolofmoraleducationAssuchfunctionsarerootedinaninescap-ablehumannaturefashionedbyGodawomanrsquosinabilityorunwilling-nesstoperformherdutiessignalsadisobediencetothedivinewillandpresages the corruption of the Muslim family from within From thisvantagepointtheWesterninsistenceonfullequalitybetweenthesexesisdoubly pernicious it at once liberates women from basic moral con-straintsandenslavesthemtomutuallyreinforcingsexualandcapitalistexploitationAsMurtazaMutahhari(1998xxxi)arguescapitalismmakesuseofwomentomarket itsgoodsldquoby trading inhonourandrespectthrough[their]powertoenticerdquotherebyldquotransform[ing]manintoaninvoluntaryagentofconsumptionrdquoInasmuchaswomenareresponsiblefor producing the next generation of Muslim men destined to restoreIslamtoitsformergloryitisnotonlythevirtueofwomenortheinteg-rityofthefamilythathangsinthebalancebutthefutureofIslamiccivili-zationitself

Zaynab al-Ghazali andMutahharimake several of these argumentsexplicitlyandindetail(seechapters10and11)butinmuchofIslamistrhetoricthenatureandsignificanceofwomenareestablishedindirectlyandsymbolicallyandthroughthreerecurrentimagesinparticularThefirstisofwomenassilentsymbolsofculturalmoralandsexualvulnera-bilityvoicelessfiguresinneedofmasculineprotectionorwhenitistoolatedefiledbodiesthatmutelydemandvengeanceSoforexamplelsquoAb-dallahlsquoAzzam(oneofBinLadenrsquosmentorsseechapter18)graphicallydetailstheagonizinghumiliationofyoungmenunabletoactwhentheAfghanwoman isldquocryingout forhelpher childrenarebeing slaugh-tered her women are being raped the innocent are killed and theircorpsesscatteredrdquo(lsquoAzzam1987a)Inthesecondimagewomenfunction

37

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

muchlikeachorusthatspeaksinpermittedcadencestoratifymasculineendeavorsSuchisthecaseforexampleinBinLadenrsquos1996ldquoDeclara-tionofWaragainsttheAmericansOccupyingtheLandoftheTwoHolyPlacesrdquo(seechapter18)wherethewomenexhortmentojihadinthefollowing way ldquoPrepare yourself like a struggler the matter is biggerthanwordsAreyougoingtoleaveusforthewolvesofKufr[unbe-lief]eatingourwingsWherearethefreemendefendingfreewomenbyarmsDeath isbetter than life inhumiliation Some scandals andshameswillneverbeotherwiseeradicatedrdquo24InthethirdimagewomenarecreaturesnotofthisworldbutofanothervirginalrewardsforthecourageousmartyrintheafterlifeThisisevidentinthefinalinstructionsforthe911hijackersforexamplewhereMuslimldquobrothersrdquoareurgedto purify their carnal impulses sharpen their knives for the dhabh (slaughter)andheedthecallofthehur lsquoayn (theblack-eyedones)await-ingtheminParadise(seechapter19)

Such rhetoric primarily registers women as an extensionmirror ormeasure of masculinity and together with explicit Islamist argumentsabouthumannatureandthefamilyarticulatesIslamistgendernormsinwhichmenandwomeneachhaveaproperlocationandpurposeinadi-vinely ordained social hierarchy Deviance from this gendered scriptthussignalsdisruptionofamuchbroaderreligio-politicalorderitbothpresumes and seeks to bring into existence The disruption caused byforeign aggression in particular exacerbates the tendency to translateconflict into an assault on Muslim masculinity and to conceptualizewomenaspotentialvehiclesforWesterncorruptioninneedofguidingand guarding Women such as Zaynab al-Ghazali and Nadia Yassinewho seek a prominent place and voice within the Islamist movementhavehadlittlechoicebuttocontendwiththisgenderedscriptDoingsohasentailedamongotherthingsnavigatingcarefullybetweenIslamistcharacterizations of womenrsquos visibility and agency as symptomatic ofthe new jahiliyya on the one hand and essentializing arguments thatequateIslamwithveilingfemalegenitalmutilationandhonorkillingsontheother

AsthechaptersonGhazaliandYassinesuggestIslamistwomenhavenegotiatedbetweensuchconstraintsandpressuresandtheirownambi-tionsindifferentwaysApioneeringdalsquoiya(onewhoinvitesMuslimstogreater piety)Ghazalirsquos own life reveals a fierce resistance to conven-tionalnormsofdomesticityevenasmuchofher(earlier)workappearsto embrace an Islamist gender ideology that defines women as wivesmothers andldquobuilders ofmenrdquo (al-Hashimi 1990 118)By contrastYassineisawifeandmotherwhoembracesanldquoIslamicfeminismrdquothatrequiresldquoreappropriatingtheinstrumentsofclassicaltheologyrdquoanden-

24TheIslamistjournalSawt alshyJihadhasgonesofarastofeatureldquowomenrsquosvoicesrdquointheformofrolemodelsnamedforexampleumm alshyshahid(motherofthemartyr)al-thoughitisunclearthattheseldquovoicesrdquoareactuallywomenrsquos(SUsher2004)

38

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INTRODUCTION

gaging the textsdirectly through ijtihad (NYassine2003) In this re-spect Yassine must be understood as part of a broader effort amongMuslimwomenwithdifferentpoliticalcommitmentstosimultaneouslyadvocateandenacttheirrighttorecuperatetheldquooriginalintentrdquooftheIslamictextsIfwomenandmendoinfacthavedistinctperspectivesontheworldYassinesuggestswomenhaveaspecialobligationtoexcavatewhattheyseeasthegenderparityoftheQurrsquoanburiedbeneaththoseldquomachointerpretationsrdquoofIslamuponwhichmenhavebuilttheirprivi-legeandpower(Khalaf2006)25

ManyAnglo-AmericanandEuropean feministsworry that Islamistsseekonly to secureor restorepatriarchalpowerConverselymany Is-lamist women view feminism as a term and a movement inescapablyWesterninoriginfreightedwiththelegacyofcolonialismanduneasilyimplicatedinculturalimperialismThisapplieseventoYassinewhoisunwillingtoadoptwithoutqualificationalabelsheassociateswithagen-dasopposedtoherowntheWesttheMoroccanstateMaghribi(North-westAfrican)elitesYetfeminismitselfisahighlycontestedtermwithin theso-calledWestitisthebearerofmultiplemeaningssomeofwhichareevenopposedandischaracterizedbydeepdisagreementsaboutwhowomenarewhatwomenneedwhoisauthorizedtoworkonwomenrsquosbehalf andbywhatmeans Inasmuch as these various feminismsmayshareonlyastatedconcernforwomenrsquoswelfarethereisnothinginco-herentinmodifyingldquofeminismrdquowithldquoIslamicrdquoldquoMuslimrdquoorevenldquoIs-lamistrdquounlessone iscommitted toarguing thatfirst Islam isanun-changingessencebeyondhistorypoliticsandculturesecondthereisaneutralobjectivevantagefromwhichtoidentifythisessenceonceandforallandfinallytheIslamicessencesoidentifiedisfundamentallyin-compatiblewitheffortstoimprovetheconditionsandqualityofwomenrsquoslivesBythesametokenIslamistwomenwhorejectthetermfeminismcanbe(althoughnotalwaysare)deeplycommittedtoimprovingwom-enrsquoswelfareaswellasactivelyresistanttoeffortsthatreduceortrans-formthemintosilentaccessoriesofmalepower

YassineandGhazalidifferaboutwhatwomenareandshouldbeyetbroadlyspeakingbothmaybeconsideredpartofarecenttrendtowardthe feminizationofdalsquowa Dalsquowa literallymeanscallappealor sum-monsbutthetermhascometosignifyavarietyofpracticesandargu-mentsmeanttoexhortinviteandguideMuslimstowhatisregardedasproperconductandmoraldevotionWomenrsquosparticipationindalsquowais

25WomenrsquosparticipationintheldquoproductionofofficialIslamicknowledgerdquohasalonghistoryalthoughtheyhaveoftendonesoinrelativeobscurityandwithoutthebenefitofeducation in the Islamicsciences thathas legitimateddirectengagementwith thesacredtexts (Cooke 2001 xiv Badran and Cooke 2004) Pioneering attempts to read genderequalityinIslamarealsonotconfinedtowritingbywomenasevincedbyQasimAminrsquosTahrir alshymarrsquoa [TheLiberationofWoman] (1899)andMumtaz lsquoAlirsquosHuquqshye niswan [TheRightsofWomen](1898)

39

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

notabrandnewphenomenonasisevidentinGhazalirsquosworkwiththeEgyptianSocietyofMuslimLadiesinthe1930sYetfromEgypttoPaki-stantoSaudiArabiatotheUnitedStatesthenumberoffemaledalsquoiyashasproliferatedexponentially inrecentyears(Cooke2001Mahmood2005Hirschkind2006)Thisreflectsinpartcurrentdoctrinalempha-sesondalsquowaasincumbentuponbothmenandwomenanddependentlessupontechnicalknowledgethanmoralvirtueandpracticalfamiliaritywiththeIslamictradition(Mahmood200565ndash66)It isalsoaconse-quenceofrecentpoliticalandsocioeconomictransformationsinMuslimsocietiesincludingtheexpansionofmasseducationthathasnotonlyin-creasedwomenrsquosliteracyandsocialmobilitybutalsomadeIslamictextsmoreaccessibletheproliferationoftechnologiesmdashfromthecassettetapetotheInternetmdashthatfacilitatethecirculationofreligiousknowledgeevenamongthosewhocannotreadortraveltheprecedentsetbythevigorousparticipationof IranianwomeninpostrevolutiondebatesaboutIslamandthemodeloflegalactivismevidentintheIslamistmovementrsquosownchallenge to the lsquoulamarsquos status as gatekeepers of religious knowledge(Singerman2005Mir-Hosseini1999)

If Ghazali and Yassine exemplify the feminization of dalsquowa amongelitesthemosquemovementinEgyptillustratesthegrowingparticipa-tionofwomenfromdiversesocialbackgroundsinreligiousclassesde-votedtostudyinganddebatingwhatIslamrequiresforawomantobeldquomorallyuprightrdquointhecontemporaryworld(Mahmood2005)Con-ceptualizingpiety in termsof adeepandholistic commitment to self-transformationparticipantsinthemosquemovementareconcernedlesswithmattersofsovereigntyandpoliticsconventionallyunderstoodandmorewiththeldquomoralcultivationrdquoofthosedailypracticesseenascrucialtobecomingclosertoGod(Mahmood2005)SomeIslamistshavecriti-cizedthis focusonpracticesofworshipasapoliticalandoverlypriva-tizedyetsuchcriticismmissestheforceofIslamistsrsquoowninsistenceondin(religion)asawayoflifeinwhichthedomainsofpublicandprivateare inextricably linked26AsSabaMahmood (2005193194) showsthesewomenrsquosintenseeffortsatldquoretrainingethicalsensibilitiesrdquohavealdquosociopoliticalforcerdquothatextendswellbeyondmattersofgovernancefacilitatingnolessthantheemergenceofaldquonewsocialandmoralorderrdquoEvidenceofitstransformativepowermaybefoundnotonlyinthesheernumbersandvarietyofwomenmdashwealthyandpoor literateand illiter-atemdashparticipatinginthemosquemovementbutalsointherhetoricalandpoliticaleffortsbythestateandsomeIslamiststocurtailcontrolordis-creditit(Mahmood200571194)

26ParticipantsinthemosquemovementinturnareoftencriticalofwhattheyseeasthereductionofIslamtotokensofculturalauthenticityorofitsinstrumentalizationbybothnationalistsandIslamiststheycharacterizeasmoreinterestedinpoliticalmaneuveringthanreligiouspiety

40

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

Understoodtoincludebothwrittenandembodiedpracticesthefemi-nizationof dalsquowa illustrates theways inwhichwomen fromdifferentperspectivesandsocialclassesareinsistingonengagingthesacredtextsdirectly for and with one another without the mediating authority ofmenwhohavetraditionallyheldthemonopolyonsuchactivitiesAsSu-danese Islamist Lubabah al-Fadl argues ldquoAs an insan [human being]whohappenstobeawomanIhavearighttorejectthemanipulativeexegesesofoursharilsquoa thatthreatenmyexistenceinawaythat isnotconsistentwiththeGodlywayandtoapplymyownijtihadtorectifyer-roneoustendenciesbysomeshuyukh[pluralofshaykh]rdquo(Sadiki2004290)DespitetheproliferationofvoicesintentonclaimingforthemselvestheauthoritytodemarcatewhatisauthenticallyIslamicandun-Islamiconceandforallcontestationoveritsscopeandmeaningproceedsapacefacilitatedatleastinpartbywomenformerlyexcludedfromtheconver-sationAtthesametimeIslamistwomenrsquosagencyandclaimstoauthorityarefrequentlystillpredicatedonawillingnesstofollowfairlypatriarchalrulesaboutwherehowandwithwhomtheymaypracticetheirvocation(Hirschkind2003Sadiki2004283)

Islamism and Violence

IfgenderisfrequentlyanimplicitpreoccupationamongIslamistsjihadisarguably Islamistsrsquomost consistently explicit concern Jihad is derivedfromtheArabicverbthatmeanstostruggleortostriveyetitisaparticu-larkindofstruggle that isofconcern tomanyof thefigurescollectedheretheoftenviolentstruggleagainstapostatesandinfidelsbothathomeandabroadtowhicheveryindividualMuslimmustcontributeTheclaimthatfightingunbelieversisthepreeminentenactmentofindividualMus-limpiety seems to justify characterizationsof Islam ingeneral and Is-lamisminparticularassanctioningevenencouragingviolenceYetwhatIslamistsrepresentasjihadtout courtisahistoricallyspecificunderstand-ingderivedfromahighlyselectiveuseoftextsandprecedentsprominentamongthemaformerlyobscureclaimbytheinfluentialfourteenth-cen-tury jurist IbnTaymiyya thatMongol rulerswhohad contravened Is-lamiclawcouldbesubjecttoforcibleremovalFarfromadefinitiveex-pressionof Islamldquoproperlyunderstoodrdquo such Islamist argumentsnotonlymarkasignificantdeparturefrommuchofantecedentdoctrineandpractice but also diminish the importance of ongoing disagreementsamongMuslimsabouttheformandpurposesofjihad

TobeginwithMuslimscholarshavetendedtoconsiderjihadagainstforeignenemiesafard kifaya(collectiveobligation)thatisadutyagroupofpeoplewithinthecommunitymayperformonbehalfoftherestandonethatpresupposesalegitimateMuslimleadertodeclareorleadthechargeJuristshavedistinguishedthisfromthefard lsquoayn(individualduty)thatmustbefulfilledbyeverysingleMuslimincasesofdefensivejihad

41

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

thatiswhentheummaisunderattackManyIslamistsincludedheretakeamuchlessnuancedviewofjihadAsamodeofpoliticalactionQutbarguesjihadmustberegardedasaldquopermanentconditionnotanocca-sionalconcernrdquoonethatincurrentcircumstancesrequiresdeedsratherthanwordsstruggleratherthancontemplationrevolutionathomeaswellasresistanceabroad(Qutb199167ndash6882)lsquoAbdal-SalamFarajarguesalongsimilarlinesthatthenatureoftheattackonIslammakespolitical authorization by a caliph (ldquodeputyrdquo referring to a legitimatesuccessortotheProphetrsquosleadership)unnecessaryafterallldquoleadershipovertheMuslimsis(always)intheirownhandsifonlytheymakethismanifestIfthereissomethinglackingintheleadershipwellthereisnothingthatcannotbeacquiredrdquo(Jansen1986asec93)

SuchargumentsareadeliberaterejectionofearlyMuslimmodernistswhohademphasizedthelargelydefensivecharacterofjihadandsoughttoshowthatrelationsbetweenMuslimsandnon-MuslimswerenormallypeacefulratherthanantagonisticMahmudShaltut(d1963)therectorof al-Azhar from 1958 to 1963 had argued for example that theQurrsquoanicversesonfightingldquoprohibittheprovocationofhostilityandthisprohibitionisreinforcedbyGodrsquosrepugnancetoaggressionandbyhisdislikeofthosewhoprovokehostilityrdquo(Peters199674onShaltutseeZebiri1993)ConversionbyforceisanathematoIslamShaltutaversandfightingiscommandedonlyindefenseinresponsetoaggressionini-tiatedbyothersEvendefensivejihadmustaimatldquotheterminationoftheaggressionandtheestablishmentofreligiouslibertydevotedtoGodandfreefromanypressureorforcerdquo(Peters199675)

ManyIslamistsexplicitlydismisssuchargumentsasasymptomoffalseconsciousnessoneamongmanydestructiveeffectsofcolonialdomina-tionMawdudiargues for example thatwhile imperialists ravage theworld to satisfy their greed jihad alone ldquoconjures up the vision of amarching band of religious fanatics with savage beards and fiery eyesbrandishingdrawnswordsandattackingtheinfidelswherevertheymeetthemrdquoHavinginternalizedthis imageMuslimsrushtoapologizeandrenouncearmedstruggleInthiswayhelamentscolonialistsretaintheexclusiverighttoldquofightwitharmsandammunitionwhilewearecon-tented with our pen and our tonguerdquo (Mawdudi 1948 1ndash3) SayyidQutbforhispartagreedthatIslamdoesnotcountenancespreadingitsmessagebyforceandcoercionyethehadlittlepatiencewiththosewhosoughttopresentjihadaslegitimateonlyinself-defense

IfweinsistoncallingIslamicjihadadefensivemovementthenwemustchangethemeaningofthewordldquodefenserdquoandmeanbyitldquothedefenseofmanrdquoagainstallthoseforcesthatlimithisfreedomWhenwetakethisbroadmeaningofthewordldquodefenserdquoweunder-standthetruecharacterofIslaminthatitproclaimstheuniversalfreedomofeverypersonandcommunityfromservitudetoanyother

42

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

individualorsocietytheendofmanrsquosarroganceandselfishnesstheestablishmentofthesovereigntyofAllahandHisLordshipthrough-outtheworldandtheruleofthedivinesharilsquoainhumanaffairs(Qutb199050)

Qutbdoesnotnameanynamesincastigatingtheldquowriterswithdefeatistandapologeticmentalities[who]writeaboutlsquojihadinIslamrsquoandtrytoremovethislsquoblotrsquofromIslamrdquo(Qutb199046)buthecouldverywellhavehadhisdistinguishedfellowEgyptianMahmudShaltutinmind

These arguments about jihad may be said to constitute a commongrammarandframeworkofanalysisformanyIslamistsalthoughseveralthinkers in this volume carefully calibrate such claims to suit variouspurposesanddifferentpublicspheresInhisjustificationfortheassassi-nationofEgyptianpresidentAnwaral-SadatforexamplelsquoAbdal-SalamFarajdepictsthestruggletoreclaimthemoralfoundationsoftheEgyp-tianstateasafightagainstjahiliyyafromwithinarguingthatthejihadagainstacorruptnationalistregimeathomemusttakeprecedenceoverfightingenemieselsewhereTheCharterofHamas(seechapter15)how-everinsiststhatallMuslimsrecognizetheprimacyofthejihadforJeru-salemweldingIslamistrhetorictothatofnationalistresistanceinanef-fortbothtofightIsraelioccupationandtocompeteforadherentswiththePalestinianLiberationOrganization(PLO)IncontrasttobothFarajandHamasBinLadenembracesaglobaljihadthatessentiallycollapsesdistinctionsbetweennationalandinternationaloffensiveanddefensivefightingenemiesathomeandthosefromafar

Yet despite such differences these arguments tend to presume thatviolent jihad is a necessary response to the pervasive power of thosewithdemonstratedhostilitytoMuslimliveslandspietiesandsensibili-tiesaformofretaliationwhoseurgencyandlegitimacyderivefromtheviolencemdashpsychologicalandeconomicaswellasphysicalmdashoftheinitialassaultThisviewofjihadsubsumesindividualsintoarchetypesofldquoin-fidelsrdquoandldquobelieversrdquoandinsodoingvitiatesmoreconventionaldis-tinctionsbetweenforexamplesoldierandcivilianorcollectiveandin-dividual responsibility It is far from inevitable that thosewhoharborsuchviewswillautomaticallyactuponthemyetthecarnagewroughtbytheattacksontheWorldTradeCenterandthePentagonin2001aBalinightclub in 2002 Madrid commuter trains in 2004 and throughoutIraqonadailybasissuggestjusthowlethalsuchclaimscanbegiventheright circumstances The fact that such violence does not discriminateamongvictimsonlyfurtherfuelsrhetoriccharacterizingIslamistsasirra-tional fanatics ldquoin love with deathrdquo terrorists animated by a religioncharacterizedbyapropensityforviolenceandauthoritarianism27

27AnxietiesabouttheparticularsusceptibilityofMuslimstoirrationalityinsularityandfanaticismhavealonganddistinguishedpedigreeinEuro-AmericanhistoryandpoliticalthoughtSeeforexampleRenan18833

43

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

AsinsomanyothermattershoweverIslamistsarehardlyofonemindonthesubjectofjihadindeedthereareIslamistswhoexplicitlyrejectthereductionof struggle toviolenceAcase inpoint isNadiaYassine(20032005c)whoinsiststhatjihadisthededicatedstruggleagainstisshytikbar(arrogance)particularlyinitscommonformasthelustforpoweranddominationAsjihadagainstistikbarisbothafinalgoalandapre-scriptionforactionYassinesuggestsitisantitheticaltoviolentpracticesthataimatdominationTheprimaryinstrumentsofjihadarenotbombsbutwords particularly thosedeployed in the art of persuasion (Fara-marzi2005NYassine2006a)WhenIslamistssuchaslsquoAbdal-SalamFarajandlsquoUmarlsquoAbdal-RahmanseektolegitimizeviolentrevolutionbyrecoursetoIslamictextsshearguestheycontravenethetruemeaningofjihadtoservetheirownarrogantendsBythesametokenBinLadenrsquosdecisiontoldquofightevilwithevilandbarbaritywithbarbarityrdquonotonlyviolatesspecificIslamicprohibitionsagainstharmingcivilianswomenandchildrenbutalsobetraystheethicalimperativetoembodythemes-sageofamercifulGodwhocautionsbelieversthat(Q8822)ldquoYouhavenopoweroverthemrdquo(NYassine2005cDaily Excelsior2002)

SuchpersistentdisagreementsamongMuslimspastandpresentsug-gest that Islam isnomore inherently violent andbloody-minded thanitmdashorChristianityor Judaism for thatmattermdashis inherentlypeacefulIslamists often claim to speak for an unchanging authentic Islam thatexistsoutsideoftimeandspaceyetthepoliticalpurchaseoftheirper-spective derives from the ways it assembles disparate yet recognizablecontemporaryexperiencesofsufferingfrustrationandlossintoanex-planationthatresonateswithMuslimswholiveincommunitiescultur-allylinguisticallyandgeographicallydistantfromoneanotherTheex-tenttowhichIslamistargumentsresonatebroadlyacrossMuslimsocie-tiesthusdependsuponasetofexperiencesandphenomenathatmarkthisparticularmomentinhistoryincludingthewaysinwhichcontempo-raryglobalinequalitiescompoundalegacyofhistoricalasymmetriestocontinuallyreproduceasenseofMuslimpowerlessnessmdashbothrealandimaginedmdashrelativetotheWestcontinuingEuro-Americanpoliticalandfinancialsupportofcorruptautocratsmanyofwhompresideoverna-tion-statesbrutallystitchedtogetherbyWesternfiat thepersistenceofauthoritarian regimes eager to control domestic unrest by catalyzingldquoMuslimragerdquotowardexternaltargetsthesenseofemasculationpro-ducedbydecadesofpoliticalrepressionandeconomicfrustrationandthecontinualflowofimagesofbloodiedMuslimbodiesdeliveredbyaburgeoningarrayofvideosatelliteandelectronicmedia

It is notable that the understanding of jihad many Islamists proffermirrorstheverystate-sanctionedviolenceagainstwhichtheyhavestrug-gledforalmostacenturyAlongwiththousandsofMuslimscaughtinthemachineryoftwentieth-centurystateviolenceprominentIslamistsfromQutbtoGhazalitoAymanal-Zawahirimdashal-Qalsquoidarsquossecondincommandmdash

44

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

arewellknowntohavebeenradicalizedbyextendedandoftenbrutaltermsofincarcerationinEgyptSyriaIraqJordanIsraelAlgeriaandelsewhere(onal-ZawahiriandprisoncfKepelandMilelli2008152ndash54)ItisthusfarfromsurprisingthatIslamistsforgedbyinterrogationtortureinprisoncampswouldconcludethatthepreeminentenactmentofMuslimpietyisviolentstruggleldquoPrisonrdquoasPalestinianKhaledAbuHilalhassaidldquoismyuniversityrdquo(Erlanger2007)anargumentmadeingreaterdetailinadifferenttimeandplacebyRussianwriterandrevolu-tionaryMaximGorky(1868ndash1936)

Apeoplebroughtupinaschoolthatremindsoneofthetormentsofhellonasmallscaleapeopleaccustomedtotheclenched-fistprisonandthewhipwillnotbeblestwithatenderheartApeoplethatthepoliceagentshaveriddenoverwillbecapableintheirturnofwalk-ingoverthebodiesofothersInacountrywhereunresthasreignedsolongit isdifficultforthepeopletorealizefromonedaytothenextthepowerofrightOnecannotdemandfromamanwhohasneverknownjusticethatheshouldbejust(Gorky1920)

InthiscontextasTimothyMitchell(1990195ndash96199207ndash8)suggestsIslamistviewsoftheworldcanbecharacterizedasbothamodeofresis-tancetostatemechanismsofcoercionandanexpressionofthemSuchisthedynamic evident inGhazalirsquosmemoirs for examplewhen shede-scribeshowtheldquodarknessofprisonsthebladesoftortureandthevi-ciousbeatingsonly increasetheenduranceandresolveofthefaithfulrdquo(Ghazali19786)

There is no doubt a great deal of pragmatism at work in IslamistargumentsaboutviolenceAsQutb(19916447ndash48)drylynotesthepathtofreedommustoccasionallybehewnbywayoftheswordbecausetyrants are not reasoned out of power and ldquojahiliyya is not lsquoabstracttheoryrsquo[it]consciouslyorunconsciouslystrivestopreserveitsownexistence to defend its essence to annihilate dangerous elementswhichthreatenitsverybeingrdquoYetitisalsothecasethatformanyoftheseIslamistsjihadisbothameansandanendanefforttoeradicatethoseobstacles torestoringa justcommunityonearththatsimultane-ouslybringshumanaction intoaccordwithGodrsquosplansandpurposes(Haddad198321)While theQurrsquoan (2256) states thatldquothere isnocompulsioninreligionrdquoIslamistscontendthatonlyinastateinwhichIslamiclawreignssupremearehumanbeingsfreefromenslavementtooneanotherrsquosruleandallareequalbyvirtueoftheircommonsubmissiontoGodAsQutb(1991107ndash8)argues

WhenthehighestauthorityinsocietyisGodalonemdashexpressedintheruleofdivinelawmdashonlythenishumanitytrulyandcompletelyliber-atedfromslaverytomenOnlythisisldquohumancivilizationrdquobecausetheessentialfoundationofhumancivilizationisthetrueandcom-

45

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

pletefreedomofhumanityandtheabsolutedignityofeveryindivid-ualinsocietyThereisnotruefreedomanddignityforhumanityortheindividualinasocietywheresomepeoplearelordswholegislateandothersareslaveswhoobey

From this perspective the realization of justice liberty equality andchoiceitselfnecessitatestheforcibleremovaloftheconstraintsimposedbyjahiliyyaalongwiththosewhoaidandabetitno matter the costAsMawdudi(1954160ndash61)writes

[W]hyisitthatinreligionsuchimportanceisgiventojihadthattheQurrsquoanpronouncesthejudgmentofhypocrisyuponthosewhoshirkandevadeitJihadisbutanothernamefortheattempttoerectthesystemoftruthandtheQurrsquoandeclaresjihadtobeatouchstoneonthesamefootingwithamanrsquosfaithInotherwordshewhohasfaithinhisheartwillneitherbecontentwiththedominationofthesystemofevilnorwillhegrudgetheexpenditureoflifeandwealthinthestruggleforerectingthesystemoftruthIfoneshowsweaknessinthismatterhisfaithitselfisdoubtfulWhatcananythingelsebesidethenprofithimThemanwhoprofesses faith in this religioncannotfulfillhisdutyonlybytryingasfaraspossibletopatternhislifeonIslamThenatureofhisfaithitselfrequiresthatheshouldconcentrateallhiseffortuponwrestingleadershipfromunbelievingandcorruptmentoentrustittotherighteousanduponerectingthesystemoftruththathasbeenordainedfortheconductoftheworldaccordingtothewillofGodBecausethisendisunattainablewith-out thehighestdegreeofcollectiveeffort theremustexistarigh-teouscommunitycommittedtotheprincipleoftruthanddevotedtothesolepurposeintheworldoferectingmaintainingandproperlyrealizingthesystemoftruth

ThefactthatsomeIslamistthinkerssanctifyviolentstruggleinsuchtermsdoesnotmeanofcoursethatallthosewhoadvocateorengageinjihadendorseviolence28NordoesitimplythatthosewhoclaimtokillforIslamareentirelywithoutulteriormotivesthosemanipulativepur-poses andpsychologicalmotivations that even themost rarified scrip-turalargumentscanexpressorserveWhattheprecedinganalysisdoessuggesthoweveristhatthereductionofthisviewofjihadtoirrationalbloodlusttheself-interestedgrabfortemporalpoweroradoorthroughwhichtopassintothehereaftermissesacrucialdimensionofitssignifi-canceandappealfortruebelieversjihadisnolessthananenactmentof

28EvenashespokeofaneweraofjahiliyyaandofjihadMawdudihimselfstoppedwellshortof recommendingor condoning the actual resort to violence in themannermanyotherIslamistsdidAsNasr(199670)observesMawdudirsquosorganizationtheJamalsquoat-iIs-lamildquohasavoidedviolentsocialchangeandhasinsteadviewedthepathtotheIslamicstateaslyingwithintheexistingsociopoliticalorderrdquoAlsoseethechapters5and3onQutbandMawdudiinthisvolume

46

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INTRODUCTION

adivineimperativetoremakethefoundationsofcollectivelifeInthisre-spectIslamistviewsofjihadcanbeseenaspartofalong-standingasso-ciationbetweenviolenceandpoliticalfoundingsuponwhichnoparticu-larcultureorhistoricalepochhasamonopolyThisassociationandtheldquolegacyofviolencerdquoitbequeathstofuturegenerationsarenolessappar-entinthoseradicalrevolutionsofrenewalthatmovebywayoftheswordfromthemarginstothecenterthanthosepoliticalfoundingsthatclaimtocreatesomethingoutofnothing(Connolly1995251)Ineithercasethetollofsuchbrutalitycanbeimmeasurableforinadditiontothevic-timswhosufferdirectlytheldquopracticeofviolencelikeallactionchangestheworldbutthemostprobablechangeistoamoreviolentworldrdquo(Ar-endt1972177)

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 ESP 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ltFEFF005500740069006c006900730065007a00200063006500730020006f007000740069006f006e00730020006100660069006e00200064006500200063007200e900650072002000640065007300200064006f00630075006d0065006e00740073002000410064006f00620065002000500044004600200070006f0075007200200075006e00650020007100750061006c0069007400e90020006400270069006d007000720065007300730069006f006e00200070007200e9007000720065007300730065002e0020004c0065007300200064006f00630075006d0065006e00740073002000500044004600200063007200e900e90073002000700065007500760065006e0074002000ea0074007200650020006f007500760065007200740073002000640061006e00730020004100630072006f006200610074002c002000610069006e00730069002000710075002700410064006f00620065002000520065006100640065007200200035002e0030002000650074002000760065007200730069006f006e007300200075006c007400e90072006900650075007200650073002egt ITA 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 JPN ltFEFF9ad854c18cea306a30d730ea30d730ec30b951fa529b7528002000410064006f0062006500200050004400460020658766f8306e4f5c6210306b4f7f75283057307e305930023053306e8a2d5b9a30674f5c62103055308c305f0020005000440046002030d530a130a430eb306f3001004100630072006f0062006100740020304a30883073002000410064006f00620065002000520065006100640065007200200035002e003000204ee5964d3067958b304f30533068304c3067304d307e305930023053306e8a2d5b9a306b306f30d530a930f330c8306e57cb30818fbc307f304c5fc59808306730593002gt KOR ltFEFFc7740020c124c815c7440020c0acc6a9d558c5ec0020ace0d488c9c80020c2dcd5d80020c778c1c4c5d00020ac00c7a50020c801d569d55c002000410064006f0062006500200050004400460020bb38c11cb97c0020c791c131d569b2c8b2e4002e0020c774b807ac8c0020c791c131b41c00200050004400460020bb38c11cb2940020004100630072006f0062006100740020bc0f002000410064006f00620065002000520065006100640065007200200035002e00300020c774c0c1c5d0c11c0020c5f40020c2180020c788c2b5b2c8b2e4002egt NLD (Gebruik deze instellingen om Adobe PDF-documenten te maken die zijn geoptimaliseerd voor prepress-afdrukken van hoge kwaliteit De gemaakte PDF-documenten kunnen worden geopend met Acrobat en Adobe Reader 50 en hoger) NOR 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 PTB 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 SUO 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 SVE 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Page 14: Chapter 1 INTRODUCTION - assets.press.princeton.eduassets.press.princeton.edu/chapters/s9067.pdf · Chapter 1 INTRODUCTION This volume is intended as a broad introduction to the evolution

14

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

newreligio-politicalorderWhetherthiscritiqueisarticulatedinconcreteor vague terms in a seeminglymoderateorplainlymilitant languagethere is no mistaking either its principal targetmdashfacets of the Islamictraditionmdashoritsfundamentallypoliticalorientation10

IslamistshaveofteninsistedthatthewordofGodcanandshouldbeapproacheddirectlywithoutthemediationofpresentorpastscholarsandwithoutanyneedfortheedifyingtalesthephilologicaldebatesandthelong-windedtheologicaldisquisitionssooftenfoundinmedievalexe-geticalliteratureamajorfacetoftheIslamicscholarlytradition(cfCarreacute200318)ShukriMustafaanEgyptianIslamistexecutedin1977forthemurderousactivitiesofhisSocietyofMuslims(popularlyknownastheSociety of Excommunication and Emigration) had famously assertedthatalloneneededtoresolveuncertaintiesinonersquosunderstandingofthewordofGodwasadictionary(Kepel199379)SayyidQutbdidnotgoquite that farButhe tooaffirmed that the fundamental teachingsofIslamwereentirelytransparentldquoWhatwearesayingaboutIslamisnoinventionofoursoranynewinterpretationofitsessenceIt issimplyplainIslamasitwasunderstoodbyitsfirstadherentMuhammadandhissincereCompanionsandthoseclosetoitsauthenticsourcerdquo(Qutb19969withminorchange)

TheimplicationofQutbrsquosstrikingassertionistwofoldFirstbehindarhetoric of humility in relation to divine knowledge Qutb implicitlyclaimsthefullbackingofGodandHisProphetfortheldquoplainIslamrdquohesetsforthMorespecificallyheessentiallydepictshisownunderstandingofIslamassynonymouswithGodrsquoseternalintentmuchasKhomeinirsquospronouncementsasthevalishyye faqih(guardianjurist)presumedtoarticu-latewhatIslamitselfstoodfororrequiredonanygivenmatterSecondthestatementimpliesnotonlythatviewsotherthanhisaremereinter-pretationsbutthattheyarethemorereprehensibleforbeingldquonovelrdquomdashasuggestionthatevokesthenotionofbidlsquoathatisofillicitcapriciousin-

10ThatIslamismshouldbeseenasawide-rangingcritiqueoftheworldandoftheIslamictraditionisareminderofcoursethatcritiqueisnotaninherentlysecularphenomenonnordoesitnecessitateasecularframeworkAsTalalAsad(2008)hasobservedgivenawidevarietyofldquopossibleinstancesofcritiquecriticismwhatwehaveisafamilyconceptforwhichitisnotpossibletoprovideasingletheorybecausethepracticesthatconstitutethemdifferradicallyrdquo(alsocfMahmood2008Taylor2008)NorshouldourviewingIs-lamism as a politically motivated critique suggest that other competing orientations inmodernIslamcannotalsobeseenascritiquesofparticularpracticesparticularformsofknowledgeWhatdoesdistinguishanIslamistorientationfromothersisonceagainboththedegreetowhichIslamistcritiquesbreakwiththeirpastandpresentandtheiraspirationto remake theworld in accordancewith their understandingof immutable divine com-mandsThisismarkedlydifferentfromhowthelsquoulamamightcritiqueparticularaspectsoftheirscholarlytraditionintheinterestofastrongersenseofcontinuitywiththattraditionorinordertomakeitmorereceptivetowhattheyseeasthecommunityrsquoschangingneedsItisalsoverydifferentfromhowMuslimmodernistsoftenbreakwiththescholarlytradi-tioninordertoadaptMuslimnormsandinstitutionstothedominantpoliticalandculturalinstitutionsoftheircontemporaryworld

15

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

novationinmattersofreligionSuchaviewofIslamjettisonsmuchofwhatwouldnormallycountasitshistoryandcivilizationldquoThehistoryoflsquoIslamrsquordquoQutbtellshisreadersldquoisthehistoryofthetrueapplicationofIslammdashinpeoplersquosconceptionsandtheirpracticesintheirlivesandtheirsocialsystemsIslamisthefixedaxisaroundwhichpeoplersquoslivesrevolveinafixedframeWhentheygooutofthisframeorwhentheycategorically abandon this axis what then do they have to do withIslamrdquo (Qutb 1967a vol 2 part 4 169 quotation marks aroundldquoIslamrdquoinoriginal)ItisforthefixedaxistheplainIslammdashandinoppo-sition to much of its historymdashthat the Islamist professes to stand (cfGrunebaum1962251ndash52)

Qutbhoweverisfarfromconsistentinhisattitudetowardtheschol-arlytraditionorinhowheseekstoarticulatehisownauthorityinrela-tiontoitHisfaithinthetransparencyandthetransformativeimmedi-acyofGodrsquoswordswouldappeartomakeallexegesissuperfluousyethehimselfhadproceededtowriteamajorcommentaryIn the Shade of the QurrsquoanthatwouldexceedfourthousandpagesinprintThejustifi-cationheoffers for it intheopening linesof thecommentary isauda-ciousnotapologetic

LifeintheshadeoftheQurrsquoanisablessingItisablessingunknownto anyonewhohasnrsquot tasted itAll praisebe toGodHehasgrantedmetheopportunitytoliveintheshadeoftheQurrsquoanforaperiodoftimeduringwhichIhavetastedHisblessingsasIneverhadearlierinmylifeIhavelistenedtoGodtheexaltedconvers-ingwithmethroughthisQurrsquoanmdashwithmeasmalllittleslaveIhavelivedintheshadeoftheQurrsquoanlookingfromanelevationatthejahiliyya[paganignorance]raginginthelandandthepettycon-cernsof itspeople [Fromthisvantage] Ihave seen thepride thepeopleofthisjahiliyyatakeintheirchildishknowledgetheirchild-ishideastheirchildishpreoccupations[Ihavelookeduponthem]likeanelderlooksuponthefrivolitiesofchildrenupontheireffortsandupontheirlisps(Qutb1967a13)

Theseresoundingwordsserveinteraliatoexplainwhyanewcom-mentaryshouldhavebeenneededatallthemind-numbingimpactofthejahiliyyahasmadepeopleincapableofrespondingtoeventhemostdi-rectofdivinesummonsandonlysomeonewhohaslivedldquointheshadeoftheQurrsquoanrdquocanunderstandtheirplightandremedyitFromtheper-spectiveQutbadoptshereanyappealtothescholarlytraditionanyef-forttoresthisauthorityonitwouldappearaltogetheroutofplaceYetQutbrsquosclaimstoauthoritydonotderiveexclusivelyfromhisconversingwithGodthroughtheQurrsquoanTosomedegreetheyalsodependonhisbeingseenashavingmasteryovertheveryexegeticaltraditionofwhichheisotherwisefrequentlydismissiveQutbcitesasmallnumberofearliercommentators and other authorities when it suits his purpose to do

16

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

so11justashesidestepstheexegeticaltraditionwhendoingsooffersarhetoricallymoreeffectivewayofarrivingataconclusionMoretradi-tionalexegetespastandpresentalsopickandchooseofcourseButtheyhavetypicallydonesowithinanoverallframeworkthatisdefinedbyacontinuousengagementwiththeexegeticaltraditionasawhole(cfSaleh2004)BycontrastQutbandotherIslamistexegeteswriteoutsideandofteninconsciousoppositiontoanysuchframeworkTheconversa-tionisnotwiththeearlierexegetesbutdirectlywithGodthoughthismightonoccasionbeaidedbyillustrationsfromtheearlierexegeticaltradition

If thereareunacknowledgedambiguities inQutbrsquosrelationshipwiththe Islamic traditionaswehaveobserveda frequentlyacerbic stancedoesnonetheless remain characteristicofhowheviews itmostof thetimeQutbisanythingbutuniqueinthisrespectYetifIslamistssharealmostbydefinitionacriticalstancetowardfacetsofthistraditionthereismuchthatalsoseparatesthemfromoneanotherinpreciselyhowthiscritique and its implications are articulated in different instances Al-thoughthemerepresenceofdisagreementamongIslamist intellectualsandactivistsishardlyremarkablethescopeandimplicationsofsomeofthedisagreementsinasmuchastheyrelatetothescholarlytraditionarenonethelessworthexamininghereFortheysuggestthatwhileIslamistsshare the conviction that particular institutions practices and normsneedtoberefashionedinlightofimmutabledivinecommandsthiscon-victionoftenrestsonquitedifferentviewsofIslamichistoryandciviliza-tionofcontemporaryMuslimsocietiesandnotleastofreligiousau-thorityanditslociNowhereperhapsisthismoreevidentthaninsomeofthewritingsofYusufal-QaradawiLikeQutbQaradawiisamongthemostinfluentialIslamistideologuesintheSunniworldHeisalsooneofQutbrsquosseverestcriticsfromwithintheIslamistcamp(seeespeciallyQa-radawi1994101ndash31)

ThatldquoMuslimrdquosocietieslackedaproperIslamicfoundationmadeitfutileQutbhadarguedtodebatespecificquestionsofIslamiclawand

11TheseincludeinteraliaMuhammadibnIshaq(d767)theauthoroftheSirat rasul AllahoneoftheearliestbiographiesoftheProphetMuhammadal-Tabari(d923)theauthorofJamilsquo alshybayan lishytarsquowil ay alshyQurrsquoanoneofthemostinfluentialcommentariesoftheQurrsquoaneverproducedal-Baghawi(d1117)whosecommentaryistitledMalsquoalim alshytanzilal-Qurtubi(d1273)theauthorofaworkalshyJamilsquo lishyahkam alshyQurrsquoanwhichises-peciallyattentivetothelegalcontentoftheQurrsquoanandIbnKathir(d1373)theauthorofaQurrsquoan commentaryTafsir alshyQurrsquoan alshylsquoazimwhichhasbeenpopular amongmanyMuslimsofaSalafiorientationOnoccasionQutbalsocitesinfluentialfellowIslamistsSeeforexampleQutbFi zilal alshyQurrsquoanvol2part4132(Mawdudi)vol2part525(Nadwi)vol2part6143and150ndash53(lsquoAbdal-QadirlsquoAwdaanEgyptianIslamistandlegalscholarexecutedundertheNasserregimein1954)OccasionallyQutbcitesRidarsquosTafsir alshymanaraswell thoughmoreoftenthannot toregisterhisdisagreementswithRidaandwiththelatterrsquosmentorMuhammadlsquoAbduhForadetailedcomparisonbetweenthecommentariesofRidaandQutbseeCarreacute2003

17

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INTRODUCTION

howitdealtwithparticularsocialoreconomicissuesThelsquoulamawerepatheticallydeludediftheythoughtthattheinterestsofIslamcouldbefurtheredthroughdisquisitionsonthesharilsquoainsuchconditionsofper-vasiveungodliness(Qutb1967b183ndash90)WhatpeopleneededbeforeanythingelsewasareturntothebasicsofthefaithThetaskofrighteouspreacherswastoinstructtheminthesemattersandtohelpthemrecog-nizewhatthesovereigntyofGoddemandedofthem(Qutb199135cfQaradawi1994102ndash4)Allothermattersincludingthenicetiesofjuris-ticdiscussionwerebestpostponeduntilaproperlyIslamicsocietybasedonthisfoundationhadbeenrealized

Qaradawi vehemently disagrees with Qutb arguing that educatedMuslimsarenotpagansbutbelieversandassuchdonotneedtobetu-toredinthefundamentalsoftheirfaithWhattheyoftendonotunder-standverywellmdashandhereQaradawiconcurswithotherIslamistsmdashisthenatureofIslamasanizam (socialandpoliticalsystem)TheproblemofMuslimsinotherwordsisnotgodlessnessbutsimplyignorance(whichiswhat the term jahiliyya literallymeans)of the teachingsof Islam intheircomprehensiveall-encompassingdimensionsAsQaradawiseesitmanyldquocaptivesofWesternthoughtrdquohavedoubtsnotabouttheessentialsoftheirfaithbutratheraboutIslamasacomprehensivesystemanditistheirunaddressedmisunderstandingstheirignoranceonthelatterscorethatsometimesopens thedoor todoubtsaboutmattersofbelief itself(Qaradawi1994113ndash14)Tocontinuetoexpoundonthesocialpoliti-calandotherteachingsofIslamwhilethesocietyisyetimperfectisnottoendorseorstrengthenthejahiliorderasQutbhadallegedbutonlytohelpordinarypeopleintheirefforttoleadvirtuouslivesevenininiqui-touscircumstances

ThisviewrepresentsanappealtowhatQaradawihasrepeatedlyre-ferredtoasthemoderatepathoralshymadrasa alshywasatiyya(theldquocentristschoolrdquocfQaradawi2006137ndash217)mdashonethatlocatesitselfonaputa-tivemiddlegroundbetweenacompleterejectionoftheworldincludingMuslimsocietiesanditstotalembraceQaradawiisequallyconcernedwithrescuingIslamichistoryandcivilizationfromoutrightdismissalatthehandsofIslamistslikeQutb12TheideathatjahilinormshadbeguntocreepbackintotheMuslimcommunityshortlyafterthedeathoftheProphetandthattheyhaveremainedunchallengedformuchofIslamrsquoshistoryignoresallthoseQaradawisayswhohavecontinuedtorepre-sentthepathofrighteousnessthroughoutthehistoryofIslamContrarytotheconvictionoftheSunnisthatldquothecommunitywillneveragreeonerrorrdquomdashastheProphetissaidtohavepromisedmdashthenotionofaperva-

12AmongleadingfiguresQaradawisinglesoutforcriticisminthisregardarebesidesQutbMawdudiandtheEgyptianIslamistscholarMuhammadal-Ghazali(d1996)SeeQaradawi2005b46ndash64It isworthnotingthatdespitetheseandotherdisagreementsQaradawihaswrittenrespectfullyofallthreedevotinganentirebooktohislongassocia-tionwithMuhammadal-Ghazali(seeQaradawi1995)

18

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INTRODUCTION

sivejahiliyyasuggestsmoreoverthatthecommunitydidindeedagreeonerror13Mostgrievouslyperhaps Islamist critiques tend to suggestthatthesharilsquoahasalmostneverbeenimplementedinMuslimsocietiesaftertheveryfirstyearsofIslamIronicallysaysQaradawisuchindis-criminaterejectionofIslamichistoryinadvertentlyreinforcessecularist argumentsthatthesharilsquoaisunsuitedtopracticalapplication(Qaradawi2005b46)QaradawirsquoscritiqueofQutbandotherIslamistsisfinallyanargumentforthecontinuingcentralityofthelsquoulamatothetaskofpro-viding authoritative guidance to the communityHisunderstandingofwhoconstitutesthelsquoulamaisfarmoreexpansivethanthatofmostDeo-bandilsquoulamaofSouthAsiaButlikethemheisinnodoubtthatseriousreligiousscholarsasdistinguishedfromamateurishautodidactsarecru-cialtothetaskofprovidingauthoritativereligiousandmoralguidancetothecommunity

AlthoughwehavesoughttoillustratecertainfacetsoftheIslamistcri-tiqueof the scholarly traditionandof theworldas somekey IslamistthinkershavearticulateditwedonotwishtosuggestofcoursethatIslamists are necessarily ldquointellectualsrdquo Whatever Qutb KhomeiniMawdudiandQaradawimightthinkofotherscholarsandintellectualsorofthemselvesinrelationtothemtheformerobviouslyarereligiousintellectualsThesameishardlytrueofmanyotherIslamistsYeteventhosewithlittleornointellectualpretensionsareoftenrecognizableas IslamistsnotonlyfortheircommitmenttothepublicimplementationofIslamicnormsgroundedinthefoundationaltextsbutalsomdashandasacor-ollaryoftheformermdashfortheiroftenself-consciouscritiqueofanddisen-gagementfromthenormsandmorestheyseearoundthemIncontempo-raryLebanonforinstanceShilsquoiIslamistshaveoftenseentheirtext-basedreligiouscommitmentsasmarkingacleardeparturefromearlierandex-isting religious practicesAs anthropologist LaraDeeb (2006 20) ob-servesldquoTheyvieweditasnewanddifferentmdashdifferentfromwhattheyoftenreferredtoenigmaticallyaslsquobeforersquoorlsquohowwewerersquoanddifferentfromwhattheycalledalshytaqalid(traditions)Inlieuofpracticesandbeliefscastastraditionaltheyespoused [an] lsquoauthenticatedrsquoIslamexpressedinpublicpietyrdquo14ManyIslamists living inrefugeecampsinGazahavehadasimilarviewTothemldquoPalestinianshadeitherbe-comelostinforeignideologiesortheyhadbecomelsquoMuslimsbycon-

13Theconvictionthatthecommunityatlargeisdivinelyprotectedfromerrorisanim-portantbasisoftheauthorityofldquoconsensusrdquoasamajorsourceofjuridicalnormsinSunniIslamFormoderndebateson consensus and someof the literatureon this subject seeZaman2006

14Theldquotraditionsrdquohereprimarilyrefer tocustomarynormsanddevotionalpracticesratherthantothecenturies-olddiscursivetraditionfromwhichthelsquoulamabothShilsquoiandSunniderivetheirauthorityIslamistcritiquesareoftendirectedasmuchhoweverattra-ditionsinthesenseofldquoinauthenticrdquoculturallyrootedreligiouspracticesastheyareatthescholarlytraditionofthelsquoulamawhichtothemisequallyinauthenticinhavingobscuredthesimpleandfundamentalteachingsofthefoundationaltexts

19

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

ventionrsquowhowentalongwiththefastorprayednowandthenbecausethiswaslsquocustomandtraditionrsquo(lsquoada wa taqlid)ThislackofconsciouszealousadherencetoIslamhadresultedinsocialweaknessleadingtode-featatthehandsofIsraelrdquo(Lybarger2007211)ThereismuchthatsuchanalysessharewiththewritingsandpronouncementsoftheleadingIs-lamistintellectuals

Islamists and Salafi s

JustasitisnotalwayseasytodifferentiatelsquoulamafromIslamistsorIs-lamists frommodernists it is sometimesdifficult to clearlydistinguishbetweenIslamistsandtheSalafisThelatterderivethisself-designationfromclaimsofstrictadherencetothenormativepracticeofalshysalaf alshysalih(thepiousforbears)usuallyunderstoodastheMuslimsofthefirstgenerations of Islam The guiding Salafi assumption is that these firstMuslims inbeingcontemporariesof theProphetMuhammadandtheimmediatesuccessorsofthosecontemporariesexemplifymostperfectlywhatitmeanstobeavirtuousMuslimandthatlatergenerationscandonobetterthanemulatetheexampleofthesefirstgenerationsSomever-sionofthisviewwouldfindbroadresonanceamongIslamistsbutalsoordinary believers though the Shilsquoa of various doctrinal orientationshavealwayshada farmore restrictiveviewofpreciselywho isworthemulating Again like the Islamists the Salafis insist on deriving theirnormsdirectlyfromtheIslamicfoundationaltextstheQurrsquoanandtheexampleoftheProphetMuhammadunmediatedbythemedievalschoolsoflawThismeansdoingawaywiththesortofhistoricallyarticulatedscholarlytraditionfromwhichthelsquoulamahavetendedtodrawmuchoftheirauthorityTheSalafisdohavetheirownlsquoulamamdashQaradawiisano-tableinstanceasaremembersoftheSaudireligiousestablishmentmdashbuteventheirauthorityisbasedfarmoreondirectlyinterpretingthefounda-tional texts than it is on any systematic engagement with the Islamicscholarlytradition

AllthissoundsagooddealnotjustliketheIslamistsbutalsolikethemodernistsThisshouldnotbesurprisingfortheSalafiorientationisanimportantpartofthegenealogyofbothmodernismandIslamismTheSalafi reformer Muhammad lsquoAbduh though a traditionally educatedscholarwhoservedtowardtheendofhislifeasthegrandmuftiofEgyptwasakeyinfluenceinthedevelopmentofIslamicmodernismButwhilesomeoflsquoAbduhrsquosdisciplesdevelopedhisideasinthedirectionofsecularnationalismothersmdashnotablytheSalafijournalistandQurrsquoancommenta-torRashidRidamdasheventuallytookthemdespitehismodernistproclivi-tiesinadecidedlyconservativedirection(Hourani1983alsocfDallal2000)Hasan al-Banna the founder of the MuslimBrotherhoodwasclose to many Egyptian Salafis Muhibb al-din al-Khatib (d 1969) aleadingSalafiofthetimeandtheowneroftheSalafiPublishingHousein

20

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INTRODUCTION

CairowasinchargeofoneoftheBrotherhoodrsquosfirstjournals(Mitchell1993185)andafterRidarsquosdeathin1935itwasatBannarsquosinitiativethatRidarsquosinfluentialjournalalshyManarwouldcontinuetobepublishedforsomeyears(RMitchell1993186)

ForalltheiraffinitieshoweverSalafiscannotsimplybesubsumedwiththeIslamistsanymorethantheycanwiththemodernistsUnliketheearlySalafisandothermodernists Islamistshavealmost invariablysought toaddressthemselvestoawidepopularaudienceratherthantotheintellec-tualelite(cfRMitchell1993211)TheSalafishavealsobeenfarmorepreoccupiedwithmattersofcorrectbeliefthenuancesofdoctrinethanhaveeither the Islamistsor themodernists (cfHaykel2009 [forthcom-ing])BythesametokenwhilemanyIslamistshavehadasomewhatam-bivalentrelationshipwithSufismSalafishaveusuallybeenunrelentinglyhostile to devotional Sufi practices But if it is useful to distinguish theSalafisfromothercompetingorientationsinmodernIslamitisimportantalsotorecognizethatthereismuchonwhichSalafisthemselveshavedis-agreedsometimessharplyInquestionintheseldquointernalrdquodifferencesisnottheiroverallorientationmdashtowardtheIslamicfoundational textsandthepristinenormsofIslamrsquosfirstgenerationsmdashbutratherthepreciseimplica-tionsofthisorientationforbeliefandconductinthepresentAconsider-ationofsomeofthesedifferencesshouldinturnfurtherillustratehowtheSalafisoughttobedistinguishedfromothercompetingcamps

WheremanySalafisseetheschoolsoflawasobstructingandindeeddistortingthesimplemessageofthefoundationaltextsothersviewthelegaltraditionasrepresentingIslamrsquosrichintellectuallegacyfromwhichMuslimsought todrawboth inspirationandguidanceQaradawi forinstance has been critical not just of the Muslimmodernists but alsooffellowSalafisfortheirirreverencetowardtherichesofthelegaltradi-tiontheiruneducatedproclivitytosetitasidealltoocallouslyOnthisviewarejectionofthetaqlid-boundlsquoulamashouldnotleadtotheotherextrememdashexemplifiedbynotafewSalafismdashofjettisoningthescholarlytraditionaltogether SalafisalsodifferamongthemselvesintheirattitudestowardmodernWesterninstitutionsandpracticesInthelatenineteenthandearlytwen-tieth centuries Salafi reformers like Muhammad lsquoAbduh and RashidRidainEgyptandJamalal-dinal-Qasimi(d1914)inSyriahadcalledforareorientationtowardthefoundationaltextsasawayofjustifyingnotresistingchangesinlawandeducationaswellasotherfacetsofso-cialreform(cfHourani1983Commins1990)OnthisviewadirectrecoursetotheQurrsquoanandthesunnaofferedthebestwayofdemonstrat-ing the accord between their teachings and the reformist project15 In

15SymptomaticofotherdisagreementsamongtheSalafisistheveryquestionofpreciselywhothesalafarewhoseexampleoughttobeemulatedThenarrowerviewslimitthesalaftothefirstthreegenerationsofIslammdashtheageoftheProphetMuhammadandhiscompan-ionstheirsuccessorsandthelatterrsquosimmediatesuccessorsmdashbuteventhesenarrowviews

21

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INTRODUCTION

contemporaryEuropeTariqRamadananinfluentialSwissArabphilos-opherhasarguedthatMuslimslivinginWesternsocietiesoughttofeelathomeinandcontributetoward thosesocietieswhileretainingandcultivatingtheirdistinctIslamicidentityHetooappearstoseehimselfinthegenealogyofwhathecharacterizesasldquoSalafireformismrdquo(onthischaracterization see Ramadan 2004 26ndash27) and he has echoed Qa-radawiinsomeofhisviews(cfRamadan199993ndash99) Other Salafis have remained staunchly opposed to institutions andpracticesofaWesternprovenanceAnespeciallyinfluentialfigureinthegenealogyofthelatterpositionistheeighteenth-centurypuritanicalre-former Muhammad ibn lsquoAbd al-Wahhab (d 1792) whose alliance in1744 with Muhammad ibn Salsquoud contributed to the establishment ofthefirstSaudistateinthelateeighteenthcenturyIbnlsquoAbdal-WahhabwashostilenotonlytoShilsquoismandtoSufidevotionalismbutalsotoany-thinghedeemednottobeinstrictconformitywiththeteachingsofthefoundationaltextsTherewasmuchthatseemedtohimtofailthisstan-dardallofwhichhebrandedasoneoranotherformofunbeliefTheWahhabismdashas the followers of Ibn lsquoAbd al-Wahhab are oftenknownthoughtheyprefertothinkofthemselvessimplyasgoodMuslimsoratbestasSalafismdashoftenadheretothelegalnormsoftheHanbalischooloflawthoughitistheteachingsofthefoundationaltextsirrespectiveofthisoranyotherschooldoctrinethattheyprofesstofollowThemoststringentoftheSaudiSalafisaswellasotherselsewhereareaveryfarcryindeedfromwhatQaradawiwouldcharacterizeasldquocentristrdquoSalafireformersletalonefromtheearlytwentieth-centurySalafimodernists

ThepoliticalviewsoftheWahhabisandmorebroadlyoftheSalafisare likewiseanythingbutuniformInSaudiArabiaWahhabireligiousscholarshavelongaffirmedaquietistpoliticalstancewhichhasmeantleavingmattersofthestatetotherulingfamilyFormuchofthehistoryofmodernSaudiArabiatherulingelitefor itsparthas imposedfewconstraintsontheSaudilsquoulamainmattersofreligiouslifetheregulationofsocialnormsandjudicialadministration(cfVogel2000)Onseveraloccasions however this relationship has come under severe strain In1979agroupofWahhabiswhorejectedthelegitimacyoftheSaudistateyethadtieswithsomeprominentreligiousscholarsmdashincludinglsquoAbdal-

feelconstrainedtomakeroomforsuchreveredfiguresasAhmadibnHanbaltheputativefounderoftheHanbalischooloflawandthefourteenth-centuryDamascenescholarIbnTaymiyya(d1328)OtherviewsarerathermoreexpansivenotjustinchronologicalbutalsoandcruciallyinintellectualtermsThusMuhammadlsquoAbduhthoughtthesalaftoalsoincludesuchtheologiansasal-Ashlsquoari(d935)al-Baqillani(d1013)andal-Maturidi(d944)SeeHourani1983149SuchaviewobviouslyopensthedoorforpreciselythesortoftheologicaldebatesthatotherSalafisaswellasIslamistsoftenfrownuponfortakingthebelieversveryfarfromthesimpleanddirectwordsofGod lsquoAbduhrsquosdiscipleRidaagaintookanarrowerviewofthesalafandlaterinhiscareerbecameastrongdefenderoftheWahhabisCfHourani1983230ndash32

22

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INTRODUCTION

lsquoAzizBinBaz(d1999)laterthegrandmuftiofSaudiArabiamdashtookoverthesacredprecinctsoftheKalsquobainMeccainashort-livedbutextremelyembarrassingchallenge toSaudi royalauthority (cfHegghammerandLacroix2007)In1990KingFahdrsquosdecisiontoinviteAmericantroopstodefendthekingdomagainstthethreatofanIraqiinvasioncreatedwide-spreadresentmentamongSaudis theeffectsofwhichcontinue to thisdayThestationingofnon-MuslimmilitarypersonnelinIslamrsquosholiestlandwasdeemedbythekingrsquoscriticstobescandalousandevensacrile-giousAnumberofprominentSaudiSalafispubliclycriticizedthekingrsquosdecisiononthisoccasioncallinguponhimaswellasonBinBazandoth-ersatthehelmoftheSaudireligiousestablishmenttoreorienttheSaudipolitytowarditstruereligiousfoundationsManyofthesedissidentsmdashwhowerealsojoinedbyldquosecularrdquoSaudicriticsoftheroyalfamilymdashwereandhaveremainedrestrainedintheircriticismevenastheycalledforstricterconformitytoIslamicnormsasthepanaceaforallills(cfFandy1999)OthershoweverhavedenouncedtheroyalfamilyanditsWesternalliesinnouncertaintermsBinLadenisonlythemostnotoriousofthosewhobrokewiththeroyalfamilyinthewakeofKingFahdrsquosdecisiontoinviteWesterntroopsin1990andwhocalledfortheoverthrowoftheroyal familyand for jihadagainstWesternpowers Such strident callshavebeencontinuedbyotherSalafisbothbeforeandaftertheterroristattacksofSeptember112001aswellasintheaftermathoftheUS-ledinvasionofIraq(al-Rasheed2007)

ItshouldbeclearinlightoftheforegoingthatanyunderstandingofthedifferencesbetweenIslamistsandtheSalafismustrestontakingac-countofthediversityamongtheSalafisSalafiswhooftenrejectmuchoftheIslamicscholarlytraditioninfavorofadirectrecoursetothefoun-dationaltextsarenotnecessarilyrenderedldquoIslamistrdquosimplybyvirtueofthisstanceForasnotedmanyoftheseSalafiscontinuetoprofessareso-lutelyquietiststancewhichinthecaseoftheSaudiSalafismeansaf-firmingallegiancetotheSaudiroyalfamilyThispositionisrepresentedforinstancebyBinBaztheerstwhilegrandmuftiaswellasbyotherleading members of the Saudi religious establishment A pro-regimestanceoroneindifferenttopoliticsisnolessldquopoliticalrdquoofcoursethana position of strident hostility to the established order at home andabroadForourpurposeshoweveritisonlywhentheSalafisrejecttheexistingdispensationandbeginstrivingmdashthoughnotnecessarilythroughmilitantmeansmdashforanewreligio-politicalorderthattheycanbesaidtojointheranksoftheIslamists

ItisworthnotingfinallythatSalafipositionsamongSaudisandelse-wherearemarkednotonlybydiversitybutalsobyconsiderablefluidity(al-Rasheed 2007) The same activist or intellectual might at varioustimesmoveamongavarietyofseeminglyincompatiblepositionsmdashap-pearingtobemoreldquomoderaterdquoonsomeissuesthanonothersForallhiscriticismofradicalIslamistsQaradawiforinstancehashimselfwrittenin justificationofsuicidebombingsbyPalestiniansagainst Israelis (see

23

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INTRODUCTION

chapter 9 on Qaradawi) And Saudi Salafis like Safar al-Hawali andSalmanal-lsquoAwdamdashwhocame toprominence in the early1990smdashhavealternatedbetweencriticismoftheSaudipoliciesanddenunciationsofradicalSalaficallstojihadagainsttheSaudiregime(seeal-Rasheed200759ndash101onal-HawalialsoseeReichmuth2006)Theirshiftingviewsreflect changes in their relations with the Saudi regime but they alsopointtothebroadspectrumofpositionswhichSalafishavetakenatdif-ferenttimesindifferentcontextsandbeforedifferentaudiencesThusevenasal-Hawaliandal-lsquoAwdahavecondemnedterroristactsdirectedagainstSaudiArabiaandadvisedSaudisnottofightAmericantroopsinpostndashSaddamHusseinIraqtheyhavecalledupontheIraqisthemselvestoresistAmericantroopsandhavecharacterizedthateffortasaldquodefen-sivejihadrdquo(al-Rasheed200794ndash95)

Sufi s and Islamists

ItseemsmuchsimpleronthefaceofittodistinguishbetweenIslamistsandSufisThecharacteristicSuficonvictionthattherearelevelsofmean-ingintheQurrsquoanthatgobeyondtheliteralandtheobviousandthataselectfewmdashtheldquofriendsofGodrdquomdashareendowedwiththeuniqueabilityto discern them is anathema to all those who insist that God intendsHisteachingstobeequallyintelligibletoallDespitetheirtendencytoviewthemselvesasbearersof true Islam Islamists typicallyregard theSufi idea that somepeoplehaveaprivileged relationshipwithGodassuspectthebasisnotonlyforsanctioninginterpretationsofIslamthatlackwarrantintheplainteachingsofGodandtheProphetbutalsoforpracticallyldquoworshipingrdquothesefriendsofGodIslamists(andmodernists)havefrequentlyalsobeencriticalofthewaySufidevotionalismcanyieldaturningawayfromtheworldratherthananefforttochangeitaswellasapreoccupationwithpersonalspiritualtransformationattheexpenseofconcernsforthewelfareofthecommunityatlarge SufipracticesandtheteachingsoftheSufimastershavevariedenor-mouslythroughoutthehistoryofIslamyetIslamistcritiquesofSufismareseldomattentivetoitsnuancesortothecomplexwaysithasrelatedtootherfacetsofIslamNorhaveIslamiststakenmuchaccountofthefactthatmanyleadingfiguresofearliertimeswerebesidesmuchelseSufisaswellThisistrueevenofIbnTaymiyya(d1328)whoseprestigeinIslamistandSalaficirclesismatchedbyfewothersandwhowasinhisdayamemberoftheQadiriSufiorder(Makdisi1974)EvenifonearguesmdashasanIslamistmightbeinclinedtomdashthatldquogoodrdquoSufismisnoth-ingbutproperIslamitselftheveryfactthatsuchfigureshadaSufiiden-tityatallnecessarilycomplicateswhatissupposedtobethepristinesim-plicityofafaithsharedequallybyallbelievers

Complicatingthingsstillfurtheristhevarietyofwaysinwhichsomeleading Islamists relate to Sufism Ayatollah Khomeini was a lifelongstudentofIslamicmysticismandtheinfluenceofthemedievalSpanish

24

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INTRODUCTION

Sufi Ibn lsquoArabi loomed especially large in his thought To Khomeinimysticismmdashoften referred to as lsquoirfan (gnosis) especially when inter-twinedwithIslamicphilosophyandtheology(Knysh1992632)mdashwascrucialtoaproperunderstandingofGodrsquosrelationshipwiththeworldandwiththehumanbeingItwasalsoessentialforonersquosethicalforma-tionforamasteryovertheselfandultimatelyforrealizinginoneselftheattributesofwhat Ibn lsquoArabihadcalledldquotheperfectmanrdquo (cfKnysh1992 635 also Mottahedeh 1985 180ndash85) Some of the austerity ofKhomeinirsquospersonallifeprobablyalsoderivedfromSufiasceticismAndthoughheanchoredhisconceptionofIslamicgovernmentinanexposi-tionofShilsquoijuridicalthoughtratherthaninIslamicmysticismthesortofreligiousauthorityhecametoenjoyonthebasisofhisreformulationofShilsquoipoliticaltheologyseemstoechomysticalideasoftheperfectmanwho embodies and upholds the moral order as the microcosm of theuniverse

UnlikeKhomeiniQutbwasnotaSufiandhegivesnoindicationofsharinganyofKhomeinirsquosenthusiasmforthegreatSufithinkersofear-liertimesEvensoechoesofamysticrsquosdirectencounterwiththefoun-tainheadoftruthandknowledgearehardtomissinQutbrsquoswritingses-peciallyinhiscommentaryontheQurrsquoan(cfCarreacute200395ndash97)TheveryfirstsentenceofhiscommentarymdashldquolifeintheshadeoftheQurrsquoanisablessingunknowntoanyonewhohasnrsquottasteditrdquomdashevokesthefa-miliarSufiideathatincontrovertibleknowledgeofRealityisultimatelyacquired only through direct personal experience (dhawq that is theldquotasterdquooftheTruth)ThegreatmedievalSufial-Ghazali(d1111)hadauthoredafamousautobiographicalaccountofhowitwasonlythroughthe immediacyofhispersonalmysticalexperience thathewasable toovercomehisdebilitatingepistemologicaldoubtsandreassurehimselfofthenecessarytruths(Watt199857)QutbdoesnotmentionGhazaliinthiscontextbutitisdifficultnottobestruckbythemysticalresonanceofsomeofhislanguageHereisoneexamplewhichoccursinhiscom-mentaryonsura(chapter)53oftheQurrsquoan16

16TheearlyversesinthissuraoftheQurrsquoanhavebeenunderstoodbyMuslimexegetesasreferringtotheProphetrsquosrevelatoryexperienceaswellastohisldquonightjourneyrdquoandhisascensiontoheavenormilsquoraj inthecourseofonenighthewastransportedfirstfromMeccatoJerusalemandthentothepresenceofGodbeforebeingreturnedtoMecca

UnrelatedtothenightjourneybutrelatedtohisrevelatoryexperiencestheexegeticalsignificanceofthisQurrsquoanicsuraalsoliesinitsconnectionwiththeso-calledSatanicVersesAccordingtocertainexegeticalreportsMuhammadwasinthecourseofreceivingarevela-tionwhenSataninterpolatedsomeversesintoitmdashversespraisingthreegoddessesreveredbythepolytheistsofMeccaItwasnotuntilsometimelaterthatMuhammadrealizedhiserrorwhereupontheversesinterpolatedbySatanwereremovedTheepisodeoftheldquoSa-tanicVersesrdquohasbeenacontroversialoneinIslamichistorylongbeforeSalmanRushdiersquosnovelofthatnameandKhomeinirsquosjuridicalruling(fatwa)callingforRushdiersquosdeathMostMuslimscholarshavefoundittooshockingtobelievethattheProphetcouldhavemadesuchagrievouserrorandhavedeniedthatanysuch incidentever tookplaceYetsome

25

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

IwaschattingoneeveningwithsomecompanionswhentoourearscamethesoundofsomeonerecitingtheQurrsquoannearbyrecitingtheSuraoftheStar[al-Najm]andweinterruptedourconversationtolistentotheNobleQurrsquoanLittlebylittlemyheartenteredintowhatwasbeing recited into theheartofMuhammadashe jour-neyedtotheHeavenlyHostIwaswithhimashesawGabrielintheangelicforminwhichGodhadcreatedhimIwaswithhiminhis loftyandfree-flying journey to theLoteTreeof theBoundaryandtheGardenoftheRefugeIwaswithhimtotheextentthatmyimaginationcouldformavisionofitandtotheextentthatmyfeelings couldbear itThen came the final cry andmywholebeingshookatthefearfulreproachldquoDoyoumarvelatthisdiscourseanddoyoulaughandnotweepandmakemerryrdquo[Q5359ndash61]WhenIheardldquoBowdownbeforeGodandserveHimrdquo[Q5362]thetremblinginmyhearthadbecomeaphysicalandvisibletremblingthroughoutmybodythatIcouldnotresistMybodykeptshakingandIcouldnotcontrolitNorcouldIholdbackthetearsthatwerepouringforthhowevermuchItried(QutbZilalvol7part2774ndash75quotedfromCarreacute2003333ndash34withminorchanges)

TheQurrsquoanrsquosprofoundimpactontheaestheticsensibilitiesofitslisten-ersisafamiliarmotifindiscussionsofitsliteraryqualities(cfGrahamandKermani2006)AssomeonewhoseearlywritingswereconcernedwithArabicliterarycriticismandspecificallywiththeliteraryexcellenceoftheIslamicscripture(Qutb1949b)QutbwasespeciallyreceptivetothisaspectoftheQurrsquoanThesenseofbeingtransportedbacktothetimeoftheProphetandtowitnessingtheProphetrsquosascension(milsquoraj)tothepresence of Godmdashwhich is how the passage being commented on byQutbherehascommonlybeeninterpretedbytheexegetesmdashcanlikewisebeseenasanillustrationoftheoverpoweringimpactthewordsoftheQurrsquoancanhaveonthebelieverQutbrsquosaccountofconversingwithGodthrough the Qurrsquoan (cited earlier) is again something he may havewantedtoseeallbelieversdoYetallbelieverscanscarcelydosoany-morethanallaspirantsevenontheSufipathcanexperiencethetransfor-mativemysticalldquostatesrdquothatGodbestowsonHisspecialfriends(awlshyiya)IrrespectiveofwhetherhesawitinquitethiswayQutbrsquosassertionthatheisabletoenterldquointotheheartofMuhammadrdquoandtoseeGabrielasMuhammad sawhimsurelygiveshimaperspective thatothers en-counteringthewordofGoddonothave

ThepointisnotofcoursethatQutbwaseverrecognizedbyhisfol-lowersasaSufimasterbutthatsomeofthehermeneuticalauthorityheclaimshasadistinctiveSufiringtoitMorebroadlythesortofunques-

leadingscholarsofearlyandmedievalIslammdashincludingIbnTaymiyyamdashacceptedthehisto-ricityofthisincidentSeeSAhmed1998

26

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

tioningreligio-politicalauthorityIslamistleadershaveoftenenjoyedovertheirfollowersisnotunlikethatoftheSufimasteroverhisfollowersBe-ginningwithHasanal-BannathefounderoftheMuslimBrotherhoodandoncehimselfamemberofaSufiordertheleaderofthisorganizationis formally referred to as themurshid (guide)ormore specificallyalshymurshid alshylsquoam (thegeneralguide[RMitchell1993165])whichisafamiliartermforthemasterinSuficontextsForhispartAbdessalamYassine the founder and leader of lsquoAdl warsquol-Ihsan Party of Morocco(oftenreferredtoastheJusticeandSpiritualityAssociationorJSA)haslike Khomeini gone well beyond simply echoing Sufi conceptions ofauthorityinhisowndiscoursesHetoowasonceamemberofaMoroc-canSufiorderandhehascontinuedtodrawonSufithemesinhiswrit-ingsTheverynameofYassinersquospoliticalorganizationevokesacentralSufiideanamelyihsanThisisaQurrsquoanicterm(cfQ756)thattrans-latedliterallymeansldquotodogoodrdquothoughSufishaveunderstoodittomeanmuchmore thanthatFollowingawell-knownstatementattrib-uted to theProphetMuhammad theyhaveoften interpreted ihsan tomeangoingbeyondtheexternalsofIslamicritualpracticestoldquoworshipGodasifyouseeHimrdquo(Schimmel197529)thatiscultivatingasenseof personal communion and intimacy with God Even as Yassine hassoughttodistancehimselffromwhathedeemstobetheexcessesofSu-fismthereislittledoubtthathispoliticalappealowesmuchtocarefullycalibratedeffortstocombinedistinctiveSufiideaswithhisownbrandofIslamism(cfLauziegravere2005seealsochapter12onNadiaYassineinthisvolume)

FinallyMawdudirsquosJamalsquoat-iIslamimdashoneoftheearliestIslamistorga-nizations in the Sunni worldmdashillustrates both the Islamistsrsquo complexrelationshipwith Sufismand their pragmatic recognitionof its appealinmanyMuslimsocietiesMawdudihadoncebeenaharshcriticofSu-fismblamingitformanyillsafflictingMuslimsocietiesYettheJama-lsquoat-iIslamigraduallycametosoftenitsstanceonSufipracticesconsider-ablynodoubtintheinterestofbroadeningsomeofitssupportbaseinPakistanwheresaintsandSufishrinesareanimportantpartofthereli-giousandpoliticallandscapeAlreadyinMawdudirsquoslifetimeMianTufaylMuhammadhissuccessorastheheadoftheJamalsquoat-iIslamihadtakentheextraordinaryinitiativeoftranslatinganearlySuficlassictheKashf alshymahjub into Urdu The author of this work Shaykh lsquoAli Hujwiri(d1072)isburiedinLahoreinPakistanandhismuch-frequentedshrineishometoprecisely thesortofdevotionalpractices that Islamistsandmodernist reformers letaloneSalafishaveoften frownedupon (Nasr1996124)

ThesediverseexamplesarenotintendedtoobscuretherealdifferencesbetweenthegeneralityofIslamistsandmostSufisTheirsignificanceliesratherinillustratingthedifficultyofdistinguishingbetweenIslamismandotherreligiousintellectualandpoliticaltrendsintermsofneatcharac-

27

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

terizationsofgrandtranslocalgeneralizationsAstheforegoingsuggeststhesameistrueandmoresowhenitcomestocharacterizingIslamistsinrelationtothelsquoulamatheMuslimmodernistsandtheSalafisIndeedasLorenLybargerhasarguedwithreferencetothoseusuallycharacter-izedasldquosecularnationalistrdquoorldquoIslamistrdquoPalestiniansintheWestBankandGazadifferenceswithintheranksofyoungsecularnationalistsandIslamistscansometimesalsoshadeintosignificantsimilaritiesbetweenthesesupposedlyrivalorientations(Lybarger2007)ManyIslamistshavesoughttodistancethemselvesfromwhattheyseeastherigidityandau-thoritarianismofotherIslamistsandtoarguenotjustfortheimplemen-tationofthesharilsquoabutalsofordemocracyandpluralismConverselynot a few of the younger secular nationalists have ldquoadopted IslamisttheodiciesthatexplainedthefailuretoovercomeIsraelastheresultoffallingawayfrompietytheirconclusionsmirroredIslamistonestootheroadbackfromthebrinkhadtotraceitscoursethrougharenewedcom-mitmenttoIslambutnotnecessarilyinthemannerthattheIslamistmove-mentsmighthaveintendedrdquo(Lybarger2007237ndash38quotationat238)

Yet ifneatcategoriesremainelusiveacombinationoftheIslamistsrsquoself-consciouslypoliticalgoalstheirmultifacetedifnotalwaysexplicitpoliticalcritiquesofmanypastandpresentwaysofunderstandingandlivingIslamandanunshakeableconfidenceintheirownabilitytodis-cern Godrsquos will from the foundational texts do often provide enoughgrounds tobroadlydistinguish themfromotheractivists intellectualsand orientations in the Muslim public sphere What this combinationamountstovariesfromonesocialpoliticalreligiousandculturalcon-texttoanotherandsothereforedothewaysinwhichIslamistsrelatetooneanotherorcompeteandoverlapwithothergroupsandorientations

The Politics of Islamism

FromAeneasrsquosmythicalfoundingofRometothedeathandresurrectionofJesusChristtoMuhammadrsquosmigrationtoMedinafoundationalnar-rativesareascommontocollectivelifeasthemovementsthatperiodi-callyarisetorevivethemandclaimantstothemantleoflegitimacytheyconferSounderstoodIslamistsrsquopoliticalaspirationstorestorefounda-tionslocatedinamythicalpastarefarfromuniqueNorareIslamistsaloneintheirconvictionthatscripturalauthorityisguaranteedbyitsdi-vineauthormdashforinthatallMuslimsagreeRatherthechaptersinthisvolumesuggest thatwhatmakes Islamistpoliticsdistinctive (ifnotsui generis)istheclaimtorecuperateanldquoauthenticIslamrdquocomprisedofself-evidenttruthspurgedofalienandcorruptinginfluencesalongwithaninsistenceonremakingthefoundationsofthestateinitsimageGiventhelimitsofhumanunderstandingrelativetoGodrsquosknowledgeIslamistssimultaneouslydepictsuchfidelitytotheunadulteratedwordofAllahas

28

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

theultimateexpressionofdeferencetodivineomniscienceandportrayhumilityasaconstitutivefeatureofthehumanconditionAspirationstofullyknowandmasterthenaturalandsocialworldsthusentailnotonlyahumanhubrisdeaftotheQurrsquoanicadmonitionthatldquoAllahknowsbutandyoudonotknowrdquo(Q366)butalsoatransgressionagainstadi-vinely-ordainedontologicalorder

ItisnotablehoweverthattheIslamistemphasisonthelimitsofhumanknowledgerequireshumilityonlyinrelationtoAllahitrarelyyieldshu-milityinregardtotheirownclaimstospeakinHisnameortowardotherhumanbeingswhodissentfromthepremiseofdivineomnipotenceandIslamistaccountsofwhat it requiresThis suggests thatwhile IslamistchallengestostatepowerareobviouslypoliticaltheIslamistclaimtoau-thenticityisalsopolitical inthecoercivepoweritroutinelyenactsandjustifiesmostnotablybywayofthesilencesitimposesandthedebatesitforeclosesAzizal-Azmehpointsoutthatldquothenotionofauthenticityisnotsomuchadeterminateconceptasitisanodeofassociationsandin-terpellationsatropebymeansofwhichthehistoricalworldisreducedtoaparticularorderandatokenwhichmarksoffsocialandpoliticalgroupsandforgesandreconstituteshistoricalidentitiesrdquo(al-Azmeh199341)WhetherintheserviceofArabnationalismChristianfundamental-ismEuropeanromanticismorMuslimmodernismtheclaimofauthen-ticityisanactofpowerthatfunctionsnotjusttoreflecttheworldbuttoconstructitbydeterminingwhoisincludedandexcludedwhomayandmaynotspeakauthoritativelywhatistheproperrealmofdebateandwhatisbeyondcontestation

ItiscertainlythecasethatasingleldquoIslamrdquocapturesandorganizestheperspectivesofmillionswhoself-identifyasMuslim(amongotherthings)yetwhattravelsunderitsrubricisinescapablydiversemultiethnicanddefined asmuchbydisagreement as consensus Just as theTorah andBible lend themselves toat times radicallydivergent interpretationsofwhatitmeanstobeJewishorChristiantheQurrsquoanandhaditharecom-plexandsusceptibletomanydifferentandattimescontradictoryenact-mentsSounderstoodIslamislessafixedessencethanalivingtraditionthatcaptureswhatisimaginedascontinuousandunitaryindialecticalrelationshiptothoseconcretearticulationsandpracticesbywhichitistransformedandadaptedindifferentcontextsforpluralpurposesItispreciselythisunderstandingofreligionthatisanathematoIslamistswhoseek tofix theparametersof Islamicauthenticityonceandforallandtherebyarrogateforthemselvestherighttodeterminewhoqualifiesasagood Muslim to discredit those lsquoulama unable or unwilling to purgeIslamofpurportedimpietiestodeclarenominallyMuslimrulersapos-tatesunfittogovernandtocharacterizeallwhodisagreeascorrupthe-reticalguiltyofunbelieforvictimsoffalseconsciousness

Thesegeneralpoliticaltendencieshowevermustbecarefullysituatedwithinadialecticoftheglobalandthevernacularunderstoodtoreflect

29

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INTRODUCTION

thewaysinwhichunifyingmacrohistoricaldynamicsinformandareinturntransformedbydiversecontingentandfluidlocalcircumstancesInaworldstampedbyWesterndominanceandtheconsolidationofpostco-lonial authoritarian regimes Islamists confront a common set of con-straintsandchallengesInasmuchassuchconstraintsandchallengeshavemade Islamist thinkers (often reluctant) participants in conversationsacrossbothcultureandhistorytheireffortstoremakethefoundationsofcollectiveliferevealasharedinterpretiveframeworkandcommonreli-gio-political grammar At the same time this frame and grammar arecontinuallybeingreworkedinrelationtothedistinctpublicspheresinwhichIslamistsoperateandtowhichtheycarefullycalibratetheirpoliti-calcommitments

Attention to this complex dynamic suggests that the Islamist move-mentcannotsimplybecharacterizedasviolentantidemocraticandop-pressiveofwomenlabelsinvokedsofrequentlyinscholarlyandpopularliterature on the subject that they have become virtually synonymouswithIslamistpoliticsSuchcharacterizationsdocapturecrucialdimen-sionsofIslamistpoliticsyettheyalsosidesteptheparadoxesitsvarie-gatedandoftencontradictoryexpressionspresentInsteadwearguethatIslamistpoliticscanbeproductivelyreadin terms ofandagainst the grain ofsuchbroadcategorizationsasantidemocraticantiwomanorviolentmdashthat is as commitments that at different moments in various localesbothencourageandconstrainbroad-basedpoliticalparticipationdisruptandratifyhierarchicalgendernormsresistandreproducestate-sanctionedbrutalityThepointofreadingIslamistpoliticsinthiswayisnottosug-gestthatIslamistsaresecretlydemocraticfeministandopposedtovio-lenceRatherthepointistodrawattentiontothecomplexityandcon-tradictionserasedbyeasygeneralizationsontheonehandandtheoftenunacknowledgedfluidityandculturaladaptabilityofotherwisefamiliarpoliticalcategoriesontheother

Islamism and Democracy

DespiteimportantdifferencesamongIslamistthinkerstheyhaveincom-monatendencytoviewhumansovereigntyastransgressiveofdivinelawandsharetheaspirationtoestablishsharilsquoaastheprimaryorsolesourceofauthorityAsisoftennotedsuchpremisesandaspirationsrunafoulofassumptionsaboutpopularruleattheheartofdemocracynamelythathumanbeingshavetherighttolegislaterulesforcollectivebehaviorandarecapableofthewisdomrequiredtodevisejustlawsInrecentyearspolicymakersandcommentatorshaveevincedaparticularpreoccupa-tionwiththewaysinwhichIslamistnotionsofdivineauthoritythrottlethespiritandpracticeofpopularsovereigntySomehaveevengonesofarastocharacterizeIslamistsasldquoIslamo-fascistsrdquoanimatedbyhatredoftheldquodemocratic Westrdquo psychologically unable to contend with the fluidity

30

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

andindeterminacythatmarkpopularruleandeagertoconvertelectionsintoaldquoone-manone-voteone-timerdquomechanismforestablishinganIs-lamicstate(Murdock2002MRubin2005Kramer1993)

SuchviewsareechoedbythoseIslamistskeentoportraydemocracynotonlyasantitheticaltothesupremacyofdivinelawbutasaTrojanhorseforWesternimperialismFormanyIslamistsincludingseveralinthis volumedemocracy is justone symptomofametastasizingmoralandspiritualbankruptcywherebymoraltransgressionsaretransfiguredintonaturalurgescrassself-interestbecomesthebedrockofcollectivelifeandthedivineplanfortheuniverseandallthingsinitisreducedtoa system of physical causality just waiting to be mastered by way ofhumaningenuity(REuben2007)Qutbcallsthisdiseasedviewoftheworldjahiliyyaanditsignalsnotonlyhumanarrogancebutatransgres-sionagainstdivineauthoritythescopeofwhichencompassesbothpub-licandprivatedomainsofhumanaffairsaswellasbothvisibleandun-seendimensionsoftheuniverseFormanyIslamistssuchtransgressionisattherootofmuchofwhatpassesforMuslimruleinthecontemporaryworldmdashnationalistdemocraticandmonarchicalalikeSucharroganceisalsosaidtobethepatternunderlyingalonghistoryofunrelievedWest-ernaggressionagainstIslaminwhichtheChristianCrusadesEuropeancolonialismIsraelitreatmentofPalestiniansethniccleansinginBosniaGermananti-TurkishviolencetheAmericaninvasionofIraqandDutchcartoonsofMuhammadarebutafewexamples

YetthereisarangeofviewsamongIslamistsaboutboththesubstanceofdemocracyanditscompatibilitywiththereligio-politicalrenewaltheyadvocateAccordingtoQaradawiforexampleldquotheessenceofdemoc-racyisthatpeoplechoosewhorulesoverthemandmanagestheiraf-fairsthatnorulerorregimetheydislikeisforceduponthemthattheyhavetherighttocalltherulertoaccountifheerrsandtoremovehimfromofficeincaseofmisconductandthatpeoplearenotforcedineco-nomicsocialculturalorpoliticaldirectionsthattheyneitherrecognizenor acceptrdquo (Qaradawi1997132 also chapter9 in this volume)TohimthereisnoheavierburdenoppressingMuslimsinthecontemporaryworld thandespotism indeed it is throughdespoticgovernments thatMuslimshavebeenforcedtosubmittootherillsincludingtheneglectofthesharilsquoaandthecoerciveimpositionofsecularismandwesternizationDemocracy then recommends itself to Qaradawi as the most effectiveavailableantidotetodespotismandtheafflictionsofwhichitservesasavehicle

WheremanyamongtheIslamistsandthelsquoulamahaveseenconsider-able tensionbetween IslamanddemocracyQaradawiprofesses to seenoneAswesuggestedearlierbyfarthemostcommonoftheIslamistreservationsaboutademocraticsystemrelatestothesovereigntyofthepeoplewhichistakentocontravenetheideathatGodaloneissovereignQaradawi however is unperturbedby such concernsThe rule of the

31

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

peopleoughttobeseenhearguesnotinoppositiontotheruleofGodbutratherinoppositiontotheruleofthedespotMorefundamentallyQaradawirsquos view of democracy does not necessarily require that thepeopleshouldbeabletooverturndivinelyinstitutednormsRatherhisassumptionisthatpeopleexercisetheirsovereigntywithinconstitutionalboundsandMuslimslivinginapredominantlyMuslimdemocraticpol-itywouldlikewisenotwishtotransgresstheparametersoflegitimatehumanactionlaiddownintheIslamicfoundationaltexts(seeQaradawichapter9inthisvolumeandcfFeldman2007)

NadiaYassineofMoroccorsquosJusticeandSpiritualityAssociationisan-othercaseinpointWhilecriticalofthedemocraticgesturesembracedbyamonarchythatshedepictsasallergictogenuinelypopularsovereigntyYassineinsiststhatthemodelofMuslimruleadumbratedintheummafoundedbytheProphetMuhammadandinparticulartheConstitutionofMedina17isnothingshortofdemocratic(NYassine2005d2005e)UnliketheMuslimdynastiesthatarosetousurpitYassinecontendsthiscommunity was participatory egalitarian committed to freedom andexpressiveofGodrsquosmercyMostimportantitwasgovernedalwaysbytheQurrsquoanicprincipleofshura (consultation)bywhichYassinemeansaphilosophy of power that places sovereignty in the community ratherthaninanyindividuallinksvirtuetodeliberationratherthanobedienceandexhortsbelieverstocontinuallyadaptQurrsquoanicprinciplesthroughijtihad rather than adhere reflexively to precedent (N Yassine 2006a182ndash862005d)ManyscholarsandjournalistsremainskepticaloftheJSArsquosasyetuntestedcommitment toproceduraldemocracyandworrythatNadiaandher fatherAbdessalamultimatelyseektoestablishanIslamic state inhospitable to tolerance pluralism and civil liberties(Maghraoui2001Brandon2007Whitlock2006)YetothersarguethattheJSAisagenuinelypopulistorganizationthatrepresentstheunrepre-sentedtendstothewelfareofthedispossessedandbothexpressesandcontributestoanincreasinglyvibrantcivilsocietyinMorocco(Cavatorta2006Entelis2002)

QaradawirsquosandYassinersquosargumentstogethersuggestthatdemocracycanandhasservedaseitheracosmeticcoverfordespotismoranauthen-ticallyIslamiccheckuponcorruptandarbitraryruleAtissueinIslamistargumentsforandagainstdemocracythenarenotonlywhatcountsasldquoauthenticIslamrdquoandtheintentionsofthosewhoclaimtoknowitbutalsothecontentandcharacterofdemocracyitselfParadoxicallybothIslamistsopposedtodemocracyandthosewhotakeIslamismasinher-entlyantidemocraticregardthisasasimplematterwithanobviousan-swerdemocracyisanexpressionofandevensynonymouswithliberal-ismcapitalismandtheWestYetdemocracyisbothmorecapaciousand

17TheConstitutionofMedinawasanagreementtheProphethadenteredintowiththelocalcommunitiesincludingJewishtribesuponhisemigrationfromMeccatoMedina

32

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

moredistinctthanthispresumptionsuggestsTheworditselfofcoursederivesfromtheancientGreekdemokratiawhichmeansrule(kratos)ofthepeople(demos)andmanyderivetheequationofdemocracyandtheWestfromthisassociationwithclassicalGreeceYetancientGreekphi-losopherssuchasPlatosawindemocracythespecterofmobrulepartic-ularly vulnerable to demagoguery and despotism (a suspicion notablyechoedbyAmerican founder JamesMadison)Contrary to thedemo-cratic idealof inclusivenessmoreover citizenship inGreekdemocracyexcludedasubstantialpartofthepopulationincludingwomenslavesandforeignersFinallytheextenttowhichtheancientGreeksmayevenbecalledWesternisamatterofgreatdisputeparticularlyastheldquoWestrdquoisacategoryofrelativelyrecentprovenancethroughwhichhistoryandgeographyhavebeenretroactivelyorganized18DespitedepictionsoftheHellenicworldasWesternancientGreeksdidnotinfactviewthem-selvesintheseterms19

TheequationofdemocracywiththeWestalsopresupposestheexis-tenceofacoherentldquoWesterncivilizationrdquowitheitherculturallyhomoge-neousrootsorclearlydelineatedhistoricalandcontemporarybounda-riesorbothYetwhatiscalledtheWestisanamalgamationofmultipletraditionsincludingtheGreekRomanJudaicChristianandIslamicmdashtraditionsthatarethemselvespolyvalentratherthanhomogeneousmdashandistodaycharacterizedbyporousbordershybridsubculturesandmyriaddebtstodiversecivilizationspastandpresent20AsageographicmarkeritisvirtuallyimpossibletopinpointexactlywheretheWestbeginsandendsandthisisespeciallysonowthatpeoplesinformationandmate-rial goods crisscross cultural andnational borders atwill creating allkindsoftransnationalsubnationalandmultipleidentitiesthatshiftandreconstitutethemselvesinunpredictablewaysEventhosevaluesidenti-fiedasWesternoftenappearelsewhereinotherguisesIndeedscholarssuggestthatavarietyoftheldquostandardsexportedbytheWestanditscul-turalindustriesthemselvesturnouttobeofculturallymixedcharacterifweexaminetheirculturallineagesrdquo(Pieterse199553)

Manyalsoarguethatdemocracyisnotonlydistinctfrombutinten-sionwithboththetheoryandpracticeofpoliticsinldquoWesternrdquosocieties

18MichaelGillespie(19997ndash10)arguesthattherereadingofhistorygeographyandculturethroughtheprismofthissenseofldquotheWestrdquobegannoearlierthanthenineteenthcenturyTheideaofatimelessandbrightlinebetweenWestandEastisalsochallengedbyJeremyBrottonrsquosstudy(19989096ndash97)ofthediplomaticandintellectualexchangesbe-tweenEuropeandtheOttomanEmpireintheearlymodernperiodBrottonshowsnotonlytheextentandamityofsuchexchangesbutapersistentuncertaintyaboutwherepreciselyEuropeldquoendedrdquoandAsialdquobeganrdquo

19AncientGreeksunderstoodthemselvesasgeographicallywestofthebarbariansbutnotWesterninthecontemporarysensethatisasbothaculturalandhistoricalcategory

20StevenRuncimanrsquoswork(19543480)ontheCrusadesforexampledemonstratesaldquolongsequenceofinteractionandfusionbetweenOrientandOccidentoutofwhichourcivilizationhasgrownrdquo

33

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

many of which are more accurately classified as liberal and capitalist(Wood1994Wolin2001BallandDagger1999)Whileitisnowcom-monplacetospeakofldquoliberaldemocracyrdquoinasinglebreathliberalismanddemocracyareconceptsandpracticeswithverydifferenthistoriesandpresuppositionsUnlikedemocracyforexampleliberalismemergedfromthecrucibleofChristianreligiouswarsandintandemwiththeas-cendanceofamiddleclassthatpresagedtheendofEuropeanfeudalismTheliberalnation-statecanthusbeviewedasbothanexpressionandaconsolidationofcapitalismontheonehandandtheprincipleofasepa-rationbetweenchurchandstateontheotherBycontrastthereisnoth-ingaboutdemocracyeitherasasystemofgovernanceoracultureofpar-ticipationthatisinherentlysecularIndeedAlexisdeTocquevillefamouslyinsistedthatAmericandemocracycannotandshouldnotbesecularasreligionhelpsshiftattentionawayfromimmediatematerialpreoccupa-tionstolargerconcernsofcommunitycooperationandmoralityInfactmanydemocratictheoristsarguethatgenuinelyinclusivepopularsover-eignty is antithetical to the sharp inequalities of wealth and politicalpowerthatcapitalismoftenproducesandlegitimates

SuchongoingdefinitionalandsubstantivedebatessuggestthatthereismuchmoreatstakeindemocraticpoliticsthanprocedurespertainingtogovernmentauthorityandorderandpointtoawidespreadifelusiveunderstandingofdemocracynotjustasasetofinstitutionsbutasTocque-villesuggestsawayoflifeSeveralpoliticaltheoristshavecharacterizedthiselusiveunderstandingintermsofaldquodemocraticethosrdquoBythistheymeanbothanidealandanargumentforacultureofparticipationactivepowersharingmutualaccountabilityinclusivenessanddeliberationinwhichcitizensmayroutinelyandsafelychallengenotonlyspecificpoli-ciesandpolitical institutionsbutalso thevalues thatgoverncollectivelifeprinciplesofinclusionandexclusionandthepremisesofauthorityitself(Connolly1995JPEuben2003Sadiki2004)AdemocraticethosismuchmoredifficulttomeasureorquantifythanforexampleSamuelHuntingtonrsquosparsimoniousdefinitionofdemocracyasapolityinwhichtherehavebeentwoconsecutivepeacefulchangesofgovernmentbywayof freeand fairelections (Huntington1991)21Yetademocraticethosmakesitpossibletobothrecognizeanddisaggregatethepreconditionsaspirations mechanisms and institutions bundled into ldquodemocracyrdquotherebybringingintofocusforexamplethefrequentlyantidemocratic

21Manypoliticalscientistsprefertodefinedemocracyintermsofproceduresdesignedtorealizepopularruleincludingfreecompetitiveandfairelectionsalongwithstateprotec-tionofcertainrightsandlibertiesSuchaformalminimalistdefinitionhastheadvantageofdetachingdemocracyfromquestionsoforiginsandofferingastandardtowhichallgov-ernmentsmaybeheldregardlessofcultureandplaceAsKeithTopper(2005205ndash7)ar-gueshoweveritalsotendstosidestepknottyquestionsaboutthesubstanceofrepresenta-tion power responsiveness and accountability that are arguably central to democraticpolitics

34

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

casttoelectionsimposedbyelitesorforeignpowersthefeltimpotenceofmanycitizensinestablisheddemocraciesandthosehighlyparticipa-torycivilsocietiesthatflourishevenundermonarchicortheocraticrule

Forourpurposes inparticularademocraticethosmakesvisible theparadoxofanIslamistmovementthatseekstomobilizeordinaryMus-limsagainstcoercivepowerbutinthenameofareligio-politicalorderlargelyimmunizedfromchallengeQutbisanaptillustrationhereashistendencytogroundhisownspecialauthorityandinsightintheunsulliedwisdomofordinarybelieversmakesitpossibletoreadhisworkaseitherabriefagainstdemocracy(amongotherthings)oranenactmentofitIn-asmuchasdemocracyasaformofgovernanceisidentifiedwithpopularsovereigntyQutbrsquosbasicpremisethat thefoundationof legitimateau-thoritymustbedivineratherthanhumansuggeststhatheisunambigu-ouslyantidemocraticMoreoverQutbrsquoseffortstopluralizereligiousandpolitical authority express not a confidence in common wisdom butratheradesiretoclaimforhimselfthestatureofareligiousexpertwhodespitehislackofIslamicacademiccredentialscanclearlyseewhatoth-erscannotQutbcharacterizestherealIslamasself-evidentbuthealsoassumesthatonlyasmallvanguardofbelieversbesideshimselfwillhavetheabilitytorecognizeitandactdecisivelytoremaketheworldinitsimageSounderstoodthesignofldquochosennessrdquoisunyieldingcommitmenttoestablishingareligio-politicalorderthatsimultaneouslypresumesthesupremacyofthefewcapableoftrueknowledgeandpromisesaworldinwhichdissentitselfwillbecomebothunnecessaryandillegitimate

Yetifdemocracyrefersnotonlytoasystemofgovernanceorsetofprocedurestorealizepopularsovereigntybutalsotopracticesthatdis-ruptthoseforceswhichconcentratepowerandestablishpoliticalexclu-sionthecharacterizationofQutbrsquosworkassimplyantidemocraticmissesa crucial dimensionof its significance and appealAs the sacred textscontaintherulesandregulationsmeanttogovernbothpublicandpri-vateaffairsQutbrsquosinsistencethatordinaryuntrainedMuslimsmusten-gagethemdirectlyisinmanywaysademocratizationofaccesstoau-thoritySuchaccesscandisruptdeeplyentrenchedpatternsofpowerandpowerlessness particularlywhen conjoined to Islamist arguments thatarbitrarypowerisun-Islamicthatreligiousknowledgedependsoncom-mitmentratherthantrainingorexpertise thatMuslimshavetherightandobligationtodeterminewhenrulersareillegitimateandthatthosewhopreferordertojusticesecuritytofreedomandmoneytopietyhaveforfeitedanyclaimtoauthority

ThisaspectofIslamismhasfrequentlybeencomparedtotheProtestantReformationandmorespecificallytoCalvinistsrsquoattemptstotransferldquore-ligiousauthorityawayfromofficiallysanctionedindividualswhointer-prettextstoordinarycitizensrdquo(EGoldberg19913alsocfLoimeier2005)Suchaparallelhassparkedagreatdealofscholarlyspeculation

35

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

regardingapossibleldquoIslamicReformationrdquo22andarangeofargumentsaboutwhetherandhowIslamismmightfacilitatethedemocratizationofMuslim societies much as the Protestant Reformation is said to haveheralded the emergence of European ldquoliberal democracyrdquo While suchcomparisonsareevocativeafullerunderstandingof IslamismrequiresfirstsituatingitinrelationtoahistoricalshiftinthenatureandlocusofreligiousauthorityinIslambeginninginthenineteenthcenturyAsschol-arsofMuslimsocietieshavepointedouttheimpactofmasseducationnewtechnologiesfordisseminatingknowledgeandinformationanddra-matically changed social economic and political contexts have madeavailabletoamateurswhathadpreviouslybeenthepurviewofreligiousexpertsAtthesametimeithasinauguratedafragmentationofauthor-itywithintheveryranksofthelsquoulamathatcontinuestothepresentday23

InthiscontexttheascendanceandinfluenceofautodidactssuchasQutbHasanal-BannalsquoAbdal-SalamFarajandBinLadensimultaneouslyex-pressandaccelerateanongoingrenegotiationofauthorityoverwhomayspeakforIslamandonwhatbasisthepathofwhichisstillunfoldingandtheoutcomeasyetuncertain

Islamism and Gender

One already apparent consequence of this ongoing renegotiation overwhomayspeakforIslamandonwhatbasisistheentryofwomenintothe interpretive fray This development is increasingly unsettling thoseunwrittengendernormsarguablyattheveryheartofIslamistthoughtdisruptingthestandardsofmasculinityandfemininitythatreflecthowparticularculturesorganizehumanbeingsrsquosocialandreproductiveactiv-itiesintorolesthatareinturnthoughttoexpresstheldquonaturerdquoofmenand women Such norms are frequently considered tangential to theknottyproblemsofdefiningIslamismandadumbratingitscentralideasyetarangeofscholarshiponculturespastandpresenthasshownthatgenderisconsistentlytheterrainoverwhichbattlesforpoliticalcontrolandculturalidentityarefoughtMorespecificallyresearchindisciplinessuchasanthropologyhistoryclassicsandpostcolonialstudieshasdem-onstratedthatculturesinwhichfemalebodiesandbehaviorareregardedas indicesofmoralpurity tend to symbolically transformwomen intoconduitsof cultural corruption in timesof internal crisis and externalthreat(Papenek1994Chatterjee1990Tavakoli-Targhi1991Just1989Cohen1991Welter1966Bloch1978)Thisisespeciallytrueofcontem-

22Foralatenineteenth-centuryassessmentoftheprospectsforaldquoMuhammadanRefor-mationrdquoseeBlunt1882132ndash73

23EickelmanandPiscatori199637ndash39131ndash35Zaman2006Suchfragmentationhasinmanywaysbeenacceleratedbytheexplosionofdigitalcultureswhichpromoteamongotherthingsaldquoformofempoweredamateurismrdquo(Mirzoeff20026)

36

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

poraryreligio-politicalmovementswhosememberstendtoldquoidealizepa-triarchalstructuresofauthorityandmoralityrdquoendorsegenderdualismasgod-givenornaturalandcondemnvigorouslyrecentchangesingen-derrelationsasasymptomandsymbolofsecularistmoralbankruptcy(Riesebrodt1993Moghadam1992Hawley1994)

SeveralchaptersinthisvolumeilluminateIslamistgendernormsbyre-vealing thecharacterandcontentof Islamistconcernsabout theplaceandpurityofMuslimwomenmdashpreoccupationsFatimaMernissi(199199)hasgonesofarastocharacterizeasanobsessionDespiteimportantdifferences among Islamists thinkers many endorse gender norms inwhichthefairlyconventionalinsistencethatfemalenatureisdefinedinand through reproduction undergirds an understanding of women assymbolsofmoralvirtueandvesselsofculturalpurityThisviewsustainstheclaimthatmenandwomenareequalinreligiousbeliefbutperformfundamentallydifferentandcomplementaryfunctionsinsocietyWhilemenarenaturallymadetoruleinboththepublicandprivatedomainawomanbelongsinthedomesticrealmwhereherprimaryroleistobeawifeandmotheraswellastoinsuretheintegrityofthefamilythefirstschoolofmoraleducationAssuchfunctionsarerootedinaninescap-ablehumannaturefashionedbyGodawomanrsquosinabilityorunwilling-nesstoperformherdutiessignalsadisobediencetothedivinewillandpresages the corruption of the Muslim family from within From thisvantagepointtheWesterninsistenceonfullequalitybetweenthesexesisdoubly pernicious it at once liberates women from basic moral con-straintsandenslavesthemtomutuallyreinforcingsexualandcapitalistexploitationAsMurtazaMutahhari(1998xxxi)arguescapitalismmakesuseofwomentomarket itsgoodsldquoby trading inhonourandrespectthrough[their]powertoenticerdquotherebyldquotransform[ing]manintoaninvoluntaryagentofconsumptionrdquoInasmuchaswomenareresponsiblefor producing the next generation of Muslim men destined to restoreIslamtoitsformergloryitisnotonlythevirtueofwomenortheinteg-rityofthefamilythathangsinthebalancebutthefutureofIslamiccivili-zationitself

Zaynab al-Ghazali andMutahharimake several of these argumentsexplicitlyandindetail(seechapters10and11)butinmuchofIslamistrhetoricthenatureandsignificanceofwomenareestablishedindirectlyandsymbolicallyandthroughthreerecurrentimagesinparticularThefirstisofwomenassilentsymbolsofculturalmoralandsexualvulnera-bilityvoicelessfiguresinneedofmasculineprotectionorwhenitistoolatedefiledbodiesthatmutelydemandvengeanceSoforexamplelsquoAb-dallahlsquoAzzam(oneofBinLadenrsquosmentorsseechapter18)graphicallydetailstheagonizinghumiliationofyoungmenunabletoactwhentheAfghanwoman isldquocryingout forhelpher childrenarebeing slaugh-tered her women are being raped the innocent are killed and theircorpsesscatteredrdquo(lsquoAzzam1987a)Inthesecondimagewomenfunction

37

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

muchlikeachorusthatspeaksinpermittedcadencestoratifymasculineendeavorsSuchisthecaseforexampleinBinLadenrsquos1996ldquoDeclara-tionofWaragainsttheAmericansOccupyingtheLandoftheTwoHolyPlacesrdquo(seechapter18)wherethewomenexhortmentojihadinthefollowing way ldquoPrepare yourself like a struggler the matter is biggerthanwordsAreyougoingtoleaveusforthewolvesofKufr[unbe-lief]eatingourwingsWherearethefreemendefendingfreewomenbyarmsDeath isbetter than life inhumiliation Some scandals andshameswillneverbeotherwiseeradicatedrdquo24InthethirdimagewomenarecreaturesnotofthisworldbutofanothervirginalrewardsforthecourageousmartyrintheafterlifeThisisevidentinthefinalinstructionsforthe911hijackersforexamplewhereMuslimldquobrothersrdquoareurgedto purify their carnal impulses sharpen their knives for the dhabh (slaughter)andheedthecallofthehur lsquoayn (theblack-eyedones)await-ingtheminParadise(seechapter19)

Such rhetoric primarily registers women as an extensionmirror ormeasure of masculinity and together with explicit Islamist argumentsabouthumannatureandthefamilyarticulatesIslamistgendernormsinwhichmenandwomeneachhaveaproperlocationandpurposeinadi-vinely ordained social hierarchy Deviance from this gendered scriptthussignalsdisruptionofamuchbroaderreligio-politicalorderitbothpresumes and seeks to bring into existence The disruption caused byforeign aggression in particular exacerbates the tendency to translateconflict into an assault on Muslim masculinity and to conceptualizewomenaspotentialvehiclesforWesterncorruptioninneedofguidingand guarding Women such as Zaynab al-Ghazali and Nadia Yassinewho seek a prominent place and voice within the Islamist movementhavehadlittlechoicebuttocontendwiththisgenderedscriptDoingsohasentailedamongotherthingsnavigatingcarefullybetweenIslamistcharacterizations of womenrsquos visibility and agency as symptomatic ofthe new jahiliyya on the one hand and essentializing arguments thatequateIslamwithveilingfemalegenitalmutilationandhonorkillingsontheother

AsthechaptersonGhazaliandYassinesuggestIslamistwomenhavenegotiatedbetweensuchconstraintsandpressuresandtheirownambi-tionsindifferentwaysApioneeringdalsquoiya(onewhoinvitesMuslimstogreater piety)Ghazalirsquos own life reveals a fierce resistance to conven-tionalnormsofdomesticityevenasmuchofher(earlier)workappearsto embrace an Islamist gender ideology that defines women as wivesmothers andldquobuilders ofmenrdquo (al-Hashimi 1990 118)By contrastYassineisawifeandmotherwhoembracesanldquoIslamicfeminismrdquothatrequiresldquoreappropriatingtheinstrumentsofclassicaltheologyrdquoanden-

24TheIslamistjournalSawt alshyJihadhasgonesofarastofeatureldquowomenrsquosvoicesrdquointheformofrolemodelsnamedforexampleumm alshyshahid(motherofthemartyr)al-thoughitisunclearthattheseldquovoicesrdquoareactuallywomenrsquos(SUsher2004)

38

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INTRODUCTION

gaging the textsdirectly through ijtihad (NYassine2003) In this re-spect Yassine must be understood as part of a broader effort amongMuslimwomenwithdifferentpoliticalcommitmentstosimultaneouslyadvocateandenacttheirrighttorecuperatetheldquooriginalintentrdquooftheIslamictextsIfwomenandmendoinfacthavedistinctperspectivesontheworldYassinesuggestswomenhaveaspecialobligationtoexcavatewhattheyseeasthegenderparityoftheQurrsquoanburiedbeneaththoseldquomachointerpretationsrdquoofIslamuponwhichmenhavebuilttheirprivi-legeandpower(Khalaf2006)25

ManyAnglo-AmericanandEuropean feministsworry that Islamistsseekonly to secureor restorepatriarchalpowerConverselymany Is-lamist women view feminism as a term and a movement inescapablyWesterninoriginfreightedwiththelegacyofcolonialismanduneasilyimplicatedinculturalimperialismThisapplieseventoYassinewhoisunwillingtoadoptwithoutqualificationalabelsheassociateswithagen-dasopposedtoherowntheWesttheMoroccanstateMaghribi(North-westAfrican)elitesYetfeminismitselfisahighlycontestedtermwithin theso-calledWestitisthebearerofmultiplemeaningssomeofwhichareevenopposedandischaracterizedbydeepdisagreementsaboutwhowomenarewhatwomenneedwhoisauthorizedtoworkonwomenrsquosbehalf andbywhatmeans Inasmuch as these various feminismsmayshareonlyastatedconcernforwomenrsquoswelfarethereisnothinginco-herentinmodifyingldquofeminismrdquowithldquoIslamicrdquoldquoMuslimrdquoorevenldquoIs-lamistrdquounlessone iscommitted toarguing thatfirst Islam isanun-changingessencebeyondhistorypoliticsandculturesecondthereisaneutralobjectivevantagefromwhichtoidentifythisessenceonceandforallandfinallytheIslamicessencesoidentifiedisfundamentallyin-compatiblewitheffortstoimprovetheconditionsandqualityofwomenrsquoslivesBythesametokenIslamistwomenwhorejectthetermfeminismcanbe(althoughnotalwaysare)deeplycommittedtoimprovingwom-enrsquoswelfareaswellasactivelyresistanttoeffortsthatreduceortrans-formthemintosilentaccessoriesofmalepower

YassineandGhazalidifferaboutwhatwomenareandshouldbeyetbroadlyspeakingbothmaybeconsideredpartofarecenttrendtowardthe feminizationofdalsquowa Dalsquowa literallymeanscallappealor sum-monsbutthetermhascometosignifyavarietyofpracticesandargu-mentsmeanttoexhortinviteandguideMuslimstowhatisregardedasproperconductandmoraldevotionWomenrsquosparticipationindalsquowais

25WomenrsquosparticipationintheldquoproductionofofficialIslamicknowledgerdquohasalonghistoryalthoughtheyhaveoftendonesoinrelativeobscurityandwithoutthebenefitofeducation in the Islamicsciences thathas legitimateddirectengagementwith thesacredtexts (Cooke 2001 xiv Badran and Cooke 2004) Pioneering attempts to read genderequalityinIslamarealsonotconfinedtowritingbywomenasevincedbyQasimAminrsquosTahrir alshymarrsquoa [TheLiberationofWoman] (1899)andMumtaz lsquoAlirsquosHuquqshye niswan [TheRightsofWomen](1898)

39

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

notabrandnewphenomenonasisevidentinGhazalirsquosworkwiththeEgyptianSocietyofMuslimLadiesinthe1930sYetfromEgypttoPaki-stantoSaudiArabiatotheUnitedStatesthenumberoffemaledalsquoiyashasproliferatedexponentially inrecentyears(Cooke2001Mahmood2005Hirschkind2006)Thisreflectsinpartcurrentdoctrinalempha-sesondalsquowaasincumbentuponbothmenandwomenanddependentlessupontechnicalknowledgethanmoralvirtueandpracticalfamiliaritywiththeIslamictradition(Mahmood200565ndash66)It isalsoaconse-quenceofrecentpoliticalandsocioeconomictransformationsinMuslimsocietiesincludingtheexpansionofmasseducationthathasnotonlyin-creasedwomenrsquosliteracyandsocialmobilitybutalsomadeIslamictextsmoreaccessibletheproliferationoftechnologiesmdashfromthecassettetapetotheInternetmdashthatfacilitatethecirculationofreligiousknowledgeevenamongthosewhocannotreadortraveltheprecedentsetbythevigorousparticipationof IranianwomeninpostrevolutiondebatesaboutIslamandthemodeloflegalactivismevidentintheIslamistmovementrsquosownchallenge to the lsquoulamarsquos status as gatekeepers of religious knowledge(Singerman2005Mir-Hosseini1999)

If Ghazali and Yassine exemplify the feminization of dalsquowa amongelitesthemosquemovementinEgyptillustratesthegrowingparticipa-tionofwomenfromdiversesocialbackgroundsinreligiousclassesde-votedtostudyinganddebatingwhatIslamrequiresforawomantobeldquomorallyuprightrdquointhecontemporaryworld(Mahmood2005)Con-ceptualizingpiety in termsof adeepandholistic commitment to self-transformationparticipantsinthemosquemovementareconcernedlesswithmattersofsovereigntyandpoliticsconventionallyunderstoodandmorewiththeldquomoralcultivationrdquoofthosedailypracticesseenascrucialtobecomingclosertoGod(Mahmood2005)SomeIslamistshavecriti-cizedthis focusonpracticesofworshipasapoliticalandoverlypriva-tizedyetsuchcriticismmissestheforceofIslamistsrsquoowninsistenceondin(religion)asawayoflifeinwhichthedomainsofpublicandprivateare inextricably linked26AsSabaMahmood (2005193194) showsthesewomenrsquosintenseeffortsatldquoretrainingethicalsensibilitiesrdquohavealdquosociopoliticalforcerdquothatextendswellbeyondmattersofgovernancefacilitatingnolessthantheemergenceofaldquonewsocialandmoralorderrdquoEvidenceofitstransformativepowermaybefoundnotonlyinthesheernumbersandvarietyofwomenmdashwealthyandpoor literateand illiter-atemdashparticipatinginthemosquemovementbutalsointherhetoricalandpoliticaleffortsbythestateandsomeIslamiststocurtailcontrolordis-creditit(Mahmood200571194)

26ParticipantsinthemosquemovementinturnareoftencriticalofwhattheyseeasthereductionofIslamtotokensofculturalauthenticityorofitsinstrumentalizationbybothnationalistsandIslamiststheycharacterizeasmoreinterestedinpoliticalmaneuveringthanreligiouspiety

40

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

Understoodtoincludebothwrittenandembodiedpracticesthefemi-nizationof dalsquowa illustrates theways inwhichwomen fromdifferentperspectivesandsocialclassesareinsistingonengagingthesacredtextsdirectly for and with one another without the mediating authority ofmenwhohavetraditionallyheldthemonopolyonsuchactivitiesAsSu-danese Islamist Lubabah al-Fadl argues ldquoAs an insan [human being]whohappenstobeawomanIhavearighttorejectthemanipulativeexegesesofoursharilsquoa thatthreatenmyexistenceinawaythat isnotconsistentwiththeGodlywayandtoapplymyownijtihadtorectifyer-roneoustendenciesbysomeshuyukh[pluralofshaykh]rdquo(Sadiki2004290)DespitetheproliferationofvoicesintentonclaimingforthemselvestheauthoritytodemarcatewhatisauthenticallyIslamicandun-Islamiconceandforallcontestationoveritsscopeandmeaningproceedsapacefacilitatedatleastinpartbywomenformerlyexcludedfromtheconver-sationAtthesametimeIslamistwomenrsquosagencyandclaimstoauthorityarefrequentlystillpredicatedonawillingnesstofollowfairlypatriarchalrulesaboutwherehowandwithwhomtheymaypracticetheirvocation(Hirschkind2003Sadiki2004283)

Islamism and Violence

IfgenderisfrequentlyanimplicitpreoccupationamongIslamistsjihadisarguably Islamistsrsquomost consistently explicit concern Jihad is derivedfromtheArabicverbthatmeanstostruggleortostriveyetitisaparticu-larkindofstruggle that isofconcern tomanyof thefigurescollectedheretheoftenviolentstruggleagainstapostatesandinfidelsbothathomeandabroadtowhicheveryindividualMuslimmustcontributeTheclaimthatfightingunbelieversisthepreeminentenactmentofindividualMus-limpiety seems to justify characterizationsof Islam ingeneral and Is-lamisminparticularassanctioningevenencouragingviolenceYetwhatIslamistsrepresentasjihadtout courtisahistoricallyspecificunderstand-ingderivedfromahighlyselectiveuseoftextsandprecedentsprominentamongthemaformerlyobscureclaimbytheinfluentialfourteenth-cen-tury jurist IbnTaymiyya thatMongol rulerswhohad contravened Is-lamiclawcouldbesubjecttoforcibleremovalFarfromadefinitiveex-pressionof Islamldquoproperlyunderstoodrdquo such Islamist argumentsnotonlymarkasignificantdeparturefrommuchofantecedentdoctrineandpractice but also diminish the importance of ongoing disagreementsamongMuslimsabouttheformandpurposesofjihad

TobeginwithMuslimscholarshavetendedtoconsiderjihadagainstforeignenemiesafard kifaya(collectiveobligation)thatisadutyagroupofpeoplewithinthecommunitymayperformonbehalfoftherestandonethatpresupposesalegitimateMuslimleadertodeclareorleadthechargeJuristshavedistinguishedthisfromthefard lsquoayn(individualduty)thatmustbefulfilledbyeverysingleMuslimincasesofdefensivejihad

41

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

thatiswhentheummaisunderattackManyIslamistsincludedheretakeamuchlessnuancedviewofjihadAsamodeofpoliticalactionQutbarguesjihadmustberegardedasaldquopermanentconditionnotanocca-sionalconcernrdquoonethatincurrentcircumstancesrequiresdeedsratherthanwordsstruggleratherthancontemplationrevolutionathomeaswellasresistanceabroad(Qutb199167ndash6882)lsquoAbdal-SalamFarajarguesalongsimilarlinesthatthenatureoftheattackonIslammakespolitical authorization by a caliph (ldquodeputyrdquo referring to a legitimatesuccessortotheProphetrsquosleadership)unnecessaryafterallldquoleadershipovertheMuslimsis(always)intheirownhandsifonlytheymakethismanifestIfthereissomethinglackingintheleadershipwellthereisnothingthatcannotbeacquiredrdquo(Jansen1986asec93)

SuchargumentsareadeliberaterejectionofearlyMuslimmodernistswhohademphasizedthelargelydefensivecharacterofjihadandsoughttoshowthatrelationsbetweenMuslimsandnon-MuslimswerenormallypeacefulratherthanantagonisticMahmudShaltut(d1963)therectorof al-Azhar from 1958 to 1963 had argued for example that theQurrsquoanicversesonfightingldquoprohibittheprovocationofhostilityandthisprohibitionisreinforcedbyGodrsquosrepugnancetoaggressionandbyhisdislikeofthosewhoprovokehostilityrdquo(Peters199674onShaltutseeZebiri1993)ConversionbyforceisanathematoIslamShaltutaversandfightingiscommandedonlyindefenseinresponsetoaggressionini-tiatedbyothersEvendefensivejihadmustaimatldquotheterminationoftheaggressionandtheestablishmentofreligiouslibertydevotedtoGodandfreefromanypressureorforcerdquo(Peters199675)

ManyIslamistsexplicitlydismisssuchargumentsasasymptomoffalseconsciousnessoneamongmanydestructiveeffectsofcolonialdomina-tionMawdudiargues for example thatwhile imperialists ravage theworld to satisfy their greed jihad alone ldquoconjures up the vision of amarching band of religious fanatics with savage beards and fiery eyesbrandishingdrawnswordsandattackingtheinfidelswherevertheymeetthemrdquoHavinginternalizedthis imageMuslimsrushtoapologizeandrenouncearmedstruggleInthiswayhelamentscolonialistsretaintheexclusiverighttoldquofightwitharmsandammunitionwhilewearecon-tented with our pen and our tonguerdquo (Mawdudi 1948 1ndash3) SayyidQutbforhispartagreedthatIslamdoesnotcountenancespreadingitsmessagebyforceandcoercionyethehadlittlepatiencewiththosewhosoughttopresentjihadaslegitimateonlyinself-defense

IfweinsistoncallingIslamicjihadadefensivemovementthenwemustchangethemeaningofthewordldquodefenserdquoandmeanbyitldquothedefenseofmanrdquoagainstallthoseforcesthatlimithisfreedomWhenwetakethisbroadmeaningofthewordldquodefenserdquoweunder-standthetruecharacterofIslaminthatitproclaimstheuniversalfreedomofeverypersonandcommunityfromservitudetoanyother

42

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

individualorsocietytheendofmanrsquosarroganceandselfishnesstheestablishmentofthesovereigntyofAllahandHisLordshipthrough-outtheworldandtheruleofthedivinesharilsquoainhumanaffairs(Qutb199050)

Qutbdoesnotnameanynamesincastigatingtheldquowriterswithdefeatistandapologeticmentalities[who]writeaboutlsquojihadinIslamrsquoandtrytoremovethislsquoblotrsquofromIslamrdquo(Qutb199046)buthecouldverywellhavehadhisdistinguishedfellowEgyptianMahmudShaltutinmind

These arguments about jihad may be said to constitute a commongrammarandframeworkofanalysisformanyIslamistsalthoughseveralthinkers in this volume carefully calibrate such claims to suit variouspurposesanddifferentpublicspheresInhisjustificationfortheassassi-nationofEgyptianpresidentAnwaral-SadatforexamplelsquoAbdal-SalamFarajdepictsthestruggletoreclaimthemoralfoundationsoftheEgyp-tianstateasafightagainstjahiliyyafromwithinarguingthatthejihadagainstacorruptnationalistregimeathomemusttakeprecedenceoverfightingenemieselsewhereTheCharterofHamas(seechapter15)how-everinsiststhatallMuslimsrecognizetheprimacyofthejihadforJeru-salemweldingIslamistrhetorictothatofnationalistresistanceinanef-fortbothtofightIsraelioccupationandtocompeteforadherentswiththePalestinianLiberationOrganization(PLO)IncontrasttobothFarajandHamasBinLadenembracesaglobaljihadthatessentiallycollapsesdistinctionsbetweennationalandinternationaloffensiveanddefensivefightingenemiesathomeandthosefromafar

Yet despite such differences these arguments tend to presume thatviolent jihad is a necessary response to the pervasive power of thosewithdemonstratedhostilitytoMuslimliveslandspietiesandsensibili-tiesaformofretaliationwhoseurgencyandlegitimacyderivefromtheviolencemdashpsychologicalandeconomicaswellasphysicalmdashoftheinitialassaultThisviewofjihadsubsumesindividualsintoarchetypesofldquoin-fidelsrdquoandldquobelieversrdquoandinsodoingvitiatesmoreconventionaldis-tinctionsbetweenforexamplesoldierandcivilianorcollectiveandin-dividual responsibility It is far from inevitable that thosewhoharborsuchviewswillautomaticallyactuponthemyetthecarnagewroughtbytheattacksontheWorldTradeCenterandthePentagonin2001aBalinightclub in 2002 Madrid commuter trains in 2004 and throughoutIraqonadailybasissuggestjusthowlethalsuchclaimscanbegiventheright circumstances The fact that such violence does not discriminateamongvictimsonlyfurtherfuelsrhetoriccharacterizingIslamistsasirra-tional fanatics ldquoin love with deathrdquo terrorists animated by a religioncharacterizedbyapropensityforviolenceandauthoritarianism27

27AnxietiesabouttheparticularsusceptibilityofMuslimstoirrationalityinsularityandfanaticismhavealonganddistinguishedpedigreeinEuro-AmericanhistoryandpoliticalthoughtSeeforexampleRenan18833

43

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

AsinsomanyothermattershoweverIslamistsarehardlyofonemindonthesubjectofjihadindeedthereareIslamistswhoexplicitlyrejectthereductionof struggle toviolenceAcase inpoint isNadiaYassine(20032005c)whoinsiststhatjihadisthededicatedstruggleagainstisshytikbar(arrogance)particularlyinitscommonformasthelustforpoweranddominationAsjihadagainstistikbarisbothafinalgoalandapre-scriptionforactionYassinesuggestsitisantitheticaltoviolentpracticesthataimatdominationTheprimaryinstrumentsofjihadarenotbombsbutwords particularly thosedeployed in the art of persuasion (Fara-marzi2005NYassine2006a)WhenIslamistssuchaslsquoAbdal-SalamFarajandlsquoUmarlsquoAbdal-RahmanseektolegitimizeviolentrevolutionbyrecoursetoIslamictextsshearguestheycontravenethetruemeaningofjihadtoservetheirownarrogantendsBythesametokenBinLadenrsquosdecisiontoldquofightevilwithevilandbarbaritywithbarbarityrdquonotonlyviolatesspecificIslamicprohibitionsagainstharmingcivilianswomenandchildrenbutalsobetraystheethicalimperativetoembodythemes-sageofamercifulGodwhocautionsbelieversthat(Q8822)ldquoYouhavenopoweroverthemrdquo(NYassine2005cDaily Excelsior2002)

SuchpersistentdisagreementsamongMuslimspastandpresentsug-gest that Islam isnomore inherently violent andbloody-minded thanitmdashorChristianityor Judaism for thatmattermdashis inherentlypeacefulIslamists often claim to speak for an unchanging authentic Islam thatexistsoutsideoftimeandspaceyetthepoliticalpurchaseoftheirper-spective derives from the ways it assembles disparate yet recognizablecontemporaryexperiencesofsufferingfrustrationandlossintoanex-planationthatresonateswithMuslimswholiveincommunitiescultur-allylinguisticallyandgeographicallydistantfromoneanotherTheex-tenttowhichIslamistargumentsresonatebroadlyacrossMuslimsocie-tiesthusdependsuponasetofexperiencesandphenomenathatmarkthisparticularmomentinhistoryincludingthewaysinwhichcontempo-raryglobalinequalitiescompoundalegacyofhistoricalasymmetriestocontinuallyreproduceasenseofMuslimpowerlessnessmdashbothrealandimaginedmdashrelativetotheWestcontinuingEuro-Americanpoliticalandfinancialsupportofcorruptautocratsmanyofwhompresideoverna-tion-statesbrutallystitchedtogetherbyWesternfiat thepersistenceofauthoritarian regimes eager to control domestic unrest by catalyzingldquoMuslimragerdquotowardexternaltargetsthesenseofemasculationpro-ducedbydecadesofpoliticalrepressionandeconomicfrustrationandthecontinualflowofimagesofbloodiedMuslimbodiesdeliveredbyaburgeoningarrayofvideosatelliteandelectronicmedia

It is notable that the understanding of jihad many Islamists proffermirrorstheverystate-sanctionedviolenceagainstwhichtheyhavestrug-gledforalmostacenturyAlongwiththousandsofMuslimscaughtinthemachineryoftwentieth-centurystateviolenceprominentIslamistsfromQutbtoGhazalitoAymanal-Zawahirimdashal-Qalsquoidarsquossecondincommandmdash

44

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

arewellknowntohavebeenradicalizedbyextendedandoftenbrutaltermsofincarcerationinEgyptSyriaIraqJordanIsraelAlgeriaandelsewhere(onal-ZawahiriandprisoncfKepelandMilelli2008152ndash54)ItisthusfarfromsurprisingthatIslamistsforgedbyinterrogationtortureinprisoncampswouldconcludethatthepreeminentenactmentofMuslimpietyisviolentstruggleldquoPrisonrdquoasPalestinianKhaledAbuHilalhassaidldquoismyuniversityrdquo(Erlanger2007)anargumentmadeingreaterdetailinadifferenttimeandplacebyRussianwriterandrevolu-tionaryMaximGorky(1868ndash1936)

Apeoplebroughtupinaschoolthatremindsoneofthetormentsofhellonasmallscaleapeopleaccustomedtotheclenched-fistprisonandthewhipwillnotbeblestwithatenderheartApeoplethatthepoliceagentshaveriddenoverwillbecapableintheirturnofwalk-ingoverthebodiesofothersInacountrywhereunresthasreignedsolongit isdifficultforthepeopletorealizefromonedaytothenextthepowerofrightOnecannotdemandfromamanwhohasneverknownjusticethatheshouldbejust(Gorky1920)

InthiscontextasTimothyMitchell(1990195ndash96199207ndash8)suggestsIslamistviewsoftheworldcanbecharacterizedasbothamodeofresis-tancetostatemechanismsofcoercionandanexpressionofthemSuchisthedynamic evident inGhazalirsquosmemoirs for examplewhen shede-scribeshowtheldquodarknessofprisonsthebladesoftortureandthevi-ciousbeatingsonly increasetheenduranceandresolveofthefaithfulrdquo(Ghazali19786)

There is no doubt a great deal of pragmatism at work in IslamistargumentsaboutviolenceAsQutb(19916447ndash48)drylynotesthepathtofreedommustoccasionallybehewnbywayoftheswordbecausetyrants are not reasoned out of power and ldquojahiliyya is not lsquoabstracttheoryrsquo[it]consciouslyorunconsciouslystrivestopreserveitsownexistence to defend its essence to annihilate dangerous elementswhichthreatenitsverybeingrdquoYetitisalsothecasethatformanyoftheseIslamistsjihadisbothameansandanendanefforttoeradicatethoseobstacles torestoringa justcommunityonearththatsimultane-ouslybringshumanaction intoaccordwithGodrsquosplansandpurposes(Haddad198321)While theQurrsquoan (2256) states thatldquothere isnocompulsioninreligionrdquoIslamistscontendthatonlyinastateinwhichIslamiclawreignssupremearehumanbeingsfreefromenslavementtooneanotherrsquosruleandallareequalbyvirtueoftheircommonsubmissiontoGodAsQutb(1991107ndash8)argues

WhenthehighestauthorityinsocietyisGodalonemdashexpressedintheruleofdivinelawmdashonlythenishumanitytrulyandcompletelyliber-atedfromslaverytomenOnlythisisldquohumancivilizationrdquobecausetheessentialfoundationofhumancivilizationisthetrueandcom-

45

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

pletefreedomofhumanityandtheabsolutedignityofeveryindivid-ualinsocietyThereisnotruefreedomanddignityforhumanityortheindividualinasocietywheresomepeoplearelordswholegislateandothersareslaveswhoobey

From this perspective the realization of justice liberty equality andchoiceitselfnecessitatestheforcibleremovaloftheconstraintsimposedbyjahiliyyaalongwiththosewhoaidandabetitno matter the costAsMawdudi(1954160ndash61)writes

[W]hyisitthatinreligionsuchimportanceisgiventojihadthattheQurrsquoanpronouncesthejudgmentofhypocrisyuponthosewhoshirkandevadeitJihadisbutanothernamefortheattempttoerectthesystemoftruthandtheQurrsquoandeclaresjihadtobeatouchstoneonthesamefootingwithamanrsquosfaithInotherwordshewhohasfaithinhisheartwillneitherbecontentwiththedominationofthesystemofevilnorwillhegrudgetheexpenditureoflifeandwealthinthestruggleforerectingthesystemoftruthIfoneshowsweaknessinthismatterhisfaithitselfisdoubtfulWhatcananythingelsebesidethenprofithimThemanwhoprofesses faith in this religioncannotfulfillhisdutyonlybytryingasfaraspossibletopatternhislifeonIslamThenatureofhisfaithitselfrequiresthatheshouldconcentrateallhiseffortuponwrestingleadershipfromunbelievingandcorruptmentoentrustittotherighteousanduponerectingthesystemoftruththathasbeenordainedfortheconductoftheworldaccordingtothewillofGodBecausethisendisunattainablewith-out thehighestdegreeofcollectiveeffort theremustexistarigh-teouscommunitycommittedtotheprincipleoftruthanddevotedtothesolepurposeintheworldoferectingmaintainingandproperlyrealizingthesystemoftruth

ThefactthatsomeIslamistthinkerssanctifyviolentstruggleinsuchtermsdoesnotmeanofcoursethatallthosewhoadvocateorengageinjihadendorseviolence28NordoesitimplythatthosewhoclaimtokillforIslamareentirelywithoutulteriormotivesthosemanipulativepur-poses andpsychologicalmotivations that even themost rarified scrip-turalargumentscanexpressorserveWhattheprecedinganalysisdoessuggesthoweveristhatthereductionofthisviewofjihadtoirrationalbloodlusttheself-interestedgrabfortemporalpoweroradoorthroughwhichtopassintothehereaftermissesacrucialdimensionofitssignifi-canceandappealfortruebelieversjihadisnolessthananenactmentof

28EvenashespokeofaneweraofjahiliyyaandofjihadMawdudihimselfstoppedwellshortof recommendingor condoning the actual resort to violence in themannermanyotherIslamistsdidAsNasr(199670)observesMawdudirsquosorganizationtheJamalsquoat-iIs-lamildquohasavoidedviolentsocialchangeandhasinsteadviewedthepathtotheIslamicstateaslyingwithintheexistingsociopoliticalorderrdquoAlsoseethechapters5and3onQutbandMawdudiinthisvolume

46

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

adivineimperativetoremakethefoundationsofcollectivelifeInthisre-spectIslamistviewsofjihadcanbeseenaspartofalong-standingasso-ciationbetweenviolenceandpoliticalfoundingsuponwhichnoparticu-larcultureorhistoricalepochhasamonopolyThisassociationandtheldquolegacyofviolencerdquoitbequeathstofuturegenerationsarenolessappar-entinthoseradicalrevolutionsofrenewalthatmovebywayoftheswordfromthemarginstothecenterthanthosepoliticalfoundingsthatclaimtocreatesomethingoutofnothing(Connolly1995251)Ineithercasethetollofsuchbrutalitycanbeimmeasurableforinadditiontothevic-timswhosufferdirectlytheldquopracticeofviolencelikeallactionchangestheworldbutthemostprobablechangeistoamoreviolentworldrdquo(Ar-endt1972177)

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 ESP 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 FRA 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 ITA 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geoptimaliseerd voor prepress-afdrukken van hoge kwaliteit De gemaakte PDF-documenten kunnen worden geopend met Acrobat en Adobe Reader 50 en hoger) NOR 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 PTB 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Page 15: Chapter 1 INTRODUCTION - assets.press.princeton.eduassets.press.princeton.edu/chapters/s9067.pdf · Chapter 1 INTRODUCTION This volume is intended as a broad introduction to the evolution

15

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

novationinmattersofreligionSuchaviewofIslamjettisonsmuchofwhatwouldnormallycountasitshistoryandcivilizationldquoThehistoryoflsquoIslamrsquordquoQutbtellshisreadersldquoisthehistoryofthetrueapplicationofIslammdashinpeoplersquosconceptionsandtheirpracticesintheirlivesandtheirsocialsystemsIslamisthefixedaxisaroundwhichpeoplersquoslivesrevolveinafixedframeWhentheygooutofthisframeorwhentheycategorically abandon this axis what then do they have to do withIslamrdquo (Qutb 1967a vol 2 part 4 169 quotation marks aroundldquoIslamrdquoinoriginal)ItisforthefixedaxistheplainIslammdashandinoppo-sition to much of its historymdashthat the Islamist professes to stand (cfGrunebaum1962251ndash52)

Qutbhoweverisfarfromconsistentinhisattitudetowardtheschol-arlytraditionorinhowheseekstoarticulatehisownauthorityinrela-tiontoitHisfaithinthetransparencyandthetransformativeimmedi-acyofGodrsquoswordswouldappeartomakeallexegesissuperfluousyethehimselfhadproceededtowriteamajorcommentaryIn the Shade of the QurrsquoanthatwouldexceedfourthousandpagesinprintThejustifi-cationheoffers for it intheopening linesof thecommentary isauda-ciousnotapologetic

LifeintheshadeoftheQurrsquoanisablessingItisablessingunknownto anyonewhohasnrsquot tasted itAll praisebe toGodHehasgrantedmetheopportunitytoliveintheshadeoftheQurrsquoanforaperiodoftimeduringwhichIhavetastedHisblessingsasIneverhadearlierinmylifeIhavelistenedtoGodtheexaltedconvers-ingwithmethroughthisQurrsquoanmdashwithmeasmalllittleslaveIhavelivedintheshadeoftheQurrsquoanlookingfromanelevationatthejahiliyya[paganignorance]raginginthelandandthepettycon-cernsof itspeople [Fromthisvantage] Ihave seen thepride thepeopleofthisjahiliyyatakeintheirchildishknowledgetheirchild-ishideastheirchildishpreoccupations[Ihavelookeduponthem]likeanelderlooksuponthefrivolitiesofchildrenupontheireffortsandupontheirlisps(Qutb1967a13)

Theseresoundingwordsserveinteraliatoexplainwhyanewcom-mentaryshouldhavebeenneededatallthemind-numbingimpactofthejahiliyyahasmadepeopleincapableofrespondingtoeventhemostdi-rectofdivinesummonsandonlysomeonewhohaslivedldquointheshadeoftheQurrsquoanrdquocanunderstandtheirplightandremedyitFromtheper-spectiveQutbadoptshereanyappealtothescholarlytraditionanyef-forttoresthisauthorityonitwouldappearaltogetheroutofplaceYetQutbrsquosclaimstoauthoritydonotderiveexclusivelyfromhisconversingwithGodthroughtheQurrsquoanTosomedegreetheyalsodependonhisbeingseenashavingmasteryovertheveryexegeticaltraditionofwhichheisotherwisefrequentlydismissiveQutbcitesasmallnumberofearliercommentators and other authorities when it suits his purpose to do

16

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

so11justashesidestepstheexegeticaltraditionwhendoingsooffersarhetoricallymoreeffectivewayofarrivingataconclusionMoretradi-tionalexegetespastandpresentalsopickandchooseofcourseButtheyhavetypicallydonesowithinanoverallframeworkthatisdefinedbyacontinuousengagementwiththeexegeticaltraditionasawhole(cfSaleh2004)BycontrastQutbandotherIslamistexegeteswriteoutsideandofteninconsciousoppositiontoanysuchframeworkTheconversa-tionisnotwiththeearlierexegetesbutdirectlywithGodthoughthismightonoccasionbeaidedbyillustrationsfromtheearlierexegeticaltradition

If thereareunacknowledgedambiguities inQutbrsquosrelationshipwiththe Islamic traditionaswehaveobserveda frequentlyacerbic stancedoesnonetheless remain characteristicofhowheviews itmostof thetimeQutbisanythingbutuniqueinthisrespectYetifIslamistssharealmostbydefinitionacriticalstancetowardfacetsofthistraditionthereismuchthatalsoseparatesthemfromoneanotherinpreciselyhowthiscritique and its implications are articulated in different instances Al-thoughthemerepresenceofdisagreementamongIslamist intellectualsandactivistsishardlyremarkablethescopeandimplicationsofsomeofthedisagreementsinasmuchastheyrelatetothescholarlytraditionarenonethelessworthexamininghereFortheysuggestthatwhileIslamistsshare the conviction that particular institutions practices and normsneedtoberefashionedinlightofimmutabledivinecommandsthiscon-victionoftenrestsonquitedifferentviewsofIslamichistoryandciviliza-tionofcontemporaryMuslimsocietiesandnotleastofreligiousau-thorityanditslociNowhereperhapsisthismoreevidentthaninsomeofthewritingsofYusufal-QaradawiLikeQutbQaradawiisamongthemostinfluentialIslamistideologuesintheSunniworldHeisalsooneofQutbrsquosseverestcriticsfromwithintheIslamistcamp(seeespeciallyQa-radawi1994101ndash31)

ThatldquoMuslimrdquosocietieslackedaproperIslamicfoundationmadeitfutileQutbhadarguedtodebatespecificquestionsofIslamiclawand

11TheseincludeinteraliaMuhammadibnIshaq(d767)theauthoroftheSirat rasul AllahoneoftheearliestbiographiesoftheProphetMuhammadal-Tabari(d923)theauthorofJamilsquo alshybayan lishytarsquowil ay alshyQurrsquoanoneofthemostinfluentialcommentariesoftheQurrsquoaneverproducedal-Baghawi(d1117)whosecommentaryistitledMalsquoalim alshytanzilal-Qurtubi(d1273)theauthorofaworkalshyJamilsquo lishyahkam alshyQurrsquoanwhichises-peciallyattentivetothelegalcontentoftheQurrsquoanandIbnKathir(d1373)theauthorofaQurrsquoan commentaryTafsir alshyQurrsquoan alshylsquoazimwhichhasbeenpopular amongmanyMuslimsofaSalafiorientationOnoccasionQutbalsocitesinfluentialfellowIslamistsSeeforexampleQutbFi zilal alshyQurrsquoanvol2part4132(Mawdudi)vol2part525(Nadwi)vol2part6143and150ndash53(lsquoAbdal-QadirlsquoAwdaanEgyptianIslamistandlegalscholarexecutedundertheNasserregimein1954)OccasionallyQutbcitesRidarsquosTafsir alshymanaraswell thoughmoreoftenthannot toregisterhisdisagreementswithRidaandwiththelatterrsquosmentorMuhammadlsquoAbduhForadetailedcomparisonbetweenthecommentariesofRidaandQutbseeCarreacute2003

17

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

howitdealtwithparticularsocialoreconomicissuesThelsquoulamawerepatheticallydeludediftheythoughtthattheinterestsofIslamcouldbefurtheredthroughdisquisitionsonthesharilsquoainsuchconditionsofper-vasiveungodliness(Qutb1967b183ndash90)WhatpeopleneededbeforeanythingelsewasareturntothebasicsofthefaithThetaskofrighteouspreacherswastoinstructtheminthesemattersandtohelpthemrecog-nizewhatthesovereigntyofGoddemandedofthem(Qutb199135cfQaradawi1994102ndash4)Allothermattersincludingthenicetiesofjuris-ticdiscussionwerebestpostponeduntilaproperlyIslamicsocietybasedonthisfoundationhadbeenrealized

Qaradawi vehemently disagrees with Qutb arguing that educatedMuslimsarenotpagansbutbelieversandassuchdonotneedtobetu-toredinthefundamentalsoftheirfaithWhattheyoftendonotunder-standverywellmdashandhereQaradawiconcurswithotherIslamistsmdashisthenatureofIslamasanizam (socialandpoliticalsystem)TheproblemofMuslimsinotherwordsisnotgodlessnessbutsimplyignorance(whichiswhat the term jahiliyya literallymeans)of the teachingsof Islam intheircomprehensiveall-encompassingdimensionsAsQaradawiseesitmanyldquocaptivesofWesternthoughtrdquohavedoubtsnotabouttheessentialsoftheirfaithbutratheraboutIslamasacomprehensivesystemanditistheirunaddressedmisunderstandingstheirignoranceonthelatterscorethatsometimesopens thedoor todoubtsaboutmattersofbelief itself(Qaradawi1994113ndash14)Tocontinuetoexpoundonthesocialpoliti-calandotherteachingsofIslamwhilethesocietyisyetimperfectisnottoendorseorstrengthenthejahiliorderasQutbhadallegedbutonlytohelpordinarypeopleintheirefforttoleadvirtuouslivesevenininiqui-touscircumstances

ThisviewrepresentsanappealtowhatQaradawihasrepeatedlyre-ferredtoasthemoderatepathoralshymadrasa alshywasatiyya(theldquocentristschoolrdquocfQaradawi2006137ndash217)mdashonethatlocatesitselfonaputa-tivemiddlegroundbetweenacompleterejectionoftheworldincludingMuslimsocietiesanditstotalembraceQaradawiisequallyconcernedwithrescuingIslamichistoryandcivilizationfromoutrightdismissalatthehandsofIslamistslikeQutb12TheideathatjahilinormshadbeguntocreepbackintotheMuslimcommunityshortlyafterthedeathoftheProphetandthattheyhaveremainedunchallengedformuchofIslamrsquoshistoryignoresallthoseQaradawisayswhohavecontinuedtorepre-sentthepathofrighteousnessthroughoutthehistoryofIslamContrarytotheconvictionoftheSunnisthatldquothecommunitywillneveragreeonerrorrdquomdashastheProphetissaidtohavepromisedmdashthenotionofaperva-

12AmongleadingfiguresQaradawisinglesoutforcriticisminthisregardarebesidesQutbMawdudiandtheEgyptianIslamistscholarMuhammadal-Ghazali(d1996)SeeQaradawi2005b46ndash64It isworthnotingthatdespitetheseandotherdisagreementsQaradawihaswrittenrespectfullyofallthreedevotinganentirebooktohislongassocia-tionwithMuhammadal-Ghazali(seeQaradawi1995)

18

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

sivejahiliyyasuggestsmoreoverthatthecommunitydidindeedagreeonerror13Mostgrievouslyperhaps Islamist critiques tend to suggestthatthesharilsquoahasalmostneverbeenimplementedinMuslimsocietiesaftertheveryfirstyearsofIslamIronicallysaysQaradawisuchindis-criminaterejectionofIslamichistoryinadvertentlyreinforcessecularist argumentsthatthesharilsquoaisunsuitedtopracticalapplication(Qaradawi2005b46)QaradawirsquoscritiqueofQutbandotherIslamistsisfinallyanargumentforthecontinuingcentralityofthelsquoulamatothetaskofpro-viding authoritative guidance to the communityHisunderstandingofwhoconstitutesthelsquoulamaisfarmoreexpansivethanthatofmostDeo-bandilsquoulamaofSouthAsiaButlikethemheisinnodoubtthatseriousreligiousscholarsasdistinguishedfromamateurishautodidactsarecru-cialtothetaskofprovidingauthoritativereligiousandmoralguidancetothecommunity

AlthoughwehavesoughttoillustratecertainfacetsoftheIslamistcri-tiqueof the scholarly traditionandof theworldas somekey IslamistthinkershavearticulateditwedonotwishtosuggestofcoursethatIslamists are necessarily ldquointellectualsrdquo Whatever Qutb KhomeiniMawdudiandQaradawimightthinkofotherscholarsandintellectualsorofthemselvesinrelationtothemtheformerobviouslyarereligiousintellectualsThesameishardlytrueofmanyotherIslamistsYeteventhosewithlittleornointellectualpretensionsareoftenrecognizableas IslamistsnotonlyfortheircommitmenttothepublicimplementationofIslamicnormsgroundedinthefoundationaltextsbutalsomdashandasacor-ollaryoftheformermdashfortheiroftenself-consciouscritiqueofanddisen-gagementfromthenormsandmorestheyseearoundthemIncontempo-raryLebanonforinstanceShilsquoiIslamistshaveoftenseentheirtext-basedreligiouscommitmentsasmarkingacleardeparturefromearlierandex-isting religious practicesAs anthropologist LaraDeeb (2006 20) ob-servesldquoTheyvieweditasnewanddifferentmdashdifferentfromwhattheyoftenreferredtoenigmaticallyaslsquobeforersquoorlsquohowwewerersquoanddifferentfromwhattheycalledalshytaqalid(traditions)Inlieuofpracticesandbeliefscastastraditionaltheyespoused [an] lsquoauthenticatedrsquoIslamexpressedinpublicpietyrdquo14ManyIslamists living inrefugeecampsinGazahavehadasimilarviewTothemldquoPalestinianshadeitherbe-comelostinforeignideologiesortheyhadbecomelsquoMuslimsbycon-

13Theconvictionthatthecommunityatlargeisdivinelyprotectedfromerrorisanim-portantbasisoftheauthorityofldquoconsensusrdquoasamajorsourceofjuridicalnormsinSunniIslamFormoderndebateson consensus and someof the literatureon this subject seeZaman2006

14Theldquotraditionsrdquohereprimarilyrefer tocustomarynormsanddevotionalpracticesratherthantothecenturies-olddiscursivetraditionfromwhichthelsquoulamabothShilsquoiandSunniderivetheirauthorityIslamistcritiquesareoftendirectedasmuchhoweverattra-ditionsinthesenseofldquoinauthenticrdquoculturallyrootedreligiouspracticesastheyareatthescholarlytraditionofthelsquoulamawhichtothemisequallyinauthenticinhavingobscuredthesimpleandfundamentalteachingsofthefoundationaltexts

19

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

ventionrsquowhowentalongwiththefastorprayednowandthenbecausethiswaslsquocustomandtraditionrsquo(lsquoada wa taqlid)ThislackofconsciouszealousadherencetoIslamhadresultedinsocialweaknessleadingtode-featatthehandsofIsraelrdquo(Lybarger2007211)ThereismuchthatsuchanalysessharewiththewritingsandpronouncementsoftheleadingIs-lamistintellectuals

Islamists and Salafi s

JustasitisnotalwayseasytodifferentiatelsquoulamafromIslamistsorIs-lamists frommodernists it is sometimesdifficult to clearlydistinguishbetweenIslamistsandtheSalafisThelatterderivethisself-designationfromclaimsofstrictadherencetothenormativepracticeofalshysalaf alshysalih(thepiousforbears)usuallyunderstoodastheMuslimsofthefirstgenerations of Islam The guiding Salafi assumption is that these firstMuslims inbeingcontemporariesof theProphetMuhammadandtheimmediatesuccessorsofthosecontemporariesexemplifymostperfectlywhatitmeanstobeavirtuousMuslimandthatlatergenerationscandonobetterthanemulatetheexampleofthesefirstgenerationsSomever-sionofthisviewwouldfindbroadresonanceamongIslamistsbutalsoordinary believers though the Shilsquoa of various doctrinal orientationshavealwayshada farmore restrictiveviewofpreciselywho isworthemulating Again like the Islamists the Salafis insist on deriving theirnormsdirectlyfromtheIslamicfoundationaltextstheQurrsquoanandtheexampleoftheProphetMuhammadunmediatedbythemedievalschoolsoflawThismeansdoingawaywiththesortofhistoricallyarticulatedscholarlytraditionfromwhichthelsquoulamahavetendedtodrawmuchoftheirauthorityTheSalafisdohavetheirownlsquoulamamdashQaradawiisano-tableinstanceasaremembersoftheSaudireligiousestablishmentmdashbuteventheirauthorityisbasedfarmoreondirectlyinterpretingthefounda-tional texts than it is on any systematic engagement with the Islamicscholarlytradition

AllthissoundsagooddealnotjustliketheIslamistsbutalsolikethemodernistsThisshouldnotbesurprisingfortheSalafiorientationisanimportantpartofthegenealogyofbothmodernismandIslamismTheSalafi reformer Muhammad lsquoAbduh though a traditionally educatedscholarwhoservedtowardtheendofhislifeasthegrandmuftiofEgyptwasakeyinfluenceinthedevelopmentofIslamicmodernismButwhilesomeoflsquoAbduhrsquosdisciplesdevelopedhisideasinthedirectionofsecularnationalismothersmdashnotablytheSalafijournalistandQurrsquoancommenta-torRashidRidamdasheventuallytookthemdespitehismodernistproclivi-tiesinadecidedlyconservativedirection(Hourani1983alsocfDallal2000)Hasan al-Banna the founder of the MuslimBrotherhoodwasclose to many Egyptian Salafis Muhibb al-din al-Khatib (d 1969) aleadingSalafiofthetimeandtheowneroftheSalafiPublishingHousein

20

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INTRODUCTION

CairowasinchargeofoneoftheBrotherhoodrsquosfirstjournals(Mitchell1993185)andafterRidarsquosdeathin1935itwasatBannarsquosinitiativethatRidarsquosinfluentialjournalalshyManarwouldcontinuetobepublishedforsomeyears(RMitchell1993186)

ForalltheiraffinitieshoweverSalafiscannotsimplybesubsumedwiththeIslamistsanymorethantheycanwiththemodernistsUnliketheearlySalafisandothermodernists Islamistshavealmost invariablysought toaddressthemselvestoawidepopularaudienceratherthantotheintellec-tualelite(cfRMitchell1993211)TheSalafishavealsobeenfarmorepreoccupiedwithmattersofcorrectbeliefthenuancesofdoctrinethanhaveeither the Islamistsor themodernists (cfHaykel2009 [forthcom-ing])BythesametokenwhilemanyIslamistshavehadasomewhatam-bivalentrelationshipwithSufismSalafishaveusuallybeenunrelentinglyhostile to devotional Sufi practices But if it is useful to distinguish theSalafisfromothercompetingorientationsinmodernIslamitisimportantalsotorecognizethatthereismuchonwhichSalafisthemselveshavedis-agreedsometimessharplyInquestionintheseldquointernalrdquodifferencesisnottheiroverallorientationmdashtowardtheIslamicfoundational textsandthepristinenormsofIslamrsquosfirstgenerationsmdashbutratherthepreciseimplica-tionsofthisorientationforbeliefandconductinthepresentAconsider-ationofsomeofthesedifferencesshouldinturnfurtherillustratehowtheSalafisoughttobedistinguishedfromothercompetingcamps

WheremanySalafisseetheschoolsoflawasobstructingandindeeddistortingthesimplemessageofthefoundationaltextsothersviewthelegaltraditionasrepresentingIslamrsquosrichintellectuallegacyfromwhichMuslimsought todrawboth inspirationandguidanceQaradawi forinstance has been critical not just of the Muslimmodernists but alsooffellowSalafisfortheirirreverencetowardtherichesofthelegaltradi-tiontheiruneducatedproclivitytosetitasidealltoocallouslyOnthisviewarejectionofthetaqlid-boundlsquoulamashouldnotleadtotheotherextrememdashexemplifiedbynotafewSalafismdashofjettisoningthescholarlytraditionaltogether SalafisalsodifferamongthemselvesintheirattitudestowardmodernWesterninstitutionsandpracticesInthelatenineteenthandearlytwen-tieth centuries Salafi reformers like Muhammad lsquoAbduh and RashidRidainEgyptandJamalal-dinal-Qasimi(d1914)inSyriahadcalledforareorientationtowardthefoundationaltextsasawayofjustifyingnotresistingchangesinlawandeducationaswellasotherfacetsofso-cialreform(cfHourani1983Commins1990)OnthisviewadirectrecoursetotheQurrsquoanandthesunnaofferedthebestwayofdemonstrat-ing the accord between their teachings and the reformist project15 In

15SymptomaticofotherdisagreementsamongtheSalafisistheveryquestionofpreciselywhothesalafarewhoseexampleoughttobeemulatedThenarrowerviewslimitthesalaftothefirstthreegenerationsofIslammdashtheageoftheProphetMuhammadandhiscompan-ionstheirsuccessorsandthelatterrsquosimmediatesuccessorsmdashbuteventhesenarrowviews

21

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INTRODUCTION

contemporaryEuropeTariqRamadananinfluentialSwissArabphilos-opherhasarguedthatMuslimslivinginWesternsocietiesoughttofeelathomeinandcontributetoward thosesocietieswhileretainingandcultivatingtheirdistinctIslamicidentityHetooappearstoseehimselfinthegenealogyofwhathecharacterizesasldquoSalafireformismrdquo(onthischaracterization see Ramadan 2004 26ndash27) and he has echoed Qa-radawiinsomeofhisviews(cfRamadan199993ndash99) Other Salafis have remained staunchly opposed to institutions andpracticesofaWesternprovenanceAnespeciallyinfluentialfigureinthegenealogyofthelatterpositionistheeighteenth-centurypuritanicalre-former Muhammad ibn lsquoAbd al-Wahhab (d 1792) whose alliance in1744 with Muhammad ibn Salsquoud contributed to the establishment ofthefirstSaudistateinthelateeighteenthcenturyIbnlsquoAbdal-WahhabwashostilenotonlytoShilsquoismandtoSufidevotionalismbutalsotoany-thinghedeemednottobeinstrictconformitywiththeteachingsofthefoundationaltextsTherewasmuchthatseemedtohimtofailthisstan-dardallofwhichhebrandedasoneoranotherformofunbeliefTheWahhabismdashas the followers of Ibn lsquoAbd al-Wahhab are oftenknownthoughtheyprefertothinkofthemselvessimplyasgoodMuslimsoratbestasSalafismdashoftenadheretothelegalnormsoftheHanbalischooloflawthoughitistheteachingsofthefoundationaltextsirrespectiveofthisoranyotherschooldoctrinethattheyprofesstofollowThemoststringentoftheSaudiSalafisaswellasotherselsewhereareaveryfarcryindeedfromwhatQaradawiwouldcharacterizeasldquocentristrdquoSalafireformersletalonefromtheearlytwentieth-centurySalafimodernists

ThepoliticalviewsoftheWahhabisandmorebroadlyoftheSalafisare likewiseanythingbutuniformInSaudiArabiaWahhabireligiousscholarshavelongaffirmedaquietistpoliticalstancewhichhasmeantleavingmattersofthestatetotherulingfamilyFormuchofthehistoryofmodernSaudiArabiatherulingelitefor itsparthas imposedfewconstraintsontheSaudilsquoulamainmattersofreligiouslifetheregulationofsocialnormsandjudicialadministration(cfVogel2000)Onseveraloccasions however this relationship has come under severe strain In1979agroupofWahhabiswhorejectedthelegitimacyoftheSaudistateyethadtieswithsomeprominentreligiousscholarsmdashincludinglsquoAbdal-

feelconstrainedtomakeroomforsuchreveredfiguresasAhmadibnHanbaltheputativefounderoftheHanbalischooloflawandthefourteenth-centuryDamascenescholarIbnTaymiyya(d1328)OtherviewsarerathermoreexpansivenotjustinchronologicalbutalsoandcruciallyinintellectualtermsThusMuhammadlsquoAbduhthoughtthesalaftoalsoincludesuchtheologiansasal-Ashlsquoari(d935)al-Baqillani(d1013)andal-Maturidi(d944)SeeHourani1983149SuchaviewobviouslyopensthedoorforpreciselythesortoftheologicaldebatesthatotherSalafisaswellasIslamistsoftenfrownuponfortakingthebelieversveryfarfromthesimpleanddirectwordsofGod lsquoAbduhrsquosdiscipleRidaagaintookanarrowerviewofthesalafandlaterinhiscareerbecameastrongdefenderoftheWahhabisCfHourani1983230ndash32

22

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INTRODUCTION

lsquoAzizBinBaz(d1999)laterthegrandmuftiofSaudiArabiamdashtookoverthesacredprecinctsoftheKalsquobainMeccainashort-livedbutextremelyembarrassingchallenge toSaudi royalauthority (cfHegghammerandLacroix2007)In1990KingFahdrsquosdecisiontoinviteAmericantroopstodefendthekingdomagainstthethreatofanIraqiinvasioncreatedwide-spreadresentmentamongSaudis theeffectsofwhichcontinue to thisdayThestationingofnon-MuslimmilitarypersonnelinIslamrsquosholiestlandwasdeemedbythekingrsquoscriticstobescandalousandevensacrile-giousAnumberofprominentSaudiSalafispubliclycriticizedthekingrsquosdecisiononthisoccasioncallinguponhimaswellasonBinBazandoth-ersatthehelmoftheSaudireligiousestablishmenttoreorienttheSaudipolitytowarditstruereligiousfoundationsManyofthesedissidentsmdashwhowerealsojoinedbyldquosecularrdquoSaudicriticsoftheroyalfamilymdashwereandhaveremainedrestrainedintheircriticismevenastheycalledforstricterconformitytoIslamicnormsasthepanaceaforallills(cfFandy1999)OthershoweverhavedenouncedtheroyalfamilyanditsWesternalliesinnouncertaintermsBinLadenisonlythemostnotoriousofthosewhobrokewiththeroyalfamilyinthewakeofKingFahdrsquosdecisiontoinviteWesterntroopsin1990andwhocalledfortheoverthrowoftheroyal familyand for jihadagainstWesternpowers Such strident callshavebeencontinuedbyotherSalafisbothbeforeandaftertheterroristattacksofSeptember112001aswellasintheaftermathoftheUS-ledinvasionofIraq(al-Rasheed2007)

ItshouldbeclearinlightoftheforegoingthatanyunderstandingofthedifferencesbetweenIslamistsandtheSalafismustrestontakingac-countofthediversityamongtheSalafisSalafiswhooftenrejectmuchoftheIslamicscholarlytraditioninfavorofadirectrecoursetothefoun-dationaltextsarenotnecessarilyrenderedldquoIslamistrdquosimplybyvirtueofthisstanceForasnotedmanyoftheseSalafiscontinuetoprofessareso-lutelyquietiststancewhichinthecaseoftheSaudiSalafismeansaf-firmingallegiancetotheSaudiroyalfamilyThispositionisrepresentedforinstancebyBinBaztheerstwhilegrandmuftiaswellasbyotherleading members of the Saudi religious establishment A pro-regimestanceoroneindifferenttopoliticsisnolessldquopoliticalrdquoofcoursethana position of strident hostility to the established order at home andabroadForourpurposeshoweveritisonlywhentheSalafisrejecttheexistingdispensationandbeginstrivingmdashthoughnotnecessarilythroughmilitantmeansmdashforanewreligio-politicalorderthattheycanbesaidtojointheranksoftheIslamists

ItisworthnotingfinallythatSalafipositionsamongSaudisandelse-wherearemarkednotonlybydiversitybutalsobyconsiderablefluidity(al-Rasheed 2007) The same activist or intellectual might at varioustimesmoveamongavarietyofseeminglyincompatiblepositionsmdashap-pearingtobemoreldquomoderaterdquoonsomeissuesthanonothersForallhiscriticismofradicalIslamistsQaradawiforinstancehashimselfwrittenin justificationofsuicidebombingsbyPalestiniansagainst Israelis (see

23

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INTRODUCTION

chapter 9 on Qaradawi) And Saudi Salafis like Safar al-Hawali andSalmanal-lsquoAwdamdashwhocame toprominence in the early1990smdashhavealternatedbetweencriticismoftheSaudipoliciesanddenunciationsofradicalSalaficallstojihadagainsttheSaudiregime(seeal-Rasheed200759ndash101onal-HawalialsoseeReichmuth2006)Theirshiftingviewsreflect changes in their relations with the Saudi regime but they alsopointtothebroadspectrumofpositionswhichSalafishavetakenatdif-ferenttimesindifferentcontextsandbeforedifferentaudiencesThusevenasal-Hawaliandal-lsquoAwdahavecondemnedterroristactsdirectedagainstSaudiArabiaandadvisedSaudisnottofightAmericantroopsinpostndashSaddamHusseinIraqtheyhavecalledupontheIraqisthemselvestoresistAmericantroopsandhavecharacterizedthateffortasaldquodefen-sivejihadrdquo(al-Rasheed200794ndash95)

Sufi s and Islamists

ItseemsmuchsimpleronthefaceofittodistinguishbetweenIslamistsandSufisThecharacteristicSuficonvictionthattherearelevelsofmean-ingintheQurrsquoanthatgobeyondtheliteralandtheobviousandthataselectfewmdashtheldquofriendsofGodrdquomdashareendowedwiththeuniqueabilityto discern them is anathema to all those who insist that God intendsHisteachingstobeequallyintelligibletoallDespitetheirtendencytoviewthemselvesasbearersof true Islam Islamists typicallyregard theSufi idea that somepeoplehaveaprivileged relationshipwithGodassuspectthebasisnotonlyforsanctioninginterpretationsofIslamthatlackwarrantintheplainteachingsofGodandtheProphetbutalsoforpracticallyldquoworshipingrdquothesefriendsofGodIslamists(andmodernists)havefrequentlyalsobeencriticalofthewaySufidevotionalismcanyieldaturningawayfromtheworldratherthananefforttochangeitaswellasapreoccupationwithpersonalspiritualtransformationattheexpenseofconcernsforthewelfareofthecommunityatlarge SufipracticesandtheteachingsoftheSufimastershavevariedenor-mouslythroughoutthehistoryofIslamyetIslamistcritiquesofSufismareseldomattentivetoitsnuancesortothecomplexwaysithasrelatedtootherfacetsofIslamNorhaveIslamiststakenmuchaccountofthefactthatmanyleadingfiguresofearliertimeswerebesidesmuchelseSufisaswellThisistrueevenofIbnTaymiyya(d1328)whoseprestigeinIslamistandSalaficirclesismatchedbyfewothersandwhowasinhisdayamemberoftheQadiriSufiorder(Makdisi1974)EvenifonearguesmdashasanIslamistmightbeinclinedtomdashthatldquogoodrdquoSufismisnoth-ingbutproperIslamitselftheveryfactthatsuchfigureshadaSufiiden-tityatallnecessarilycomplicateswhatissupposedtobethepristinesim-plicityofafaithsharedequallybyallbelievers

Complicatingthingsstillfurtheristhevarietyofwaysinwhichsomeleading Islamists relate to Sufism Ayatollah Khomeini was a lifelongstudentofIslamicmysticismandtheinfluenceofthemedievalSpanish

24

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INTRODUCTION

Sufi Ibn lsquoArabi loomed especially large in his thought To Khomeinimysticismmdashoften referred to as lsquoirfan (gnosis) especially when inter-twinedwithIslamicphilosophyandtheology(Knysh1992632)mdashwascrucialtoaproperunderstandingofGodrsquosrelationshipwiththeworldandwiththehumanbeingItwasalsoessentialforonersquosethicalforma-tionforamasteryovertheselfandultimatelyforrealizinginoneselftheattributesofwhat Ibn lsquoArabihadcalledldquotheperfectmanrdquo (cfKnysh1992 635 also Mottahedeh 1985 180ndash85) Some of the austerity ofKhomeinirsquospersonallifeprobablyalsoderivedfromSufiasceticismAndthoughheanchoredhisconceptionofIslamicgovernmentinanexposi-tionofShilsquoijuridicalthoughtratherthaninIslamicmysticismthesortofreligiousauthorityhecametoenjoyonthebasisofhisreformulationofShilsquoipoliticaltheologyseemstoechomysticalideasoftheperfectmanwho embodies and upholds the moral order as the microcosm of theuniverse

UnlikeKhomeiniQutbwasnotaSufiandhegivesnoindicationofsharinganyofKhomeinirsquosenthusiasmforthegreatSufithinkersofear-liertimesEvensoechoesofamysticrsquosdirectencounterwiththefoun-tainheadoftruthandknowledgearehardtomissinQutbrsquoswritingses-peciallyinhiscommentaryontheQurrsquoan(cfCarreacute200395ndash97)TheveryfirstsentenceofhiscommentarymdashldquolifeintheshadeoftheQurrsquoanisablessingunknowntoanyonewhohasnrsquottasteditrdquomdashevokesthefa-miliarSufiideathatincontrovertibleknowledgeofRealityisultimatelyacquired only through direct personal experience (dhawq that is theldquotasterdquooftheTruth)ThegreatmedievalSufial-Ghazali(d1111)hadauthoredafamousautobiographicalaccountofhowitwasonlythroughthe immediacyofhispersonalmysticalexperience thathewasable toovercomehisdebilitatingepistemologicaldoubtsandreassurehimselfofthenecessarytruths(Watt199857)QutbdoesnotmentionGhazaliinthiscontextbutitisdifficultnottobestruckbythemysticalresonanceofsomeofhislanguageHereisoneexamplewhichoccursinhiscom-mentaryonsura(chapter)53oftheQurrsquoan16

16TheearlyversesinthissuraoftheQurrsquoanhavebeenunderstoodbyMuslimexegetesasreferringtotheProphetrsquosrevelatoryexperienceaswellastohisldquonightjourneyrdquoandhisascensiontoheavenormilsquoraj inthecourseofonenighthewastransportedfirstfromMeccatoJerusalemandthentothepresenceofGodbeforebeingreturnedtoMecca

UnrelatedtothenightjourneybutrelatedtohisrevelatoryexperiencestheexegeticalsignificanceofthisQurrsquoanicsuraalsoliesinitsconnectionwiththeso-calledSatanicVersesAccordingtocertainexegeticalreportsMuhammadwasinthecourseofreceivingarevela-tionwhenSataninterpolatedsomeversesintoitmdashversespraisingthreegoddessesreveredbythepolytheistsofMeccaItwasnotuntilsometimelaterthatMuhammadrealizedhiserrorwhereupontheversesinterpolatedbySatanwereremovedTheepisodeoftheldquoSa-tanicVersesrdquohasbeenacontroversialoneinIslamichistorylongbeforeSalmanRushdiersquosnovelofthatnameandKhomeinirsquosjuridicalruling(fatwa)callingforRushdiersquosdeathMostMuslimscholarshavefoundittooshockingtobelievethattheProphetcouldhavemadesuchagrievouserrorandhavedeniedthatanysuch incidentever tookplaceYetsome

25

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

IwaschattingoneeveningwithsomecompanionswhentoourearscamethesoundofsomeonerecitingtheQurrsquoannearbyrecitingtheSuraoftheStar[al-Najm]andweinterruptedourconversationtolistentotheNobleQurrsquoanLittlebylittlemyheartenteredintowhatwasbeing recited into theheartofMuhammadashe jour-neyedtotheHeavenlyHostIwaswithhimashesawGabrielintheangelicforminwhichGodhadcreatedhimIwaswithhiminhis loftyandfree-flying journey to theLoteTreeof theBoundaryandtheGardenoftheRefugeIwaswithhimtotheextentthatmyimaginationcouldformavisionofitandtotheextentthatmyfeelings couldbear itThen came the final cry andmywholebeingshookatthefearfulreproachldquoDoyoumarvelatthisdiscourseanddoyoulaughandnotweepandmakemerryrdquo[Q5359ndash61]WhenIheardldquoBowdownbeforeGodandserveHimrdquo[Q5362]thetremblinginmyhearthadbecomeaphysicalandvisibletremblingthroughoutmybodythatIcouldnotresistMybodykeptshakingandIcouldnotcontrolitNorcouldIholdbackthetearsthatwerepouringforthhowevermuchItried(QutbZilalvol7part2774ndash75quotedfromCarreacute2003333ndash34withminorchanges)

TheQurrsquoanrsquosprofoundimpactontheaestheticsensibilitiesofitslisten-ersisafamiliarmotifindiscussionsofitsliteraryqualities(cfGrahamandKermani2006)AssomeonewhoseearlywritingswereconcernedwithArabicliterarycriticismandspecificallywiththeliteraryexcellenceoftheIslamicscripture(Qutb1949b)QutbwasespeciallyreceptivetothisaspectoftheQurrsquoanThesenseofbeingtransportedbacktothetimeoftheProphetandtowitnessingtheProphetrsquosascension(milsquoraj)tothepresence of Godmdashwhich is how the passage being commented on byQutbherehascommonlybeeninterpretedbytheexegetesmdashcanlikewisebeseenasanillustrationoftheoverpoweringimpactthewordsoftheQurrsquoancanhaveonthebelieverQutbrsquosaccountofconversingwithGodthrough the Qurrsquoan (cited earlier) is again something he may havewantedtoseeallbelieversdoYetallbelieverscanscarcelydosoany-morethanallaspirantsevenontheSufipathcanexperiencethetransfor-mativemysticalldquostatesrdquothatGodbestowsonHisspecialfriends(awlshyiya)IrrespectiveofwhetherhesawitinquitethiswayQutbrsquosassertionthatheisabletoenterldquointotheheartofMuhammadrdquoandtoseeGabrielasMuhammad sawhimsurelygiveshimaperspective thatothers en-counteringthewordofGoddonothave

ThepointisnotofcoursethatQutbwaseverrecognizedbyhisfol-lowersasaSufimasterbutthatsomeofthehermeneuticalauthorityheclaimshasadistinctiveSufiringtoitMorebroadlythesortofunques-

leadingscholarsofearlyandmedievalIslammdashincludingIbnTaymiyyamdashacceptedthehisto-ricityofthisincidentSeeSAhmed1998

26

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INTRODUCTION

tioningreligio-politicalauthorityIslamistleadershaveoftenenjoyedovertheirfollowersisnotunlikethatoftheSufimasteroverhisfollowersBe-ginningwithHasanal-BannathefounderoftheMuslimBrotherhoodandoncehimselfamemberofaSufiordertheleaderofthisorganizationis formally referred to as themurshid (guide)ormore specificallyalshymurshid alshylsquoam (thegeneralguide[RMitchell1993165])whichisafamiliartermforthemasterinSuficontextsForhispartAbdessalamYassine the founder and leader of lsquoAdl warsquol-Ihsan Party of Morocco(oftenreferredtoastheJusticeandSpiritualityAssociationorJSA)haslike Khomeini gone well beyond simply echoing Sufi conceptions ofauthorityinhisowndiscoursesHetoowasonceamemberofaMoroc-canSufiorderandhehascontinuedtodrawonSufithemesinhiswrit-ingsTheverynameofYassinersquospoliticalorganizationevokesacentralSufiideanamelyihsanThisisaQurrsquoanicterm(cfQ756)thattrans-latedliterallymeansldquotodogoodrdquothoughSufishaveunderstoodittomeanmuchmore thanthatFollowingawell-knownstatementattrib-uted to theProphetMuhammad theyhaveoften interpreted ihsan tomeangoingbeyondtheexternalsofIslamicritualpracticestoldquoworshipGodasifyouseeHimrdquo(Schimmel197529)thatiscultivatingasenseof personal communion and intimacy with God Even as Yassine hassoughttodistancehimselffromwhathedeemstobetheexcessesofSu-fismthereislittledoubtthathispoliticalappealowesmuchtocarefullycalibratedeffortstocombinedistinctiveSufiideaswithhisownbrandofIslamism(cfLauziegravere2005seealsochapter12onNadiaYassineinthisvolume)

FinallyMawdudirsquosJamalsquoat-iIslamimdashoneoftheearliestIslamistorga-nizations in the Sunni worldmdashillustrates both the Islamistsrsquo complexrelationshipwith Sufismand their pragmatic recognitionof its appealinmanyMuslimsocietiesMawdudihadoncebeenaharshcriticofSu-fismblamingitformanyillsafflictingMuslimsocietiesYettheJama-lsquoat-iIslamigraduallycametosoftenitsstanceonSufipracticesconsider-ablynodoubtintheinterestofbroadeningsomeofitssupportbaseinPakistanwheresaintsandSufishrinesareanimportantpartofthereli-giousandpoliticallandscapeAlreadyinMawdudirsquoslifetimeMianTufaylMuhammadhissuccessorastheheadoftheJamalsquoat-iIslamihadtakentheextraordinaryinitiativeoftranslatinganearlySuficlassictheKashf alshymahjub into Urdu The author of this work Shaykh lsquoAli Hujwiri(d1072)isburiedinLahoreinPakistanandhismuch-frequentedshrineishometoprecisely thesortofdevotionalpractices that Islamistsandmodernist reformers letaloneSalafishaveoften frownedupon (Nasr1996124)

ThesediverseexamplesarenotintendedtoobscuretherealdifferencesbetweenthegeneralityofIslamistsandmostSufisTheirsignificanceliesratherinillustratingthedifficultyofdistinguishingbetweenIslamismandotherreligiousintellectualandpoliticaltrendsintermsofneatcharac-

27

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

terizationsofgrandtranslocalgeneralizationsAstheforegoingsuggeststhesameistrueandmoresowhenitcomestocharacterizingIslamistsinrelationtothelsquoulamatheMuslimmodernistsandtheSalafisIndeedasLorenLybargerhasarguedwithreferencetothoseusuallycharacter-izedasldquosecularnationalistrdquoorldquoIslamistrdquoPalestiniansintheWestBankandGazadifferenceswithintheranksofyoungsecularnationalistsandIslamistscansometimesalsoshadeintosignificantsimilaritiesbetweenthesesupposedlyrivalorientations(Lybarger2007)ManyIslamistshavesoughttodistancethemselvesfromwhattheyseeastherigidityandau-thoritarianismofotherIslamistsandtoarguenotjustfortheimplemen-tationofthesharilsquoabutalsofordemocracyandpluralismConverselynot a few of the younger secular nationalists have ldquoadopted IslamisttheodiciesthatexplainedthefailuretoovercomeIsraelastheresultoffallingawayfrompietytheirconclusionsmirroredIslamistonestootheroadbackfromthebrinkhadtotraceitscoursethrougharenewedcom-mitmenttoIslambutnotnecessarilyinthemannerthattheIslamistmove-mentsmighthaveintendedrdquo(Lybarger2007237ndash38quotationat238)

Yet ifneatcategoriesremainelusiveacombinationoftheIslamistsrsquoself-consciouslypoliticalgoalstheirmultifacetedifnotalwaysexplicitpoliticalcritiquesofmanypastandpresentwaysofunderstandingandlivingIslamandanunshakeableconfidenceintheirownabilitytodis-cern Godrsquos will from the foundational texts do often provide enoughgrounds tobroadlydistinguish themfromotheractivists intellectualsand orientations in the Muslim public sphere What this combinationamountstovariesfromonesocialpoliticalreligiousandculturalcon-texttoanotherandsothereforedothewaysinwhichIslamistsrelatetooneanotherorcompeteandoverlapwithothergroupsandorientations

The Politics of Islamism

FromAeneasrsquosmythicalfoundingofRometothedeathandresurrectionofJesusChristtoMuhammadrsquosmigrationtoMedinafoundationalnar-rativesareascommontocollectivelifeasthemovementsthatperiodi-callyarisetorevivethemandclaimantstothemantleoflegitimacytheyconferSounderstoodIslamistsrsquopoliticalaspirationstorestorefounda-tionslocatedinamythicalpastarefarfromuniqueNorareIslamistsaloneintheirconvictionthatscripturalauthorityisguaranteedbyitsdi-vineauthormdashforinthatallMuslimsagreeRatherthechaptersinthisvolumesuggest thatwhatmakes Islamistpoliticsdistinctive (ifnotsui generis)istheclaimtorecuperateanldquoauthenticIslamrdquocomprisedofself-evidenttruthspurgedofalienandcorruptinginfluencesalongwithaninsistenceonremakingthefoundationsofthestateinitsimageGiventhelimitsofhumanunderstandingrelativetoGodrsquosknowledgeIslamistssimultaneouslydepictsuchfidelitytotheunadulteratedwordofAllahas

28

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

theultimateexpressionofdeferencetodivineomniscienceandportrayhumilityasaconstitutivefeatureofthehumanconditionAspirationstofullyknowandmasterthenaturalandsocialworldsthusentailnotonlyahumanhubrisdeaftotheQurrsquoanicadmonitionthatldquoAllahknowsbutandyoudonotknowrdquo(Q366)butalsoatransgressionagainstadi-vinely-ordainedontologicalorder

ItisnotablehoweverthattheIslamistemphasisonthelimitsofhumanknowledgerequireshumilityonlyinrelationtoAllahitrarelyyieldshu-milityinregardtotheirownclaimstospeakinHisnameortowardotherhumanbeingswhodissentfromthepremiseofdivineomnipotenceandIslamistaccountsofwhat it requiresThis suggests thatwhile IslamistchallengestostatepowerareobviouslypoliticaltheIslamistclaimtoau-thenticityisalsopolitical inthecoercivepoweritroutinelyenactsandjustifiesmostnotablybywayofthesilencesitimposesandthedebatesitforeclosesAzizal-Azmehpointsoutthatldquothenotionofauthenticityisnotsomuchadeterminateconceptasitisanodeofassociationsandin-terpellationsatropebymeansofwhichthehistoricalworldisreducedtoaparticularorderandatokenwhichmarksoffsocialandpoliticalgroupsandforgesandreconstituteshistoricalidentitiesrdquo(al-Azmeh199341)WhetherintheserviceofArabnationalismChristianfundamental-ismEuropeanromanticismorMuslimmodernismtheclaimofauthen-ticityisanactofpowerthatfunctionsnotjusttoreflecttheworldbuttoconstructitbydeterminingwhoisincludedandexcludedwhomayandmaynotspeakauthoritativelywhatistheproperrealmofdebateandwhatisbeyondcontestation

ItiscertainlythecasethatasingleldquoIslamrdquocapturesandorganizestheperspectivesofmillionswhoself-identifyasMuslim(amongotherthings)yetwhattravelsunderitsrubricisinescapablydiversemultiethnicanddefined asmuchbydisagreement as consensus Just as theTorah andBible lend themselves toat times radicallydivergent interpretationsofwhatitmeanstobeJewishorChristiantheQurrsquoanandhaditharecom-plexandsusceptibletomanydifferentandattimescontradictoryenact-mentsSounderstoodIslamislessafixedessencethanalivingtraditionthatcaptureswhatisimaginedascontinuousandunitaryindialecticalrelationshiptothoseconcretearticulationsandpracticesbywhichitistransformedandadaptedindifferentcontextsforpluralpurposesItispreciselythisunderstandingofreligionthatisanathematoIslamistswhoseek tofix theparametersof Islamicauthenticityonceandforallandtherebyarrogateforthemselvestherighttodeterminewhoqualifiesasagood Muslim to discredit those lsquoulama unable or unwilling to purgeIslamofpurportedimpietiestodeclarenominallyMuslimrulersapos-tatesunfittogovernandtocharacterizeallwhodisagreeascorrupthe-reticalguiltyofunbelieforvictimsoffalseconsciousness

Thesegeneralpoliticaltendencieshowevermustbecarefullysituatedwithinadialecticoftheglobalandthevernacularunderstoodtoreflect

29

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INTRODUCTION

thewaysinwhichunifyingmacrohistoricaldynamicsinformandareinturntransformedbydiversecontingentandfluidlocalcircumstancesInaworldstampedbyWesterndominanceandtheconsolidationofpostco-lonial authoritarian regimes Islamists confront a common set of con-straintsandchallengesInasmuchassuchconstraintsandchallengeshavemade Islamist thinkers (often reluctant) participants in conversationsacrossbothcultureandhistorytheireffortstoremakethefoundationsofcollectiveliferevealasharedinterpretiveframeworkandcommonreli-gio-political grammar At the same time this frame and grammar arecontinuallybeingreworkedinrelationtothedistinctpublicspheresinwhichIslamistsoperateandtowhichtheycarefullycalibratetheirpoliti-calcommitments

Attention to this complex dynamic suggests that the Islamist move-mentcannotsimplybecharacterizedasviolentantidemocraticandop-pressiveofwomenlabelsinvokedsofrequentlyinscholarlyandpopularliterature on the subject that they have become virtually synonymouswithIslamistpoliticsSuchcharacterizationsdocapturecrucialdimen-sionsofIslamistpoliticsyettheyalsosidesteptheparadoxesitsvarie-gatedandoftencontradictoryexpressionspresentInsteadwearguethatIslamistpoliticscanbeproductivelyreadin terms ofandagainst the grain ofsuchbroadcategorizationsasantidemocraticantiwomanorviolentmdashthat is as commitments that at different moments in various localesbothencourageandconstrainbroad-basedpoliticalparticipationdisruptandratifyhierarchicalgendernormsresistandreproducestate-sanctionedbrutalityThepointofreadingIslamistpoliticsinthiswayisnottosug-gestthatIslamistsaresecretlydemocraticfeministandopposedtovio-lenceRatherthepointistodrawattentiontothecomplexityandcon-tradictionserasedbyeasygeneralizationsontheonehandandtheoftenunacknowledgedfluidityandculturaladaptabilityofotherwisefamiliarpoliticalcategoriesontheother

Islamism and Democracy

DespiteimportantdifferencesamongIslamistthinkerstheyhaveincom-monatendencytoviewhumansovereigntyastransgressiveofdivinelawandsharetheaspirationtoestablishsharilsquoaastheprimaryorsolesourceofauthorityAsisoftennotedsuchpremisesandaspirationsrunafoulofassumptionsaboutpopularruleattheheartofdemocracynamelythathumanbeingshavetherighttolegislaterulesforcollectivebehaviorandarecapableofthewisdomrequiredtodevisejustlawsInrecentyearspolicymakersandcommentatorshaveevincedaparticularpreoccupa-tionwiththewaysinwhichIslamistnotionsofdivineauthoritythrottlethespiritandpracticeofpopularsovereigntySomehaveevengonesofarastocharacterizeIslamistsasldquoIslamo-fascistsrdquoanimatedbyhatredoftheldquodemocratic Westrdquo psychologically unable to contend with the fluidity

30

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

andindeterminacythatmarkpopularruleandeagertoconvertelectionsintoaldquoone-manone-voteone-timerdquomechanismforestablishinganIs-lamicstate(Murdock2002MRubin2005Kramer1993)

SuchviewsareechoedbythoseIslamistskeentoportraydemocracynotonlyasantitheticaltothesupremacyofdivinelawbutasaTrojanhorseforWesternimperialismFormanyIslamistsincludingseveralinthis volumedemocracy is justone symptomofametastasizingmoralandspiritualbankruptcywherebymoraltransgressionsaretransfiguredintonaturalurgescrassself-interestbecomesthebedrockofcollectivelifeandthedivineplanfortheuniverseandallthingsinitisreducedtoa system of physical causality just waiting to be mastered by way ofhumaningenuity(REuben2007)Qutbcallsthisdiseasedviewoftheworldjahiliyyaanditsignalsnotonlyhumanarrogancebutatransgres-sionagainstdivineauthoritythescopeofwhichencompassesbothpub-licandprivatedomainsofhumanaffairsaswellasbothvisibleandun-seendimensionsoftheuniverseFormanyIslamistssuchtransgressionisattherootofmuchofwhatpassesforMuslimruleinthecontemporaryworldmdashnationalistdemocraticandmonarchicalalikeSucharroganceisalsosaidtobethepatternunderlyingalonghistoryofunrelievedWest-ernaggressionagainstIslaminwhichtheChristianCrusadesEuropeancolonialismIsraelitreatmentofPalestiniansethniccleansinginBosniaGermananti-TurkishviolencetheAmericaninvasionofIraqandDutchcartoonsofMuhammadarebutafewexamples

YetthereisarangeofviewsamongIslamistsaboutboththesubstanceofdemocracyanditscompatibilitywiththereligio-politicalrenewaltheyadvocateAccordingtoQaradawiforexampleldquotheessenceofdemoc-racyisthatpeoplechoosewhorulesoverthemandmanagestheiraf-fairsthatnorulerorregimetheydislikeisforceduponthemthattheyhavetherighttocalltherulertoaccountifheerrsandtoremovehimfromofficeincaseofmisconductandthatpeoplearenotforcedineco-nomicsocialculturalorpoliticaldirectionsthattheyneitherrecognizenor acceptrdquo (Qaradawi1997132 also chapter9 in this volume)TohimthereisnoheavierburdenoppressingMuslimsinthecontemporaryworld thandespotism indeed it is throughdespoticgovernments thatMuslimshavebeenforcedtosubmittootherillsincludingtheneglectofthesharilsquoaandthecoerciveimpositionofsecularismandwesternizationDemocracy then recommends itself to Qaradawi as the most effectiveavailableantidotetodespotismandtheafflictionsofwhichitservesasavehicle

WheremanyamongtheIslamistsandthelsquoulamahaveseenconsider-able tensionbetween IslamanddemocracyQaradawiprofesses to seenoneAswesuggestedearlierbyfarthemostcommonoftheIslamistreservationsaboutademocraticsystemrelatestothesovereigntyofthepeoplewhichistakentocontravenetheideathatGodaloneissovereignQaradawi however is unperturbedby such concernsThe rule of the

31

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

peopleoughttobeseenhearguesnotinoppositiontotheruleofGodbutratherinoppositiontotheruleofthedespotMorefundamentallyQaradawirsquos view of democracy does not necessarily require that thepeopleshouldbeabletooverturndivinelyinstitutednormsRatherhisassumptionisthatpeopleexercisetheirsovereigntywithinconstitutionalboundsandMuslimslivinginapredominantlyMuslimdemocraticpol-itywouldlikewisenotwishtotransgresstheparametersoflegitimatehumanactionlaiddownintheIslamicfoundationaltexts(seeQaradawichapter9inthisvolumeandcfFeldman2007)

NadiaYassineofMoroccorsquosJusticeandSpiritualityAssociationisan-othercaseinpointWhilecriticalofthedemocraticgesturesembracedbyamonarchythatshedepictsasallergictogenuinelypopularsovereigntyYassineinsiststhatthemodelofMuslimruleadumbratedintheummafoundedbytheProphetMuhammadandinparticulartheConstitutionofMedina17isnothingshortofdemocratic(NYassine2005d2005e)UnliketheMuslimdynastiesthatarosetousurpitYassinecontendsthiscommunity was participatory egalitarian committed to freedom andexpressiveofGodrsquosmercyMostimportantitwasgovernedalwaysbytheQurrsquoanicprincipleofshura (consultation)bywhichYassinemeansaphilosophy of power that places sovereignty in the community ratherthaninanyindividuallinksvirtuetodeliberationratherthanobedienceandexhortsbelieverstocontinuallyadaptQurrsquoanicprinciplesthroughijtihad rather than adhere reflexively to precedent (N Yassine 2006a182ndash862005d)ManyscholarsandjournalistsremainskepticaloftheJSArsquosasyetuntestedcommitment toproceduraldemocracyandworrythatNadiaandher fatherAbdessalamultimatelyseektoestablishanIslamic state inhospitable to tolerance pluralism and civil liberties(Maghraoui2001Brandon2007Whitlock2006)YetothersarguethattheJSAisagenuinelypopulistorganizationthatrepresentstheunrepre-sentedtendstothewelfareofthedispossessedandbothexpressesandcontributestoanincreasinglyvibrantcivilsocietyinMorocco(Cavatorta2006Entelis2002)

QaradawirsquosandYassinersquosargumentstogethersuggestthatdemocracycanandhasservedaseitheracosmeticcoverfordespotismoranauthen-ticallyIslamiccheckuponcorruptandarbitraryruleAtissueinIslamistargumentsforandagainstdemocracythenarenotonlywhatcountsasldquoauthenticIslamrdquoandtheintentionsofthosewhoclaimtoknowitbutalsothecontentandcharacterofdemocracyitselfParadoxicallybothIslamistsopposedtodemocracyandthosewhotakeIslamismasinher-entlyantidemocraticregardthisasasimplematterwithanobviousan-swerdemocracyisanexpressionofandevensynonymouswithliberal-ismcapitalismandtheWestYetdemocracyisbothmorecapaciousand

17TheConstitutionofMedinawasanagreementtheProphethadenteredintowiththelocalcommunitiesincludingJewishtribesuponhisemigrationfromMeccatoMedina

32

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

moredistinctthanthispresumptionsuggestsTheworditselfofcoursederivesfromtheancientGreekdemokratiawhichmeansrule(kratos)ofthepeople(demos)andmanyderivetheequationofdemocracyandtheWestfromthisassociationwithclassicalGreeceYetancientGreekphi-losopherssuchasPlatosawindemocracythespecterofmobrulepartic-ularly vulnerable to demagoguery and despotism (a suspicion notablyechoedbyAmerican founder JamesMadison)Contrary to thedemo-cratic idealof inclusivenessmoreover citizenship inGreekdemocracyexcludedasubstantialpartofthepopulationincludingwomenslavesandforeignersFinallytheextenttowhichtheancientGreeksmayevenbecalledWesternisamatterofgreatdisputeparticularlyastheldquoWestrdquoisacategoryofrelativelyrecentprovenancethroughwhichhistoryandgeographyhavebeenretroactivelyorganized18DespitedepictionsoftheHellenicworldasWesternancientGreeksdidnotinfactviewthem-selvesintheseterms19

TheequationofdemocracywiththeWestalsopresupposestheexis-tenceofacoherentldquoWesterncivilizationrdquowitheitherculturallyhomoge-neousrootsorclearlydelineatedhistoricalandcontemporarybounda-riesorbothYetwhatiscalledtheWestisanamalgamationofmultipletraditionsincludingtheGreekRomanJudaicChristianandIslamicmdashtraditionsthatarethemselvespolyvalentratherthanhomogeneousmdashandistodaycharacterizedbyporousbordershybridsubculturesandmyriaddebtstodiversecivilizationspastandpresent20AsageographicmarkeritisvirtuallyimpossibletopinpointexactlywheretheWestbeginsandendsandthisisespeciallysonowthatpeoplesinformationandmate-rial goods crisscross cultural andnational borders atwill creating allkindsoftransnationalsubnationalandmultipleidentitiesthatshiftandreconstitutethemselvesinunpredictablewaysEventhosevaluesidenti-fiedasWesternoftenappearelsewhereinotherguisesIndeedscholarssuggestthatavarietyoftheldquostandardsexportedbytheWestanditscul-turalindustriesthemselvesturnouttobeofculturallymixedcharacterifweexaminetheirculturallineagesrdquo(Pieterse199553)

Manyalsoarguethatdemocracyisnotonlydistinctfrombutinten-sionwithboththetheoryandpracticeofpoliticsinldquoWesternrdquosocieties

18MichaelGillespie(19997ndash10)arguesthattherereadingofhistorygeographyandculturethroughtheprismofthissenseofldquotheWestrdquobegannoearlierthanthenineteenthcenturyTheideaofatimelessandbrightlinebetweenWestandEastisalsochallengedbyJeremyBrottonrsquosstudy(19989096ndash97)ofthediplomaticandintellectualexchangesbe-tweenEuropeandtheOttomanEmpireintheearlymodernperiodBrottonshowsnotonlytheextentandamityofsuchexchangesbutapersistentuncertaintyaboutwherepreciselyEuropeldquoendedrdquoandAsialdquobeganrdquo

19AncientGreeksunderstoodthemselvesasgeographicallywestofthebarbariansbutnotWesterninthecontemporarysensethatisasbothaculturalandhistoricalcategory

20StevenRuncimanrsquoswork(19543480)ontheCrusadesforexampledemonstratesaldquolongsequenceofinteractionandfusionbetweenOrientandOccidentoutofwhichourcivilizationhasgrownrdquo

33

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

many of which are more accurately classified as liberal and capitalist(Wood1994Wolin2001BallandDagger1999)Whileitisnowcom-monplacetospeakofldquoliberaldemocracyrdquoinasinglebreathliberalismanddemocracyareconceptsandpracticeswithverydifferenthistoriesandpresuppositionsUnlikedemocracyforexampleliberalismemergedfromthecrucibleofChristianreligiouswarsandintandemwiththeas-cendanceofamiddleclassthatpresagedtheendofEuropeanfeudalismTheliberalnation-statecanthusbeviewedasbothanexpressionandaconsolidationofcapitalismontheonehandandtheprincipleofasepa-rationbetweenchurchandstateontheotherBycontrastthereisnoth-ingaboutdemocracyeitherasasystemofgovernanceoracultureofpar-ticipationthatisinherentlysecularIndeedAlexisdeTocquevillefamouslyinsistedthatAmericandemocracycannotandshouldnotbesecularasreligionhelpsshiftattentionawayfromimmediatematerialpreoccupa-tionstolargerconcernsofcommunitycooperationandmoralityInfactmanydemocratictheoristsarguethatgenuinelyinclusivepopularsover-eignty is antithetical to the sharp inequalities of wealth and politicalpowerthatcapitalismoftenproducesandlegitimates

SuchongoingdefinitionalandsubstantivedebatessuggestthatthereismuchmoreatstakeindemocraticpoliticsthanprocedurespertainingtogovernmentauthorityandorderandpointtoawidespreadifelusiveunderstandingofdemocracynotjustasasetofinstitutionsbutasTocque-villesuggestsawayoflifeSeveralpoliticaltheoristshavecharacterizedthiselusiveunderstandingintermsofaldquodemocraticethosrdquoBythistheymeanbothanidealandanargumentforacultureofparticipationactivepowersharingmutualaccountabilityinclusivenessanddeliberationinwhichcitizensmayroutinelyandsafelychallengenotonlyspecificpoli-ciesandpolitical institutionsbutalso thevalues thatgoverncollectivelifeprinciplesofinclusionandexclusionandthepremisesofauthorityitself(Connolly1995JPEuben2003Sadiki2004)AdemocraticethosismuchmoredifficulttomeasureorquantifythanforexampleSamuelHuntingtonrsquosparsimoniousdefinitionofdemocracyasapolityinwhichtherehavebeentwoconsecutivepeacefulchangesofgovernmentbywayof freeand fairelections (Huntington1991)21Yetademocraticethosmakesitpossibletobothrecognizeanddisaggregatethepreconditionsaspirations mechanisms and institutions bundled into ldquodemocracyrdquotherebybringingintofocusforexamplethefrequentlyantidemocratic

21Manypoliticalscientistsprefertodefinedemocracyintermsofproceduresdesignedtorealizepopularruleincludingfreecompetitiveandfairelectionsalongwithstateprotec-tionofcertainrightsandlibertiesSuchaformalminimalistdefinitionhastheadvantageofdetachingdemocracyfromquestionsoforiginsandofferingastandardtowhichallgov-ernmentsmaybeheldregardlessofcultureandplaceAsKeithTopper(2005205ndash7)ar-gueshoweveritalsotendstosidestepknottyquestionsaboutthesubstanceofrepresenta-tion power responsiveness and accountability that are arguably central to democraticpolitics

34

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

casttoelectionsimposedbyelitesorforeignpowersthefeltimpotenceofmanycitizensinestablisheddemocraciesandthosehighlyparticipa-torycivilsocietiesthatflourishevenundermonarchicortheocraticrule

Forourpurposes inparticularademocraticethosmakesvisible theparadoxofanIslamistmovementthatseekstomobilizeordinaryMus-limsagainstcoercivepowerbutinthenameofareligio-politicalorderlargelyimmunizedfromchallengeQutbisanaptillustrationhereashistendencytogroundhisownspecialauthorityandinsightintheunsulliedwisdomofordinarybelieversmakesitpossibletoreadhisworkaseitherabriefagainstdemocracy(amongotherthings)oranenactmentofitIn-asmuchasdemocracyasaformofgovernanceisidentifiedwithpopularsovereigntyQutbrsquosbasicpremisethat thefoundationof legitimateau-thoritymustbedivineratherthanhumansuggeststhatheisunambigu-ouslyantidemocraticMoreoverQutbrsquoseffortstopluralizereligiousandpolitical authority express not a confidence in common wisdom butratheradesiretoclaimforhimselfthestatureofareligiousexpertwhodespitehislackofIslamicacademiccredentialscanclearlyseewhatoth-erscannotQutbcharacterizestherealIslamasself-evidentbuthealsoassumesthatonlyasmallvanguardofbelieversbesideshimselfwillhavetheabilitytorecognizeitandactdecisivelytoremaketheworldinitsimageSounderstoodthesignofldquochosennessrdquoisunyieldingcommitmenttoestablishingareligio-politicalorderthatsimultaneouslypresumesthesupremacyofthefewcapableoftrueknowledgeandpromisesaworldinwhichdissentitselfwillbecomebothunnecessaryandillegitimate

Yetifdemocracyrefersnotonlytoasystemofgovernanceorsetofprocedurestorealizepopularsovereigntybutalsotopracticesthatdis-ruptthoseforceswhichconcentratepowerandestablishpoliticalexclu-sionthecharacterizationofQutbrsquosworkassimplyantidemocraticmissesa crucial dimensionof its significance and appealAs the sacred textscontaintherulesandregulationsmeanttogovernbothpublicandpri-vateaffairsQutbrsquosinsistencethatordinaryuntrainedMuslimsmusten-gagethemdirectlyisinmanywaysademocratizationofaccesstoau-thoritySuchaccesscandisruptdeeplyentrenchedpatternsofpowerandpowerlessness particularlywhen conjoined to Islamist arguments thatarbitrarypowerisun-Islamicthatreligiousknowledgedependsoncom-mitmentratherthantrainingorexpertise thatMuslimshavetherightandobligationtodeterminewhenrulersareillegitimateandthatthosewhopreferordertojusticesecuritytofreedomandmoneytopietyhaveforfeitedanyclaimtoauthority

ThisaspectofIslamismhasfrequentlybeencomparedtotheProtestantReformationandmorespecificallytoCalvinistsrsquoattemptstotransferldquore-ligiousauthorityawayfromofficiallysanctionedindividualswhointer-prettextstoordinarycitizensrdquo(EGoldberg19913alsocfLoimeier2005)Suchaparallelhassparkedagreatdealofscholarlyspeculation

35

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

regardingapossibleldquoIslamicReformationrdquo22andarangeofargumentsaboutwhetherandhowIslamismmightfacilitatethedemocratizationofMuslim societies much as the Protestant Reformation is said to haveheralded the emergence of European ldquoliberal democracyrdquo While suchcomparisonsareevocativeafullerunderstandingof IslamismrequiresfirstsituatingitinrelationtoahistoricalshiftinthenatureandlocusofreligiousauthorityinIslambeginninginthenineteenthcenturyAsschol-arsofMuslimsocietieshavepointedouttheimpactofmasseducationnewtechnologiesfordisseminatingknowledgeandinformationanddra-matically changed social economic and political contexts have madeavailabletoamateurswhathadpreviouslybeenthepurviewofreligiousexpertsAtthesametimeithasinauguratedafragmentationofauthor-itywithintheveryranksofthelsquoulamathatcontinuestothepresentday23

InthiscontexttheascendanceandinfluenceofautodidactssuchasQutbHasanal-BannalsquoAbdal-SalamFarajandBinLadensimultaneouslyex-pressandaccelerateanongoingrenegotiationofauthorityoverwhomayspeakforIslamandonwhatbasisthepathofwhichisstillunfoldingandtheoutcomeasyetuncertain

Islamism and Gender

One already apparent consequence of this ongoing renegotiation overwhomayspeakforIslamandonwhatbasisistheentryofwomenintothe interpretive fray This development is increasingly unsettling thoseunwrittengendernormsarguablyattheveryheartofIslamistthoughtdisruptingthestandardsofmasculinityandfemininitythatreflecthowparticularculturesorganizehumanbeingsrsquosocialandreproductiveactiv-itiesintorolesthatareinturnthoughttoexpresstheldquonaturerdquoofmenand women Such norms are frequently considered tangential to theknottyproblemsofdefiningIslamismandadumbratingitscentralideasyetarangeofscholarshiponculturespastandpresenthasshownthatgenderisconsistentlytheterrainoverwhichbattlesforpoliticalcontrolandculturalidentityarefoughtMorespecificallyresearchindisciplinessuchasanthropologyhistoryclassicsandpostcolonialstudieshasdem-onstratedthatculturesinwhichfemalebodiesandbehaviorareregardedas indicesofmoralpurity tend to symbolically transformwomen intoconduitsof cultural corruption in timesof internal crisis and externalthreat(Papenek1994Chatterjee1990Tavakoli-Targhi1991Just1989Cohen1991Welter1966Bloch1978)Thisisespeciallytrueofcontem-

22Foralatenineteenth-centuryassessmentoftheprospectsforaldquoMuhammadanRefor-mationrdquoseeBlunt1882132ndash73

23EickelmanandPiscatori199637ndash39131ndash35Zaman2006Suchfragmentationhasinmanywaysbeenacceleratedbytheexplosionofdigitalcultureswhichpromoteamongotherthingsaldquoformofempoweredamateurismrdquo(Mirzoeff20026)

36

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

poraryreligio-politicalmovementswhosememberstendtoldquoidealizepa-triarchalstructuresofauthorityandmoralityrdquoendorsegenderdualismasgod-givenornaturalandcondemnvigorouslyrecentchangesingen-derrelationsasasymptomandsymbolofsecularistmoralbankruptcy(Riesebrodt1993Moghadam1992Hawley1994)

SeveralchaptersinthisvolumeilluminateIslamistgendernormsbyre-vealing thecharacterandcontentof Islamistconcernsabout theplaceandpurityofMuslimwomenmdashpreoccupationsFatimaMernissi(199199)hasgonesofarastocharacterizeasanobsessionDespiteimportantdifferences among Islamists thinkers many endorse gender norms inwhichthefairlyconventionalinsistencethatfemalenatureisdefinedinand through reproduction undergirds an understanding of women assymbolsofmoralvirtueandvesselsofculturalpurityThisviewsustainstheclaimthatmenandwomenareequalinreligiousbeliefbutperformfundamentallydifferentandcomplementaryfunctionsinsocietyWhilemenarenaturallymadetoruleinboththepublicandprivatedomainawomanbelongsinthedomesticrealmwhereherprimaryroleistobeawifeandmotheraswellastoinsuretheintegrityofthefamilythefirstschoolofmoraleducationAssuchfunctionsarerootedinaninescap-ablehumannaturefashionedbyGodawomanrsquosinabilityorunwilling-nesstoperformherdutiessignalsadisobediencetothedivinewillandpresages the corruption of the Muslim family from within From thisvantagepointtheWesterninsistenceonfullequalitybetweenthesexesisdoubly pernicious it at once liberates women from basic moral con-straintsandenslavesthemtomutuallyreinforcingsexualandcapitalistexploitationAsMurtazaMutahhari(1998xxxi)arguescapitalismmakesuseofwomentomarket itsgoodsldquoby trading inhonourandrespectthrough[their]powertoenticerdquotherebyldquotransform[ing]manintoaninvoluntaryagentofconsumptionrdquoInasmuchaswomenareresponsiblefor producing the next generation of Muslim men destined to restoreIslamtoitsformergloryitisnotonlythevirtueofwomenortheinteg-rityofthefamilythathangsinthebalancebutthefutureofIslamiccivili-zationitself

Zaynab al-Ghazali andMutahharimake several of these argumentsexplicitlyandindetail(seechapters10and11)butinmuchofIslamistrhetoricthenatureandsignificanceofwomenareestablishedindirectlyandsymbolicallyandthroughthreerecurrentimagesinparticularThefirstisofwomenassilentsymbolsofculturalmoralandsexualvulnera-bilityvoicelessfiguresinneedofmasculineprotectionorwhenitistoolatedefiledbodiesthatmutelydemandvengeanceSoforexamplelsquoAb-dallahlsquoAzzam(oneofBinLadenrsquosmentorsseechapter18)graphicallydetailstheagonizinghumiliationofyoungmenunabletoactwhentheAfghanwoman isldquocryingout forhelpher childrenarebeing slaugh-tered her women are being raped the innocent are killed and theircorpsesscatteredrdquo(lsquoAzzam1987a)Inthesecondimagewomenfunction

37

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

muchlikeachorusthatspeaksinpermittedcadencestoratifymasculineendeavorsSuchisthecaseforexampleinBinLadenrsquos1996ldquoDeclara-tionofWaragainsttheAmericansOccupyingtheLandoftheTwoHolyPlacesrdquo(seechapter18)wherethewomenexhortmentojihadinthefollowing way ldquoPrepare yourself like a struggler the matter is biggerthanwordsAreyougoingtoleaveusforthewolvesofKufr[unbe-lief]eatingourwingsWherearethefreemendefendingfreewomenbyarmsDeath isbetter than life inhumiliation Some scandals andshameswillneverbeotherwiseeradicatedrdquo24InthethirdimagewomenarecreaturesnotofthisworldbutofanothervirginalrewardsforthecourageousmartyrintheafterlifeThisisevidentinthefinalinstructionsforthe911hijackersforexamplewhereMuslimldquobrothersrdquoareurgedto purify their carnal impulses sharpen their knives for the dhabh (slaughter)andheedthecallofthehur lsquoayn (theblack-eyedones)await-ingtheminParadise(seechapter19)

Such rhetoric primarily registers women as an extensionmirror ormeasure of masculinity and together with explicit Islamist argumentsabouthumannatureandthefamilyarticulatesIslamistgendernormsinwhichmenandwomeneachhaveaproperlocationandpurposeinadi-vinely ordained social hierarchy Deviance from this gendered scriptthussignalsdisruptionofamuchbroaderreligio-politicalorderitbothpresumes and seeks to bring into existence The disruption caused byforeign aggression in particular exacerbates the tendency to translateconflict into an assault on Muslim masculinity and to conceptualizewomenaspotentialvehiclesforWesterncorruptioninneedofguidingand guarding Women such as Zaynab al-Ghazali and Nadia Yassinewho seek a prominent place and voice within the Islamist movementhavehadlittlechoicebuttocontendwiththisgenderedscriptDoingsohasentailedamongotherthingsnavigatingcarefullybetweenIslamistcharacterizations of womenrsquos visibility and agency as symptomatic ofthe new jahiliyya on the one hand and essentializing arguments thatequateIslamwithveilingfemalegenitalmutilationandhonorkillingsontheother

AsthechaptersonGhazaliandYassinesuggestIslamistwomenhavenegotiatedbetweensuchconstraintsandpressuresandtheirownambi-tionsindifferentwaysApioneeringdalsquoiya(onewhoinvitesMuslimstogreater piety)Ghazalirsquos own life reveals a fierce resistance to conven-tionalnormsofdomesticityevenasmuchofher(earlier)workappearsto embrace an Islamist gender ideology that defines women as wivesmothers andldquobuilders ofmenrdquo (al-Hashimi 1990 118)By contrastYassineisawifeandmotherwhoembracesanldquoIslamicfeminismrdquothatrequiresldquoreappropriatingtheinstrumentsofclassicaltheologyrdquoanden-

24TheIslamistjournalSawt alshyJihadhasgonesofarastofeatureldquowomenrsquosvoicesrdquointheformofrolemodelsnamedforexampleumm alshyshahid(motherofthemartyr)al-thoughitisunclearthattheseldquovoicesrdquoareactuallywomenrsquos(SUsher2004)

38

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INTRODUCTION

gaging the textsdirectly through ijtihad (NYassine2003) In this re-spect Yassine must be understood as part of a broader effort amongMuslimwomenwithdifferentpoliticalcommitmentstosimultaneouslyadvocateandenacttheirrighttorecuperatetheldquooriginalintentrdquooftheIslamictextsIfwomenandmendoinfacthavedistinctperspectivesontheworldYassinesuggestswomenhaveaspecialobligationtoexcavatewhattheyseeasthegenderparityoftheQurrsquoanburiedbeneaththoseldquomachointerpretationsrdquoofIslamuponwhichmenhavebuilttheirprivi-legeandpower(Khalaf2006)25

ManyAnglo-AmericanandEuropean feministsworry that Islamistsseekonly to secureor restorepatriarchalpowerConverselymany Is-lamist women view feminism as a term and a movement inescapablyWesterninoriginfreightedwiththelegacyofcolonialismanduneasilyimplicatedinculturalimperialismThisapplieseventoYassinewhoisunwillingtoadoptwithoutqualificationalabelsheassociateswithagen-dasopposedtoherowntheWesttheMoroccanstateMaghribi(North-westAfrican)elitesYetfeminismitselfisahighlycontestedtermwithin theso-calledWestitisthebearerofmultiplemeaningssomeofwhichareevenopposedandischaracterizedbydeepdisagreementsaboutwhowomenarewhatwomenneedwhoisauthorizedtoworkonwomenrsquosbehalf andbywhatmeans Inasmuch as these various feminismsmayshareonlyastatedconcernforwomenrsquoswelfarethereisnothinginco-herentinmodifyingldquofeminismrdquowithldquoIslamicrdquoldquoMuslimrdquoorevenldquoIs-lamistrdquounlessone iscommitted toarguing thatfirst Islam isanun-changingessencebeyondhistorypoliticsandculturesecondthereisaneutralobjectivevantagefromwhichtoidentifythisessenceonceandforallandfinallytheIslamicessencesoidentifiedisfundamentallyin-compatiblewitheffortstoimprovetheconditionsandqualityofwomenrsquoslivesBythesametokenIslamistwomenwhorejectthetermfeminismcanbe(althoughnotalwaysare)deeplycommittedtoimprovingwom-enrsquoswelfareaswellasactivelyresistanttoeffortsthatreduceortrans-formthemintosilentaccessoriesofmalepower

YassineandGhazalidifferaboutwhatwomenareandshouldbeyetbroadlyspeakingbothmaybeconsideredpartofarecenttrendtowardthe feminizationofdalsquowa Dalsquowa literallymeanscallappealor sum-monsbutthetermhascometosignifyavarietyofpracticesandargu-mentsmeanttoexhortinviteandguideMuslimstowhatisregardedasproperconductandmoraldevotionWomenrsquosparticipationindalsquowais

25WomenrsquosparticipationintheldquoproductionofofficialIslamicknowledgerdquohasalonghistoryalthoughtheyhaveoftendonesoinrelativeobscurityandwithoutthebenefitofeducation in the Islamicsciences thathas legitimateddirectengagementwith thesacredtexts (Cooke 2001 xiv Badran and Cooke 2004) Pioneering attempts to read genderequalityinIslamarealsonotconfinedtowritingbywomenasevincedbyQasimAminrsquosTahrir alshymarrsquoa [TheLiberationofWoman] (1899)andMumtaz lsquoAlirsquosHuquqshye niswan [TheRightsofWomen](1898)

39

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

notabrandnewphenomenonasisevidentinGhazalirsquosworkwiththeEgyptianSocietyofMuslimLadiesinthe1930sYetfromEgypttoPaki-stantoSaudiArabiatotheUnitedStatesthenumberoffemaledalsquoiyashasproliferatedexponentially inrecentyears(Cooke2001Mahmood2005Hirschkind2006)Thisreflectsinpartcurrentdoctrinalempha-sesondalsquowaasincumbentuponbothmenandwomenanddependentlessupontechnicalknowledgethanmoralvirtueandpracticalfamiliaritywiththeIslamictradition(Mahmood200565ndash66)It isalsoaconse-quenceofrecentpoliticalandsocioeconomictransformationsinMuslimsocietiesincludingtheexpansionofmasseducationthathasnotonlyin-creasedwomenrsquosliteracyandsocialmobilitybutalsomadeIslamictextsmoreaccessibletheproliferationoftechnologiesmdashfromthecassettetapetotheInternetmdashthatfacilitatethecirculationofreligiousknowledgeevenamongthosewhocannotreadortraveltheprecedentsetbythevigorousparticipationof IranianwomeninpostrevolutiondebatesaboutIslamandthemodeloflegalactivismevidentintheIslamistmovementrsquosownchallenge to the lsquoulamarsquos status as gatekeepers of religious knowledge(Singerman2005Mir-Hosseini1999)

If Ghazali and Yassine exemplify the feminization of dalsquowa amongelitesthemosquemovementinEgyptillustratesthegrowingparticipa-tionofwomenfromdiversesocialbackgroundsinreligiousclassesde-votedtostudyinganddebatingwhatIslamrequiresforawomantobeldquomorallyuprightrdquointhecontemporaryworld(Mahmood2005)Con-ceptualizingpiety in termsof adeepandholistic commitment to self-transformationparticipantsinthemosquemovementareconcernedlesswithmattersofsovereigntyandpoliticsconventionallyunderstoodandmorewiththeldquomoralcultivationrdquoofthosedailypracticesseenascrucialtobecomingclosertoGod(Mahmood2005)SomeIslamistshavecriti-cizedthis focusonpracticesofworshipasapoliticalandoverlypriva-tizedyetsuchcriticismmissestheforceofIslamistsrsquoowninsistenceondin(religion)asawayoflifeinwhichthedomainsofpublicandprivateare inextricably linked26AsSabaMahmood (2005193194) showsthesewomenrsquosintenseeffortsatldquoretrainingethicalsensibilitiesrdquohavealdquosociopoliticalforcerdquothatextendswellbeyondmattersofgovernancefacilitatingnolessthantheemergenceofaldquonewsocialandmoralorderrdquoEvidenceofitstransformativepowermaybefoundnotonlyinthesheernumbersandvarietyofwomenmdashwealthyandpoor literateand illiter-atemdashparticipatinginthemosquemovementbutalsointherhetoricalandpoliticaleffortsbythestateandsomeIslamiststocurtailcontrolordis-creditit(Mahmood200571194)

26ParticipantsinthemosquemovementinturnareoftencriticalofwhattheyseeasthereductionofIslamtotokensofculturalauthenticityorofitsinstrumentalizationbybothnationalistsandIslamiststheycharacterizeasmoreinterestedinpoliticalmaneuveringthanreligiouspiety

40

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

Understoodtoincludebothwrittenandembodiedpracticesthefemi-nizationof dalsquowa illustrates theways inwhichwomen fromdifferentperspectivesandsocialclassesareinsistingonengagingthesacredtextsdirectly for and with one another without the mediating authority ofmenwhohavetraditionallyheldthemonopolyonsuchactivitiesAsSu-danese Islamist Lubabah al-Fadl argues ldquoAs an insan [human being]whohappenstobeawomanIhavearighttorejectthemanipulativeexegesesofoursharilsquoa thatthreatenmyexistenceinawaythat isnotconsistentwiththeGodlywayandtoapplymyownijtihadtorectifyer-roneoustendenciesbysomeshuyukh[pluralofshaykh]rdquo(Sadiki2004290)DespitetheproliferationofvoicesintentonclaimingforthemselvestheauthoritytodemarcatewhatisauthenticallyIslamicandun-Islamiconceandforallcontestationoveritsscopeandmeaningproceedsapacefacilitatedatleastinpartbywomenformerlyexcludedfromtheconver-sationAtthesametimeIslamistwomenrsquosagencyandclaimstoauthorityarefrequentlystillpredicatedonawillingnesstofollowfairlypatriarchalrulesaboutwherehowandwithwhomtheymaypracticetheirvocation(Hirschkind2003Sadiki2004283)

Islamism and Violence

IfgenderisfrequentlyanimplicitpreoccupationamongIslamistsjihadisarguably Islamistsrsquomost consistently explicit concern Jihad is derivedfromtheArabicverbthatmeanstostruggleortostriveyetitisaparticu-larkindofstruggle that isofconcern tomanyof thefigurescollectedheretheoftenviolentstruggleagainstapostatesandinfidelsbothathomeandabroadtowhicheveryindividualMuslimmustcontributeTheclaimthatfightingunbelieversisthepreeminentenactmentofindividualMus-limpiety seems to justify characterizationsof Islam ingeneral and Is-lamisminparticularassanctioningevenencouragingviolenceYetwhatIslamistsrepresentasjihadtout courtisahistoricallyspecificunderstand-ingderivedfromahighlyselectiveuseoftextsandprecedentsprominentamongthemaformerlyobscureclaimbytheinfluentialfourteenth-cen-tury jurist IbnTaymiyya thatMongol rulerswhohad contravened Is-lamiclawcouldbesubjecttoforcibleremovalFarfromadefinitiveex-pressionof Islamldquoproperlyunderstoodrdquo such Islamist argumentsnotonlymarkasignificantdeparturefrommuchofantecedentdoctrineandpractice but also diminish the importance of ongoing disagreementsamongMuslimsabouttheformandpurposesofjihad

TobeginwithMuslimscholarshavetendedtoconsiderjihadagainstforeignenemiesafard kifaya(collectiveobligation)thatisadutyagroupofpeoplewithinthecommunitymayperformonbehalfoftherestandonethatpresupposesalegitimateMuslimleadertodeclareorleadthechargeJuristshavedistinguishedthisfromthefard lsquoayn(individualduty)thatmustbefulfilledbyeverysingleMuslimincasesofdefensivejihad

41

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

thatiswhentheummaisunderattackManyIslamistsincludedheretakeamuchlessnuancedviewofjihadAsamodeofpoliticalactionQutbarguesjihadmustberegardedasaldquopermanentconditionnotanocca-sionalconcernrdquoonethatincurrentcircumstancesrequiresdeedsratherthanwordsstruggleratherthancontemplationrevolutionathomeaswellasresistanceabroad(Qutb199167ndash6882)lsquoAbdal-SalamFarajarguesalongsimilarlinesthatthenatureoftheattackonIslammakespolitical authorization by a caliph (ldquodeputyrdquo referring to a legitimatesuccessortotheProphetrsquosleadership)unnecessaryafterallldquoleadershipovertheMuslimsis(always)intheirownhandsifonlytheymakethismanifestIfthereissomethinglackingintheleadershipwellthereisnothingthatcannotbeacquiredrdquo(Jansen1986asec93)

SuchargumentsareadeliberaterejectionofearlyMuslimmodernistswhohademphasizedthelargelydefensivecharacterofjihadandsoughttoshowthatrelationsbetweenMuslimsandnon-MuslimswerenormallypeacefulratherthanantagonisticMahmudShaltut(d1963)therectorof al-Azhar from 1958 to 1963 had argued for example that theQurrsquoanicversesonfightingldquoprohibittheprovocationofhostilityandthisprohibitionisreinforcedbyGodrsquosrepugnancetoaggressionandbyhisdislikeofthosewhoprovokehostilityrdquo(Peters199674onShaltutseeZebiri1993)ConversionbyforceisanathematoIslamShaltutaversandfightingiscommandedonlyindefenseinresponsetoaggressionini-tiatedbyothersEvendefensivejihadmustaimatldquotheterminationoftheaggressionandtheestablishmentofreligiouslibertydevotedtoGodandfreefromanypressureorforcerdquo(Peters199675)

ManyIslamistsexplicitlydismisssuchargumentsasasymptomoffalseconsciousnessoneamongmanydestructiveeffectsofcolonialdomina-tionMawdudiargues for example thatwhile imperialists ravage theworld to satisfy their greed jihad alone ldquoconjures up the vision of amarching band of religious fanatics with savage beards and fiery eyesbrandishingdrawnswordsandattackingtheinfidelswherevertheymeetthemrdquoHavinginternalizedthis imageMuslimsrushtoapologizeandrenouncearmedstruggleInthiswayhelamentscolonialistsretaintheexclusiverighttoldquofightwitharmsandammunitionwhilewearecon-tented with our pen and our tonguerdquo (Mawdudi 1948 1ndash3) SayyidQutbforhispartagreedthatIslamdoesnotcountenancespreadingitsmessagebyforceandcoercionyethehadlittlepatiencewiththosewhosoughttopresentjihadaslegitimateonlyinself-defense

IfweinsistoncallingIslamicjihadadefensivemovementthenwemustchangethemeaningofthewordldquodefenserdquoandmeanbyitldquothedefenseofmanrdquoagainstallthoseforcesthatlimithisfreedomWhenwetakethisbroadmeaningofthewordldquodefenserdquoweunder-standthetruecharacterofIslaminthatitproclaimstheuniversalfreedomofeverypersonandcommunityfromservitudetoanyother

42

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

individualorsocietytheendofmanrsquosarroganceandselfishnesstheestablishmentofthesovereigntyofAllahandHisLordshipthrough-outtheworldandtheruleofthedivinesharilsquoainhumanaffairs(Qutb199050)

Qutbdoesnotnameanynamesincastigatingtheldquowriterswithdefeatistandapologeticmentalities[who]writeaboutlsquojihadinIslamrsquoandtrytoremovethislsquoblotrsquofromIslamrdquo(Qutb199046)buthecouldverywellhavehadhisdistinguishedfellowEgyptianMahmudShaltutinmind

These arguments about jihad may be said to constitute a commongrammarandframeworkofanalysisformanyIslamistsalthoughseveralthinkers in this volume carefully calibrate such claims to suit variouspurposesanddifferentpublicspheresInhisjustificationfortheassassi-nationofEgyptianpresidentAnwaral-SadatforexamplelsquoAbdal-SalamFarajdepictsthestruggletoreclaimthemoralfoundationsoftheEgyp-tianstateasafightagainstjahiliyyafromwithinarguingthatthejihadagainstacorruptnationalistregimeathomemusttakeprecedenceoverfightingenemieselsewhereTheCharterofHamas(seechapter15)how-everinsiststhatallMuslimsrecognizetheprimacyofthejihadforJeru-salemweldingIslamistrhetorictothatofnationalistresistanceinanef-fortbothtofightIsraelioccupationandtocompeteforadherentswiththePalestinianLiberationOrganization(PLO)IncontrasttobothFarajandHamasBinLadenembracesaglobaljihadthatessentiallycollapsesdistinctionsbetweennationalandinternationaloffensiveanddefensivefightingenemiesathomeandthosefromafar

Yet despite such differences these arguments tend to presume thatviolent jihad is a necessary response to the pervasive power of thosewithdemonstratedhostilitytoMuslimliveslandspietiesandsensibili-tiesaformofretaliationwhoseurgencyandlegitimacyderivefromtheviolencemdashpsychologicalandeconomicaswellasphysicalmdashoftheinitialassaultThisviewofjihadsubsumesindividualsintoarchetypesofldquoin-fidelsrdquoandldquobelieversrdquoandinsodoingvitiatesmoreconventionaldis-tinctionsbetweenforexamplesoldierandcivilianorcollectiveandin-dividual responsibility It is far from inevitable that thosewhoharborsuchviewswillautomaticallyactuponthemyetthecarnagewroughtbytheattacksontheWorldTradeCenterandthePentagonin2001aBalinightclub in 2002 Madrid commuter trains in 2004 and throughoutIraqonadailybasissuggestjusthowlethalsuchclaimscanbegiventheright circumstances The fact that such violence does not discriminateamongvictimsonlyfurtherfuelsrhetoriccharacterizingIslamistsasirra-tional fanatics ldquoin love with deathrdquo terrorists animated by a religioncharacterizedbyapropensityforviolenceandauthoritarianism27

27AnxietiesabouttheparticularsusceptibilityofMuslimstoirrationalityinsularityandfanaticismhavealonganddistinguishedpedigreeinEuro-AmericanhistoryandpoliticalthoughtSeeforexampleRenan18833

43

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

AsinsomanyothermattershoweverIslamistsarehardlyofonemindonthesubjectofjihadindeedthereareIslamistswhoexplicitlyrejectthereductionof struggle toviolenceAcase inpoint isNadiaYassine(20032005c)whoinsiststhatjihadisthededicatedstruggleagainstisshytikbar(arrogance)particularlyinitscommonformasthelustforpoweranddominationAsjihadagainstistikbarisbothafinalgoalandapre-scriptionforactionYassinesuggestsitisantitheticaltoviolentpracticesthataimatdominationTheprimaryinstrumentsofjihadarenotbombsbutwords particularly thosedeployed in the art of persuasion (Fara-marzi2005NYassine2006a)WhenIslamistssuchaslsquoAbdal-SalamFarajandlsquoUmarlsquoAbdal-RahmanseektolegitimizeviolentrevolutionbyrecoursetoIslamictextsshearguestheycontravenethetruemeaningofjihadtoservetheirownarrogantendsBythesametokenBinLadenrsquosdecisiontoldquofightevilwithevilandbarbaritywithbarbarityrdquonotonlyviolatesspecificIslamicprohibitionsagainstharmingcivilianswomenandchildrenbutalsobetraystheethicalimperativetoembodythemes-sageofamercifulGodwhocautionsbelieversthat(Q8822)ldquoYouhavenopoweroverthemrdquo(NYassine2005cDaily Excelsior2002)

SuchpersistentdisagreementsamongMuslimspastandpresentsug-gest that Islam isnomore inherently violent andbloody-minded thanitmdashorChristianityor Judaism for thatmattermdashis inherentlypeacefulIslamists often claim to speak for an unchanging authentic Islam thatexistsoutsideoftimeandspaceyetthepoliticalpurchaseoftheirper-spective derives from the ways it assembles disparate yet recognizablecontemporaryexperiencesofsufferingfrustrationandlossintoanex-planationthatresonateswithMuslimswholiveincommunitiescultur-allylinguisticallyandgeographicallydistantfromoneanotherTheex-tenttowhichIslamistargumentsresonatebroadlyacrossMuslimsocie-tiesthusdependsuponasetofexperiencesandphenomenathatmarkthisparticularmomentinhistoryincludingthewaysinwhichcontempo-raryglobalinequalitiescompoundalegacyofhistoricalasymmetriestocontinuallyreproduceasenseofMuslimpowerlessnessmdashbothrealandimaginedmdashrelativetotheWestcontinuingEuro-Americanpoliticalandfinancialsupportofcorruptautocratsmanyofwhompresideoverna-tion-statesbrutallystitchedtogetherbyWesternfiat thepersistenceofauthoritarian regimes eager to control domestic unrest by catalyzingldquoMuslimragerdquotowardexternaltargetsthesenseofemasculationpro-ducedbydecadesofpoliticalrepressionandeconomicfrustrationandthecontinualflowofimagesofbloodiedMuslimbodiesdeliveredbyaburgeoningarrayofvideosatelliteandelectronicmedia

It is notable that the understanding of jihad many Islamists proffermirrorstheverystate-sanctionedviolenceagainstwhichtheyhavestrug-gledforalmostacenturyAlongwiththousandsofMuslimscaughtinthemachineryoftwentieth-centurystateviolenceprominentIslamistsfromQutbtoGhazalitoAymanal-Zawahirimdashal-Qalsquoidarsquossecondincommandmdash

44

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

arewellknowntohavebeenradicalizedbyextendedandoftenbrutaltermsofincarcerationinEgyptSyriaIraqJordanIsraelAlgeriaandelsewhere(onal-ZawahiriandprisoncfKepelandMilelli2008152ndash54)ItisthusfarfromsurprisingthatIslamistsforgedbyinterrogationtortureinprisoncampswouldconcludethatthepreeminentenactmentofMuslimpietyisviolentstruggleldquoPrisonrdquoasPalestinianKhaledAbuHilalhassaidldquoismyuniversityrdquo(Erlanger2007)anargumentmadeingreaterdetailinadifferenttimeandplacebyRussianwriterandrevolu-tionaryMaximGorky(1868ndash1936)

Apeoplebroughtupinaschoolthatremindsoneofthetormentsofhellonasmallscaleapeopleaccustomedtotheclenched-fistprisonandthewhipwillnotbeblestwithatenderheartApeoplethatthepoliceagentshaveriddenoverwillbecapableintheirturnofwalk-ingoverthebodiesofothersInacountrywhereunresthasreignedsolongit isdifficultforthepeopletorealizefromonedaytothenextthepowerofrightOnecannotdemandfromamanwhohasneverknownjusticethatheshouldbejust(Gorky1920)

InthiscontextasTimothyMitchell(1990195ndash96199207ndash8)suggestsIslamistviewsoftheworldcanbecharacterizedasbothamodeofresis-tancetostatemechanismsofcoercionandanexpressionofthemSuchisthedynamic evident inGhazalirsquosmemoirs for examplewhen shede-scribeshowtheldquodarknessofprisonsthebladesoftortureandthevi-ciousbeatingsonly increasetheenduranceandresolveofthefaithfulrdquo(Ghazali19786)

There is no doubt a great deal of pragmatism at work in IslamistargumentsaboutviolenceAsQutb(19916447ndash48)drylynotesthepathtofreedommustoccasionallybehewnbywayoftheswordbecausetyrants are not reasoned out of power and ldquojahiliyya is not lsquoabstracttheoryrsquo[it]consciouslyorunconsciouslystrivestopreserveitsownexistence to defend its essence to annihilate dangerous elementswhichthreatenitsverybeingrdquoYetitisalsothecasethatformanyoftheseIslamistsjihadisbothameansandanendanefforttoeradicatethoseobstacles torestoringa justcommunityonearththatsimultane-ouslybringshumanaction intoaccordwithGodrsquosplansandpurposes(Haddad198321)While theQurrsquoan (2256) states thatldquothere isnocompulsioninreligionrdquoIslamistscontendthatonlyinastateinwhichIslamiclawreignssupremearehumanbeingsfreefromenslavementtooneanotherrsquosruleandallareequalbyvirtueoftheircommonsubmissiontoGodAsQutb(1991107ndash8)argues

WhenthehighestauthorityinsocietyisGodalonemdashexpressedintheruleofdivinelawmdashonlythenishumanitytrulyandcompletelyliber-atedfromslaverytomenOnlythisisldquohumancivilizationrdquobecausetheessentialfoundationofhumancivilizationisthetrueandcom-

45

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

pletefreedomofhumanityandtheabsolutedignityofeveryindivid-ualinsocietyThereisnotruefreedomanddignityforhumanityortheindividualinasocietywheresomepeoplearelordswholegislateandothersareslaveswhoobey

From this perspective the realization of justice liberty equality andchoiceitselfnecessitatestheforcibleremovaloftheconstraintsimposedbyjahiliyyaalongwiththosewhoaidandabetitno matter the costAsMawdudi(1954160ndash61)writes

[W]hyisitthatinreligionsuchimportanceisgiventojihadthattheQurrsquoanpronouncesthejudgmentofhypocrisyuponthosewhoshirkandevadeitJihadisbutanothernamefortheattempttoerectthesystemoftruthandtheQurrsquoandeclaresjihadtobeatouchstoneonthesamefootingwithamanrsquosfaithInotherwordshewhohasfaithinhisheartwillneitherbecontentwiththedominationofthesystemofevilnorwillhegrudgetheexpenditureoflifeandwealthinthestruggleforerectingthesystemoftruthIfoneshowsweaknessinthismatterhisfaithitselfisdoubtfulWhatcananythingelsebesidethenprofithimThemanwhoprofesses faith in this religioncannotfulfillhisdutyonlybytryingasfaraspossibletopatternhislifeonIslamThenatureofhisfaithitselfrequiresthatheshouldconcentrateallhiseffortuponwrestingleadershipfromunbelievingandcorruptmentoentrustittotherighteousanduponerectingthesystemoftruththathasbeenordainedfortheconductoftheworldaccordingtothewillofGodBecausethisendisunattainablewith-out thehighestdegreeofcollectiveeffort theremustexistarigh-teouscommunitycommittedtotheprincipleoftruthanddevotedtothesolepurposeintheworldoferectingmaintainingandproperlyrealizingthesystemoftruth

ThefactthatsomeIslamistthinkerssanctifyviolentstruggleinsuchtermsdoesnotmeanofcoursethatallthosewhoadvocateorengageinjihadendorseviolence28NordoesitimplythatthosewhoclaimtokillforIslamareentirelywithoutulteriormotivesthosemanipulativepur-poses andpsychologicalmotivations that even themost rarified scrip-turalargumentscanexpressorserveWhattheprecedinganalysisdoessuggesthoweveristhatthereductionofthisviewofjihadtoirrationalbloodlusttheself-interestedgrabfortemporalpoweroradoorthroughwhichtopassintothehereaftermissesacrucialdimensionofitssignifi-canceandappealfortruebelieversjihadisnolessthananenactmentof

28EvenashespokeofaneweraofjahiliyyaandofjihadMawdudihimselfstoppedwellshortof recommendingor condoning the actual resort to violence in themannermanyotherIslamistsdidAsNasr(199670)observesMawdudirsquosorganizationtheJamalsquoat-iIs-lamildquohasavoidedviolentsocialchangeandhasinsteadviewedthepathtotheIslamicstateaslyingwithintheexistingsociopoliticalorderrdquoAlsoseethechapters5and3onQutbandMawdudiinthisvolume

46

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

adivineimperativetoremakethefoundationsofcollectivelifeInthisre-spectIslamistviewsofjihadcanbeseenaspartofalong-standingasso-ciationbetweenviolenceandpoliticalfoundingsuponwhichnoparticu-larcultureorhistoricalepochhasamonopolyThisassociationandtheldquolegacyofviolencerdquoitbequeathstofuturegenerationsarenolessappar-entinthoseradicalrevolutionsofrenewalthatmovebywayoftheswordfromthemarginstothecenterthanthosepoliticalfoundingsthatclaimtocreatesomethingoutofnothing(Connolly1995251)Ineithercasethetollofsuchbrutalitycanbeimmeasurableforinadditiontothevic-timswhosufferdirectlytheldquopracticeofviolencelikeallactionchangestheworldbutthemostprobablechangeistoamoreviolentworldrdquo(Ar-endt1972177)

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 ESP 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ltFEFF9ad854c18cea306a30d730ea30d730ec30b951fa529b7528002000410064006f0062006500200050004400460020658766f8306e4f5c6210306b4f7f75283057307e305930023053306e8a2d5b9a30674f5c62103055308c305f0020005000440046002030d530a130a430eb306f3001004100630072006f0062006100740020304a30883073002000410064006f00620065002000520065006100640065007200200035002e003000204ee5964d3067958b304f30533068304c3067304d307e305930023053306e8a2d5b9a306b306f30d530a930f330c8306e57cb30818fbc307f304c5fc59808306730593002gt KOR ltFEFFc7740020c124c815c7440020c0acc6a9d558c5ec0020ace0d488c9c80020c2dcd5d80020c778c1c4c5d00020ac00c7a50020c801d569d55c002000410064006f0062006500200050004400460020bb38c11cb97c0020c791c131d569b2c8b2e4002e0020c774b807ac8c0020c791c131b41c00200050004400460020bb38c11cb2940020004100630072006f0062006100740020bc0f002000410064006f00620065002000520065006100640065007200200035002e00300020c774c0c1c5d0c11c0020c5f40020c2180020c788c2b5b2c8b2e4002egt NLD (Gebruik deze instellingen om Adobe PDF-documenten te maken die zijn geoptimaliseerd voor prepress-afdrukken van hoge kwaliteit De gemaakte PDF-documenten kunnen worden geopend met Acrobat en Adobe Reader 50 en hoger) NOR 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 PTB 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Page 16: Chapter 1 INTRODUCTION - assets.press.princeton.eduassets.press.princeton.edu/chapters/s9067.pdf · Chapter 1 INTRODUCTION This volume is intended as a broad introduction to the evolution

16

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INTRODUCTION

so11justashesidestepstheexegeticaltraditionwhendoingsooffersarhetoricallymoreeffectivewayofarrivingataconclusionMoretradi-tionalexegetespastandpresentalsopickandchooseofcourseButtheyhavetypicallydonesowithinanoverallframeworkthatisdefinedbyacontinuousengagementwiththeexegeticaltraditionasawhole(cfSaleh2004)BycontrastQutbandotherIslamistexegeteswriteoutsideandofteninconsciousoppositiontoanysuchframeworkTheconversa-tionisnotwiththeearlierexegetesbutdirectlywithGodthoughthismightonoccasionbeaidedbyillustrationsfromtheearlierexegeticaltradition

If thereareunacknowledgedambiguities inQutbrsquosrelationshipwiththe Islamic traditionaswehaveobserveda frequentlyacerbic stancedoesnonetheless remain characteristicofhowheviews itmostof thetimeQutbisanythingbutuniqueinthisrespectYetifIslamistssharealmostbydefinitionacriticalstancetowardfacetsofthistraditionthereismuchthatalsoseparatesthemfromoneanotherinpreciselyhowthiscritique and its implications are articulated in different instances Al-thoughthemerepresenceofdisagreementamongIslamist intellectualsandactivistsishardlyremarkablethescopeandimplicationsofsomeofthedisagreementsinasmuchastheyrelatetothescholarlytraditionarenonethelessworthexamininghereFortheysuggestthatwhileIslamistsshare the conviction that particular institutions practices and normsneedtoberefashionedinlightofimmutabledivinecommandsthiscon-victionoftenrestsonquitedifferentviewsofIslamichistoryandciviliza-tionofcontemporaryMuslimsocietiesandnotleastofreligiousau-thorityanditslociNowhereperhapsisthismoreevidentthaninsomeofthewritingsofYusufal-QaradawiLikeQutbQaradawiisamongthemostinfluentialIslamistideologuesintheSunniworldHeisalsooneofQutbrsquosseverestcriticsfromwithintheIslamistcamp(seeespeciallyQa-radawi1994101ndash31)

ThatldquoMuslimrdquosocietieslackedaproperIslamicfoundationmadeitfutileQutbhadarguedtodebatespecificquestionsofIslamiclawand

11TheseincludeinteraliaMuhammadibnIshaq(d767)theauthoroftheSirat rasul AllahoneoftheearliestbiographiesoftheProphetMuhammadal-Tabari(d923)theauthorofJamilsquo alshybayan lishytarsquowil ay alshyQurrsquoanoneofthemostinfluentialcommentariesoftheQurrsquoaneverproducedal-Baghawi(d1117)whosecommentaryistitledMalsquoalim alshytanzilal-Qurtubi(d1273)theauthorofaworkalshyJamilsquo lishyahkam alshyQurrsquoanwhichises-peciallyattentivetothelegalcontentoftheQurrsquoanandIbnKathir(d1373)theauthorofaQurrsquoan commentaryTafsir alshyQurrsquoan alshylsquoazimwhichhasbeenpopular amongmanyMuslimsofaSalafiorientationOnoccasionQutbalsocitesinfluentialfellowIslamistsSeeforexampleQutbFi zilal alshyQurrsquoanvol2part4132(Mawdudi)vol2part525(Nadwi)vol2part6143and150ndash53(lsquoAbdal-QadirlsquoAwdaanEgyptianIslamistandlegalscholarexecutedundertheNasserregimein1954)OccasionallyQutbcitesRidarsquosTafsir alshymanaraswell thoughmoreoftenthannot toregisterhisdisagreementswithRidaandwiththelatterrsquosmentorMuhammadlsquoAbduhForadetailedcomparisonbetweenthecommentariesofRidaandQutbseeCarreacute2003

17

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

howitdealtwithparticularsocialoreconomicissuesThelsquoulamawerepatheticallydeludediftheythoughtthattheinterestsofIslamcouldbefurtheredthroughdisquisitionsonthesharilsquoainsuchconditionsofper-vasiveungodliness(Qutb1967b183ndash90)WhatpeopleneededbeforeanythingelsewasareturntothebasicsofthefaithThetaskofrighteouspreacherswastoinstructtheminthesemattersandtohelpthemrecog-nizewhatthesovereigntyofGoddemandedofthem(Qutb199135cfQaradawi1994102ndash4)Allothermattersincludingthenicetiesofjuris-ticdiscussionwerebestpostponeduntilaproperlyIslamicsocietybasedonthisfoundationhadbeenrealized

Qaradawi vehemently disagrees with Qutb arguing that educatedMuslimsarenotpagansbutbelieversandassuchdonotneedtobetu-toredinthefundamentalsoftheirfaithWhattheyoftendonotunder-standverywellmdashandhereQaradawiconcurswithotherIslamistsmdashisthenatureofIslamasanizam (socialandpoliticalsystem)TheproblemofMuslimsinotherwordsisnotgodlessnessbutsimplyignorance(whichiswhat the term jahiliyya literallymeans)of the teachingsof Islam intheircomprehensiveall-encompassingdimensionsAsQaradawiseesitmanyldquocaptivesofWesternthoughtrdquohavedoubtsnotabouttheessentialsoftheirfaithbutratheraboutIslamasacomprehensivesystemanditistheirunaddressedmisunderstandingstheirignoranceonthelatterscorethatsometimesopens thedoor todoubtsaboutmattersofbelief itself(Qaradawi1994113ndash14)Tocontinuetoexpoundonthesocialpoliti-calandotherteachingsofIslamwhilethesocietyisyetimperfectisnottoendorseorstrengthenthejahiliorderasQutbhadallegedbutonlytohelpordinarypeopleintheirefforttoleadvirtuouslivesevenininiqui-touscircumstances

ThisviewrepresentsanappealtowhatQaradawihasrepeatedlyre-ferredtoasthemoderatepathoralshymadrasa alshywasatiyya(theldquocentristschoolrdquocfQaradawi2006137ndash217)mdashonethatlocatesitselfonaputa-tivemiddlegroundbetweenacompleterejectionoftheworldincludingMuslimsocietiesanditstotalembraceQaradawiisequallyconcernedwithrescuingIslamichistoryandcivilizationfromoutrightdismissalatthehandsofIslamistslikeQutb12TheideathatjahilinormshadbeguntocreepbackintotheMuslimcommunityshortlyafterthedeathoftheProphetandthattheyhaveremainedunchallengedformuchofIslamrsquoshistoryignoresallthoseQaradawisayswhohavecontinuedtorepre-sentthepathofrighteousnessthroughoutthehistoryofIslamContrarytotheconvictionoftheSunnisthatldquothecommunitywillneveragreeonerrorrdquomdashastheProphetissaidtohavepromisedmdashthenotionofaperva-

12AmongleadingfiguresQaradawisinglesoutforcriticisminthisregardarebesidesQutbMawdudiandtheEgyptianIslamistscholarMuhammadal-Ghazali(d1996)SeeQaradawi2005b46ndash64It isworthnotingthatdespitetheseandotherdisagreementsQaradawihaswrittenrespectfullyofallthreedevotinganentirebooktohislongassocia-tionwithMuhammadal-Ghazali(seeQaradawi1995)

18

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INTRODUCTION

sivejahiliyyasuggestsmoreoverthatthecommunitydidindeedagreeonerror13Mostgrievouslyperhaps Islamist critiques tend to suggestthatthesharilsquoahasalmostneverbeenimplementedinMuslimsocietiesaftertheveryfirstyearsofIslamIronicallysaysQaradawisuchindis-criminaterejectionofIslamichistoryinadvertentlyreinforcessecularist argumentsthatthesharilsquoaisunsuitedtopracticalapplication(Qaradawi2005b46)QaradawirsquoscritiqueofQutbandotherIslamistsisfinallyanargumentforthecontinuingcentralityofthelsquoulamatothetaskofpro-viding authoritative guidance to the communityHisunderstandingofwhoconstitutesthelsquoulamaisfarmoreexpansivethanthatofmostDeo-bandilsquoulamaofSouthAsiaButlikethemheisinnodoubtthatseriousreligiousscholarsasdistinguishedfromamateurishautodidactsarecru-cialtothetaskofprovidingauthoritativereligiousandmoralguidancetothecommunity

AlthoughwehavesoughttoillustratecertainfacetsoftheIslamistcri-tiqueof the scholarly traditionandof theworldas somekey IslamistthinkershavearticulateditwedonotwishtosuggestofcoursethatIslamists are necessarily ldquointellectualsrdquo Whatever Qutb KhomeiniMawdudiandQaradawimightthinkofotherscholarsandintellectualsorofthemselvesinrelationtothemtheformerobviouslyarereligiousintellectualsThesameishardlytrueofmanyotherIslamistsYeteventhosewithlittleornointellectualpretensionsareoftenrecognizableas IslamistsnotonlyfortheircommitmenttothepublicimplementationofIslamicnormsgroundedinthefoundationaltextsbutalsomdashandasacor-ollaryoftheformermdashfortheiroftenself-consciouscritiqueofanddisen-gagementfromthenormsandmorestheyseearoundthemIncontempo-raryLebanonforinstanceShilsquoiIslamistshaveoftenseentheirtext-basedreligiouscommitmentsasmarkingacleardeparturefromearlierandex-isting religious practicesAs anthropologist LaraDeeb (2006 20) ob-servesldquoTheyvieweditasnewanddifferentmdashdifferentfromwhattheyoftenreferredtoenigmaticallyaslsquobeforersquoorlsquohowwewerersquoanddifferentfromwhattheycalledalshytaqalid(traditions)Inlieuofpracticesandbeliefscastastraditionaltheyespoused [an] lsquoauthenticatedrsquoIslamexpressedinpublicpietyrdquo14ManyIslamists living inrefugeecampsinGazahavehadasimilarviewTothemldquoPalestinianshadeitherbe-comelostinforeignideologiesortheyhadbecomelsquoMuslimsbycon-

13Theconvictionthatthecommunityatlargeisdivinelyprotectedfromerrorisanim-portantbasisoftheauthorityofldquoconsensusrdquoasamajorsourceofjuridicalnormsinSunniIslamFormoderndebateson consensus and someof the literatureon this subject seeZaman2006

14Theldquotraditionsrdquohereprimarilyrefer tocustomarynormsanddevotionalpracticesratherthantothecenturies-olddiscursivetraditionfromwhichthelsquoulamabothShilsquoiandSunniderivetheirauthorityIslamistcritiquesareoftendirectedasmuchhoweverattra-ditionsinthesenseofldquoinauthenticrdquoculturallyrootedreligiouspracticesastheyareatthescholarlytraditionofthelsquoulamawhichtothemisequallyinauthenticinhavingobscuredthesimpleandfundamentalteachingsofthefoundationaltexts

19

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

ventionrsquowhowentalongwiththefastorprayednowandthenbecausethiswaslsquocustomandtraditionrsquo(lsquoada wa taqlid)ThislackofconsciouszealousadherencetoIslamhadresultedinsocialweaknessleadingtode-featatthehandsofIsraelrdquo(Lybarger2007211)ThereismuchthatsuchanalysessharewiththewritingsandpronouncementsoftheleadingIs-lamistintellectuals

Islamists and Salafi s

JustasitisnotalwayseasytodifferentiatelsquoulamafromIslamistsorIs-lamists frommodernists it is sometimesdifficult to clearlydistinguishbetweenIslamistsandtheSalafisThelatterderivethisself-designationfromclaimsofstrictadherencetothenormativepracticeofalshysalaf alshysalih(thepiousforbears)usuallyunderstoodastheMuslimsofthefirstgenerations of Islam The guiding Salafi assumption is that these firstMuslims inbeingcontemporariesof theProphetMuhammadandtheimmediatesuccessorsofthosecontemporariesexemplifymostperfectlywhatitmeanstobeavirtuousMuslimandthatlatergenerationscandonobetterthanemulatetheexampleofthesefirstgenerationsSomever-sionofthisviewwouldfindbroadresonanceamongIslamistsbutalsoordinary believers though the Shilsquoa of various doctrinal orientationshavealwayshada farmore restrictiveviewofpreciselywho isworthemulating Again like the Islamists the Salafis insist on deriving theirnormsdirectlyfromtheIslamicfoundationaltextstheQurrsquoanandtheexampleoftheProphetMuhammadunmediatedbythemedievalschoolsoflawThismeansdoingawaywiththesortofhistoricallyarticulatedscholarlytraditionfromwhichthelsquoulamahavetendedtodrawmuchoftheirauthorityTheSalafisdohavetheirownlsquoulamamdashQaradawiisano-tableinstanceasaremembersoftheSaudireligiousestablishmentmdashbuteventheirauthorityisbasedfarmoreondirectlyinterpretingthefounda-tional texts than it is on any systematic engagement with the Islamicscholarlytradition

AllthissoundsagooddealnotjustliketheIslamistsbutalsolikethemodernistsThisshouldnotbesurprisingfortheSalafiorientationisanimportantpartofthegenealogyofbothmodernismandIslamismTheSalafi reformer Muhammad lsquoAbduh though a traditionally educatedscholarwhoservedtowardtheendofhislifeasthegrandmuftiofEgyptwasakeyinfluenceinthedevelopmentofIslamicmodernismButwhilesomeoflsquoAbduhrsquosdisciplesdevelopedhisideasinthedirectionofsecularnationalismothersmdashnotablytheSalafijournalistandQurrsquoancommenta-torRashidRidamdasheventuallytookthemdespitehismodernistproclivi-tiesinadecidedlyconservativedirection(Hourani1983alsocfDallal2000)Hasan al-Banna the founder of the MuslimBrotherhoodwasclose to many Egyptian Salafis Muhibb al-din al-Khatib (d 1969) aleadingSalafiofthetimeandtheowneroftheSalafiPublishingHousein

20

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

CairowasinchargeofoneoftheBrotherhoodrsquosfirstjournals(Mitchell1993185)andafterRidarsquosdeathin1935itwasatBannarsquosinitiativethatRidarsquosinfluentialjournalalshyManarwouldcontinuetobepublishedforsomeyears(RMitchell1993186)

ForalltheiraffinitieshoweverSalafiscannotsimplybesubsumedwiththeIslamistsanymorethantheycanwiththemodernistsUnliketheearlySalafisandothermodernists Islamistshavealmost invariablysought toaddressthemselvestoawidepopularaudienceratherthantotheintellec-tualelite(cfRMitchell1993211)TheSalafishavealsobeenfarmorepreoccupiedwithmattersofcorrectbeliefthenuancesofdoctrinethanhaveeither the Islamistsor themodernists (cfHaykel2009 [forthcom-ing])BythesametokenwhilemanyIslamistshavehadasomewhatam-bivalentrelationshipwithSufismSalafishaveusuallybeenunrelentinglyhostile to devotional Sufi practices But if it is useful to distinguish theSalafisfromothercompetingorientationsinmodernIslamitisimportantalsotorecognizethatthereismuchonwhichSalafisthemselveshavedis-agreedsometimessharplyInquestionintheseldquointernalrdquodifferencesisnottheiroverallorientationmdashtowardtheIslamicfoundational textsandthepristinenormsofIslamrsquosfirstgenerationsmdashbutratherthepreciseimplica-tionsofthisorientationforbeliefandconductinthepresentAconsider-ationofsomeofthesedifferencesshouldinturnfurtherillustratehowtheSalafisoughttobedistinguishedfromothercompetingcamps

WheremanySalafisseetheschoolsoflawasobstructingandindeeddistortingthesimplemessageofthefoundationaltextsothersviewthelegaltraditionasrepresentingIslamrsquosrichintellectuallegacyfromwhichMuslimsought todrawboth inspirationandguidanceQaradawi forinstance has been critical not just of the Muslimmodernists but alsooffellowSalafisfortheirirreverencetowardtherichesofthelegaltradi-tiontheiruneducatedproclivitytosetitasidealltoocallouslyOnthisviewarejectionofthetaqlid-boundlsquoulamashouldnotleadtotheotherextrememdashexemplifiedbynotafewSalafismdashofjettisoningthescholarlytraditionaltogether SalafisalsodifferamongthemselvesintheirattitudestowardmodernWesterninstitutionsandpracticesInthelatenineteenthandearlytwen-tieth centuries Salafi reformers like Muhammad lsquoAbduh and RashidRidainEgyptandJamalal-dinal-Qasimi(d1914)inSyriahadcalledforareorientationtowardthefoundationaltextsasawayofjustifyingnotresistingchangesinlawandeducationaswellasotherfacetsofso-cialreform(cfHourani1983Commins1990)OnthisviewadirectrecoursetotheQurrsquoanandthesunnaofferedthebestwayofdemonstrat-ing the accord between their teachings and the reformist project15 In

15SymptomaticofotherdisagreementsamongtheSalafisistheveryquestionofpreciselywhothesalafarewhoseexampleoughttobeemulatedThenarrowerviewslimitthesalaftothefirstthreegenerationsofIslammdashtheageoftheProphetMuhammadandhiscompan-ionstheirsuccessorsandthelatterrsquosimmediatesuccessorsmdashbuteventhesenarrowviews

21

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INTRODUCTION

contemporaryEuropeTariqRamadananinfluentialSwissArabphilos-opherhasarguedthatMuslimslivinginWesternsocietiesoughttofeelathomeinandcontributetoward thosesocietieswhileretainingandcultivatingtheirdistinctIslamicidentityHetooappearstoseehimselfinthegenealogyofwhathecharacterizesasldquoSalafireformismrdquo(onthischaracterization see Ramadan 2004 26ndash27) and he has echoed Qa-radawiinsomeofhisviews(cfRamadan199993ndash99) Other Salafis have remained staunchly opposed to institutions andpracticesofaWesternprovenanceAnespeciallyinfluentialfigureinthegenealogyofthelatterpositionistheeighteenth-centurypuritanicalre-former Muhammad ibn lsquoAbd al-Wahhab (d 1792) whose alliance in1744 with Muhammad ibn Salsquoud contributed to the establishment ofthefirstSaudistateinthelateeighteenthcenturyIbnlsquoAbdal-WahhabwashostilenotonlytoShilsquoismandtoSufidevotionalismbutalsotoany-thinghedeemednottobeinstrictconformitywiththeteachingsofthefoundationaltextsTherewasmuchthatseemedtohimtofailthisstan-dardallofwhichhebrandedasoneoranotherformofunbeliefTheWahhabismdashas the followers of Ibn lsquoAbd al-Wahhab are oftenknownthoughtheyprefertothinkofthemselvessimplyasgoodMuslimsoratbestasSalafismdashoftenadheretothelegalnormsoftheHanbalischooloflawthoughitistheteachingsofthefoundationaltextsirrespectiveofthisoranyotherschooldoctrinethattheyprofesstofollowThemoststringentoftheSaudiSalafisaswellasotherselsewhereareaveryfarcryindeedfromwhatQaradawiwouldcharacterizeasldquocentristrdquoSalafireformersletalonefromtheearlytwentieth-centurySalafimodernists

ThepoliticalviewsoftheWahhabisandmorebroadlyoftheSalafisare likewiseanythingbutuniformInSaudiArabiaWahhabireligiousscholarshavelongaffirmedaquietistpoliticalstancewhichhasmeantleavingmattersofthestatetotherulingfamilyFormuchofthehistoryofmodernSaudiArabiatherulingelitefor itsparthas imposedfewconstraintsontheSaudilsquoulamainmattersofreligiouslifetheregulationofsocialnormsandjudicialadministration(cfVogel2000)Onseveraloccasions however this relationship has come under severe strain In1979agroupofWahhabiswhorejectedthelegitimacyoftheSaudistateyethadtieswithsomeprominentreligiousscholarsmdashincludinglsquoAbdal-

feelconstrainedtomakeroomforsuchreveredfiguresasAhmadibnHanbaltheputativefounderoftheHanbalischooloflawandthefourteenth-centuryDamascenescholarIbnTaymiyya(d1328)OtherviewsarerathermoreexpansivenotjustinchronologicalbutalsoandcruciallyinintellectualtermsThusMuhammadlsquoAbduhthoughtthesalaftoalsoincludesuchtheologiansasal-Ashlsquoari(d935)al-Baqillani(d1013)andal-Maturidi(d944)SeeHourani1983149SuchaviewobviouslyopensthedoorforpreciselythesortoftheologicaldebatesthatotherSalafisaswellasIslamistsoftenfrownuponfortakingthebelieversveryfarfromthesimpleanddirectwordsofGod lsquoAbduhrsquosdiscipleRidaagaintookanarrowerviewofthesalafandlaterinhiscareerbecameastrongdefenderoftheWahhabisCfHourani1983230ndash32

22

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INTRODUCTION

lsquoAzizBinBaz(d1999)laterthegrandmuftiofSaudiArabiamdashtookoverthesacredprecinctsoftheKalsquobainMeccainashort-livedbutextremelyembarrassingchallenge toSaudi royalauthority (cfHegghammerandLacroix2007)In1990KingFahdrsquosdecisiontoinviteAmericantroopstodefendthekingdomagainstthethreatofanIraqiinvasioncreatedwide-spreadresentmentamongSaudis theeffectsofwhichcontinue to thisdayThestationingofnon-MuslimmilitarypersonnelinIslamrsquosholiestlandwasdeemedbythekingrsquoscriticstobescandalousandevensacrile-giousAnumberofprominentSaudiSalafispubliclycriticizedthekingrsquosdecisiononthisoccasioncallinguponhimaswellasonBinBazandoth-ersatthehelmoftheSaudireligiousestablishmenttoreorienttheSaudipolitytowarditstruereligiousfoundationsManyofthesedissidentsmdashwhowerealsojoinedbyldquosecularrdquoSaudicriticsoftheroyalfamilymdashwereandhaveremainedrestrainedintheircriticismevenastheycalledforstricterconformitytoIslamicnormsasthepanaceaforallills(cfFandy1999)OthershoweverhavedenouncedtheroyalfamilyanditsWesternalliesinnouncertaintermsBinLadenisonlythemostnotoriousofthosewhobrokewiththeroyalfamilyinthewakeofKingFahdrsquosdecisiontoinviteWesterntroopsin1990andwhocalledfortheoverthrowoftheroyal familyand for jihadagainstWesternpowers Such strident callshavebeencontinuedbyotherSalafisbothbeforeandaftertheterroristattacksofSeptember112001aswellasintheaftermathoftheUS-ledinvasionofIraq(al-Rasheed2007)

ItshouldbeclearinlightoftheforegoingthatanyunderstandingofthedifferencesbetweenIslamistsandtheSalafismustrestontakingac-countofthediversityamongtheSalafisSalafiswhooftenrejectmuchoftheIslamicscholarlytraditioninfavorofadirectrecoursetothefoun-dationaltextsarenotnecessarilyrenderedldquoIslamistrdquosimplybyvirtueofthisstanceForasnotedmanyoftheseSalafiscontinuetoprofessareso-lutelyquietiststancewhichinthecaseoftheSaudiSalafismeansaf-firmingallegiancetotheSaudiroyalfamilyThispositionisrepresentedforinstancebyBinBaztheerstwhilegrandmuftiaswellasbyotherleading members of the Saudi religious establishment A pro-regimestanceoroneindifferenttopoliticsisnolessldquopoliticalrdquoofcoursethana position of strident hostility to the established order at home andabroadForourpurposeshoweveritisonlywhentheSalafisrejecttheexistingdispensationandbeginstrivingmdashthoughnotnecessarilythroughmilitantmeansmdashforanewreligio-politicalorderthattheycanbesaidtojointheranksoftheIslamists

ItisworthnotingfinallythatSalafipositionsamongSaudisandelse-wherearemarkednotonlybydiversitybutalsobyconsiderablefluidity(al-Rasheed 2007) The same activist or intellectual might at varioustimesmoveamongavarietyofseeminglyincompatiblepositionsmdashap-pearingtobemoreldquomoderaterdquoonsomeissuesthanonothersForallhiscriticismofradicalIslamistsQaradawiforinstancehashimselfwrittenin justificationofsuicidebombingsbyPalestiniansagainst Israelis (see

23

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INTRODUCTION

chapter 9 on Qaradawi) And Saudi Salafis like Safar al-Hawali andSalmanal-lsquoAwdamdashwhocame toprominence in the early1990smdashhavealternatedbetweencriticismoftheSaudipoliciesanddenunciationsofradicalSalaficallstojihadagainsttheSaudiregime(seeal-Rasheed200759ndash101onal-HawalialsoseeReichmuth2006)Theirshiftingviewsreflect changes in their relations with the Saudi regime but they alsopointtothebroadspectrumofpositionswhichSalafishavetakenatdif-ferenttimesindifferentcontextsandbeforedifferentaudiencesThusevenasal-Hawaliandal-lsquoAwdahavecondemnedterroristactsdirectedagainstSaudiArabiaandadvisedSaudisnottofightAmericantroopsinpostndashSaddamHusseinIraqtheyhavecalledupontheIraqisthemselvestoresistAmericantroopsandhavecharacterizedthateffortasaldquodefen-sivejihadrdquo(al-Rasheed200794ndash95)

Sufi s and Islamists

ItseemsmuchsimpleronthefaceofittodistinguishbetweenIslamistsandSufisThecharacteristicSuficonvictionthattherearelevelsofmean-ingintheQurrsquoanthatgobeyondtheliteralandtheobviousandthataselectfewmdashtheldquofriendsofGodrdquomdashareendowedwiththeuniqueabilityto discern them is anathema to all those who insist that God intendsHisteachingstobeequallyintelligibletoallDespitetheirtendencytoviewthemselvesasbearersof true Islam Islamists typicallyregard theSufi idea that somepeoplehaveaprivileged relationshipwithGodassuspectthebasisnotonlyforsanctioninginterpretationsofIslamthatlackwarrantintheplainteachingsofGodandtheProphetbutalsoforpracticallyldquoworshipingrdquothesefriendsofGodIslamists(andmodernists)havefrequentlyalsobeencriticalofthewaySufidevotionalismcanyieldaturningawayfromtheworldratherthananefforttochangeitaswellasapreoccupationwithpersonalspiritualtransformationattheexpenseofconcernsforthewelfareofthecommunityatlarge SufipracticesandtheteachingsoftheSufimastershavevariedenor-mouslythroughoutthehistoryofIslamyetIslamistcritiquesofSufismareseldomattentivetoitsnuancesortothecomplexwaysithasrelatedtootherfacetsofIslamNorhaveIslamiststakenmuchaccountofthefactthatmanyleadingfiguresofearliertimeswerebesidesmuchelseSufisaswellThisistrueevenofIbnTaymiyya(d1328)whoseprestigeinIslamistandSalaficirclesismatchedbyfewothersandwhowasinhisdayamemberoftheQadiriSufiorder(Makdisi1974)EvenifonearguesmdashasanIslamistmightbeinclinedtomdashthatldquogoodrdquoSufismisnoth-ingbutproperIslamitselftheveryfactthatsuchfigureshadaSufiiden-tityatallnecessarilycomplicateswhatissupposedtobethepristinesim-plicityofafaithsharedequallybyallbelievers

Complicatingthingsstillfurtheristhevarietyofwaysinwhichsomeleading Islamists relate to Sufism Ayatollah Khomeini was a lifelongstudentofIslamicmysticismandtheinfluenceofthemedievalSpanish

24

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INTRODUCTION

Sufi Ibn lsquoArabi loomed especially large in his thought To Khomeinimysticismmdashoften referred to as lsquoirfan (gnosis) especially when inter-twinedwithIslamicphilosophyandtheology(Knysh1992632)mdashwascrucialtoaproperunderstandingofGodrsquosrelationshipwiththeworldandwiththehumanbeingItwasalsoessentialforonersquosethicalforma-tionforamasteryovertheselfandultimatelyforrealizinginoneselftheattributesofwhat Ibn lsquoArabihadcalledldquotheperfectmanrdquo (cfKnysh1992 635 also Mottahedeh 1985 180ndash85) Some of the austerity ofKhomeinirsquospersonallifeprobablyalsoderivedfromSufiasceticismAndthoughheanchoredhisconceptionofIslamicgovernmentinanexposi-tionofShilsquoijuridicalthoughtratherthaninIslamicmysticismthesortofreligiousauthorityhecametoenjoyonthebasisofhisreformulationofShilsquoipoliticaltheologyseemstoechomysticalideasoftheperfectmanwho embodies and upholds the moral order as the microcosm of theuniverse

UnlikeKhomeiniQutbwasnotaSufiandhegivesnoindicationofsharinganyofKhomeinirsquosenthusiasmforthegreatSufithinkersofear-liertimesEvensoechoesofamysticrsquosdirectencounterwiththefoun-tainheadoftruthandknowledgearehardtomissinQutbrsquoswritingses-peciallyinhiscommentaryontheQurrsquoan(cfCarreacute200395ndash97)TheveryfirstsentenceofhiscommentarymdashldquolifeintheshadeoftheQurrsquoanisablessingunknowntoanyonewhohasnrsquottasteditrdquomdashevokesthefa-miliarSufiideathatincontrovertibleknowledgeofRealityisultimatelyacquired only through direct personal experience (dhawq that is theldquotasterdquooftheTruth)ThegreatmedievalSufial-Ghazali(d1111)hadauthoredafamousautobiographicalaccountofhowitwasonlythroughthe immediacyofhispersonalmysticalexperience thathewasable toovercomehisdebilitatingepistemologicaldoubtsandreassurehimselfofthenecessarytruths(Watt199857)QutbdoesnotmentionGhazaliinthiscontextbutitisdifficultnottobestruckbythemysticalresonanceofsomeofhislanguageHereisoneexamplewhichoccursinhiscom-mentaryonsura(chapter)53oftheQurrsquoan16

16TheearlyversesinthissuraoftheQurrsquoanhavebeenunderstoodbyMuslimexegetesasreferringtotheProphetrsquosrevelatoryexperienceaswellastohisldquonightjourneyrdquoandhisascensiontoheavenormilsquoraj inthecourseofonenighthewastransportedfirstfromMeccatoJerusalemandthentothepresenceofGodbeforebeingreturnedtoMecca

UnrelatedtothenightjourneybutrelatedtohisrevelatoryexperiencestheexegeticalsignificanceofthisQurrsquoanicsuraalsoliesinitsconnectionwiththeso-calledSatanicVersesAccordingtocertainexegeticalreportsMuhammadwasinthecourseofreceivingarevela-tionwhenSataninterpolatedsomeversesintoitmdashversespraisingthreegoddessesreveredbythepolytheistsofMeccaItwasnotuntilsometimelaterthatMuhammadrealizedhiserrorwhereupontheversesinterpolatedbySatanwereremovedTheepisodeoftheldquoSa-tanicVersesrdquohasbeenacontroversialoneinIslamichistorylongbeforeSalmanRushdiersquosnovelofthatnameandKhomeinirsquosjuridicalruling(fatwa)callingforRushdiersquosdeathMostMuslimscholarshavefoundittooshockingtobelievethattheProphetcouldhavemadesuchagrievouserrorandhavedeniedthatanysuch incidentever tookplaceYetsome

25

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INTRODUCTION

IwaschattingoneeveningwithsomecompanionswhentoourearscamethesoundofsomeonerecitingtheQurrsquoannearbyrecitingtheSuraoftheStar[al-Najm]andweinterruptedourconversationtolistentotheNobleQurrsquoanLittlebylittlemyheartenteredintowhatwasbeing recited into theheartofMuhammadashe jour-neyedtotheHeavenlyHostIwaswithhimashesawGabrielintheangelicforminwhichGodhadcreatedhimIwaswithhiminhis loftyandfree-flying journey to theLoteTreeof theBoundaryandtheGardenoftheRefugeIwaswithhimtotheextentthatmyimaginationcouldformavisionofitandtotheextentthatmyfeelings couldbear itThen came the final cry andmywholebeingshookatthefearfulreproachldquoDoyoumarvelatthisdiscourseanddoyoulaughandnotweepandmakemerryrdquo[Q5359ndash61]WhenIheardldquoBowdownbeforeGodandserveHimrdquo[Q5362]thetremblinginmyhearthadbecomeaphysicalandvisibletremblingthroughoutmybodythatIcouldnotresistMybodykeptshakingandIcouldnotcontrolitNorcouldIholdbackthetearsthatwerepouringforthhowevermuchItried(QutbZilalvol7part2774ndash75quotedfromCarreacute2003333ndash34withminorchanges)

TheQurrsquoanrsquosprofoundimpactontheaestheticsensibilitiesofitslisten-ersisafamiliarmotifindiscussionsofitsliteraryqualities(cfGrahamandKermani2006)AssomeonewhoseearlywritingswereconcernedwithArabicliterarycriticismandspecificallywiththeliteraryexcellenceoftheIslamicscripture(Qutb1949b)QutbwasespeciallyreceptivetothisaspectoftheQurrsquoanThesenseofbeingtransportedbacktothetimeoftheProphetandtowitnessingtheProphetrsquosascension(milsquoraj)tothepresence of Godmdashwhich is how the passage being commented on byQutbherehascommonlybeeninterpretedbytheexegetesmdashcanlikewisebeseenasanillustrationoftheoverpoweringimpactthewordsoftheQurrsquoancanhaveonthebelieverQutbrsquosaccountofconversingwithGodthrough the Qurrsquoan (cited earlier) is again something he may havewantedtoseeallbelieversdoYetallbelieverscanscarcelydosoany-morethanallaspirantsevenontheSufipathcanexperiencethetransfor-mativemysticalldquostatesrdquothatGodbestowsonHisspecialfriends(awlshyiya)IrrespectiveofwhetherhesawitinquitethiswayQutbrsquosassertionthatheisabletoenterldquointotheheartofMuhammadrdquoandtoseeGabrielasMuhammad sawhimsurelygiveshimaperspective thatothers en-counteringthewordofGoddonothave

ThepointisnotofcoursethatQutbwaseverrecognizedbyhisfol-lowersasaSufimasterbutthatsomeofthehermeneuticalauthorityheclaimshasadistinctiveSufiringtoitMorebroadlythesortofunques-

leadingscholarsofearlyandmedievalIslammdashincludingIbnTaymiyyamdashacceptedthehisto-ricityofthisincidentSeeSAhmed1998

26

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INTRODUCTION

tioningreligio-politicalauthorityIslamistleadershaveoftenenjoyedovertheirfollowersisnotunlikethatoftheSufimasteroverhisfollowersBe-ginningwithHasanal-BannathefounderoftheMuslimBrotherhoodandoncehimselfamemberofaSufiordertheleaderofthisorganizationis formally referred to as themurshid (guide)ormore specificallyalshymurshid alshylsquoam (thegeneralguide[RMitchell1993165])whichisafamiliartermforthemasterinSuficontextsForhispartAbdessalamYassine the founder and leader of lsquoAdl warsquol-Ihsan Party of Morocco(oftenreferredtoastheJusticeandSpiritualityAssociationorJSA)haslike Khomeini gone well beyond simply echoing Sufi conceptions ofauthorityinhisowndiscoursesHetoowasonceamemberofaMoroc-canSufiorderandhehascontinuedtodrawonSufithemesinhiswrit-ingsTheverynameofYassinersquospoliticalorganizationevokesacentralSufiideanamelyihsanThisisaQurrsquoanicterm(cfQ756)thattrans-latedliterallymeansldquotodogoodrdquothoughSufishaveunderstoodittomeanmuchmore thanthatFollowingawell-knownstatementattrib-uted to theProphetMuhammad theyhaveoften interpreted ihsan tomeangoingbeyondtheexternalsofIslamicritualpracticestoldquoworshipGodasifyouseeHimrdquo(Schimmel197529)thatiscultivatingasenseof personal communion and intimacy with God Even as Yassine hassoughttodistancehimselffromwhathedeemstobetheexcessesofSu-fismthereislittledoubtthathispoliticalappealowesmuchtocarefullycalibratedeffortstocombinedistinctiveSufiideaswithhisownbrandofIslamism(cfLauziegravere2005seealsochapter12onNadiaYassineinthisvolume)

FinallyMawdudirsquosJamalsquoat-iIslamimdashoneoftheearliestIslamistorga-nizations in the Sunni worldmdashillustrates both the Islamistsrsquo complexrelationshipwith Sufismand their pragmatic recognitionof its appealinmanyMuslimsocietiesMawdudihadoncebeenaharshcriticofSu-fismblamingitformanyillsafflictingMuslimsocietiesYettheJama-lsquoat-iIslamigraduallycametosoftenitsstanceonSufipracticesconsider-ablynodoubtintheinterestofbroadeningsomeofitssupportbaseinPakistanwheresaintsandSufishrinesareanimportantpartofthereli-giousandpoliticallandscapeAlreadyinMawdudirsquoslifetimeMianTufaylMuhammadhissuccessorastheheadoftheJamalsquoat-iIslamihadtakentheextraordinaryinitiativeoftranslatinganearlySuficlassictheKashf alshymahjub into Urdu The author of this work Shaykh lsquoAli Hujwiri(d1072)isburiedinLahoreinPakistanandhismuch-frequentedshrineishometoprecisely thesortofdevotionalpractices that Islamistsandmodernist reformers letaloneSalafishaveoften frownedupon (Nasr1996124)

ThesediverseexamplesarenotintendedtoobscuretherealdifferencesbetweenthegeneralityofIslamistsandmostSufisTheirsignificanceliesratherinillustratingthedifficultyofdistinguishingbetweenIslamismandotherreligiousintellectualandpoliticaltrendsintermsofneatcharac-

27

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INTRODUCTION

terizationsofgrandtranslocalgeneralizationsAstheforegoingsuggeststhesameistrueandmoresowhenitcomestocharacterizingIslamistsinrelationtothelsquoulamatheMuslimmodernistsandtheSalafisIndeedasLorenLybargerhasarguedwithreferencetothoseusuallycharacter-izedasldquosecularnationalistrdquoorldquoIslamistrdquoPalestiniansintheWestBankandGazadifferenceswithintheranksofyoungsecularnationalistsandIslamistscansometimesalsoshadeintosignificantsimilaritiesbetweenthesesupposedlyrivalorientations(Lybarger2007)ManyIslamistshavesoughttodistancethemselvesfromwhattheyseeastherigidityandau-thoritarianismofotherIslamistsandtoarguenotjustfortheimplemen-tationofthesharilsquoabutalsofordemocracyandpluralismConverselynot a few of the younger secular nationalists have ldquoadopted IslamisttheodiciesthatexplainedthefailuretoovercomeIsraelastheresultoffallingawayfrompietytheirconclusionsmirroredIslamistonestootheroadbackfromthebrinkhadtotraceitscoursethrougharenewedcom-mitmenttoIslambutnotnecessarilyinthemannerthattheIslamistmove-mentsmighthaveintendedrdquo(Lybarger2007237ndash38quotationat238)

Yet ifneatcategoriesremainelusiveacombinationoftheIslamistsrsquoself-consciouslypoliticalgoalstheirmultifacetedifnotalwaysexplicitpoliticalcritiquesofmanypastandpresentwaysofunderstandingandlivingIslamandanunshakeableconfidenceintheirownabilitytodis-cern Godrsquos will from the foundational texts do often provide enoughgrounds tobroadlydistinguish themfromotheractivists intellectualsand orientations in the Muslim public sphere What this combinationamountstovariesfromonesocialpoliticalreligiousandculturalcon-texttoanotherandsothereforedothewaysinwhichIslamistsrelatetooneanotherorcompeteandoverlapwithothergroupsandorientations

The Politics of Islamism

FromAeneasrsquosmythicalfoundingofRometothedeathandresurrectionofJesusChristtoMuhammadrsquosmigrationtoMedinafoundationalnar-rativesareascommontocollectivelifeasthemovementsthatperiodi-callyarisetorevivethemandclaimantstothemantleoflegitimacytheyconferSounderstoodIslamistsrsquopoliticalaspirationstorestorefounda-tionslocatedinamythicalpastarefarfromuniqueNorareIslamistsaloneintheirconvictionthatscripturalauthorityisguaranteedbyitsdi-vineauthormdashforinthatallMuslimsagreeRatherthechaptersinthisvolumesuggest thatwhatmakes Islamistpoliticsdistinctive (ifnotsui generis)istheclaimtorecuperateanldquoauthenticIslamrdquocomprisedofself-evidenttruthspurgedofalienandcorruptinginfluencesalongwithaninsistenceonremakingthefoundationsofthestateinitsimageGiventhelimitsofhumanunderstandingrelativetoGodrsquosknowledgeIslamistssimultaneouslydepictsuchfidelitytotheunadulteratedwordofAllahas

28

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INTRODUCTION

theultimateexpressionofdeferencetodivineomniscienceandportrayhumilityasaconstitutivefeatureofthehumanconditionAspirationstofullyknowandmasterthenaturalandsocialworldsthusentailnotonlyahumanhubrisdeaftotheQurrsquoanicadmonitionthatldquoAllahknowsbutandyoudonotknowrdquo(Q366)butalsoatransgressionagainstadi-vinely-ordainedontologicalorder

ItisnotablehoweverthattheIslamistemphasisonthelimitsofhumanknowledgerequireshumilityonlyinrelationtoAllahitrarelyyieldshu-milityinregardtotheirownclaimstospeakinHisnameortowardotherhumanbeingswhodissentfromthepremiseofdivineomnipotenceandIslamistaccountsofwhat it requiresThis suggests thatwhile IslamistchallengestostatepowerareobviouslypoliticaltheIslamistclaimtoau-thenticityisalsopolitical inthecoercivepoweritroutinelyenactsandjustifiesmostnotablybywayofthesilencesitimposesandthedebatesitforeclosesAzizal-Azmehpointsoutthatldquothenotionofauthenticityisnotsomuchadeterminateconceptasitisanodeofassociationsandin-terpellationsatropebymeansofwhichthehistoricalworldisreducedtoaparticularorderandatokenwhichmarksoffsocialandpoliticalgroupsandforgesandreconstituteshistoricalidentitiesrdquo(al-Azmeh199341)WhetherintheserviceofArabnationalismChristianfundamental-ismEuropeanromanticismorMuslimmodernismtheclaimofauthen-ticityisanactofpowerthatfunctionsnotjusttoreflecttheworldbuttoconstructitbydeterminingwhoisincludedandexcludedwhomayandmaynotspeakauthoritativelywhatistheproperrealmofdebateandwhatisbeyondcontestation

ItiscertainlythecasethatasingleldquoIslamrdquocapturesandorganizestheperspectivesofmillionswhoself-identifyasMuslim(amongotherthings)yetwhattravelsunderitsrubricisinescapablydiversemultiethnicanddefined asmuchbydisagreement as consensus Just as theTorah andBible lend themselves toat times radicallydivergent interpretationsofwhatitmeanstobeJewishorChristiantheQurrsquoanandhaditharecom-plexandsusceptibletomanydifferentandattimescontradictoryenact-mentsSounderstoodIslamislessafixedessencethanalivingtraditionthatcaptureswhatisimaginedascontinuousandunitaryindialecticalrelationshiptothoseconcretearticulationsandpracticesbywhichitistransformedandadaptedindifferentcontextsforpluralpurposesItispreciselythisunderstandingofreligionthatisanathematoIslamistswhoseek tofix theparametersof Islamicauthenticityonceandforallandtherebyarrogateforthemselvestherighttodeterminewhoqualifiesasagood Muslim to discredit those lsquoulama unable or unwilling to purgeIslamofpurportedimpietiestodeclarenominallyMuslimrulersapos-tatesunfittogovernandtocharacterizeallwhodisagreeascorrupthe-reticalguiltyofunbelieforvictimsoffalseconsciousness

Thesegeneralpoliticaltendencieshowevermustbecarefullysituatedwithinadialecticoftheglobalandthevernacularunderstoodtoreflect

29

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

thewaysinwhichunifyingmacrohistoricaldynamicsinformandareinturntransformedbydiversecontingentandfluidlocalcircumstancesInaworldstampedbyWesterndominanceandtheconsolidationofpostco-lonial authoritarian regimes Islamists confront a common set of con-straintsandchallengesInasmuchassuchconstraintsandchallengeshavemade Islamist thinkers (often reluctant) participants in conversationsacrossbothcultureandhistorytheireffortstoremakethefoundationsofcollectiveliferevealasharedinterpretiveframeworkandcommonreli-gio-political grammar At the same time this frame and grammar arecontinuallybeingreworkedinrelationtothedistinctpublicspheresinwhichIslamistsoperateandtowhichtheycarefullycalibratetheirpoliti-calcommitments

Attention to this complex dynamic suggests that the Islamist move-mentcannotsimplybecharacterizedasviolentantidemocraticandop-pressiveofwomenlabelsinvokedsofrequentlyinscholarlyandpopularliterature on the subject that they have become virtually synonymouswithIslamistpoliticsSuchcharacterizationsdocapturecrucialdimen-sionsofIslamistpoliticsyettheyalsosidesteptheparadoxesitsvarie-gatedandoftencontradictoryexpressionspresentInsteadwearguethatIslamistpoliticscanbeproductivelyreadin terms ofandagainst the grain ofsuchbroadcategorizationsasantidemocraticantiwomanorviolentmdashthat is as commitments that at different moments in various localesbothencourageandconstrainbroad-basedpoliticalparticipationdisruptandratifyhierarchicalgendernormsresistandreproducestate-sanctionedbrutalityThepointofreadingIslamistpoliticsinthiswayisnottosug-gestthatIslamistsaresecretlydemocraticfeministandopposedtovio-lenceRatherthepointistodrawattentiontothecomplexityandcon-tradictionserasedbyeasygeneralizationsontheonehandandtheoftenunacknowledgedfluidityandculturaladaptabilityofotherwisefamiliarpoliticalcategoriesontheother

Islamism and Democracy

DespiteimportantdifferencesamongIslamistthinkerstheyhaveincom-monatendencytoviewhumansovereigntyastransgressiveofdivinelawandsharetheaspirationtoestablishsharilsquoaastheprimaryorsolesourceofauthorityAsisoftennotedsuchpremisesandaspirationsrunafoulofassumptionsaboutpopularruleattheheartofdemocracynamelythathumanbeingshavetherighttolegislaterulesforcollectivebehaviorandarecapableofthewisdomrequiredtodevisejustlawsInrecentyearspolicymakersandcommentatorshaveevincedaparticularpreoccupa-tionwiththewaysinwhichIslamistnotionsofdivineauthoritythrottlethespiritandpracticeofpopularsovereigntySomehaveevengonesofarastocharacterizeIslamistsasldquoIslamo-fascistsrdquoanimatedbyhatredoftheldquodemocratic Westrdquo psychologically unable to contend with the fluidity

30

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INTRODUCTION

andindeterminacythatmarkpopularruleandeagertoconvertelectionsintoaldquoone-manone-voteone-timerdquomechanismforestablishinganIs-lamicstate(Murdock2002MRubin2005Kramer1993)

SuchviewsareechoedbythoseIslamistskeentoportraydemocracynotonlyasantitheticaltothesupremacyofdivinelawbutasaTrojanhorseforWesternimperialismFormanyIslamistsincludingseveralinthis volumedemocracy is justone symptomofametastasizingmoralandspiritualbankruptcywherebymoraltransgressionsaretransfiguredintonaturalurgescrassself-interestbecomesthebedrockofcollectivelifeandthedivineplanfortheuniverseandallthingsinitisreducedtoa system of physical causality just waiting to be mastered by way ofhumaningenuity(REuben2007)Qutbcallsthisdiseasedviewoftheworldjahiliyyaanditsignalsnotonlyhumanarrogancebutatransgres-sionagainstdivineauthoritythescopeofwhichencompassesbothpub-licandprivatedomainsofhumanaffairsaswellasbothvisibleandun-seendimensionsoftheuniverseFormanyIslamistssuchtransgressionisattherootofmuchofwhatpassesforMuslimruleinthecontemporaryworldmdashnationalistdemocraticandmonarchicalalikeSucharroganceisalsosaidtobethepatternunderlyingalonghistoryofunrelievedWest-ernaggressionagainstIslaminwhichtheChristianCrusadesEuropeancolonialismIsraelitreatmentofPalestiniansethniccleansinginBosniaGermananti-TurkishviolencetheAmericaninvasionofIraqandDutchcartoonsofMuhammadarebutafewexamples

YetthereisarangeofviewsamongIslamistsaboutboththesubstanceofdemocracyanditscompatibilitywiththereligio-politicalrenewaltheyadvocateAccordingtoQaradawiforexampleldquotheessenceofdemoc-racyisthatpeoplechoosewhorulesoverthemandmanagestheiraf-fairsthatnorulerorregimetheydislikeisforceduponthemthattheyhavetherighttocalltherulertoaccountifheerrsandtoremovehimfromofficeincaseofmisconductandthatpeoplearenotforcedineco-nomicsocialculturalorpoliticaldirectionsthattheyneitherrecognizenor acceptrdquo (Qaradawi1997132 also chapter9 in this volume)TohimthereisnoheavierburdenoppressingMuslimsinthecontemporaryworld thandespotism indeed it is throughdespoticgovernments thatMuslimshavebeenforcedtosubmittootherillsincludingtheneglectofthesharilsquoaandthecoerciveimpositionofsecularismandwesternizationDemocracy then recommends itself to Qaradawi as the most effectiveavailableantidotetodespotismandtheafflictionsofwhichitservesasavehicle

WheremanyamongtheIslamistsandthelsquoulamahaveseenconsider-able tensionbetween IslamanddemocracyQaradawiprofesses to seenoneAswesuggestedearlierbyfarthemostcommonoftheIslamistreservationsaboutademocraticsystemrelatestothesovereigntyofthepeoplewhichistakentocontravenetheideathatGodaloneissovereignQaradawi however is unperturbedby such concernsThe rule of the

31

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INTRODUCTION

peopleoughttobeseenhearguesnotinoppositiontotheruleofGodbutratherinoppositiontotheruleofthedespotMorefundamentallyQaradawirsquos view of democracy does not necessarily require that thepeopleshouldbeabletooverturndivinelyinstitutednormsRatherhisassumptionisthatpeopleexercisetheirsovereigntywithinconstitutionalboundsandMuslimslivinginapredominantlyMuslimdemocraticpol-itywouldlikewisenotwishtotransgresstheparametersoflegitimatehumanactionlaiddownintheIslamicfoundationaltexts(seeQaradawichapter9inthisvolumeandcfFeldman2007)

NadiaYassineofMoroccorsquosJusticeandSpiritualityAssociationisan-othercaseinpointWhilecriticalofthedemocraticgesturesembracedbyamonarchythatshedepictsasallergictogenuinelypopularsovereigntyYassineinsiststhatthemodelofMuslimruleadumbratedintheummafoundedbytheProphetMuhammadandinparticulartheConstitutionofMedina17isnothingshortofdemocratic(NYassine2005d2005e)UnliketheMuslimdynastiesthatarosetousurpitYassinecontendsthiscommunity was participatory egalitarian committed to freedom andexpressiveofGodrsquosmercyMostimportantitwasgovernedalwaysbytheQurrsquoanicprincipleofshura (consultation)bywhichYassinemeansaphilosophy of power that places sovereignty in the community ratherthaninanyindividuallinksvirtuetodeliberationratherthanobedienceandexhortsbelieverstocontinuallyadaptQurrsquoanicprinciplesthroughijtihad rather than adhere reflexively to precedent (N Yassine 2006a182ndash862005d)ManyscholarsandjournalistsremainskepticaloftheJSArsquosasyetuntestedcommitment toproceduraldemocracyandworrythatNadiaandher fatherAbdessalamultimatelyseektoestablishanIslamic state inhospitable to tolerance pluralism and civil liberties(Maghraoui2001Brandon2007Whitlock2006)YetothersarguethattheJSAisagenuinelypopulistorganizationthatrepresentstheunrepre-sentedtendstothewelfareofthedispossessedandbothexpressesandcontributestoanincreasinglyvibrantcivilsocietyinMorocco(Cavatorta2006Entelis2002)

QaradawirsquosandYassinersquosargumentstogethersuggestthatdemocracycanandhasservedaseitheracosmeticcoverfordespotismoranauthen-ticallyIslamiccheckuponcorruptandarbitraryruleAtissueinIslamistargumentsforandagainstdemocracythenarenotonlywhatcountsasldquoauthenticIslamrdquoandtheintentionsofthosewhoclaimtoknowitbutalsothecontentandcharacterofdemocracyitselfParadoxicallybothIslamistsopposedtodemocracyandthosewhotakeIslamismasinher-entlyantidemocraticregardthisasasimplematterwithanobviousan-swerdemocracyisanexpressionofandevensynonymouswithliberal-ismcapitalismandtheWestYetdemocracyisbothmorecapaciousand

17TheConstitutionofMedinawasanagreementtheProphethadenteredintowiththelocalcommunitiesincludingJewishtribesuponhisemigrationfromMeccatoMedina

32

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

moredistinctthanthispresumptionsuggestsTheworditselfofcoursederivesfromtheancientGreekdemokratiawhichmeansrule(kratos)ofthepeople(demos)andmanyderivetheequationofdemocracyandtheWestfromthisassociationwithclassicalGreeceYetancientGreekphi-losopherssuchasPlatosawindemocracythespecterofmobrulepartic-ularly vulnerable to demagoguery and despotism (a suspicion notablyechoedbyAmerican founder JamesMadison)Contrary to thedemo-cratic idealof inclusivenessmoreover citizenship inGreekdemocracyexcludedasubstantialpartofthepopulationincludingwomenslavesandforeignersFinallytheextenttowhichtheancientGreeksmayevenbecalledWesternisamatterofgreatdisputeparticularlyastheldquoWestrdquoisacategoryofrelativelyrecentprovenancethroughwhichhistoryandgeographyhavebeenretroactivelyorganized18DespitedepictionsoftheHellenicworldasWesternancientGreeksdidnotinfactviewthem-selvesintheseterms19

TheequationofdemocracywiththeWestalsopresupposestheexis-tenceofacoherentldquoWesterncivilizationrdquowitheitherculturallyhomoge-neousrootsorclearlydelineatedhistoricalandcontemporarybounda-riesorbothYetwhatiscalledtheWestisanamalgamationofmultipletraditionsincludingtheGreekRomanJudaicChristianandIslamicmdashtraditionsthatarethemselvespolyvalentratherthanhomogeneousmdashandistodaycharacterizedbyporousbordershybridsubculturesandmyriaddebtstodiversecivilizationspastandpresent20AsageographicmarkeritisvirtuallyimpossibletopinpointexactlywheretheWestbeginsandendsandthisisespeciallysonowthatpeoplesinformationandmate-rial goods crisscross cultural andnational borders atwill creating allkindsoftransnationalsubnationalandmultipleidentitiesthatshiftandreconstitutethemselvesinunpredictablewaysEventhosevaluesidenti-fiedasWesternoftenappearelsewhereinotherguisesIndeedscholarssuggestthatavarietyoftheldquostandardsexportedbytheWestanditscul-turalindustriesthemselvesturnouttobeofculturallymixedcharacterifweexaminetheirculturallineagesrdquo(Pieterse199553)

Manyalsoarguethatdemocracyisnotonlydistinctfrombutinten-sionwithboththetheoryandpracticeofpoliticsinldquoWesternrdquosocieties

18MichaelGillespie(19997ndash10)arguesthattherereadingofhistorygeographyandculturethroughtheprismofthissenseofldquotheWestrdquobegannoearlierthanthenineteenthcenturyTheideaofatimelessandbrightlinebetweenWestandEastisalsochallengedbyJeremyBrottonrsquosstudy(19989096ndash97)ofthediplomaticandintellectualexchangesbe-tweenEuropeandtheOttomanEmpireintheearlymodernperiodBrottonshowsnotonlytheextentandamityofsuchexchangesbutapersistentuncertaintyaboutwherepreciselyEuropeldquoendedrdquoandAsialdquobeganrdquo

19AncientGreeksunderstoodthemselvesasgeographicallywestofthebarbariansbutnotWesterninthecontemporarysensethatisasbothaculturalandhistoricalcategory

20StevenRuncimanrsquoswork(19543480)ontheCrusadesforexampledemonstratesaldquolongsequenceofinteractionandfusionbetweenOrientandOccidentoutofwhichourcivilizationhasgrownrdquo

33

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

many of which are more accurately classified as liberal and capitalist(Wood1994Wolin2001BallandDagger1999)Whileitisnowcom-monplacetospeakofldquoliberaldemocracyrdquoinasinglebreathliberalismanddemocracyareconceptsandpracticeswithverydifferenthistoriesandpresuppositionsUnlikedemocracyforexampleliberalismemergedfromthecrucibleofChristianreligiouswarsandintandemwiththeas-cendanceofamiddleclassthatpresagedtheendofEuropeanfeudalismTheliberalnation-statecanthusbeviewedasbothanexpressionandaconsolidationofcapitalismontheonehandandtheprincipleofasepa-rationbetweenchurchandstateontheotherBycontrastthereisnoth-ingaboutdemocracyeitherasasystemofgovernanceoracultureofpar-ticipationthatisinherentlysecularIndeedAlexisdeTocquevillefamouslyinsistedthatAmericandemocracycannotandshouldnotbesecularasreligionhelpsshiftattentionawayfromimmediatematerialpreoccupa-tionstolargerconcernsofcommunitycooperationandmoralityInfactmanydemocratictheoristsarguethatgenuinelyinclusivepopularsover-eignty is antithetical to the sharp inequalities of wealth and politicalpowerthatcapitalismoftenproducesandlegitimates

SuchongoingdefinitionalandsubstantivedebatessuggestthatthereismuchmoreatstakeindemocraticpoliticsthanprocedurespertainingtogovernmentauthorityandorderandpointtoawidespreadifelusiveunderstandingofdemocracynotjustasasetofinstitutionsbutasTocque-villesuggestsawayoflifeSeveralpoliticaltheoristshavecharacterizedthiselusiveunderstandingintermsofaldquodemocraticethosrdquoBythistheymeanbothanidealandanargumentforacultureofparticipationactivepowersharingmutualaccountabilityinclusivenessanddeliberationinwhichcitizensmayroutinelyandsafelychallengenotonlyspecificpoli-ciesandpolitical institutionsbutalso thevalues thatgoverncollectivelifeprinciplesofinclusionandexclusionandthepremisesofauthorityitself(Connolly1995JPEuben2003Sadiki2004)AdemocraticethosismuchmoredifficulttomeasureorquantifythanforexampleSamuelHuntingtonrsquosparsimoniousdefinitionofdemocracyasapolityinwhichtherehavebeentwoconsecutivepeacefulchangesofgovernmentbywayof freeand fairelections (Huntington1991)21Yetademocraticethosmakesitpossibletobothrecognizeanddisaggregatethepreconditionsaspirations mechanisms and institutions bundled into ldquodemocracyrdquotherebybringingintofocusforexamplethefrequentlyantidemocratic

21Manypoliticalscientistsprefertodefinedemocracyintermsofproceduresdesignedtorealizepopularruleincludingfreecompetitiveandfairelectionsalongwithstateprotec-tionofcertainrightsandlibertiesSuchaformalminimalistdefinitionhastheadvantageofdetachingdemocracyfromquestionsoforiginsandofferingastandardtowhichallgov-ernmentsmaybeheldregardlessofcultureandplaceAsKeithTopper(2005205ndash7)ar-gueshoweveritalsotendstosidestepknottyquestionsaboutthesubstanceofrepresenta-tion power responsiveness and accountability that are arguably central to democraticpolitics

34

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

casttoelectionsimposedbyelitesorforeignpowersthefeltimpotenceofmanycitizensinestablisheddemocraciesandthosehighlyparticipa-torycivilsocietiesthatflourishevenundermonarchicortheocraticrule

Forourpurposes inparticularademocraticethosmakesvisible theparadoxofanIslamistmovementthatseekstomobilizeordinaryMus-limsagainstcoercivepowerbutinthenameofareligio-politicalorderlargelyimmunizedfromchallengeQutbisanaptillustrationhereashistendencytogroundhisownspecialauthorityandinsightintheunsulliedwisdomofordinarybelieversmakesitpossibletoreadhisworkaseitherabriefagainstdemocracy(amongotherthings)oranenactmentofitIn-asmuchasdemocracyasaformofgovernanceisidentifiedwithpopularsovereigntyQutbrsquosbasicpremisethat thefoundationof legitimateau-thoritymustbedivineratherthanhumansuggeststhatheisunambigu-ouslyantidemocraticMoreoverQutbrsquoseffortstopluralizereligiousandpolitical authority express not a confidence in common wisdom butratheradesiretoclaimforhimselfthestatureofareligiousexpertwhodespitehislackofIslamicacademiccredentialscanclearlyseewhatoth-erscannotQutbcharacterizestherealIslamasself-evidentbuthealsoassumesthatonlyasmallvanguardofbelieversbesideshimselfwillhavetheabilitytorecognizeitandactdecisivelytoremaketheworldinitsimageSounderstoodthesignofldquochosennessrdquoisunyieldingcommitmenttoestablishingareligio-politicalorderthatsimultaneouslypresumesthesupremacyofthefewcapableoftrueknowledgeandpromisesaworldinwhichdissentitselfwillbecomebothunnecessaryandillegitimate

Yetifdemocracyrefersnotonlytoasystemofgovernanceorsetofprocedurestorealizepopularsovereigntybutalsotopracticesthatdis-ruptthoseforceswhichconcentratepowerandestablishpoliticalexclu-sionthecharacterizationofQutbrsquosworkassimplyantidemocraticmissesa crucial dimensionof its significance and appealAs the sacred textscontaintherulesandregulationsmeanttogovernbothpublicandpri-vateaffairsQutbrsquosinsistencethatordinaryuntrainedMuslimsmusten-gagethemdirectlyisinmanywaysademocratizationofaccesstoau-thoritySuchaccesscandisruptdeeplyentrenchedpatternsofpowerandpowerlessness particularlywhen conjoined to Islamist arguments thatarbitrarypowerisun-Islamicthatreligiousknowledgedependsoncom-mitmentratherthantrainingorexpertise thatMuslimshavetherightandobligationtodeterminewhenrulersareillegitimateandthatthosewhopreferordertojusticesecuritytofreedomandmoneytopietyhaveforfeitedanyclaimtoauthority

ThisaspectofIslamismhasfrequentlybeencomparedtotheProtestantReformationandmorespecificallytoCalvinistsrsquoattemptstotransferldquore-ligiousauthorityawayfromofficiallysanctionedindividualswhointer-prettextstoordinarycitizensrdquo(EGoldberg19913alsocfLoimeier2005)Suchaparallelhassparkedagreatdealofscholarlyspeculation

35

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

regardingapossibleldquoIslamicReformationrdquo22andarangeofargumentsaboutwhetherandhowIslamismmightfacilitatethedemocratizationofMuslim societies much as the Protestant Reformation is said to haveheralded the emergence of European ldquoliberal democracyrdquo While suchcomparisonsareevocativeafullerunderstandingof IslamismrequiresfirstsituatingitinrelationtoahistoricalshiftinthenatureandlocusofreligiousauthorityinIslambeginninginthenineteenthcenturyAsschol-arsofMuslimsocietieshavepointedouttheimpactofmasseducationnewtechnologiesfordisseminatingknowledgeandinformationanddra-matically changed social economic and political contexts have madeavailabletoamateurswhathadpreviouslybeenthepurviewofreligiousexpertsAtthesametimeithasinauguratedafragmentationofauthor-itywithintheveryranksofthelsquoulamathatcontinuestothepresentday23

InthiscontexttheascendanceandinfluenceofautodidactssuchasQutbHasanal-BannalsquoAbdal-SalamFarajandBinLadensimultaneouslyex-pressandaccelerateanongoingrenegotiationofauthorityoverwhomayspeakforIslamandonwhatbasisthepathofwhichisstillunfoldingandtheoutcomeasyetuncertain

Islamism and Gender

One already apparent consequence of this ongoing renegotiation overwhomayspeakforIslamandonwhatbasisistheentryofwomenintothe interpretive fray This development is increasingly unsettling thoseunwrittengendernormsarguablyattheveryheartofIslamistthoughtdisruptingthestandardsofmasculinityandfemininitythatreflecthowparticularculturesorganizehumanbeingsrsquosocialandreproductiveactiv-itiesintorolesthatareinturnthoughttoexpresstheldquonaturerdquoofmenand women Such norms are frequently considered tangential to theknottyproblemsofdefiningIslamismandadumbratingitscentralideasyetarangeofscholarshiponculturespastandpresenthasshownthatgenderisconsistentlytheterrainoverwhichbattlesforpoliticalcontrolandculturalidentityarefoughtMorespecificallyresearchindisciplinessuchasanthropologyhistoryclassicsandpostcolonialstudieshasdem-onstratedthatculturesinwhichfemalebodiesandbehaviorareregardedas indicesofmoralpurity tend to symbolically transformwomen intoconduitsof cultural corruption in timesof internal crisis and externalthreat(Papenek1994Chatterjee1990Tavakoli-Targhi1991Just1989Cohen1991Welter1966Bloch1978)Thisisespeciallytrueofcontem-

22Foralatenineteenth-centuryassessmentoftheprospectsforaldquoMuhammadanRefor-mationrdquoseeBlunt1882132ndash73

23EickelmanandPiscatori199637ndash39131ndash35Zaman2006Suchfragmentationhasinmanywaysbeenacceleratedbytheexplosionofdigitalcultureswhichpromoteamongotherthingsaldquoformofempoweredamateurismrdquo(Mirzoeff20026)

36

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

poraryreligio-politicalmovementswhosememberstendtoldquoidealizepa-triarchalstructuresofauthorityandmoralityrdquoendorsegenderdualismasgod-givenornaturalandcondemnvigorouslyrecentchangesingen-derrelationsasasymptomandsymbolofsecularistmoralbankruptcy(Riesebrodt1993Moghadam1992Hawley1994)

SeveralchaptersinthisvolumeilluminateIslamistgendernormsbyre-vealing thecharacterandcontentof Islamistconcernsabout theplaceandpurityofMuslimwomenmdashpreoccupationsFatimaMernissi(199199)hasgonesofarastocharacterizeasanobsessionDespiteimportantdifferences among Islamists thinkers many endorse gender norms inwhichthefairlyconventionalinsistencethatfemalenatureisdefinedinand through reproduction undergirds an understanding of women assymbolsofmoralvirtueandvesselsofculturalpurityThisviewsustainstheclaimthatmenandwomenareequalinreligiousbeliefbutperformfundamentallydifferentandcomplementaryfunctionsinsocietyWhilemenarenaturallymadetoruleinboththepublicandprivatedomainawomanbelongsinthedomesticrealmwhereherprimaryroleistobeawifeandmotheraswellastoinsuretheintegrityofthefamilythefirstschoolofmoraleducationAssuchfunctionsarerootedinaninescap-ablehumannaturefashionedbyGodawomanrsquosinabilityorunwilling-nesstoperformherdutiessignalsadisobediencetothedivinewillandpresages the corruption of the Muslim family from within From thisvantagepointtheWesterninsistenceonfullequalitybetweenthesexesisdoubly pernicious it at once liberates women from basic moral con-straintsandenslavesthemtomutuallyreinforcingsexualandcapitalistexploitationAsMurtazaMutahhari(1998xxxi)arguescapitalismmakesuseofwomentomarket itsgoodsldquoby trading inhonourandrespectthrough[their]powertoenticerdquotherebyldquotransform[ing]manintoaninvoluntaryagentofconsumptionrdquoInasmuchaswomenareresponsiblefor producing the next generation of Muslim men destined to restoreIslamtoitsformergloryitisnotonlythevirtueofwomenortheinteg-rityofthefamilythathangsinthebalancebutthefutureofIslamiccivili-zationitself

Zaynab al-Ghazali andMutahharimake several of these argumentsexplicitlyandindetail(seechapters10and11)butinmuchofIslamistrhetoricthenatureandsignificanceofwomenareestablishedindirectlyandsymbolicallyandthroughthreerecurrentimagesinparticularThefirstisofwomenassilentsymbolsofculturalmoralandsexualvulnera-bilityvoicelessfiguresinneedofmasculineprotectionorwhenitistoolatedefiledbodiesthatmutelydemandvengeanceSoforexamplelsquoAb-dallahlsquoAzzam(oneofBinLadenrsquosmentorsseechapter18)graphicallydetailstheagonizinghumiliationofyoungmenunabletoactwhentheAfghanwoman isldquocryingout forhelpher childrenarebeing slaugh-tered her women are being raped the innocent are killed and theircorpsesscatteredrdquo(lsquoAzzam1987a)Inthesecondimagewomenfunction

37

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

muchlikeachorusthatspeaksinpermittedcadencestoratifymasculineendeavorsSuchisthecaseforexampleinBinLadenrsquos1996ldquoDeclara-tionofWaragainsttheAmericansOccupyingtheLandoftheTwoHolyPlacesrdquo(seechapter18)wherethewomenexhortmentojihadinthefollowing way ldquoPrepare yourself like a struggler the matter is biggerthanwordsAreyougoingtoleaveusforthewolvesofKufr[unbe-lief]eatingourwingsWherearethefreemendefendingfreewomenbyarmsDeath isbetter than life inhumiliation Some scandals andshameswillneverbeotherwiseeradicatedrdquo24InthethirdimagewomenarecreaturesnotofthisworldbutofanothervirginalrewardsforthecourageousmartyrintheafterlifeThisisevidentinthefinalinstructionsforthe911hijackersforexamplewhereMuslimldquobrothersrdquoareurgedto purify their carnal impulses sharpen their knives for the dhabh (slaughter)andheedthecallofthehur lsquoayn (theblack-eyedones)await-ingtheminParadise(seechapter19)

Such rhetoric primarily registers women as an extensionmirror ormeasure of masculinity and together with explicit Islamist argumentsabouthumannatureandthefamilyarticulatesIslamistgendernormsinwhichmenandwomeneachhaveaproperlocationandpurposeinadi-vinely ordained social hierarchy Deviance from this gendered scriptthussignalsdisruptionofamuchbroaderreligio-politicalorderitbothpresumes and seeks to bring into existence The disruption caused byforeign aggression in particular exacerbates the tendency to translateconflict into an assault on Muslim masculinity and to conceptualizewomenaspotentialvehiclesforWesterncorruptioninneedofguidingand guarding Women such as Zaynab al-Ghazali and Nadia Yassinewho seek a prominent place and voice within the Islamist movementhavehadlittlechoicebuttocontendwiththisgenderedscriptDoingsohasentailedamongotherthingsnavigatingcarefullybetweenIslamistcharacterizations of womenrsquos visibility and agency as symptomatic ofthe new jahiliyya on the one hand and essentializing arguments thatequateIslamwithveilingfemalegenitalmutilationandhonorkillingsontheother

AsthechaptersonGhazaliandYassinesuggestIslamistwomenhavenegotiatedbetweensuchconstraintsandpressuresandtheirownambi-tionsindifferentwaysApioneeringdalsquoiya(onewhoinvitesMuslimstogreater piety)Ghazalirsquos own life reveals a fierce resistance to conven-tionalnormsofdomesticityevenasmuchofher(earlier)workappearsto embrace an Islamist gender ideology that defines women as wivesmothers andldquobuilders ofmenrdquo (al-Hashimi 1990 118)By contrastYassineisawifeandmotherwhoembracesanldquoIslamicfeminismrdquothatrequiresldquoreappropriatingtheinstrumentsofclassicaltheologyrdquoanden-

24TheIslamistjournalSawt alshyJihadhasgonesofarastofeatureldquowomenrsquosvoicesrdquointheformofrolemodelsnamedforexampleumm alshyshahid(motherofthemartyr)al-thoughitisunclearthattheseldquovoicesrdquoareactuallywomenrsquos(SUsher2004)

38

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INTRODUCTION

gaging the textsdirectly through ijtihad (NYassine2003) In this re-spect Yassine must be understood as part of a broader effort amongMuslimwomenwithdifferentpoliticalcommitmentstosimultaneouslyadvocateandenacttheirrighttorecuperatetheldquooriginalintentrdquooftheIslamictextsIfwomenandmendoinfacthavedistinctperspectivesontheworldYassinesuggestswomenhaveaspecialobligationtoexcavatewhattheyseeasthegenderparityoftheQurrsquoanburiedbeneaththoseldquomachointerpretationsrdquoofIslamuponwhichmenhavebuilttheirprivi-legeandpower(Khalaf2006)25

ManyAnglo-AmericanandEuropean feministsworry that Islamistsseekonly to secureor restorepatriarchalpowerConverselymany Is-lamist women view feminism as a term and a movement inescapablyWesterninoriginfreightedwiththelegacyofcolonialismanduneasilyimplicatedinculturalimperialismThisapplieseventoYassinewhoisunwillingtoadoptwithoutqualificationalabelsheassociateswithagen-dasopposedtoherowntheWesttheMoroccanstateMaghribi(North-westAfrican)elitesYetfeminismitselfisahighlycontestedtermwithin theso-calledWestitisthebearerofmultiplemeaningssomeofwhichareevenopposedandischaracterizedbydeepdisagreementsaboutwhowomenarewhatwomenneedwhoisauthorizedtoworkonwomenrsquosbehalf andbywhatmeans Inasmuch as these various feminismsmayshareonlyastatedconcernforwomenrsquoswelfarethereisnothinginco-herentinmodifyingldquofeminismrdquowithldquoIslamicrdquoldquoMuslimrdquoorevenldquoIs-lamistrdquounlessone iscommitted toarguing thatfirst Islam isanun-changingessencebeyondhistorypoliticsandculturesecondthereisaneutralobjectivevantagefromwhichtoidentifythisessenceonceandforallandfinallytheIslamicessencesoidentifiedisfundamentallyin-compatiblewitheffortstoimprovetheconditionsandqualityofwomenrsquoslivesBythesametokenIslamistwomenwhorejectthetermfeminismcanbe(althoughnotalwaysare)deeplycommittedtoimprovingwom-enrsquoswelfareaswellasactivelyresistanttoeffortsthatreduceortrans-formthemintosilentaccessoriesofmalepower

YassineandGhazalidifferaboutwhatwomenareandshouldbeyetbroadlyspeakingbothmaybeconsideredpartofarecenttrendtowardthe feminizationofdalsquowa Dalsquowa literallymeanscallappealor sum-monsbutthetermhascometosignifyavarietyofpracticesandargu-mentsmeanttoexhortinviteandguideMuslimstowhatisregardedasproperconductandmoraldevotionWomenrsquosparticipationindalsquowais

25WomenrsquosparticipationintheldquoproductionofofficialIslamicknowledgerdquohasalonghistoryalthoughtheyhaveoftendonesoinrelativeobscurityandwithoutthebenefitofeducation in the Islamicsciences thathas legitimateddirectengagementwith thesacredtexts (Cooke 2001 xiv Badran and Cooke 2004) Pioneering attempts to read genderequalityinIslamarealsonotconfinedtowritingbywomenasevincedbyQasimAminrsquosTahrir alshymarrsquoa [TheLiberationofWoman] (1899)andMumtaz lsquoAlirsquosHuquqshye niswan [TheRightsofWomen](1898)

39

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

notabrandnewphenomenonasisevidentinGhazalirsquosworkwiththeEgyptianSocietyofMuslimLadiesinthe1930sYetfromEgypttoPaki-stantoSaudiArabiatotheUnitedStatesthenumberoffemaledalsquoiyashasproliferatedexponentially inrecentyears(Cooke2001Mahmood2005Hirschkind2006)Thisreflectsinpartcurrentdoctrinalempha-sesondalsquowaasincumbentuponbothmenandwomenanddependentlessupontechnicalknowledgethanmoralvirtueandpracticalfamiliaritywiththeIslamictradition(Mahmood200565ndash66)It isalsoaconse-quenceofrecentpoliticalandsocioeconomictransformationsinMuslimsocietiesincludingtheexpansionofmasseducationthathasnotonlyin-creasedwomenrsquosliteracyandsocialmobilitybutalsomadeIslamictextsmoreaccessibletheproliferationoftechnologiesmdashfromthecassettetapetotheInternetmdashthatfacilitatethecirculationofreligiousknowledgeevenamongthosewhocannotreadortraveltheprecedentsetbythevigorousparticipationof IranianwomeninpostrevolutiondebatesaboutIslamandthemodeloflegalactivismevidentintheIslamistmovementrsquosownchallenge to the lsquoulamarsquos status as gatekeepers of religious knowledge(Singerman2005Mir-Hosseini1999)

If Ghazali and Yassine exemplify the feminization of dalsquowa amongelitesthemosquemovementinEgyptillustratesthegrowingparticipa-tionofwomenfromdiversesocialbackgroundsinreligiousclassesde-votedtostudyinganddebatingwhatIslamrequiresforawomantobeldquomorallyuprightrdquointhecontemporaryworld(Mahmood2005)Con-ceptualizingpiety in termsof adeepandholistic commitment to self-transformationparticipantsinthemosquemovementareconcernedlesswithmattersofsovereigntyandpoliticsconventionallyunderstoodandmorewiththeldquomoralcultivationrdquoofthosedailypracticesseenascrucialtobecomingclosertoGod(Mahmood2005)SomeIslamistshavecriti-cizedthis focusonpracticesofworshipasapoliticalandoverlypriva-tizedyetsuchcriticismmissestheforceofIslamistsrsquoowninsistenceondin(religion)asawayoflifeinwhichthedomainsofpublicandprivateare inextricably linked26AsSabaMahmood (2005193194) showsthesewomenrsquosintenseeffortsatldquoretrainingethicalsensibilitiesrdquohavealdquosociopoliticalforcerdquothatextendswellbeyondmattersofgovernancefacilitatingnolessthantheemergenceofaldquonewsocialandmoralorderrdquoEvidenceofitstransformativepowermaybefoundnotonlyinthesheernumbersandvarietyofwomenmdashwealthyandpoor literateand illiter-atemdashparticipatinginthemosquemovementbutalsointherhetoricalandpoliticaleffortsbythestateandsomeIslamiststocurtailcontrolordis-creditit(Mahmood200571194)

26ParticipantsinthemosquemovementinturnareoftencriticalofwhattheyseeasthereductionofIslamtotokensofculturalauthenticityorofitsinstrumentalizationbybothnationalistsandIslamiststheycharacterizeasmoreinterestedinpoliticalmaneuveringthanreligiouspiety

40

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

Understoodtoincludebothwrittenandembodiedpracticesthefemi-nizationof dalsquowa illustrates theways inwhichwomen fromdifferentperspectivesandsocialclassesareinsistingonengagingthesacredtextsdirectly for and with one another without the mediating authority ofmenwhohavetraditionallyheldthemonopolyonsuchactivitiesAsSu-danese Islamist Lubabah al-Fadl argues ldquoAs an insan [human being]whohappenstobeawomanIhavearighttorejectthemanipulativeexegesesofoursharilsquoa thatthreatenmyexistenceinawaythat isnotconsistentwiththeGodlywayandtoapplymyownijtihadtorectifyer-roneoustendenciesbysomeshuyukh[pluralofshaykh]rdquo(Sadiki2004290)DespitetheproliferationofvoicesintentonclaimingforthemselvestheauthoritytodemarcatewhatisauthenticallyIslamicandun-Islamiconceandforallcontestationoveritsscopeandmeaningproceedsapacefacilitatedatleastinpartbywomenformerlyexcludedfromtheconver-sationAtthesametimeIslamistwomenrsquosagencyandclaimstoauthorityarefrequentlystillpredicatedonawillingnesstofollowfairlypatriarchalrulesaboutwherehowandwithwhomtheymaypracticetheirvocation(Hirschkind2003Sadiki2004283)

Islamism and Violence

IfgenderisfrequentlyanimplicitpreoccupationamongIslamistsjihadisarguably Islamistsrsquomost consistently explicit concern Jihad is derivedfromtheArabicverbthatmeanstostruggleortostriveyetitisaparticu-larkindofstruggle that isofconcern tomanyof thefigurescollectedheretheoftenviolentstruggleagainstapostatesandinfidelsbothathomeandabroadtowhicheveryindividualMuslimmustcontributeTheclaimthatfightingunbelieversisthepreeminentenactmentofindividualMus-limpiety seems to justify characterizationsof Islam ingeneral and Is-lamisminparticularassanctioningevenencouragingviolenceYetwhatIslamistsrepresentasjihadtout courtisahistoricallyspecificunderstand-ingderivedfromahighlyselectiveuseoftextsandprecedentsprominentamongthemaformerlyobscureclaimbytheinfluentialfourteenth-cen-tury jurist IbnTaymiyya thatMongol rulerswhohad contravened Is-lamiclawcouldbesubjecttoforcibleremovalFarfromadefinitiveex-pressionof Islamldquoproperlyunderstoodrdquo such Islamist argumentsnotonlymarkasignificantdeparturefrommuchofantecedentdoctrineandpractice but also diminish the importance of ongoing disagreementsamongMuslimsabouttheformandpurposesofjihad

TobeginwithMuslimscholarshavetendedtoconsiderjihadagainstforeignenemiesafard kifaya(collectiveobligation)thatisadutyagroupofpeoplewithinthecommunitymayperformonbehalfoftherestandonethatpresupposesalegitimateMuslimleadertodeclareorleadthechargeJuristshavedistinguishedthisfromthefard lsquoayn(individualduty)thatmustbefulfilledbyeverysingleMuslimincasesofdefensivejihad

41

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

thatiswhentheummaisunderattackManyIslamistsincludedheretakeamuchlessnuancedviewofjihadAsamodeofpoliticalactionQutbarguesjihadmustberegardedasaldquopermanentconditionnotanocca-sionalconcernrdquoonethatincurrentcircumstancesrequiresdeedsratherthanwordsstruggleratherthancontemplationrevolutionathomeaswellasresistanceabroad(Qutb199167ndash6882)lsquoAbdal-SalamFarajarguesalongsimilarlinesthatthenatureoftheattackonIslammakespolitical authorization by a caliph (ldquodeputyrdquo referring to a legitimatesuccessortotheProphetrsquosleadership)unnecessaryafterallldquoleadershipovertheMuslimsis(always)intheirownhandsifonlytheymakethismanifestIfthereissomethinglackingintheleadershipwellthereisnothingthatcannotbeacquiredrdquo(Jansen1986asec93)

SuchargumentsareadeliberaterejectionofearlyMuslimmodernistswhohademphasizedthelargelydefensivecharacterofjihadandsoughttoshowthatrelationsbetweenMuslimsandnon-MuslimswerenormallypeacefulratherthanantagonisticMahmudShaltut(d1963)therectorof al-Azhar from 1958 to 1963 had argued for example that theQurrsquoanicversesonfightingldquoprohibittheprovocationofhostilityandthisprohibitionisreinforcedbyGodrsquosrepugnancetoaggressionandbyhisdislikeofthosewhoprovokehostilityrdquo(Peters199674onShaltutseeZebiri1993)ConversionbyforceisanathematoIslamShaltutaversandfightingiscommandedonlyindefenseinresponsetoaggressionini-tiatedbyothersEvendefensivejihadmustaimatldquotheterminationoftheaggressionandtheestablishmentofreligiouslibertydevotedtoGodandfreefromanypressureorforcerdquo(Peters199675)

ManyIslamistsexplicitlydismisssuchargumentsasasymptomoffalseconsciousnessoneamongmanydestructiveeffectsofcolonialdomina-tionMawdudiargues for example thatwhile imperialists ravage theworld to satisfy their greed jihad alone ldquoconjures up the vision of amarching band of religious fanatics with savage beards and fiery eyesbrandishingdrawnswordsandattackingtheinfidelswherevertheymeetthemrdquoHavinginternalizedthis imageMuslimsrushtoapologizeandrenouncearmedstruggleInthiswayhelamentscolonialistsretaintheexclusiverighttoldquofightwitharmsandammunitionwhilewearecon-tented with our pen and our tonguerdquo (Mawdudi 1948 1ndash3) SayyidQutbforhispartagreedthatIslamdoesnotcountenancespreadingitsmessagebyforceandcoercionyethehadlittlepatiencewiththosewhosoughttopresentjihadaslegitimateonlyinself-defense

IfweinsistoncallingIslamicjihadadefensivemovementthenwemustchangethemeaningofthewordldquodefenserdquoandmeanbyitldquothedefenseofmanrdquoagainstallthoseforcesthatlimithisfreedomWhenwetakethisbroadmeaningofthewordldquodefenserdquoweunder-standthetruecharacterofIslaminthatitproclaimstheuniversalfreedomofeverypersonandcommunityfromservitudetoanyother

42

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

individualorsocietytheendofmanrsquosarroganceandselfishnesstheestablishmentofthesovereigntyofAllahandHisLordshipthrough-outtheworldandtheruleofthedivinesharilsquoainhumanaffairs(Qutb199050)

Qutbdoesnotnameanynamesincastigatingtheldquowriterswithdefeatistandapologeticmentalities[who]writeaboutlsquojihadinIslamrsquoandtrytoremovethislsquoblotrsquofromIslamrdquo(Qutb199046)buthecouldverywellhavehadhisdistinguishedfellowEgyptianMahmudShaltutinmind

These arguments about jihad may be said to constitute a commongrammarandframeworkofanalysisformanyIslamistsalthoughseveralthinkers in this volume carefully calibrate such claims to suit variouspurposesanddifferentpublicspheresInhisjustificationfortheassassi-nationofEgyptianpresidentAnwaral-SadatforexamplelsquoAbdal-SalamFarajdepictsthestruggletoreclaimthemoralfoundationsoftheEgyp-tianstateasafightagainstjahiliyyafromwithinarguingthatthejihadagainstacorruptnationalistregimeathomemusttakeprecedenceoverfightingenemieselsewhereTheCharterofHamas(seechapter15)how-everinsiststhatallMuslimsrecognizetheprimacyofthejihadforJeru-salemweldingIslamistrhetorictothatofnationalistresistanceinanef-fortbothtofightIsraelioccupationandtocompeteforadherentswiththePalestinianLiberationOrganization(PLO)IncontrasttobothFarajandHamasBinLadenembracesaglobaljihadthatessentiallycollapsesdistinctionsbetweennationalandinternationaloffensiveanddefensivefightingenemiesathomeandthosefromafar

Yet despite such differences these arguments tend to presume thatviolent jihad is a necessary response to the pervasive power of thosewithdemonstratedhostilitytoMuslimliveslandspietiesandsensibili-tiesaformofretaliationwhoseurgencyandlegitimacyderivefromtheviolencemdashpsychologicalandeconomicaswellasphysicalmdashoftheinitialassaultThisviewofjihadsubsumesindividualsintoarchetypesofldquoin-fidelsrdquoandldquobelieversrdquoandinsodoingvitiatesmoreconventionaldis-tinctionsbetweenforexamplesoldierandcivilianorcollectiveandin-dividual responsibility It is far from inevitable that thosewhoharborsuchviewswillautomaticallyactuponthemyetthecarnagewroughtbytheattacksontheWorldTradeCenterandthePentagonin2001aBalinightclub in 2002 Madrid commuter trains in 2004 and throughoutIraqonadailybasissuggestjusthowlethalsuchclaimscanbegiventheright circumstances The fact that such violence does not discriminateamongvictimsonlyfurtherfuelsrhetoriccharacterizingIslamistsasirra-tional fanatics ldquoin love with deathrdquo terrorists animated by a religioncharacterizedbyapropensityforviolenceandauthoritarianism27

27AnxietiesabouttheparticularsusceptibilityofMuslimstoirrationalityinsularityandfanaticismhavealonganddistinguishedpedigreeinEuro-AmericanhistoryandpoliticalthoughtSeeforexampleRenan18833

43

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

AsinsomanyothermattershoweverIslamistsarehardlyofonemindonthesubjectofjihadindeedthereareIslamistswhoexplicitlyrejectthereductionof struggle toviolenceAcase inpoint isNadiaYassine(20032005c)whoinsiststhatjihadisthededicatedstruggleagainstisshytikbar(arrogance)particularlyinitscommonformasthelustforpoweranddominationAsjihadagainstistikbarisbothafinalgoalandapre-scriptionforactionYassinesuggestsitisantitheticaltoviolentpracticesthataimatdominationTheprimaryinstrumentsofjihadarenotbombsbutwords particularly thosedeployed in the art of persuasion (Fara-marzi2005NYassine2006a)WhenIslamistssuchaslsquoAbdal-SalamFarajandlsquoUmarlsquoAbdal-RahmanseektolegitimizeviolentrevolutionbyrecoursetoIslamictextsshearguestheycontravenethetruemeaningofjihadtoservetheirownarrogantendsBythesametokenBinLadenrsquosdecisiontoldquofightevilwithevilandbarbaritywithbarbarityrdquonotonlyviolatesspecificIslamicprohibitionsagainstharmingcivilianswomenandchildrenbutalsobetraystheethicalimperativetoembodythemes-sageofamercifulGodwhocautionsbelieversthat(Q8822)ldquoYouhavenopoweroverthemrdquo(NYassine2005cDaily Excelsior2002)

SuchpersistentdisagreementsamongMuslimspastandpresentsug-gest that Islam isnomore inherently violent andbloody-minded thanitmdashorChristianityor Judaism for thatmattermdashis inherentlypeacefulIslamists often claim to speak for an unchanging authentic Islam thatexistsoutsideoftimeandspaceyetthepoliticalpurchaseoftheirper-spective derives from the ways it assembles disparate yet recognizablecontemporaryexperiencesofsufferingfrustrationandlossintoanex-planationthatresonateswithMuslimswholiveincommunitiescultur-allylinguisticallyandgeographicallydistantfromoneanotherTheex-tenttowhichIslamistargumentsresonatebroadlyacrossMuslimsocie-tiesthusdependsuponasetofexperiencesandphenomenathatmarkthisparticularmomentinhistoryincludingthewaysinwhichcontempo-raryglobalinequalitiescompoundalegacyofhistoricalasymmetriestocontinuallyreproduceasenseofMuslimpowerlessnessmdashbothrealandimaginedmdashrelativetotheWestcontinuingEuro-Americanpoliticalandfinancialsupportofcorruptautocratsmanyofwhompresideoverna-tion-statesbrutallystitchedtogetherbyWesternfiat thepersistenceofauthoritarian regimes eager to control domestic unrest by catalyzingldquoMuslimragerdquotowardexternaltargetsthesenseofemasculationpro-ducedbydecadesofpoliticalrepressionandeconomicfrustrationandthecontinualflowofimagesofbloodiedMuslimbodiesdeliveredbyaburgeoningarrayofvideosatelliteandelectronicmedia

It is notable that the understanding of jihad many Islamists proffermirrorstheverystate-sanctionedviolenceagainstwhichtheyhavestrug-gledforalmostacenturyAlongwiththousandsofMuslimscaughtinthemachineryoftwentieth-centurystateviolenceprominentIslamistsfromQutbtoGhazalitoAymanal-Zawahirimdashal-Qalsquoidarsquossecondincommandmdash

44

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

arewellknowntohavebeenradicalizedbyextendedandoftenbrutaltermsofincarcerationinEgyptSyriaIraqJordanIsraelAlgeriaandelsewhere(onal-ZawahiriandprisoncfKepelandMilelli2008152ndash54)ItisthusfarfromsurprisingthatIslamistsforgedbyinterrogationtortureinprisoncampswouldconcludethatthepreeminentenactmentofMuslimpietyisviolentstruggleldquoPrisonrdquoasPalestinianKhaledAbuHilalhassaidldquoismyuniversityrdquo(Erlanger2007)anargumentmadeingreaterdetailinadifferenttimeandplacebyRussianwriterandrevolu-tionaryMaximGorky(1868ndash1936)

Apeoplebroughtupinaschoolthatremindsoneofthetormentsofhellonasmallscaleapeopleaccustomedtotheclenched-fistprisonandthewhipwillnotbeblestwithatenderheartApeoplethatthepoliceagentshaveriddenoverwillbecapableintheirturnofwalk-ingoverthebodiesofothersInacountrywhereunresthasreignedsolongit isdifficultforthepeopletorealizefromonedaytothenextthepowerofrightOnecannotdemandfromamanwhohasneverknownjusticethatheshouldbejust(Gorky1920)

InthiscontextasTimothyMitchell(1990195ndash96199207ndash8)suggestsIslamistviewsoftheworldcanbecharacterizedasbothamodeofresis-tancetostatemechanismsofcoercionandanexpressionofthemSuchisthedynamic evident inGhazalirsquosmemoirs for examplewhen shede-scribeshowtheldquodarknessofprisonsthebladesoftortureandthevi-ciousbeatingsonly increasetheenduranceandresolveofthefaithfulrdquo(Ghazali19786)

There is no doubt a great deal of pragmatism at work in IslamistargumentsaboutviolenceAsQutb(19916447ndash48)drylynotesthepathtofreedommustoccasionallybehewnbywayoftheswordbecausetyrants are not reasoned out of power and ldquojahiliyya is not lsquoabstracttheoryrsquo[it]consciouslyorunconsciouslystrivestopreserveitsownexistence to defend its essence to annihilate dangerous elementswhichthreatenitsverybeingrdquoYetitisalsothecasethatformanyoftheseIslamistsjihadisbothameansandanendanefforttoeradicatethoseobstacles torestoringa justcommunityonearththatsimultane-ouslybringshumanaction intoaccordwithGodrsquosplansandpurposes(Haddad198321)While theQurrsquoan (2256) states thatldquothere isnocompulsioninreligionrdquoIslamistscontendthatonlyinastateinwhichIslamiclawreignssupremearehumanbeingsfreefromenslavementtooneanotherrsquosruleandallareequalbyvirtueoftheircommonsubmissiontoGodAsQutb(1991107ndash8)argues

WhenthehighestauthorityinsocietyisGodalonemdashexpressedintheruleofdivinelawmdashonlythenishumanitytrulyandcompletelyliber-atedfromslaverytomenOnlythisisldquohumancivilizationrdquobecausetheessentialfoundationofhumancivilizationisthetrueandcom-

45

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

pletefreedomofhumanityandtheabsolutedignityofeveryindivid-ualinsocietyThereisnotruefreedomanddignityforhumanityortheindividualinasocietywheresomepeoplearelordswholegislateandothersareslaveswhoobey

From this perspective the realization of justice liberty equality andchoiceitselfnecessitatestheforcibleremovaloftheconstraintsimposedbyjahiliyyaalongwiththosewhoaidandabetitno matter the costAsMawdudi(1954160ndash61)writes

[W]hyisitthatinreligionsuchimportanceisgiventojihadthattheQurrsquoanpronouncesthejudgmentofhypocrisyuponthosewhoshirkandevadeitJihadisbutanothernamefortheattempttoerectthesystemoftruthandtheQurrsquoandeclaresjihadtobeatouchstoneonthesamefootingwithamanrsquosfaithInotherwordshewhohasfaithinhisheartwillneitherbecontentwiththedominationofthesystemofevilnorwillhegrudgetheexpenditureoflifeandwealthinthestruggleforerectingthesystemoftruthIfoneshowsweaknessinthismatterhisfaithitselfisdoubtfulWhatcananythingelsebesidethenprofithimThemanwhoprofesses faith in this religioncannotfulfillhisdutyonlybytryingasfaraspossibletopatternhislifeonIslamThenatureofhisfaithitselfrequiresthatheshouldconcentrateallhiseffortuponwrestingleadershipfromunbelievingandcorruptmentoentrustittotherighteousanduponerectingthesystemoftruththathasbeenordainedfortheconductoftheworldaccordingtothewillofGodBecausethisendisunattainablewith-out thehighestdegreeofcollectiveeffort theremustexistarigh-teouscommunitycommittedtotheprincipleoftruthanddevotedtothesolepurposeintheworldoferectingmaintainingandproperlyrealizingthesystemoftruth

ThefactthatsomeIslamistthinkerssanctifyviolentstruggleinsuchtermsdoesnotmeanofcoursethatallthosewhoadvocateorengageinjihadendorseviolence28NordoesitimplythatthosewhoclaimtokillforIslamareentirelywithoutulteriormotivesthosemanipulativepur-poses andpsychologicalmotivations that even themost rarified scrip-turalargumentscanexpressorserveWhattheprecedinganalysisdoessuggesthoweveristhatthereductionofthisviewofjihadtoirrationalbloodlusttheself-interestedgrabfortemporalpoweroradoorthroughwhichtopassintothehereaftermissesacrucialdimensionofitssignifi-canceandappealfortruebelieversjihadisnolessthananenactmentof

28EvenashespokeofaneweraofjahiliyyaandofjihadMawdudihimselfstoppedwellshortof recommendingor condoning the actual resort to violence in themannermanyotherIslamistsdidAsNasr(199670)observesMawdudirsquosorganizationtheJamalsquoat-iIs-lamildquohasavoidedviolentsocialchangeandhasinsteadviewedthepathtotheIslamicstateaslyingwithintheexistingsociopoliticalorderrdquoAlsoseethechapters5and3onQutbandMawdudiinthisvolume

46

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INTRODUCTION

adivineimperativetoremakethefoundationsofcollectivelifeInthisre-spectIslamistviewsofjihadcanbeseenaspartofalong-standingasso-ciationbetweenviolenceandpoliticalfoundingsuponwhichnoparticu-larcultureorhistoricalepochhasamonopolyThisassociationandtheldquolegacyofviolencerdquoitbequeathstofuturegenerationsarenolessappar-entinthoseradicalrevolutionsofrenewalthatmovebywayoftheswordfromthemarginstothecenterthanthosepoliticalfoundingsthatclaimtocreatesomethingoutofnothing(Connolly1995251)Ineithercasethetollofsuchbrutalitycanbeimmeasurableforinadditiontothevic-timswhosufferdirectlytheldquopracticeofviolencelikeallactionchangestheworldbutthemostprobablechangeistoamoreviolentworldrdquo(Ar-endt1972177)

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 ITA 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 JPN ltFEFF9ad854c18cea306a30d730ea30d730ec30b951fa529b7528002000410064006f0062006500200050004400460020658766f8306e4f5c6210306b4f7f75283057307e305930023053306e8a2d5b9a30674f5c62103055308c305f0020005000440046002030d530a130a430eb306f3001004100630072006f0062006100740020304a30883073002000410064006f00620065002000520065006100640065007200200035002e003000204ee5964d3067958b304f30533068304c3067304d307e305930023053306e8a2d5b9a306b306f30d530a930f330c8306e57cb30818fbc307f304c5fc59808306730593002gt KOR ltFEFFc7740020c124c815c7440020c0acc6a9d558c5ec0020ace0d488c9c80020c2dcd5d80020c778c1c4c5d00020ac00c7a50020c801d569d55c002000410064006f0062006500200050004400460020bb38c11cb97c0020c791c131d569b2c8b2e4002e0020c774b807ac8c0020c791c131b41c00200050004400460020bb38c11cb2940020004100630072006f0062006100740020bc0f002000410064006f00620065002000520065006100640065007200200035002e00300020c774c0c1c5d0c11c0020c5f40020c2180020c788c2b5b2c8b2e4002egt NLD (Gebruik deze instellingen om Adobe PDF-documenten te maken die zijn geoptimaliseerd voor prepress-afdrukken van hoge kwaliteit De gemaakte PDF-documenten kunnen worden geopend met Acrobat en Adobe Reader 50 en hoger) NOR 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 PTB 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 SUO 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 SVE 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 ENU (Use these settings to create Adobe PDF documents best suited for high-quality prepress printing Created PDF documents can be opened with Acrobat and Adobe Reader 50 and later) gtgt Namespace [ 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Page 17: Chapter 1 INTRODUCTION - assets.press.princeton.eduassets.press.princeton.edu/chapters/s9067.pdf · Chapter 1 INTRODUCTION This volume is intended as a broad introduction to the evolution

17

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INTRODUCTION

howitdealtwithparticularsocialoreconomicissuesThelsquoulamawerepatheticallydeludediftheythoughtthattheinterestsofIslamcouldbefurtheredthroughdisquisitionsonthesharilsquoainsuchconditionsofper-vasiveungodliness(Qutb1967b183ndash90)WhatpeopleneededbeforeanythingelsewasareturntothebasicsofthefaithThetaskofrighteouspreacherswastoinstructtheminthesemattersandtohelpthemrecog-nizewhatthesovereigntyofGoddemandedofthem(Qutb199135cfQaradawi1994102ndash4)Allothermattersincludingthenicetiesofjuris-ticdiscussionwerebestpostponeduntilaproperlyIslamicsocietybasedonthisfoundationhadbeenrealized

Qaradawi vehemently disagrees with Qutb arguing that educatedMuslimsarenotpagansbutbelieversandassuchdonotneedtobetu-toredinthefundamentalsoftheirfaithWhattheyoftendonotunder-standverywellmdashandhereQaradawiconcurswithotherIslamistsmdashisthenatureofIslamasanizam (socialandpoliticalsystem)TheproblemofMuslimsinotherwordsisnotgodlessnessbutsimplyignorance(whichiswhat the term jahiliyya literallymeans)of the teachingsof Islam intheircomprehensiveall-encompassingdimensionsAsQaradawiseesitmanyldquocaptivesofWesternthoughtrdquohavedoubtsnotabouttheessentialsoftheirfaithbutratheraboutIslamasacomprehensivesystemanditistheirunaddressedmisunderstandingstheirignoranceonthelatterscorethatsometimesopens thedoor todoubtsaboutmattersofbelief itself(Qaradawi1994113ndash14)Tocontinuetoexpoundonthesocialpoliti-calandotherteachingsofIslamwhilethesocietyisyetimperfectisnottoendorseorstrengthenthejahiliorderasQutbhadallegedbutonlytohelpordinarypeopleintheirefforttoleadvirtuouslivesevenininiqui-touscircumstances

ThisviewrepresentsanappealtowhatQaradawihasrepeatedlyre-ferredtoasthemoderatepathoralshymadrasa alshywasatiyya(theldquocentristschoolrdquocfQaradawi2006137ndash217)mdashonethatlocatesitselfonaputa-tivemiddlegroundbetweenacompleterejectionoftheworldincludingMuslimsocietiesanditstotalembraceQaradawiisequallyconcernedwithrescuingIslamichistoryandcivilizationfromoutrightdismissalatthehandsofIslamistslikeQutb12TheideathatjahilinormshadbeguntocreepbackintotheMuslimcommunityshortlyafterthedeathoftheProphetandthattheyhaveremainedunchallengedformuchofIslamrsquoshistoryignoresallthoseQaradawisayswhohavecontinuedtorepre-sentthepathofrighteousnessthroughoutthehistoryofIslamContrarytotheconvictionoftheSunnisthatldquothecommunitywillneveragreeonerrorrdquomdashastheProphetissaidtohavepromisedmdashthenotionofaperva-

12AmongleadingfiguresQaradawisinglesoutforcriticisminthisregardarebesidesQutbMawdudiandtheEgyptianIslamistscholarMuhammadal-Ghazali(d1996)SeeQaradawi2005b46ndash64It isworthnotingthatdespitetheseandotherdisagreementsQaradawihaswrittenrespectfullyofallthreedevotinganentirebooktohislongassocia-tionwithMuhammadal-Ghazali(seeQaradawi1995)

18

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INTRODUCTION

sivejahiliyyasuggestsmoreoverthatthecommunitydidindeedagreeonerror13Mostgrievouslyperhaps Islamist critiques tend to suggestthatthesharilsquoahasalmostneverbeenimplementedinMuslimsocietiesaftertheveryfirstyearsofIslamIronicallysaysQaradawisuchindis-criminaterejectionofIslamichistoryinadvertentlyreinforcessecularist argumentsthatthesharilsquoaisunsuitedtopracticalapplication(Qaradawi2005b46)QaradawirsquoscritiqueofQutbandotherIslamistsisfinallyanargumentforthecontinuingcentralityofthelsquoulamatothetaskofpro-viding authoritative guidance to the communityHisunderstandingofwhoconstitutesthelsquoulamaisfarmoreexpansivethanthatofmostDeo-bandilsquoulamaofSouthAsiaButlikethemheisinnodoubtthatseriousreligiousscholarsasdistinguishedfromamateurishautodidactsarecru-cialtothetaskofprovidingauthoritativereligiousandmoralguidancetothecommunity

AlthoughwehavesoughttoillustratecertainfacetsoftheIslamistcri-tiqueof the scholarly traditionandof theworldas somekey IslamistthinkershavearticulateditwedonotwishtosuggestofcoursethatIslamists are necessarily ldquointellectualsrdquo Whatever Qutb KhomeiniMawdudiandQaradawimightthinkofotherscholarsandintellectualsorofthemselvesinrelationtothemtheformerobviouslyarereligiousintellectualsThesameishardlytrueofmanyotherIslamistsYeteventhosewithlittleornointellectualpretensionsareoftenrecognizableas IslamistsnotonlyfortheircommitmenttothepublicimplementationofIslamicnormsgroundedinthefoundationaltextsbutalsomdashandasacor-ollaryoftheformermdashfortheiroftenself-consciouscritiqueofanddisen-gagementfromthenormsandmorestheyseearoundthemIncontempo-raryLebanonforinstanceShilsquoiIslamistshaveoftenseentheirtext-basedreligiouscommitmentsasmarkingacleardeparturefromearlierandex-isting religious practicesAs anthropologist LaraDeeb (2006 20) ob-servesldquoTheyvieweditasnewanddifferentmdashdifferentfromwhattheyoftenreferredtoenigmaticallyaslsquobeforersquoorlsquohowwewerersquoanddifferentfromwhattheycalledalshytaqalid(traditions)Inlieuofpracticesandbeliefscastastraditionaltheyespoused [an] lsquoauthenticatedrsquoIslamexpressedinpublicpietyrdquo14ManyIslamists living inrefugeecampsinGazahavehadasimilarviewTothemldquoPalestinianshadeitherbe-comelostinforeignideologiesortheyhadbecomelsquoMuslimsbycon-

13Theconvictionthatthecommunityatlargeisdivinelyprotectedfromerrorisanim-portantbasisoftheauthorityofldquoconsensusrdquoasamajorsourceofjuridicalnormsinSunniIslamFormoderndebateson consensus and someof the literatureon this subject seeZaman2006

14Theldquotraditionsrdquohereprimarilyrefer tocustomarynormsanddevotionalpracticesratherthantothecenturies-olddiscursivetraditionfromwhichthelsquoulamabothShilsquoiandSunniderivetheirauthorityIslamistcritiquesareoftendirectedasmuchhoweverattra-ditionsinthesenseofldquoinauthenticrdquoculturallyrootedreligiouspracticesastheyareatthescholarlytraditionofthelsquoulamawhichtothemisequallyinauthenticinhavingobscuredthesimpleandfundamentalteachingsofthefoundationaltexts

19

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

ventionrsquowhowentalongwiththefastorprayednowandthenbecausethiswaslsquocustomandtraditionrsquo(lsquoada wa taqlid)ThislackofconsciouszealousadherencetoIslamhadresultedinsocialweaknessleadingtode-featatthehandsofIsraelrdquo(Lybarger2007211)ThereismuchthatsuchanalysessharewiththewritingsandpronouncementsoftheleadingIs-lamistintellectuals

Islamists and Salafi s

JustasitisnotalwayseasytodifferentiatelsquoulamafromIslamistsorIs-lamists frommodernists it is sometimesdifficult to clearlydistinguishbetweenIslamistsandtheSalafisThelatterderivethisself-designationfromclaimsofstrictadherencetothenormativepracticeofalshysalaf alshysalih(thepiousforbears)usuallyunderstoodastheMuslimsofthefirstgenerations of Islam The guiding Salafi assumption is that these firstMuslims inbeingcontemporariesof theProphetMuhammadandtheimmediatesuccessorsofthosecontemporariesexemplifymostperfectlywhatitmeanstobeavirtuousMuslimandthatlatergenerationscandonobetterthanemulatetheexampleofthesefirstgenerationsSomever-sionofthisviewwouldfindbroadresonanceamongIslamistsbutalsoordinary believers though the Shilsquoa of various doctrinal orientationshavealwayshada farmore restrictiveviewofpreciselywho isworthemulating Again like the Islamists the Salafis insist on deriving theirnormsdirectlyfromtheIslamicfoundationaltextstheQurrsquoanandtheexampleoftheProphetMuhammadunmediatedbythemedievalschoolsoflawThismeansdoingawaywiththesortofhistoricallyarticulatedscholarlytraditionfromwhichthelsquoulamahavetendedtodrawmuchoftheirauthorityTheSalafisdohavetheirownlsquoulamamdashQaradawiisano-tableinstanceasaremembersoftheSaudireligiousestablishmentmdashbuteventheirauthorityisbasedfarmoreondirectlyinterpretingthefounda-tional texts than it is on any systematic engagement with the Islamicscholarlytradition

AllthissoundsagooddealnotjustliketheIslamistsbutalsolikethemodernistsThisshouldnotbesurprisingfortheSalafiorientationisanimportantpartofthegenealogyofbothmodernismandIslamismTheSalafi reformer Muhammad lsquoAbduh though a traditionally educatedscholarwhoservedtowardtheendofhislifeasthegrandmuftiofEgyptwasakeyinfluenceinthedevelopmentofIslamicmodernismButwhilesomeoflsquoAbduhrsquosdisciplesdevelopedhisideasinthedirectionofsecularnationalismothersmdashnotablytheSalafijournalistandQurrsquoancommenta-torRashidRidamdasheventuallytookthemdespitehismodernistproclivi-tiesinadecidedlyconservativedirection(Hourani1983alsocfDallal2000)Hasan al-Banna the founder of the MuslimBrotherhoodwasclose to many Egyptian Salafis Muhibb al-din al-Khatib (d 1969) aleadingSalafiofthetimeandtheowneroftheSalafiPublishingHousein

20

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

CairowasinchargeofoneoftheBrotherhoodrsquosfirstjournals(Mitchell1993185)andafterRidarsquosdeathin1935itwasatBannarsquosinitiativethatRidarsquosinfluentialjournalalshyManarwouldcontinuetobepublishedforsomeyears(RMitchell1993186)

ForalltheiraffinitieshoweverSalafiscannotsimplybesubsumedwiththeIslamistsanymorethantheycanwiththemodernistsUnliketheearlySalafisandothermodernists Islamistshavealmost invariablysought toaddressthemselvestoawidepopularaudienceratherthantotheintellec-tualelite(cfRMitchell1993211)TheSalafishavealsobeenfarmorepreoccupiedwithmattersofcorrectbeliefthenuancesofdoctrinethanhaveeither the Islamistsor themodernists (cfHaykel2009 [forthcom-ing])BythesametokenwhilemanyIslamistshavehadasomewhatam-bivalentrelationshipwithSufismSalafishaveusuallybeenunrelentinglyhostile to devotional Sufi practices But if it is useful to distinguish theSalafisfromothercompetingorientationsinmodernIslamitisimportantalsotorecognizethatthereismuchonwhichSalafisthemselveshavedis-agreedsometimessharplyInquestionintheseldquointernalrdquodifferencesisnottheiroverallorientationmdashtowardtheIslamicfoundational textsandthepristinenormsofIslamrsquosfirstgenerationsmdashbutratherthepreciseimplica-tionsofthisorientationforbeliefandconductinthepresentAconsider-ationofsomeofthesedifferencesshouldinturnfurtherillustratehowtheSalafisoughttobedistinguishedfromothercompetingcamps

WheremanySalafisseetheschoolsoflawasobstructingandindeeddistortingthesimplemessageofthefoundationaltextsothersviewthelegaltraditionasrepresentingIslamrsquosrichintellectuallegacyfromwhichMuslimsought todrawboth inspirationandguidanceQaradawi forinstance has been critical not just of the Muslimmodernists but alsooffellowSalafisfortheirirreverencetowardtherichesofthelegaltradi-tiontheiruneducatedproclivitytosetitasidealltoocallouslyOnthisviewarejectionofthetaqlid-boundlsquoulamashouldnotleadtotheotherextrememdashexemplifiedbynotafewSalafismdashofjettisoningthescholarlytraditionaltogether SalafisalsodifferamongthemselvesintheirattitudestowardmodernWesterninstitutionsandpracticesInthelatenineteenthandearlytwen-tieth centuries Salafi reformers like Muhammad lsquoAbduh and RashidRidainEgyptandJamalal-dinal-Qasimi(d1914)inSyriahadcalledforareorientationtowardthefoundationaltextsasawayofjustifyingnotresistingchangesinlawandeducationaswellasotherfacetsofso-cialreform(cfHourani1983Commins1990)OnthisviewadirectrecoursetotheQurrsquoanandthesunnaofferedthebestwayofdemonstrat-ing the accord between their teachings and the reformist project15 In

15SymptomaticofotherdisagreementsamongtheSalafisistheveryquestionofpreciselywhothesalafarewhoseexampleoughttobeemulatedThenarrowerviewslimitthesalaftothefirstthreegenerationsofIslammdashtheageoftheProphetMuhammadandhiscompan-ionstheirsuccessorsandthelatterrsquosimmediatesuccessorsmdashbuteventhesenarrowviews

21

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

contemporaryEuropeTariqRamadananinfluentialSwissArabphilos-opherhasarguedthatMuslimslivinginWesternsocietiesoughttofeelathomeinandcontributetoward thosesocietieswhileretainingandcultivatingtheirdistinctIslamicidentityHetooappearstoseehimselfinthegenealogyofwhathecharacterizesasldquoSalafireformismrdquo(onthischaracterization see Ramadan 2004 26ndash27) and he has echoed Qa-radawiinsomeofhisviews(cfRamadan199993ndash99) Other Salafis have remained staunchly opposed to institutions andpracticesofaWesternprovenanceAnespeciallyinfluentialfigureinthegenealogyofthelatterpositionistheeighteenth-centurypuritanicalre-former Muhammad ibn lsquoAbd al-Wahhab (d 1792) whose alliance in1744 with Muhammad ibn Salsquoud contributed to the establishment ofthefirstSaudistateinthelateeighteenthcenturyIbnlsquoAbdal-WahhabwashostilenotonlytoShilsquoismandtoSufidevotionalismbutalsotoany-thinghedeemednottobeinstrictconformitywiththeteachingsofthefoundationaltextsTherewasmuchthatseemedtohimtofailthisstan-dardallofwhichhebrandedasoneoranotherformofunbeliefTheWahhabismdashas the followers of Ibn lsquoAbd al-Wahhab are oftenknownthoughtheyprefertothinkofthemselvessimplyasgoodMuslimsoratbestasSalafismdashoftenadheretothelegalnormsoftheHanbalischooloflawthoughitistheteachingsofthefoundationaltextsirrespectiveofthisoranyotherschooldoctrinethattheyprofesstofollowThemoststringentoftheSaudiSalafisaswellasotherselsewhereareaveryfarcryindeedfromwhatQaradawiwouldcharacterizeasldquocentristrdquoSalafireformersletalonefromtheearlytwentieth-centurySalafimodernists

ThepoliticalviewsoftheWahhabisandmorebroadlyoftheSalafisare likewiseanythingbutuniformInSaudiArabiaWahhabireligiousscholarshavelongaffirmedaquietistpoliticalstancewhichhasmeantleavingmattersofthestatetotherulingfamilyFormuchofthehistoryofmodernSaudiArabiatherulingelitefor itsparthas imposedfewconstraintsontheSaudilsquoulamainmattersofreligiouslifetheregulationofsocialnormsandjudicialadministration(cfVogel2000)Onseveraloccasions however this relationship has come under severe strain In1979agroupofWahhabiswhorejectedthelegitimacyoftheSaudistateyethadtieswithsomeprominentreligiousscholarsmdashincludinglsquoAbdal-

feelconstrainedtomakeroomforsuchreveredfiguresasAhmadibnHanbaltheputativefounderoftheHanbalischooloflawandthefourteenth-centuryDamascenescholarIbnTaymiyya(d1328)OtherviewsarerathermoreexpansivenotjustinchronologicalbutalsoandcruciallyinintellectualtermsThusMuhammadlsquoAbduhthoughtthesalaftoalsoincludesuchtheologiansasal-Ashlsquoari(d935)al-Baqillani(d1013)andal-Maturidi(d944)SeeHourani1983149SuchaviewobviouslyopensthedoorforpreciselythesortoftheologicaldebatesthatotherSalafisaswellasIslamistsoftenfrownuponfortakingthebelieversveryfarfromthesimpleanddirectwordsofGod lsquoAbduhrsquosdiscipleRidaagaintookanarrowerviewofthesalafandlaterinhiscareerbecameastrongdefenderoftheWahhabisCfHourani1983230ndash32

22

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

lsquoAzizBinBaz(d1999)laterthegrandmuftiofSaudiArabiamdashtookoverthesacredprecinctsoftheKalsquobainMeccainashort-livedbutextremelyembarrassingchallenge toSaudi royalauthority (cfHegghammerandLacroix2007)In1990KingFahdrsquosdecisiontoinviteAmericantroopstodefendthekingdomagainstthethreatofanIraqiinvasioncreatedwide-spreadresentmentamongSaudis theeffectsofwhichcontinue to thisdayThestationingofnon-MuslimmilitarypersonnelinIslamrsquosholiestlandwasdeemedbythekingrsquoscriticstobescandalousandevensacrile-giousAnumberofprominentSaudiSalafispubliclycriticizedthekingrsquosdecisiononthisoccasioncallinguponhimaswellasonBinBazandoth-ersatthehelmoftheSaudireligiousestablishmenttoreorienttheSaudipolitytowarditstruereligiousfoundationsManyofthesedissidentsmdashwhowerealsojoinedbyldquosecularrdquoSaudicriticsoftheroyalfamilymdashwereandhaveremainedrestrainedintheircriticismevenastheycalledforstricterconformitytoIslamicnormsasthepanaceaforallills(cfFandy1999)OthershoweverhavedenouncedtheroyalfamilyanditsWesternalliesinnouncertaintermsBinLadenisonlythemostnotoriousofthosewhobrokewiththeroyalfamilyinthewakeofKingFahdrsquosdecisiontoinviteWesterntroopsin1990andwhocalledfortheoverthrowoftheroyal familyand for jihadagainstWesternpowers Such strident callshavebeencontinuedbyotherSalafisbothbeforeandaftertheterroristattacksofSeptember112001aswellasintheaftermathoftheUS-ledinvasionofIraq(al-Rasheed2007)

ItshouldbeclearinlightoftheforegoingthatanyunderstandingofthedifferencesbetweenIslamistsandtheSalafismustrestontakingac-countofthediversityamongtheSalafisSalafiswhooftenrejectmuchoftheIslamicscholarlytraditioninfavorofadirectrecoursetothefoun-dationaltextsarenotnecessarilyrenderedldquoIslamistrdquosimplybyvirtueofthisstanceForasnotedmanyoftheseSalafiscontinuetoprofessareso-lutelyquietiststancewhichinthecaseoftheSaudiSalafismeansaf-firmingallegiancetotheSaudiroyalfamilyThispositionisrepresentedforinstancebyBinBaztheerstwhilegrandmuftiaswellasbyotherleading members of the Saudi religious establishment A pro-regimestanceoroneindifferenttopoliticsisnolessldquopoliticalrdquoofcoursethana position of strident hostility to the established order at home andabroadForourpurposeshoweveritisonlywhentheSalafisrejecttheexistingdispensationandbeginstrivingmdashthoughnotnecessarilythroughmilitantmeansmdashforanewreligio-politicalorderthattheycanbesaidtojointheranksoftheIslamists

ItisworthnotingfinallythatSalafipositionsamongSaudisandelse-wherearemarkednotonlybydiversitybutalsobyconsiderablefluidity(al-Rasheed 2007) The same activist or intellectual might at varioustimesmoveamongavarietyofseeminglyincompatiblepositionsmdashap-pearingtobemoreldquomoderaterdquoonsomeissuesthanonothersForallhiscriticismofradicalIslamistsQaradawiforinstancehashimselfwrittenin justificationofsuicidebombingsbyPalestiniansagainst Israelis (see

23

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INTRODUCTION

chapter 9 on Qaradawi) And Saudi Salafis like Safar al-Hawali andSalmanal-lsquoAwdamdashwhocame toprominence in the early1990smdashhavealternatedbetweencriticismoftheSaudipoliciesanddenunciationsofradicalSalaficallstojihadagainsttheSaudiregime(seeal-Rasheed200759ndash101onal-HawalialsoseeReichmuth2006)Theirshiftingviewsreflect changes in their relations with the Saudi regime but they alsopointtothebroadspectrumofpositionswhichSalafishavetakenatdif-ferenttimesindifferentcontextsandbeforedifferentaudiencesThusevenasal-Hawaliandal-lsquoAwdahavecondemnedterroristactsdirectedagainstSaudiArabiaandadvisedSaudisnottofightAmericantroopsinpostndashSaddamHusseinIraqtheyhavecalledupontheIraqisthemselvestoresistAmericantroopsandhavecharacterizedthateffortasaldquodefen-sivejihadrdquo(al-Rasheed200794ndash95)

Sufi s and Islamists

ItseemsmuchsimpleronthefaceofittodistinguishbetweenIslamistsandSufisThecharacteristicSuficonvictionthattherearelevelsofmean-ingintheQurrsquoanthatgobeyondtheliteralandtheobviousandthataselectfewmdashtheldquofriendsofGodrdquomdashareendowedwiththeuniqueabilityto discern them is anathema to all those who insist that God intendsHisteachingstobeequallyintelligibletoallDespitetheirtendencytoviewthemselvesasbearersof true Islam Islamists typicallyregard theSufi idea that somepeoplehaveaprivileged relationshipwithGodassuspectthebasisnotonlyforsanctioninginterpretationsofIslamthatlackwarrantintheplainteachingsofGodandtheProphetbutalsoforpracticallyldquoworshipingrdquothesefriendsofGodIslamists(andmodernists)havefrequentlyalsobeencriticalofthewaySufidevotionalismcanyieldaturningawayfromtheworldratherthananefforttochangeitaswellasapreoccupationwithpersonalspiritualtransformationattheexpenseofconcernsforthewelfareofthecommunityatlarge SufipracticesandtheteachingsoftheSufimastershavevariedenor-mouslythroughoutthehistoryofIslamyetIslamistcritiquesofSufismareseldomattentivetoitsnuancesortothecomplexwaysithasrelatedtootherfacetsofIslamNorhaveIslamiststakenmuchaccountofthefactthatmanyleadingfiguresofearliertimeswerebesidesmuchelseSufisaswellThisistrueevenofIbnTaymiyya(d1328)whoseprestigeinIslamistandSalaficirclesismatchedbyfewothersandwhowasinhisdayamemberoftheQadiriSufiorder(Makdisi1974)EvenifonearguesmdashasanIslamistmightbeinclinedtomdashthatldquogoodrdquoSufismisnoth-ingbutproperIslamitselftheveryfactthatsuchfigureshadaSufiiden-tityatallnecessarilycomplicateswhatissupposedtobethepristinesim-plicityofafaithsharedequallybyallbelievers

Complicatingthingsstillfurtheristhevarietyofwaysinwhichsomeleading Islamists relate to Sufism Ayatollah Khomeini was a lifelongstudentofIslamicmysticismandtheinfluenceofthemedievalSpanish

24

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INTRODUCTION

Sufi Ibn lsquoArabi loomed especially large in his thought To Khomeinimysticismmdashoften referred to as lsquoirfan (gnosis) especially when inter-twinedwithIslamicphilosophyandtheology(Knysh1992632)mdashwascrucialtoaproperunderstandingofGodrsquosrelationshipwiththeworldandwiththehumanbeingItwasalsoessentialforonersquosethicalforma-tionforamasteryovertheselfandultimatelyforrealizinginoneselftheattributesofwhat Ibn lsquoArabihadcalledldquotheperfectmanrdquo (cfKnysh1992 635 also Mottahedeh 1985 180ndash85) Some of the austerity ofKhomeinirsquospersonallifeprobablyalsoderivedfromSufiasceticismAndthoughheanchoredhisconceptionofIslamicgovernmentinanexposi-tionofShilsquoijuridicalthoughtratherthaninIslamicmysticismthesortofreligiousauthorityhecametoenjoyonthebasisofhisreformulationofShilsquoipoliticaltheologyseemstoechomysticalideasoftheperfectmanwho embodies and upholds the moral order as the microcosm of theuniverse

UnlikeKhomeiniQutbwasnotaSufiandhegivesnoindicationofsharinganyofKhomeinirsquosenthusiasmforthegreatSufithinkersofear-liertimesEvensoechoesofamysticrsquosdirectencounterwiththefoun-tainheadoftruthandknowledgearehardtomissinQutbrsquoswritingses-peciallyinhiscommentaryontheQurrsquoan(cfCarreacute200395ndash97)TheveryfirstsentenceofhiscommentarymdashldquolifeintheshadeoftheQurrsquoanisablessingunknowntoanyonewhohasnrsquottasteditrdquomdashevokesthefa-miliarSufiideathatincontrovertibleknowledgeofRealityisultimatelyacquired only through direct personal experience (dhawq that is theldquotasterdquooftheTruth)ThegreatmedievalSufial-Ghazali(d1111)hadauthoredafamousautobiographicalaccountofhowitwasonlythroughthe immediacyofhispersonalmysticalexperience thathewasable toovercomehisdebilitatingepistemologicaldoubtsandreassurehimselfofthenecessarytruths(Watt199857)QutbdoesnotmentionGhazaliinthiscontextbutitisdifficultnottobestruckbythemysticalresonanceofsomeofhislanguageHereisoneexamplewhichoccursinhiscom-mentaryonsura(chapter)53oftheQurrsquoan16

16TheearlyversesinthissuraoftheQurrsquoanhavebeenunderstoodbyMuslimexegetesasreferringtotheProphetrsquosrevelatoryexperienceaswellastohisldquonightjourneyrdquoandhisascensiontoheavenormilsquoraj inthecourseofonenighthewastransportedfirstfromMeccatoJerusalemandthentothepresenceofGodbeforebeingreturnedtoMecca

UnrelatedtothenightjourneybutrelatedtohisrevelatoryexperiencestheexegeticalsignificanceofthisQurrsquoanicsuraalsoliesinitsconnectionwiththeso-calledSatanicVersesAccordingtocertainexegeticalreportsMuhammadwasinthecourseofreceivingarevela-tionwhenSataninterpolatedsomeversesintoitmdashversespraisingthreegoddessesreveredbythepolytheistsofMeccaItwasnotuntilsometimelaterthatMuhammadrealizedhiserrorwhereupontheversesinterpolatedbySatanwereremovedTheepisodeoftheldquoSa-tanicVersesrdquohasbeenacontroversialoneinIslamichistorylongbeforeSalmanRushdiersquosnovelofthatnameandKhomeinirsquosjuridicalruling(fatwa)callingforRushdiersquosdeathMostMuslimscholarshavefoundittooshockingtobelievethattheProphetcouldhavemadesuchagrievouserrorandhavedeniedthatanysuch incidentever tookplaceYetsome

25

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INTRODUCTION

IwaschattingoneeveningwithsomecompanionswhentoourearscamethesoundofsomeonerecitingtheQurrsquoannearbyrecitingtheSuraoftheStar[al-Najm]andweinterruptedourconversationtolistentotheNobleQurrsquoanLittlebylittlemyheartenteredintowhatwasbeing recited into theheartofMuhammadashe jour-neyedtotheHeavenlyHostIwaswithhimashesawGabrielintheangelicforminwhichGodhadcreatedhimIwaswithhiminhis loftyandfree-flying journey to theLoteTreeof theBoundaryandtheGardenoftheRefugeIwaswithhimtotheextentthatmyimaginationcouldformavisionofitandtotheextentthatmyfeelings couldbear itThen came the final cry andmywholebeingshookatthefearfulreproachldquoDoyoumarvelatthisdiscourseanddoyoulaughandnotweepandmakemerryrdquo[Q5359ndash61]WhenIheardldquoBowdownbeforeGodandserveHimrdquo[Q5362]thetremblinginmyhearthadbecomeaphysicalandvisibletremblingthroughoutmybodythatIcouldnotresistMybodykeptshakingandIcouldnotcontrolitNorcouldIholdbackthetearsthatwerepouringforthhowevermuchItried(QutbZilalvol7part2774ndash75quotedfromCarreacute2003333ndash34withminorchanges)

TheQurrsquoanrsquosprofoundimpactontheaestheticsensibilitiesofitslisten-ersisafamiliarmotifindiscussionsofitsliteraryqualities(cfGrahamandKermani2006)AssomeonewhoseearlywritingswereconcernedwithArabicliterarycriticismandspecificallywiththeliteraryexcellenceoftheIslamicscripture(Qutb1949b)QutbwasespeciallyreceptivetothisaspectoftheQurrsquoanThesenseofbeingtransportedbacktothetimeoftheProphetandtowitnessingtheProphetrsquosascension(milsquoraj)tothepresence of Godmdashwhich is how the passage being commented on byQutbherehascommonlybeeninterpretedbytheexegetesmdashcanlikewisebeseenasanillustrationoftheoverpoweringimpactthewordsoftheQurrsquoancanhaveonthebelieverQutbrsquosaccountofconversingwithGodthrough the Qurrsquoan (cited earlier) is again something he may havewantedtoseeallbelieversdoYetallbelieverscanscarcelydosoany-morethanallaspirantsevenontheSufipathcanexperiencethetransfor-mativemysticalldquostatesrdquothatGodbestowsonHisspecialfriends(awlshyiya)IrrespectiveofwhetherhesawitinquitethiswayQutbrsquosassertionthatheisabletoenterldquointotheheartofMuhammadrdquoandtoseeGabrielasMuhammad sawhimsurelygiveshimaperspective thatothers en-counteringthewordofGoddonothave

ThepointisnotofcoursethatQutbwaseverrecognizedbyhisfol-lowersasaSufimasterbutthatsomeofthehermeneuticalauthorityheclaimshasadistinctiveSufiringtoitMorebroadlythesortofunques-

leadingscholarsofearlyandmedievalIslammdashincludingIbnTaymiyyamdashacceptedthehisto-ricityofthisincidentSeeSAhmed1998

26

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INTRODUCTION

tioningreligio-politicalauthorityIslamistleadershaveoftenenjoyedovertheirfollowersisnotunlikethatoftheSufimasteroverhisfollowersBe-ginningwithHasanal-BannathefounderoftheMuslimBrotherhoodandoncehimselfamemberofaSufiordertheleaderofthisorganizationis formally referred to as themurshid (guide)ormore specificallyalshymurshid alshylsquoam (thegeneralguide[RMitchell1993165])whichisafamiliartermforthemasterinSuficontextsForhispartAbdessalamYassine the founder and leader of lsquoAdl warsquol-Ihsan Party of Morocco(oftenreferredtoastheJusticeandSpiritualityAssociationorJSA)haslike Khomeini gone well beyond simply echoing Sufi conceptions ofauthorityinhisowndiscoursesHetoowasonceamemberofaMoroc-canSufiorderandhehascontinuedtodrawonSufithemesinhiswrit-ingsTheverynameofYassinersquospoliticalorganizationevokesacentralSufiideanamelyihsanThisisaQurrsquoanicterm(cfQ756)thattrans-latedliterallymeansldquotodogoodrdquothoughSufishaveunderstoodittomeanmuchmore thanthatFollowingawell-knownstatementattrib-uted to theProphetMuhammad theyhaveoften interpreted ihsan tomeangoingbeyondtheexternalsofIslamicritualpracticestoldquoworshipGodasifyouseeHimrdquo(Schimmel197529)thatiscultivatingasenseof personal communion and intimacy with God Even as Yassine hassoughttodistancehimselffromwhathedeemstobetheexcessesofSu-fismthereislittledoubtthathispoliticalappealowesmuchtocarefullycalibratedeffortstocombinedistinctiveSufiideaswithhisownbrandofIslamism(cfLauziegravere2005seealsochapter12onNadiaYassineinthisvolume)

FinallyMawdudirsquosJamalsquoat-iIslamimdashoneoftheearliestIslamistorga-nizations in the Sunni worldmdashillustrates both the Islamistsrsquo complexrelationshipwith Sufismand their pragmatic recognitionof its appealinmanyMuslimsocietiesMawdudihadoncebeenaharshcriticofSu-fismblamingitformanyillsafflictingMuslimsocietiesYettheJama-lsquoat-iIslamigraduallycametosoftenitsstanceonSufipracticesconsider-ablynodoubtintheinterestofbroadeningsomeofitssupportbaseinPakistanwheresaintsandSufishrinesareanimportantpartofthereli-giousandpoliticallandscapeAlreadyinMawdudirsquoslifetimeMianTufaylMuhammadhissuccessorastheheadoftheJamalsquoat-iIslamihadtakentheextraordinaryinitiativeoftranslatinganearlySuficlassictheKashf alshymahjub into Urdu The author of this work Shaykh lsquoAli Hujwiri(d1072)isburiedinLahoreinPakistanandhismuch-frequentedshrineishometoprecisely thesortofdevotionalpractices that Islamistsandmodernist reformers letaloneSalafishaveoften frownedupon (Nasr1996124)

ThesediverseexamplesarenotintendedtoobscuretherealdifferencesbetweenthegeneralityofIslamistsandmostSufisTheirsignificanceliesratherinillustratingthedifficultyofdistinguishingbetweenIslamismandotherreligiousintellectualandpoliticaltrendsintermsofneatcharac-

27

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INTRODUCTION

terizationsofgrandtranslocalgeneralizationsAstheforegoingsuggeststhesameistrueandmoresowhenitcomestocharacterizingIslamistsinrelationtothelsquoulamatheMuslimmodernistsandtheSalafisIndeedasLorenLybargerhasarguedwithreferencetothoseusuallycharacter-izedasldquosecularnationalistrdquoorldquoIslamistrdquoPalestiniansintheWestBankandGazadifferenceswithintheranksofyoungsecularnationalistsandIslamistscansometimesalsoshadeintosignificantsimilaritiesbetweenthesesupposedlyrivalorientations(Lybarger2007)ManyIslamistshavesoughttodistancethemselvesfromwhattheyseeastherigidityandau-thoritarianismofotherIslamistsandtoarguenotjustfortheimplemen-tationofthesharilsquoabutalsofordemocracyandpluralismConverselynot a few of the younger secular nationalists have ldquoadopted IslamisttheodiciesthatexplainedthefailuretoovercomeIsraelastheresultoffallingawayfrompietytheirconclusionsmirroredIslamistonestootheroadbackfromthebrinkhadtotraceitscoursethrougharenewedcom-mitmenttoIslambutnotnecessarilyinthemannerthattheIslamistmove-mentsmighthaveintendedrdquo(Lybarger2007237ndash38quotationat238)

Yet ifneatcategoriesremainelusiveacombinationoftheIslamistsrsquoself-consciouslypoliticalgoalstheirmultifacetedifnotalwaysexplicitpoliticalcritiquesofmanypastandpresentwaysofunderstandingandlivingIslamandanunshakeableconfidenceintheirownabilitytodis-cern Godrsquos will from the foundational texts do often provide enoughgrounds tobroadlydistinguish themfromotheractivists intellectualsand orientations in the Muslim public sphere What this combinationamountstovariesfromonesocialpoliticalreligiousandculturalcon-texttoanotherandsothereforedothewaysinwhichIslamistsrelatetooneanotherorcompeteandoverlapwithothergroupsandorientations

The Politics of Islamism

FromAeneasrsquosmythicalfoundingofRometothedeathandresurrectionofJesusChristtoMuhammadrsquosmigrationtoMedinafoundationalnar-rativesareascommontocollectivelifeasthemovementsthatperiodi-callyarisetorevivethemandclaimantstothemantleoflegitimacytheyconferSounderstoodIslamistsrsquopoliticalaspirationstorestorefounda-tionslocatedinamythicalpastarefarfromuniqueNorareIslamistsaloneintheirconvictionthatscripturalauthorityisguaranteedbyitsdi-vineauthormdashforinthatallMuslimsagreeRatherthechaptersinthisvolumesuggest thatwhatmakes Islamistpoliticsdistinctive (ifnotsui generis)istheclaimtorecuperateanldquoauthenticIslamrdquocomprisedofself-evidenttruthspurgedofalienandcorruptinginfluencesalongwithaninsistenceonremakingthefoundationsofthestateinitsimageGiventhelimitsofhumanunderstandingrelativetoGodrsquosknowledgeIslamistssimultaneouslydepictsuchfidelitytotheunadulteratedwordofAllahas

28

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INTRODUCTION

theultimateexpressionofdeferencetodivineomniscienceandportrayhumilityasaconstitutivefeatureofthehumanconditionAspirationstofullyknowandmasterthenaturalandsocialworldsthusentailnotonlyahumanhubrisdeaftotheQurrsquoanicadmonitionthatldquoAllahknowsbutandyoudonotknowrdquo(Q366)butalsoatransgressionagainstadi-vinely-ordainedontologicalorder

ItisnotablehoweverthattheIslamistemphasisonthelimitsofhumanknowledgerequireshumilityonlyinrelationtoAllahitrarelyyieldshu-milityinregardtotheirownclaimstospeakinHisnameortowardotherhumanbeingswhodissentfromthepremiseofdivineomnipotenceandIslamistaccountsofwhat it requiresThis suggests thatwhile IslamistchallengestostatepowerareobviouslypoliticaltheIslamistclaimtoau-thenticityisalsopolitical inthecoercivepoweritroutinelyenactsandjustifiesmostnotablybywayofthesilencesitimposesandthedebatesitforeclosesAzizal-Azmehpointsoutthatldquothenotionofauthenticityisnotsomuchadeterminateconceptasitisanodeofassociationsandin-terpellationsatropebymeansofwhichthehistoricalworldisreducedtoaparticularorderandatokenwhichmarksoffsocialandpoliticalgroupsandforgesandreconstituteshistoricalidentitiesrdquo(al-Azmeh199341)WhetherintheserviceofArabnationalismChristianfundamental-ismEuropeanromanticismorMuslimmodernismtheclaimofauthen-ticityisanactofpowerthatfunctionsnotjusttoreflecttheworldbuttoconstructitbydeterminingwhoisincludedandexcludedwhomayandmaynotspeakauthoritativelywhatistheproperrealmofdebateandwhatisbeyondcontestation

ItiscertainlythecasethatasingleldquoIslamrdquocapturesandorganizestheperspectivesofmillionswhoself-identifyasMuslim(amongotherthings)yetwhattravelsunderitsrubricisinescapablydiversemultiethnicanddefined asmuchbydisagreement as consensus Just as theTorah andBible lend themselves toat times radicallydivergent interpretationsofwhatitmeanstobeJewishorChristiantheQurrsquoanandhaditharecom-plexandsusceptibletomanydifferentandattimescontradictoryenact-mentsSounderstoodIslamislessafixedessencethanalivingtraditionthatcaptureswhatisimaginedascontinuousandunitaryindialecticalrelationshiptothoseconcretearticulationsandpracticesbywhichitistransformedandadaptedindifferentcontextsforpluralpurposesItispreciselythisunderstandingofreligionthatisanathematoIslamistswhoseek tofix theparametersof Islamicauthenticityonceandforallandtherebyarrogateforthemselvestherighttodeterminewhoqualifiesasagood Muslim to discredit those lsquoulama unable or unwilling to purgeIslamofpurportedimpietiestodeclarenominallyMuslimrulersapos-tatesunfittogovernandtocharacterizeallwhodisagreeascorrupthe-reticalguiltyofunbelieforvictimsoffalseconsciousness

Thesegeneralpoliticaltendencieshowevermustbecarefullysituatedwithinadialecticoftheglobalandthevernacularunderstoodtoreflect

29

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INTRODUCTION

thewaysinwhichunifyingmacrohistoricaldynamicsinformandareinturntransformedbydiversecontingentandfluidlocalcircumstancesInaworldstampedbyWesterndominanceandtheconsolidationofpostco-lonial authoritarian regimes Islamists confront a common set of con-straintsandchallengesInasmuchassuchconstraintsandchallengeshavemade Islamist thinkers (often reluctant) participants in conversationsacrossbothcultureandhistorytheireffortstoremakethefoundationsofcollectiveliferevealasharedinterpretiveframeworkandcommonreli-gio-political grammar At the same time this frame and grammar arecontinuallybeingreworkedinrelationtothedistinctpublicspheresinwhichIslamistsoperateandtowhichtheycarefullycalibratetheirpoliti-calcommitments

Attention to this complex dynamic suggests that the Islamist move-mentcannotsimplybecharacterizedasviolentantidemocraticandop-pressiveofwomenlabelsinvokedsofrequentlyinscholarlyandpopularliterature on the subject that they have become virtually synonymouswithIslamistpoliticsSuchcharacterizationsdocapturecrucialdimen-sionsofIslamistpoliticsyettheyalsosidesteptheparadoxesitsvarie-gatedandoftencontradictoryexpressionspresentInsteadwearguethatIslamistpoliticscanbeproductivelyreadin terms ofandagainst the grain ofsuchbroadcategorizationsasantidemocraticantiwomanorviolentmdashthat is as commitments that at different moments in various localesbothencourageandconstrainbroad-basedpoliticalparticipationdisruptandratifyhierarchicalgendernormsresistandreproducestate-sanctionedbrutalityThepointofreadingIslamistpoliticsinthiswayisnottosug-gestthatIslamistsaresecretlydemocraticfeministandopposedtovio-lenceRatherthepointistodrawattentiontothecomplexityandcon-tradictionserasedbyeasygeneralizationsontheonehandandtheoftenunacknowledgedfluidityandculturaladaptabilityofotherwisefamiliarpoliticalcategoriesontheother

Islamism and Democracy

DespiteimportantdifferencesamongIslamistthinkerstheyhaveincom-monatendencytoviewhumansovereigntyastransgressiveofdivinelawandsharetheaspirationtoestablishsharilsquoaastheprimaryorsolesourceofauthorityAsisoftennotedsuchpremisesandaspirationsrunafoulofassumptionsaboutpopularruleattheheartofdemocracynamelythathumanbeingshavetherighttolegislaterulesforcollectivebehaviorandarecapableofthewisdomrequiredtodevisejustlawsInrecentyearspolicymakersandcommentatorshaveevincedaparticularpreoccupa-tionwiththewaysinwhichIslamistnotionsofdivineauthoritythrottlethespiritandpracticeofpopularsovereigntySomehaveevengonesofarastocharacterizeIslamistsasldquoIslamo-fascistsrdquoanimatedbyhatredoftheldquodemocratic Westrdquo psychologically unable to contend with the fluidity

30

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INTRODUCTION

andindeterminacythatmarkpopularruleandeagertoconvertelectionsintoaldquoone-manone-voteone-timerdquomechanismforestablishinganIs-lamicstate(Murdock2002MRubin2005Kramer1993)

SuchviewsareechoedbythoseIslamistskeentoportraydemocracynotonlyasantitheticaltothesupremacyofdivinelawbutasaTrojanhorseforWesternimperialismFormanyIslamistsincludingseveralinthis volumedemocracy is justone symptomofametastasizingmoralandspiritualbankruptcywherebymoraltransgressionsaretransfiguredintonaturalurgescrassself-interestbecomesthebedrockofcollectivelifeandthedivineplanfortheuniverseandallthingsinitisreducedtoa system of physical causality just waiting to be mastered by way ofhumaningenuity(REuben2007)Qutbcallsthisdiseasedviewoftheworldjahiliyyaanditsignalsnotonlyhumanarrogancebutatransgres-sionagainstdivineauthoritythescopeofwhichencompassesbothpub-licandprivatedomainsofhumanaffairsaswellasbothvisibleandun-seendimensionsoftheuniverseFormanyIslamistssuchtransgressionisattherootofmuchofwhatpassesforMuslimruleinthecontemporaryworldmdashnationalistdemocraticandmonarchicalalikeSucharroganceisalsosaidtobethepatternunderlyingalonghistoryofunrelievedWest-ernaggressionagainstIslaminwhichtheChristianCrusadesEuropeancolonialismIsraelitreatmentofPalestiniansethniccleansinginBosniaGermananti-TurkishviolencetheAmericaninvasionofIraqandDutchcartoonsofMuhammadarebutafewexamples

YetthereisarangeofviewsamongIslamistsaboutboththesubstanceofdemocracyanditscompatibilitywiththereligio-politicalrenewaltheyadvocateAccordingtoQaradawiforexampleldquotheessenceofdemoc-racyisthatpeoplechoosewhorulesoverthemandmanagestheiraf-fairsthatnorulerorregimetheydislikeisforceduponthemthattheyhavetherighttocalltherulertoaccountifheerrsandtoremovehimfromofficeincaseofmisconductandthatpeoplearenotforcedineco-nomicsocialculturalorpoliticaldirectionsthattheyneitherrecognizenor acceptrdquo (Qaradawi1997132 also chapter9 in this volume)TohimthereisnoheavierburdenoppressingMuslimsinthecontemporaryworld thandespotism indeed it is throughdespoticgovernments thatMuslimshavebeenforcedtosubmittootherillsincludingtheneglectofthesharilsquoaandthecoerciveimpositionofsecularismandwesternizationDemocracy then recommends itself to Qaradawi as the most effectiveavailableantidotetodespotismandtheafflictionsofwhichitservesasavehicle

WheremanyamongtheIslamistsandthelsquoulamahaveseenconsider-able tensionbetween IslamanddemocracyQaradawiprofesses to seenoneAswesuggestedearlierbyfarthemostcommonoftheIslamistreservationsaboutademocraticsystemrelatestothesovereigntyofthepeoplewhichistakentocontravenetheideathatGodaloneissovereignQaradawi however is unperturbedby such concernsThe rule of the

31

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INTRODUCTION

peopleoughttobeseenhearguesnotinoppositiontotheruleofGodbutratherinoppositiontotheruleofthedespotMorefundamentallyQaradawirsquos view of democracy does not necessarily require that thepeopleshouldbeabletooverturndivinelyinstitutednormsRatherhisassumptionisthatpeopleexercisetheirsovereigntywithinconstitutionalboundsandMuslimslivinginapredominantlyMuslimdemocraticpol-itywouldlikewisenotwishtotransgresstheparametersoflegitimatehumanactionlaiddownintheIslamicfoundationaltexts(seeQaradawichapter9inthisvolumeandcfFeldman2007)

NadiaYassineofMoroccorsquosJusticeandSpiritualityAssociationisan-othercaseinpointWhilecriticalofthedemocraticgesturesembracedbyamonarchythatshedepictsasallergictogenuinelypopularsovereigntyYassineinsiststhatthemodelofMuslimruleadumbratedintheummafoundedbytheProphetMuhammadandinparticulartheConstitutionofMedina17isnothingshortofdemocratic(NYassine2005d2005e)UnliketheMuslimdynastiesthatarosetousurpitYassinecontendsthiscommunity was participatory egalitarian committed to freedom andexpressiveofGodrsquosmercyMostimportantitwasgovernedalwaysbytheQurrsquoanicprincipleofshura (consultation)bywhichYassinemeansaphilosophy of power that places sovereignty in the community ratherthaninanyindividuallinksvirtuetodeliberationratherthanobedienceandexhortsbelieverstocontinuallyadaptQurrsquoanicprinciplesthroughijtihad rather than adhere reflexively to precedent (N Yassine 2006a182ndash862005d)ManyscholarsandjournalistsremainskepticaloftheJSArsquosasyetuntestedcommitment toproceduraldemocracyandworrythatNadiaandher fatherAbdessalamultimatelyseektoestablishanIslamic state inhospitable to tolerance pluralism and civil liberties(Maghraoui2001Brandon2007Whitlock2006)YetothersarguethattheJSAisagenuinelypopulistorganizationthatrepresentstheunrepre-sentedtendstothewelfareofthedispossessedandbothexpressesandcontributestoanincreasinglyvibrantcivilsocietyinMorocco(Cavatorta2006Entelis2002)

QaradawirsquosandYassinersquosargumentstogethersuggestthatdemocracycanandhasservedaseitheracosmeticcoverfordespotismoranauthen-ticallyIslamiccheckuponcorruptandarbitraryruleAtissueinIslamistargumentsforandagainstdemocracythenarenotonlywhatcountsasldquoauthenticIslamrdquoandtheintentionsofthosewhoclaimtoknowitbutalsothecontentandcharacterofdemocracyitselfParadoxicallybothIslamistsopposedtodemocracyandthosewhotakeIslamismasinher-entlyantidemocraticregardthisasasimplematterwithanobviousan-swerdemocracyisanexpressionofandevensynonymouswithliberal-ismcapitalismandtheWestYetdemocracyisbothmorecapaciousand

17TheConstitutionofMedinawasanagreementtheProphethadenteredintowiththelocalcommunitiesincludingJewishtribesuponhisemigrationfromMeccatoMedina

32

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

moredistinctthanthispresumptionsuggestsTheworditselfofcoursederivesfromtheancientGreekdemokratiawhichmeansrule(kratos)ofthepeople(demos)andmanyderivetheequationofdemocracyandtheWestfromthisassociationwithclassicalGreeceYetancientGreekphi-losopherssuchasPlatosawindemocracythespecterofmobrulepartic-ularly vulnerable to demagoguery and despotism (a suspicion notablyechoedbyAmerican founder JamesMadison)Contrary to thedemo-cratic idealof inclusivenessmoreover citizenship inGreekdemocracyexcludedasubstantialpartofthepopulationincludingwomenslavesandforeignersFinallytheextenttowhichtheancientGreeksmayevenbecalledWesternisamatterofgreatdisputeparticularlyastheldquoWestrdquoisacategoryofrelativelyrecentprovenancethroughwhichhistoryandgeographyhavebeenretroactivelyorganized18DespitedepictionsoftheHellenicworldasWesternancientGreeksdidnotinfactviewthem-selvesintheseterms19

TheequationofdemocracywiththeWestalsopresupposestheexis-tenceofacoherentldquoWesterncivilizationrdquowitheitherculturallyhomoge-neousrootsorclearlydelineatedhistoricalandcontemporarybounda-riesorbothYetwhatiscalledtheWestisanamalgamationofmultipletraditionsincludingtheGreekRomanJudaicChristianandIslamicmdashtraditionsthatarethemselvespolyvalentratherthanhomogeneousmdashandistodaycharacterizedbyporousbordershybridsubculturesandmyriaddebtstodiversecivilizationspastandpresent20AsageographicmarkeritisvirtuallyimpossibletopinpointexactlywheretheWestbeginsandendsandthisisespeciallysonowthatpeoplesinformationandmate-rial goods crisscross cultural andnational borders atwill creating allkindsoftransnationalsubnationalandmultipleidentitiesthatshiftandreconstitutethemselvesinunpredictablewaysEventhosevaluesidenti-fiedasWesternoftenappearelsewhereinotherguisesIndeedscholarssuggestthatavarietyoftheldquostandardsexportedbytheWestanditscul-turalindustriesthemselvesturnouttobeofculturallymixedcharacterifweexaminetheirculturallineagesrdquo(Pieterse199553)

Manyalsoarguethatdemocracyisnotonlydistinctfrombutinten-sionwithboththetheoryandpracticeofpoliticsinldquoWesternrdquosocieties

18MichaelGillespie(19997ndash10)arguesthattherereadingofhistorygeographyandculturethroughtheprismofthissenseofldquotheWestrdquobegannoearlierthanthenineteenthcenturyTheideaofatimelessandbrightlinebetweenWestandEastisalsochallengedbyJeremyBrottonrsquosstudy(19989096ndash97)ofthediplomaticandintellectualexchangesbe-tweenEuropeandtheOttomanEmpireintheearlymodernperiodBrottonshowsnotonlytheextentandamityofsuchexchangesbutapersistentuncertaintyaboutwherepreciselyEuropeldquoendedrdquoandAsialdquobeganrdquo

19AncientGreeksunderstoodthemselvesasgeographicallywestofthebarbariansbutnotWesterninthecontemporarysensethatisasbothaculturalandhistoricalcategory

20StevenRuncimanrsquoswork(19543480)ontheCrusadesforexampledemonstratesaldquolongsequenceofinteractionandfusionbetweenOrientandOccidentoutofwhichourcivilizationhasgrownrdquo

33

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

many of which are more accurately classified as liberal and capitalist(Wood1994Wolin2001BallandDagger1999)Whileitisnowcom-monplacetospeakofldquoliberaldemocracyrdquoinasinglebreathliberalismanddemocracyareconceptsandpracticeswithverydifferenthistoriesandpresuppositionsUnlikedemocracyforexampleliberalismemergedfromthecrucibleofChristianreligiouswarsandintandemwiththeas-cendanceofamiddleclassthatpresagedtheendofEuropeanfeudalismTheliberalnation-statecanthusbeviewedasbothanexpressionandaconsolidationofcapitalismontheonehandandtheprincipleofasepa-rationbetweenchurchandstateontheotherBycontrastthereisnoth-ingaboutdemocracyeitherasasystemofgovernanceoracultureofpar-ticipationthatisinherentlysecularIndeedAlexisdeTocquevillefamouslyinsistedthatAmericandemocracycannotandshouldnotbesecularasreligionhelpsshiftattentionawayfromimmediatematerialpreoccupa-tionstolargerconcernsofcommunitycooperationandmoralityInfactmanydemocratictheoristsarguethatgenuinelyinclusivepopularsover-eignty is antithetical to the sharp inequalities of wealth and politicalpowerthatcapitalismoftenproducesandlegitimates

SuchongoingdefinitionalandsubstantivedebatessuggestthatthereismuchmoreatstakeindemocraticpoliticsthanprocedurespertainingtogovernmentauthorityandorderandpointtoawidespreadifelusiveunderstandingofdemocracynotjustasasetofinstitutionsbutasTocque-villesuggestsawayoflifeSeveralpoliticaltheoristshavecharacterizedthiselusiveunderstandingintermsofaldquodemocraticethosrdquoBythistheymeanbothanidealandanargumentforacultureofparticipationactivepowersharingmutualaccountabilityinclusivenessanddeliberationinwhichcitizensmayroutinelyandsafelychallengenotonlyspecificpoli-ciesandpolitical institutionsbutalso thevalues thatgoverncollectivelifeprinciplesofinclusionandexclusionandthepremisesofauthorityitself(Connolly1995JPEuben2003Sadiki2004)AdemocraticethosismuchmoredifficulttomeasureorquantifythanforexampleSamuelHuntingtonrsquosparsimoniousdefinitionofdemocracyasapolityinwhichtherehavebeentwoconsecutivepeacefulchangesofgovernmentbywayof freeand fairelections (Huntington1991)21Yetademocraticethosmakesitpossibletobothrecognizeanddisaggregatethepreconditionsaspirations mechanisms and institutions bundled into ldquodemocracyrdquotherebybringingintofocusforexamplethefrequentlyantidemocratic

21Manypoliticalscientistsprefertodefinedemocracyintermsofproceduresdesignedtorealizepopularruleincludingfreecompetitiveandfairelectionsalongwithstateprotec-tionofcertainrightsandlibertiesSuchaformalminimalistdefinitionhastheadvantageofdetachingdemocracyfromquestionsoforiginsandofferingastandardtowhichallgov-ernmentsmaybeheldregardlessofcultureandplaceAsKeithTopper(2005205ndash7)ar-gueshoweveritalsotendstosidestepknottyquestionsaboutthesubstanceofrepresenta-tion power responsiveness and accountability that are arguably central to democraticpolitics

34

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

casttoelectionsimposedbyelitesorforeignpowersthefeltimpotenceofmanycitizensinestablisheddemocraciesandthosehighlyparticipa-torycivilsocietiesthatflourishevenundermonarchicortheocraticrule

Forourpurposes inparticularademocraticethosmakesvisible theparadoxofanIslamistmovementthatseekstomobilizeordinaryMus-limsagainstcoercivepowerbutinthenameofareligio-politicalorderlargelyimmunizedfromchallengeQutbisanaptillustrationhereashistendencytogroundhisownspecialauthorityandinsightintheunsulliedwisdomofordinarybelieversmakesitpossibletoreadhisworkaseitherabriefagainstdemocracy(amongotherthings)oranenactmentofitIn-asmuchasdemocracyasaformofgovernanceisidentifiedwithpopularsovereigntyQutbrsquosbasicpremisethat thefoundationof legitimateau-thoritymustbedivineratherthanhumansuggeststhatheisunambigu-ouslyantidemocraticMoreoverQutbrsquoseffortstopluralizereligiousandpolitical authority express not a confidence in common wisdom butratheradesiretoclaimforhimselfthestatureofareligiousexpertwhodespitehislackofIslamicacademiccredentialscanclearlyseewhatoth-erscannotQutbcharacterizestherealIslamasself-evidentbuthealsoassumesthatonlyasmallvanguardofbelieversbesideshimselfwillhavetheabilitytorecognizeitandactdecisivelytoremaketheworldinitsimageSounderstoodthesignofldquochosennessrdquoisunyieldingcommitmenttoestablishingareligio-politicalorderthatsimultaneouslypresumesthesupremacyofthefewcapableoftrueknowledgeandpromisesaworldinwhichdissentitselfwillbecomebothunnecessaryandillegitimate

Yetifdemocracyrefersnotonlytoasystemofgovernanceorsetofprocedurestorealizepopularsovereigntybutalsotopracticesthatdis-ruptthoseforceswhichconcentratepowerandestablishpoliticalexclu-sionthecharacterizationofQutbrsquosworkassimplyantidemocraticmissesa crucial dimensionof its significance and appealAs the sacred textscontaintherulesandregulationsmeanttogovernbothpublicandpri-vateaffairsQutbrsquosinsistencethatordinaryuntrainedMuslimsmusten-gagethemdirectlyisinmanywaysademocratizationofaccesstoau-thoritySuchaccesscandisruptdeeplyentrenchedpatternsofpowerandpowerlessness particularlywhen conjoined to Islamist arguments thatarbitrarypowerisun-Islamicthatreligiousknowledgedependsoncom-mitmentratherthantrainingorexpertise thatMuslimshavetherightandobligationtodeterminewhenrulersareillegitimateandthatthosewhopreferordertojusticesecuritytofreedomandmoneytopietyhaveforfeitedanyclaimtoauthority

ThisaspectofIslamismhasfrequentlybeencomparedtotheProtestantReformationandmorespecificallytoCalvinistsrsquoattemptstotransferldquore-ligiousauthorityawayfromofficiallysanctionedindividualswhointer-prettextstoordinarycitizensrdquo(EGoldberg19913alsocfLoimeier2005)Suchaparallelhassparkedagreatdealofscholarlyspeculation

35

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

regardingapossibleldquoIslamicReformationrdquo22andarangeofargumentsaboutwhetherandhowIslamismmightfacilitatethedemocratizationofMuslim societies much as the Protestant Reformation is said to haveheralded the emergence of European ldquoliberal democracyrdquo While suchcomparisonsareevocativeafullerunderstandingof IslamismrequiresfirstsituatingitinrelationtoahistoricalshiftinthenatureandlocusofreligiousauthorityinIslambeginninginthenineteenthcenturyAsschol-arsofMuslimsocietieshavepointedouttheimpactofmasseducationnewtechnologiesfordisseminatingknowledgeandinformationanddra-matically changed social economic and political contexts have madeavailabletoamateurswhathadpreviouslybeenthepurviewofreligiousexpertsAtthesametimeithasinauguratedafragmentationofauthor-itywithintheveryranksofthelsquoulamathatcontinuestothepresentday23

InthiscontexttheascendanceandinfluenceofautodidactssuchasQutbHasanal-BannalsquoAbdal-SalamFarajandBinLadensimultaneouslyex-pressandaccelerateanongoingrenegotiationofauthorityoverwhomayspeakforIslamandonwhatbasisthepathofwhichisstillunfoldingandtheoutcomeasyetuncertain

Islamism and Gender

One already apparent consequence of this ongoing renegotiation overwhomayspeakforIslamandonwhatbasisistheentryofwomenintothe interpretive fray This development is increasingly unsettling thoseunwrittengendernormsarguablyattheveryheartofIslamistthoughtdisruptingthestandardsofmasculinityandfemininitythatreflecthowparticularculturesorganizehumanbeingsrsquosocialandreproductiveactiv-itiesintorolesthatareinturnthoughttoexpresstheldquonaturerdquoofmenand women Such norms are frequently considered tangential to theknottyproblemsofdefiningIslamismandadumbratingitscentralideasyetarangeofscholarshiponculturespastandpresenthasshownthatgenderisconsistentlytheterrainoverwhichbattlesforpoliticalcontrolandculturalidentityarefoughtMorespecificallyresearchindisciplinessuchasanthropologyhistoryclassicsandpostcolonialstudieshasdem-onstratedthatculturesinwhichfemalebodiesandbehaviorareregardedas indicesofmoralpurity tend to symbolically transformwomen intoconduitsof cultural corruption in timesof internal crisis and externalthreat(Papenek1994Chatterjee1990Tavakoli-Targhi1991Just1989Cohen1991Welter1966Bloch1978)Thisisespeciallytrueofcontem-

22Foralatenineteenth-centuryassessmentoftheprospectsforaldquoMuhammadanRefor-mationrdquoseeBlunt1882132ndash73

23EickelmanandPiscatori199637ndash39131ndash35Zaman2006Suchfragmentationhasinmanywaysbeenacceleratedbytheexplosionofdigitalcultureswhichpromoteamongotherthingsaldquoformofempoweredamateurismrdquo(Mirzoeff20026)

36

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

poraryreligio-politicalmovementswhosememberstendtoldquoidealizepa-triarchalstructuresofauthorityandmoralityrdquoendorsegenderdualismasgod-givenornaturalandcondemnvigorouslyrecentchangesingen-derrelationsasasymptomandsymbolofsecularistmoralbankruptcy(Riesebrodt1993Moghadam1992Hawley1994)

SeveralchaptersinthisvolumeilluminateIslamistgendernormsbyre-vealing thecharacterandcontentof Islamistconcernsabout theplaceandpurityofMuslimwomenmdashpreoccupationsFatimaMernissi(199199)hasgonesofarastocharacterizeasanobsessionDespiteimportantdifferences among Islamists thinkers many endorse gender norms inwhichthefairlyconventionalinsistencethatfemalenatureisdefinedinand through reproduction undergirds an understanding of women assymbolsofmoralvirtueandvesselsofculturalpurityThisviewsustainstheclaimthatmenandwomenareequalinreligiousbeliefbutperformfundamentallydifferentandcomplementaryfunctionsinsocietyWhilemenarenaturallymadetoruleinboththepublicandprivatedomainawomanbelongsinthedomesticrealmwhereherprimaryroleistobeawifeandmotheraswellastoinsuretheintegrityofthefamilythefirstschoolofmoraleducationAssuchfunctionsarerootedinaninescap-ablehumannaturefashionedbyGodawomanrsquosinabilityorunwilling-nesstoperformherdutiessignalsadisobediencetothedivinewillandpresages the corruption of the Muslim family from within From thisvantagepointtheWesterninsistenceonfullequalitybetweenthesexesisdoubly pernicious it at once liberates women from basic moral con-straintsandenslavesthemtomutuallyreinforcingsexualandcapitalistexploitationAsMurtazaMutahhari(1998xxxi)arguescapitalismmakesuseofwomentomarket itsgoodsldquoby trading inhonourandrespectthrough[their]powertoenticerdquotherebyldquotransform[ing]manintoaninvoluntaryagentofconsumptionrdquoInasmuchaswomenareresponsiblefor producing the next generation of Muslim men destined to restoreIslamtoitsformergloryitisnotonlythevirtueofwomenortheinteg-rityofthefamilythathangsinthebalancebutthefutureofIslamiccivili-zationitself

Zaynab al-Ghazali andMutahharimake several of these argumentsexplicitlyandindetail(seechapters10and11)butinmuchofIslamistrhetoricthenatureandsignificanceofwomenareestablishedindirectlyandsymbolicallyandthroughthreerecurrentimagesinparticularThefirstisofwomenassilentsymbolsofculturalmoralandsexualvulnera-bilityvoicelessfiguresinneedofmasculineprotectionorwhenitistoolatedefiledbodiesthatmutelydemandvengeanceSoforexamplelsquoAb-dallahlsquoAzzam(oneofBinLadenrsquosmentorsseechapter18)graphicallydetailstheagonizinghumiliationofyoungmenunabletoactwhentheAfghanwoman isldquocryingout forhelpher childrenarebeing slaugh-tered her women are being raped the innocent are killed and theircorpsesscatteredrdquo(lsquoAzzam1987a)Inthesecondimagewomenfunction

37

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

muchlikeachorusthatspeaksinpermittedcadencestoratifymasculineendeavorsSuchisthecaseforexampleinBinLadenrsquos1996ldquoDeclara-tionofWaragainsttheAmericansOccupyingtheLandoftheTwoHolyPlacesrdquo(seechapter18)wherethewomenexhortmentojihadinthefollowing way ldquoPrepare yourself like a struggler the matter is biggerthanwordsAreyougoingtoleaveusforthewolvesofKufr[unbe-lief]eatingourwingsWherearethefreemendefendingfreewomenbyarmsDeath isbetter than life inhumiliation Some scandals andshameswillneverbeotherwiseeradicatedrdquo24InthethirdimagewomenarecreaturesnotofthisworldbutofanothervirginalrewardsforthecourageousmartyrintheafterlifeThisisevidentinthefinalinstructionsforthe911hijackersforexamplewhereMuslimldquobrothersrdquoareurgedto purify their carnal impulses sharpen their knives for the dhabh (slaughter)andheedthecallofthehur lsquoayn (theblack-eyedones)await-ingtheminParadise(seechapter19)

Such rhetoric primarily registers women as an extensionmirror ormeasure of masculinity and together with explicit Islamist argumentsabouthumannatureandthefamilyarticulatesIslamistgendernormsinwhichmenandwomeneachhaveaproperlocationandpurposeinadi-vinely ordained social hierarchy Deviance from this gendered scriptthussignalsdisruptionofamuchbroaderreligio-politicalorderitbothpresumes and seeks to bring into existence The disruption caused byforeign aggression in particular exacerbates the tendency to translateconflict into an assault on Muslim masculinity and to conceptualizewomenaspotentialvehiclesforWesterncorruptioninneedofguidingand guarding Women such as Zaynab al-Ghazali and Nadia Yassinewho seek a prominent place and voice within the Islamist movementhavehadlittlechoicebuttocontendwiththisgenderedscriptDoingsohasentailedamongotherthingsnavigatingcarefullybetweenIslamistcharacterizations of womenrsquos visibility and agency as symptomatic ofthe new jahiliyya on the one hand and essentializing arguments thatequateIslamwithveilingfemalegenitalmutilationandhonorkillingsontheother

AsthechaptersonGhazaliandYassinesuggestIslamistwomenhavenegotiatedbetweensuchconstraintsandpressuresandtheirownambi-tionsindifferentwaysApioneeringdalsquoiya(onewhoinvitesMuslimstogreater piety)Ghazalirsquos own life reveals a fierce resistance to conven-tionalnormsofdomesticityevenasmuchofher(earlier)workappearsto embrace an Islamist gender ideology that defines women as wivesmothers andldquobuilders ofmenrdquo (al-Hashimi 1990 118)By contrastYassineisawifeandmotherwhoembracesanldquoIslamicfeminismrdquothatrequiresldquoreappropriatingtheinstrumentsofclassicaltheologyrdquoanden-

24TheIslamistjournalSawt alshyJihadhasgonesofarastofeatureldquowomenrsquosvoicesrdquointheformofrolemodelsnamedforexampleumm alshyshahid(motherofthemartyr)al-thoughitisunclearthattheseldquovoicesrdquoareactuallywomenrsquos(SUsher2004)

38

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INTRODUCTION

gaging the textsdirectly through ijtihad (NYassine2003) In this re-spect Yassine must be understood as part of a broader effort amongMuslimwomenwithdifferentpoliticalcommitmentstosimultaneouslyadvocateandenacttheirrighttorecuperatetheldquooriginalintentrdquooftheIslamictextsIfwomenandmendoinfacthavedistinctperspectivesontheworldYassinesuggestswomenhaveaspecialobligationtoexcavatewhattheyseeasthegenderparityoftheQurrsquoanburiedbeneaththoseldquomachointerpretationsrdquoofIslamuponwhichmenhavebuilttheirprivi-legeandpower(Khalaf2006)25

ManyAnglo-AmericanandEuropean feministsworry that Islamistsseekonly to secureor restorepatriarchalpowerConverselymany Is-lamist women view feminism as a term and a movement inescapablyWesterninoriginfreightedwiththelegacyofcolonialismanduneasilyimplicatedinculturalimperialismThisapplieseventoYassinewhoisunwillingtoadoptwithoutqualificationalabelsheassociateswithagen-dasopposedtoherowntheWesttheMoroccanstateMaghribi(North-westAfrican)elitesYetfeminismitselfisahighlycontestedtermwithin theso-calledWestitisthebearerofmultiplemeaningssomeofwhichareevenopposedandischaracterizedbydeepdisagreementsaboutwhowomenarewhatwomenneedwhoisauthorizedtoworkonwomenrsquosbehalf andbywhatmeans Inasmuch as these various feminismsmayshareonlyastatedconcernforwomenrsquoswelfarethereisnothinginco-herentinmodifyingldquofeminismrdquowithldquoIslamicrdquoldquoMuslimrdquoorevenldquoIs-lamistrdquounlessone iscommitted toarguing thatfirst Islam isanun-changingessencebeyondhistorypoliticsandculturesecondthereisaneutralobjectivevantagefromwhichtoidentifythisessenceonceandforallandfinallytheIslamicessencesoidentifiedisfundamentallyin-compatiblewitheffortstoimprovetheconditionsandqualityofwomenrsquoslivesBythesametokenIslamistwomenwhorejectthetermfeminismcanbe(althoughnotalwaysare)deeplycommittedtoimprovingwom-enrsquoswelfareaswellasactivelyresistanttoeffortsthatreduceortrans-formthemintosilentaccessoriesofmalepower

YassineandGhazalidifferaboutwhatwomenareandshouldbeyetbroadlyspeakingbothmaybeconsideredpartofarecenttrendtowardthe feminizationofdalsquowa Dalsquowa literallymeanscallappealor sum-monsbutthetermhascometosignifyavarietyofpracticesandargu-mentsmeanttoexhortinviteandguideMuslimstowhatisregardedasproperconductandmoraldevotionWomenrsquosparticipationindalsquowais

25WomenrsquosparticipationintheldquoproductionofofficialIslamicknowledgerdquohasalonghistoryalthoughtheyhaveoftendonesoinrelativeobscurityandwithoutthebenefitofeducation in the Islamicsciences thathas legitimateddirectengagementwith thesacredtexts (Cooke 2001 xiv Badran and Cooke 2004) Pioneering attempts to read genderequalityinIslamarealsonotconfinedtowritingbywomenasevincedbyQasimAminrsquosTahrir alshymarrsquoa [TheLiberationofWoman] (1899)andMumtaz lsquoAlirsquosHuquqshye niswan [TheRightsofWomen](1898)

39

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

notabrandnewphenomenonasisevidentinGhazalirsquosworkwiththeEgyptianSocietyofMuslimLadiesinthe1930sYetfromEgypttoPaki-stantoSaudiArabiatotheUnitedStatesthenumberoffemaledalsquoiyashasproliferatedexponentially inrecentyears(Cooke2001Mahmood2005Hirschkind2006)Thisreflectsinpartcurrentdoctrinalempha-sesondalsquowaasincumbentuponbothmenandwomenanddependentlessupontechnicalknowledgethanmoralvirtueandpracticalfamiliaritywiththeIslamictradition(Mahmood200565ndash66)It isalsoaconse-quenceofrecentpoliticalandsocioeconomictransformationsinMuslimsocietiesincludingtheexpansionofmasseducationthathasnotonlyin-creasedwomenrsquosliteracyandsocialmobilitybutalsomadeIslamictextsmoreaccessibletheproliferationoftechnologiesmdashfromthecassettetapetotheInternetmdashthatfacilitatethecirculationofreligiousknowledgeevenamongthosewhocannotreadortraveltheprecedentsetbythevigorousparticipationof IranianwomeninpostrevolutiondebatesaboutIslamandthemodeloflegalactivismevidentintheIslamistmovementrsquosownchallenge to the lsquoulamarsquos status as gatekeepers of religious knowledge(Singerman2005Mir-Hosseini1999)

If Ghazali and Yassine exemplify the feminization of dalsquowa amongelitesthemosquemovementinEgyptillustratesthegrowingparticipa-tionofwomenfromdiversesocialbackgroundsinreligiousclassesde-votedtostudyinganddebatingwhatIslamrequiresforawomantobeldquomorallyuprightrdquointhecontemporaryworld(Mahmood2005)Con-ceptualizingpiety in termsof adeepandholistic commitment to self-transformationparticipantsinthemosquemovementareconcernedlesswithmattersofsovereigntyandpoliticsconventionallyunderstoodandmorewiththeldquomoralcultivationrdquoofthosedailypracticesseenascrucialtobecomingclosertoGod(Mahmood2005)SomeIslamistshavecriti-cizedthis focusonpracticesofworshipasapoliticalandoverlypriva-tizedyetsuchcriticismmissestheforceofIslamistsrsquoowninsistenceondin(religion)asawayoflifeinwhichthedomainsofpublicandprivateare inextricably linked26AsSabaMahmood (2005193194) showsthesewomenrsquosintenseeffortsatldquoretrainingethicalsensibilitiesrdquohavealdquosociopoliticalforcerdquothatextendswellbeyondmattersofgovernancefacilitatingnolessthantheemergenceofaldquonewsocialandmoralorderrdquoEvidenceofitstransformativepowermaybefoundnotonlyinthesheernumbersandvarietyofwomenmdashwealthyandpoor literateand illiter-atemdashparticipatinginthemosquemovementbutalsointherhetoricalandpoliticaleffortsbythestateandsomeIslamiststocurtailcontrolordis-creditit(Mahmood200571194)

26ParticipantsinthemosquemovementinturnareoftencriticalofwhattheyseeasthereductionofIslamtotokensofculturalauthenticityorofitsinstrumentalizationbybothnationalistsandIslamiststheycharacterizeasmoreinterestedinpoliticalmaneuveringthanreligiouspiety

40

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

Understoodtoincludebothwrittenandembodiedpracticesthefemi-nizationof dalsquowa illustrates theways inwhichwomen fromdifferentperspectivesandsocialclassesareinsistingonengagingthesacredtextsdirectly for and with one another without the mediating authority ofmenwhohavetraditionallyheldthemonopolyonsuchactivitiesAsSu-danese Islamist Lubabah al-Fadl argues ldquoAs an insan [human being]whohappenstobeawomanIhavearighttorejectthemanipulativeexegesesofoursharilsquoa thatthreatenmyexistenceinawaythat isnotconsistentwiththeGodlywayandtoapplymyownijtihadtorectifyer-roneoustendenciesbysomeshuyukh[pluralofshaykh]rdquo(Sadiki2004290)DespitetheproliferationofvoicesintentonclaimingforthemselvestheauthoritytodemarcatewhatisauthenticallyIslamicandun-Islamiconceandforallcontestationoveritsscopeandmeaningproceedsapacefacilitatedatleastinpartbywomenformerlyexcludedfromtheconver-sationAtthesametimeIslamistwomenrsquosagencyandclaimstoauthorityarefrequentlystillpredicatedonawillingnesstofollowfairlypatriarchalrulesaboutwherehowandwithwhomtheymaypracticetheirvocation(Hirschkind2003Sadiki2004283)

Islamism and Violence

IfgenderisfrequentlyanimplicitpreoccupationamongIslamistsjihadisarguably Islamistsrsquomost consistently explicit concern Jihad is derivedfromtheArabicverbthatmeanstostruggleortostriveyetitisaparticu-larkindofstruggle that isofconcern tomanyof thefigurescollectedheretheoftenviolentstruggleagainstapostatesandinfidelsbothathomeandabroadtowhicheveryindividualMuslimmustcontributeTheclaimthatfightingunbelieversisthepreeminentenactmentofindividualMus-limpiety seems to justify characterizationsof Islam ingeneral and Is-lamisminparticularassanctioningevenencouragingviolenceYetwhatIslamistsrepresentasjihadtout courtisahistoricallyspecificunderstand-ingderivedfromahighlyselectiveuseoftextsandprecedentsprominentamongthemaformerlyobscureclaimbytheinfluentialfourteenth-cen-tury jurist IbnTaymiyya thatMongol rulerswhohad contravened Is-lamiclawcouldbesubjecttoforcibleremovalFarfromadefinitiveex-pressionof Islamldquoproperlyunderstoodrdquo such Islamist argumentsnotonlymarkasignificantdeparturefrommuchofantecedentdoctrineandpractice but also diminish the importance of ongoing disagreementsamongMuslimsabouttheformandpurposesofjihad

TobeginwithMuslimscholarshavetendedtoconsiderjihadagainstforeignenemiesafard kifaya(collectiveobligation)thatisadutyagroupofpeoplewithinthecommunitymayperformonbehalfoftherestandonethatpresupposesalegitimateMuslimleadertodeclareorleadthechargeJuristshavedistinguishedthisfromthefard lsquoayn(individualduty)thatmustbefulfilledbyeverysingleMuslimincasesofdefensivejihad

41

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

thatiswhentheummaisunderattackManyIslamistsincludedheretakeamuchlessnuancedviewofjihadAsamodeofpoliticalactionQutbarguesjihadmustberegardedasaldquopermanentconditionnotanocca-sionalconcernrdquoonethatincurrentcircumstancesrequiresdeedsratherthanwordsstruggleratherthancontemplationrevolutionathomeaswellasresistanceabroad(Qutb199167ndash6882)lsquoAbdal-SalamFarajarguesalongsimilarlinesthatthenatureoftheattackonIslammakespolitical authorization by a caliph (ldquodeputyrdquo referring to a legitimatesuccessortotheProphetrsquosleadership)unnecessaryafterallldquoleadershipovertheMuslimsis(always)intheirownhandsifonlytheymakethismanifestIfthereissomethinglackingintheleadershipwellthereisnothingthatcannotbeacquiredrdquo(Jansen1986asec93)

SuchargumentsareadeliberaterejectionofearlyMuslimmodernistswhohademphasizedthelargelydefensivecharacterofjihadandsoughttoshowthatrelationsbetweenMuslimsandnon-MuslimswerenormallypeacefulratherthanantagonisticMahmudShaltut(d1963)therectorof al-Azhar from 1958 to 1963 had argued for example that theQurrsquoanicversesonfightingldquoprohibittheprovocationofhostilityandthisprohibitionisreinforcedbyGodrsquosrepugnancetoaggressionandbyhisdislikeofthosewhoprovokehostilityrdquo(Peters199674onShaltutseeZebiri1993)ConversionbyforceisanathematoIslamShaltutaversandfightingiscommandedonlyindefenseinresponsetoaggressionini-tiatedbyothersEvendefensivejihadmustaimatldquotheterminationoftheaggressionandtheestablishmentofreligiouslibertydevotedtoGodandfreefromanypressureorforcerdquo(Peters199675)

ManyIslamistsexplicitlydismisssuchargumentsasasymptomoffalseconsciousnessoneamongmanydestructiveeffectsofcolonialdomina-tionMawdudiargues for example thatwhile imperialists ravage theworld to satisfy their greed jihad alone ldquoconjures up the vision of amarching band of religious fanatics with savage beards and fiery eyesbrandishingdrawnswordsandattackingtheinfidelswherevertheymeetthemrdquoHavinginternalizedthis imageMuslimsrushtoapologizeandrenouncearmedstruggleInthiswayhelamentscolonialistsretaintheexclusiverighttoldquofightwitharmsandammunitionwhilewearecon-tented with our pen and our tonguerdquo (Mawdudi 1948 1ndash3) SayyidQutbforhispartagreedthatIslamdoesnotcountenancespreadingitsmessagebyforceandcoercionyethehadlittlepatiencewiththosewhosoughttopresentjihadaslegitimateonlyinself-defense

IfweinsistoncallingIslamicjihadadefensivemovementthenwemustchangethemeaningofthewordldquodefenserdquoandmeanbyitldquothedefenseofmanrdquoagainstallthoseforcesthatlimithisfreedomWhenwetakethisbroadmeaningofthewordldquodefenserdquoweunder-standthetruecharacterofIslaminthatitproclaimstheuniversalfreedomofeverypersonandcommunityfromservitudetoanyother

42

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

individualorsocietytheendofmanrsquosarroganceandselfishnesstheestablishmentofthesovereigntyofAllahandHisLordshipthrough-outtheworldandtheruleofthedivinesharilsquoainhumanaffairs(Qutb199050)

Qutbdoesnotnameanynamesincastigatingtheldquowriterswithdefeatistandapologeticmentalities[who]writeaboutlsquojihadinIslamrsquoandtrytoremovethislsquoblotrsquofromIslamrdquo(Qutb199046)buthecouldverywellhavehadhisdistinguishedfellowEgyptianMahmudShaltutinmind

These arguments about jihad may be said to constitute a commongrammarandframeworkofanalysisformanyIslamistsalthoughseveralthinkers in this volume carefully calibrate such claims to suit variouspurposesanddifferentpublicspheresInhisjustificationfortheassassi-nationofEgyptianpresidentAnwaral-SadatforexamplelsquoAbdal-SalamFarajdepictsthestruggletoreclaimthemoralfoundationsoftheEgyp-tianstateasafightagainstjahiliyyafromwithinarguingthatthejihadagainstacorruptnationalistregimeathomemusttakeprecedenceoverfightingenemieselsewhereTheCharterofHamas(seechapter15)how-everinsiststhatallMuslimsrecognizetheprimacyofthejihadforJeru-salemweldingIslamistrhetorictothatofnationalistresistanceinanef-fortbothtofightIsraelioccupationandtocompeteforadherentswiththePalestinianLiberationOrganization(PLO)IncontrasttobothFarajandHamasBinLadenembracesaglobaljihadthatessentiallycollapsesdistinctionsbetweennationalandinternationaloffensiveanddefensivefightingenemiesathomeandthosefromafar

Yet despite such differences these arguments tend to presume thatviolent jihad is a necessary response to the pervasive power of thosewithdemonstratedhostilitytoMuslimliveslandspietiesandsensibili-tiesaformofretaliationwhoseurgencyandlegitimacyderivefromtheviolencemdashpsychologicalandeconomicaswellasphysicalmdashoftheinitialassaultThisviewofjihadsubsumesindividualsintoarchetypesofldquoin-fidelsrdquoandldquobelieversrdquoandinsodoingvitiatesmoreconventionaldis-tinctionsbetweenforexamplesoldierandcivilianorcollectiveandin-dividual responsibility It is far from inevitable that thosewhoharborsuchviewswillautomaticallyactuponthemyetthecarnagewroughtbytheattacksontheWorldTradeCenterandthePentagonin2001aBalinightclub in 2002 Madrid commuter trains in 2004 and throughoutIraqonadailybasissuggestjusthowlethalsuchclaimscanbegiventheright circumstances The fact that such violence does not discriminateamongvictimsonlyfurtherfuelsrhetoriccharacterizingIslamistsasirra-tional fanatics ldquoin love with deathrdquo terrorists animated by a religioncharacterizedbyapropensityforviolenceandauthoritarianism27

27AnxietiesabouttheparticularsusceptibilityofMuslimstoirrationalityinsularityandfanaticismhavealonganddistinguishedpedigreeinEuro-AmericanhistoryandpoliticalthoughtSeeforexampleRenan18833

43

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INTRODUCTION

AsinsomanyothermattershoweverIslamistsarehardlyofonemindonthesubjectofjihadindeedthereareIslamistswhoexplicitlyrejectthereductionof struggle toviolenceAcase inpoint isNadiaYassine(20032005c)whoinsiststhatjihadisthededicatedstruggleagainstisshytikbar(arrogance)particularlyinitscommonformasthelustforpoweranddominationAsjihadagainstistikbarisbothafinalgoalandapre-scriptionforactionYassinesuggestsitisantitheticaltoviolentpracticesthataimatdominationTheprimaryinstrumentsofjihadarenotbombsbutwords particularly thosedeployed in the art of persuasion (Fara-marzi2005NYassine2006a)WhenIslamistssuchaslsquoAbdal-SalamFarajandlsquoUmarlsquoAbdal-RahmanseektolegitimizeviolentrevolutionbyrecoursetoIslamictextsshearguestheycontravenethetruemeaningofjihadtoservetheirownarrogantendsBythesametokenBinLadenrsquosdecisiontoldquofightevilwithevilandbarbaritywithbarbarityrdquonotonlyviolatesspecificIslamicprohibitionsagainstharmingcivilianswomenandchildrenbutalsobetraystheethicalimperativetoembodythemes-sageofamercifulGodwhocautionsbelieversthat(Q8822)ldquoYouhavenopoweroverthemrdquo(NYassine2005cDaily Excelsior2002)

SuchpersistentdisagreementsamongMuslimspastandpresentsug-gest that Islam isnomore inherently violent andbloody-minded thanitmdashorChristianityor Judaism for thatmattermdashis inherentlypeacefulIslamists often claim to speak for an unchanging authentic Islam thatexistsoutsideoftimeandspaceyetthepoliticalpurchaseoftheirper-spective derives from the ways it assembles disparate yet recognizablecontemporaryexperiencesofsufferingfrustrationandlossintoanex-planationthatresonateswithMuslimswholiveincommunitiescultur-allylinguisticallyandgeographicallydistantfromoneanotherTheex-tenttowhichIslamistargumentsresonatebroadlyacrossMuslimsocie-tiesthusdependsuponasetofexperiencesandphenomenathatmarkthisparticularmomentinhistoryincludingthewaysinwhichcontempo-raryglobalinequalitiescompoundalegacyofhistoricalasymmetriestocontinuallyreproduceasenseofMuslimpowerlessnessmdashbothrealandimaginedmdashrelativetotheWestcontinuingEuro-Americanpoliticalandfinancialsupportofcorruptautocratsmanyofwhompresideoverna-tion-statesbrutallystitchedtogetherbyWesternfiat thepersistenceofauthoritarian regimes eager to control domestic unrest by catalyzingldquoMuslimragerdquotowardexternaltargetsthesenseofemasculationpro-ducedbydecadesofpoliticalrepressionandeconomicfrustrationandthecontinualflowofimagesofbloodiedMuslimbodiesdeliveredbyaburgeoningarrayofvideosatelliteandelectronicmedia

It is notable that the understanding of jihad many Islamists proffermirrorstheverystate-sanctionedviolenceagainstwhichtheyhavestrug-gledforalmostacenturyAlongwiththousandsofMuslimscaughtinthemachineryoftwentieth-centurystateviolenceprominentIslamistsfromQutbtoGhazalitoAymanal-Zawahirimdashal-Qalsquoidarsquossecondincommandmdash

44

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

arewellknowntohavebeenradicalizedbyextendedandoftenbrutaltermsofincarcerationinEgyptSyriaIraqJordanIsraelAlgeriaandelsewhere(onal-ZawahiriandprisoncfKepelandMilelli2008152ndash54)ItisthusfarfromsurprisingthatIslamistsforgedbyinterrogationtortureinprisoncampswouldconcludethatthepreeminentenactmentofMuslimpietyisviolentstruggleldquoPrisonrdquoasPalestinianKhaledAbuHilalhassaidldquoismyuniversityrdquo(Erlanger2007)anargumentmadeingreaterdetailinadifferenttimeandplacebyRussianwriterandrevolu-tionaryMaximGorky(1868ndash1936)

Apeoplebroughtupinaschoolthatremindsoneofthetormentsofhellonasmallscaleapeopleaccustomedtotheclenched-fistprisonandthewhipwillnotbeblestwithatenderheartApeoplethatthepoliceagentshaveriddenoverwillbecapableintheirturnofwalk-ingoverthebodiesofothersInacountrywhereunresthasreignedsolongit isdifficultforthepeopletorealizefromonedaytothenextthepowerofrightOnecannotdemandfromamanwhohasneverknownjusticethatheshouldbejust(Gorky1920)

InthiscontextasTimothyMitchell(1990195ndash96199207ndash8)suggestsIslamistviewsoftheworldcanbecharacterizedasbothamodeofresis-tancetostatemechanismsofcoercionandanexpressionofthemSuchisthedynamic evident inGhazalirsquosmemoirs for examplewhen shede-scribeshowtheldquodarknessofprisonsthebladesoftortureandthevi-ciousbeatingsonly increasetheenduranceandresolveofthefaithfulrdquo(Ghazali19786)

There is no doubt a great deal of pragmatism at work in IslamistargumentsaboutviolenceAsQutb(19916447ndash48)drylynotesthepathtofreedommustoccasionallybehewnbywayoftheswordbecausetyrants are not reasoned out of power and ldquojahiliyya is not lsquoabstracttheoryrsquo[it]consciouslyorunconsciouslystrivestopreserveitsownexistence to defend its essence to annihilate dangerous elementswhichthreatenitsverybeingrdquoYetitisalsothecasethatformanyoftheseIslamistsjihadisbothameansandanendanefforttoeradicatethoseobstacles torestoringa justcommunityonearththatsimultane-ouslybringshumanaction intoaccordwithGodrsquosplansandpurposes(Haddad198321)While theQurrsquoan (2256) states thatldquothere isnocompulsioninreligionrdquoIslamistscontendthatonlyinastateinwhichIslamiclawreignssupremearehumanbeingsfreefromenslavementtooneanotherrsquosruleandallareequalbyvirtueoftheircommonsubmissiontoGodAsQutb(1991107ndash8)argues

WhenthehighestauthorityinsocietyisGodalonemdashexpressedintheruleofdivinelawmdashonlythenishumanitytrulyandcompletelyliber-atedfromslaverytomenOnlythisisldquohumancivilizationrdquobecausetheessentialfoundationofhumancivilizationisthetrueandcom-

45

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

pletefreedomofhumanityandtheabsolutedignityofeveryindivid-ualinsocietyThereisnotruefreedomanddignityforhumanityortheindividualinasocietywheresomepeoplearelordswholegislateandothersareslaveswhoobey

From this perspective the realization of justice liberty equality andchoiceitselfnecessitatestheforcibleremovaloftheconstraintsimposedbyjahiliyyaalongwiththosewhoaidandabetitno matter the costAsMawdudi(1954160ndash61)writes

[W]hyisitthatinreligionsuchimportanceisgiventojihadthattheQurrsquoanpronouncesthejudgmentofhypocrisyuponthosewhoshirkandevadeitJihadisbutanothernamefortheattempttoerectthesystemoftruthandtheQurrsquoandeclaresjihadtobeatouchstoneonthesamefootingwithamanrsquosfaithInotherwordshewhohasfaithinhisheartwillneitherbecontentwiththedominationofthesystemofevilnorwillhegrudgetheexpenditureoflifeandwealthinthestruggleforerectingthesystemoftruthIfoneshowsweaknessinthismatterhisfaithitselfisdoubtfulWhatcananythingelsebesidethenprofithimThemanwhoprofesses faith in this religioncannotfulfillhisdutyonlybytryingasfaraspossibletopatternhislifeonIslamThenatureofhisfaithitselfrequiresthatheshouldconcentrateallhiseffortuponwrestingleadershipfromunbelievingandcorruptmentoentrustittotherighteousanduponerectingthesystemoftruththathasbeenordainedfortheconductoftheworldaccordingtothewillofGodBecausethisendisunattainablewith-out thehighestdegreeofcollectiveeffort theremustexistarigh-teouscommunitycommittedtotheprincipleoftruthanddevotedtothesolepurposeintheworldoferectingmaintainingandproperlyrealizingthesystemoftruth

ThefactthatsomeIslamistthinkerssanctifyviolentstruggleinsuchtermsdoesnotmeanofcoursethatallthosewhoadvocateorengageinjihadendorseviolence28NordoesitimplythatthosewhoclaimtokillforIslamareentirelywithoutulteriormotivesthosemanipulativepur-poses andpsychologicalmotivations that even themost rarified scrip-turalargumentscanexpressorserveWhattheprecedinganalysisdoessuggesthoweveristhatthereductionofthisviewofjihadtoirrationalbloodlusttheself-interestedgrabfortemporalpoweroradoorthroughwhichtopassintothehereaftermissesacrucialdimensionofitssignifi-canceandappealfortruebelieversjihadisnolessthananenactmentof

28EvenashespokeofaneweraofjahiliyyaandofjihadMawdudihimselfstoppedwellshortof recommendingor condoning the actual resort to violence in themannermanyotherIslamistsdidAsNasr(199670)observesMawdudirsquosorganizationtheJamalsquoat-iIs-lamildquohasavoidedviolentsocialchangeandhasinsteadviewedthepathtotheIslamicstateaslyingwithintheexistingsociopoliticalorderrdquoAlsoseethechapters5and3onQutbandMawdudiinthisvolume

46

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

adivineimperativetoremakethefoundationsofcollectivelifeInthisre-spectIslamistviewsofjihadcanbeseenaspartofalong-standingasso-ciationbetweenviolenceandpoliticalfoundingsuponwhichnoparticu-larcultureorhistoricalepochhasamonopolyThisassociationandtheldquolegacyofviolencerdquoitbequeathstofuturegenerationsarenolessappar-entinthoseradicalrevolutionsofrenewalthatmovebywayoftheswordfromthemarginstothecenterthanthosepoliticalfoundingsthatclaimtocreatesomethingoutofnothing(Connolly1995251)Ineithercasethetollofsuchbrutalitycanbeimmeasurableforinadditiontothevic-timswhosufferdirectlytheldquopracticeofviolencelikeallactionchangestheworldbutthemostprobablechangeistoamoreviolentworldrdquo(Ar-endt1972177)

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 ENU (Use these settings to create Adobe PDF documents best suited for high-quality prepress printing Created PDF documents can be opened with Acrobat and Adobe Reader 50 and later) gtgt Namespace [ (Adobe) (Common) (10) ] OtherNamespaces [ ltlt AsReaderSpreads false CropImagesToFrames true ErrorControl WarnAndContinue FlattenerIgnoreSpreadOverrides false IncludeGuidesGrids false IncludeNonPrinting false IncludeSlug false Namespace [ (Adobe) (InDesign) (40) ] OmitPlacedBitmaps false OmitPlacedEPS false OmitPlacedPDF false SimulateOverprint Legacy gtgt ltlt AddBleedMarks false AddColorBars false AddCropMarks false AddPageInfo false AddRegMarks false ConvertColors ConvertToCMYK DestinationProfileName () DestinationProfileSelector DocumentCMYK Downsample16BitImages true FlattenerPreset ltlt PresetSelector MediumResolution gtgt FormElements false GenerateStructure false IncludeBookmarks false IncludeHyperlinks false IncludeInteractive false IncludeLayers false IncludeProfiles false MultimediaHandling UseObjectSettings Namespace [ (Adobe) (CreativeSuite) (20) ] PDFXOutputIntentProfileSelector DocumentCMYK PreserveEditing true UntaggedCMYKHandling LeaveUntagged UntaggedRGBHandling 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Page 18: Chapter 1 INTRODUCTION - assets.press.princeton.eduassets.press.princeton.edu/chapters/s9067.pdf · Chapter 1 INTRODUCTION This volume is intended as a broad introduction to the evolution

18

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INTRODUCTION

sivejahiliyyasuggestsmoreoverthatthecommunitydidindeedagreeonerror13Mostgrievouslyperhaps Islamist critiques tend to suggestthatthesharilsquoahasalmostneverbeenimplementedinMuslimsocietiesaftertheveryfirstyearsofIslamIronicallysaysQaradawisuchindis-criminaterejectionofIslamichistoryinadvertentlyreinforcessecularist argumentsthatthesharilsquoaisunsuitedtopracticalapplication(Qaradawi2005b46)QaradawirsquoscritiqueofQutbandotherIslamistsisfinallyanargumentforthecontinuingcentralityofthelsquoulamatothetaskofpro-viding authoritative guidance to the communityHisunderstandingofwhoconstitutesthelsquoulamaisfarmoreexpansivethanthatofmostDeo-bandilsquoulamaofSouthAsiaButlikethemheisinnodoubtthatseriousreligiousscholarsasdistinguishedfromamateurishautodidactsarecru-cialtothetaskofprovidingauthoritativereligiousandmoralguidancetothecommunity

AlthoughwehavesoughttoillustratecertainfacetsoftheIslamistcri-tiqueof the scholarly traditionandof theworldas somekey IslamistthinkershavearticulateditwedonotwishtosuggestofcoursethatIslamists are necessarily ldquointellectualsrdquo Whatever Qutb KhomeiniMawdudiandQaradawimightthinkofotherscholarsandintellectualsorofthemselvesinrelationtothemtheformerobviouslyarereligiousintellectualsThesameishardlytrueofmanyotherIslamistsYeteventhosewithlittleornointellectualpretensionsareoftenrecognizableas IslamistsnotonlyfortheircommitmenttothepublicimplementationofIslamicnormsgroundedinthefoundationaltextsbutalsomdashandasacor-ollaryoftheformermdashfortheiroftenself-consciouscritiqueofanddisen-gagementfromthenormsandmorestheyseearoundthemIncontempo-raryLebanonforinstanceShilsquoiIslamistshaveoftenseentheirtext-basedreligiouscommitmentsasmarkingacleardeparturefromearlierandex-isting religious practicesAs anthropologist LaraDeeb (2006 20) ob-servesldquoTheyvieweditasnewanddifferentmdashdifferentfromwhattheyoftenreferredtoenigmaticallyaslsquobeforersquoorlsquohowwewerersquoanddifferentfromwhattheycalledalshytaqalid(traditions)Inlieuofpracticesandbeliefscastastraditionaltheyespoused [an] lsquoauthenticatedrsquoIslamexpressedinpublicpietyrdquo14ManyIslamists living inrefugeecampsinGazahavehadasimilarviewTothemldquoPalestinianshadeitherbe-comelostinforeignideologiesortheyhadbecomelsquoMuslimsbycon-

13Theconvictionthatthecommunityatlargeisdivinelyprotectedfromerrorisanim-portantbasisoftheauthorityofldquoconsensusrdquoasamajorsourceofjuridicalnormsinSunniIslamFormoderndebateson consensus and someof the literatureon this subject seeZaman2006

14Theldquotraditionsrdquohereprimarilyrefer tocustomarynormsanddevotionalpracticesratherthantothecenturies-olddiscursivetraditionfromwhichthelsquoulamabothShilsquoiandSunniderivetheirauthorityIslamistcritiquesareoftendirectedasmuchhoweverattra-ditionsinthesenseofldquoinauthenticrdquoculturallyrootedreligiouspracticesastheyareatthescholarlytraditionofthelsquoulamawhichtothemisequallyinauthenticinhavingobscuredthesimpleandfundamentalteachingsofthefoundationaltexts

19

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

ventionrsquowhowentalongwiththefastorprayednowandthenbecausethiswaslsquocustomandtraditionrsquo(lsquoada wa taqlid)ThislackofconsciouszealousadherencetoIslamhadresultedinsocialweaknessleadingtode-featatthehandsofIsraelrdquo(Lybarger2007211)ThereismuchthatsuchanalysessharewiththewritingsandpronouncementsoftheleadingIs-lamistintellectuals

Islamists and Salafi s

JustasitisnotalwayseasytodifferentiatelsquoulamafromIslamistsorIs-lamists frommodernists it is sometimesdifficult to clearlydistinguishbetweenIslamistsandtheSalafisThelatterderivethisself-designationfromclaimsofstrictadherencetothenormativepracticeofalshysalaf alshysalih(thepiousforbears)usuallyunderstoodastheMuslimsofthefirstgenerations of Islam The guiding Salafi assumption is that these firstMuslims inbeingcontemporariesof theProphetMuhammadandtheimmediatesuccessorsofthosecontemporariesexemplifymostperfectlywhatitmeanstobeavirtuousMuslimandthatlatergenerationscandonobetterthanemulatetheexampleofthesefirstgenerationsSomever-sionofthisviewwouldfindbroadresonanceamongIslamistsbutalsoordinary believers though the Shilsquoa of various doctrinal orientationshavealwayshada farmore restrictiveviewofpreciselywho isworthemulating Again like the Islamists the Salafis insist on deriving theirnormsdirectlyfromtheIslamicfoundationaltextstheQurrsquoanandtheexampleoftheProphetMuhammadunmediatedbythemedievalschoolsoflawThismeansdoingawaywiththesortofhistoricallyarticulatedscholarlytraditionfromwhichthelsquoulamahavetendedtodrawmuchoftheirauthorityTheSalafisdohavetheirownlsquoulamamdashQaradawiisano-tableinstanceasaremembersoftheSaudireligiousestablishmentmdashbuteventheirauthorityisbasedfarmoreondirectlyinterpretingthefounda-tional texts than it is on any systematic engagement with the Islamicscholarlytradition

AllthissoundsagooddealnotjustliketheIslamistsbutalsolikethemodernistsThisshouldnotbesurprisingfortheSalafiorientationisanimportantpartofthegenealogyofbothmodernismandIslamismTheSalafi reformer Muhammad lsquoAbduh though a traditionally educatedscholarwhoservedtowardtheendofhislifeasthegrandmuftiofEgyptwasakeyinfluenceinthedevelopmentofIslamicmodernismButwhilesomeoflsquoAbduhrsquosdisciplesdevelopedhisideasinthedirectionofsecularnationalismothersmdashnotablytheSalafijournalistandQurrsquoancommenta-torRashidRidamdasheventuallytookthemdespitehismodernistproclivi-tiesinadecidedlyconservativedirection(Hourani1983alsocfDallal2000)Hasan al-Banna the founder of the MuslimBrotherhoodwasclose to many Egyptian Salafis Muhibb al-din al-Khatib (d 1969) aleadingSalafiofthetimeandtheowneroftheSalafiPublishingHousein

20

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

CairowasinchargeofoneoftheBrotherhoodrsquosfirstjournals(Mitchell1993185)andafterRidarsquosdeathin1935itwasatBannarsquosinitiativethatRidarsquosinfluentialjournalalshyManarwouldcontinuetobepublishedforsomeyears(RMitchell1993186)

ForalltheiraffinitieshoweverSalafiscannotsimplybesubsumedwiththeIslamistsanymorethantheycanwiththemodernistsUnliketheearlySalafisandothermodernists Islamistshavealmost invariablysought toaddressthemselvestoawidepopularaudienceratherthantotheintellec-tualelite(cfRMitchell1993211)TheSalafishavealsobeenfarmorepreoccupiedwithmattersofcorrectbeliefthenuancesofdoctrinethanhaveeither the Islamistsor themodernists (cfHaykel2009 [forthcom-ing])BythesametokenwhilemanyIslamistshavehadasomewhatam-bivalentrelationshipwithSufismSalafishaveusuallybeenunrelentinglyhostile to devotional Sufi practices But if it is useful to distinguish theSalafisfromothercompetingorientationsinmodernIslamitisimportantalsotorecognizethatthereismuchonwhichSalafisthemselveshavedis-agreedsometimessharplyInquestionintheseldquointernalrdquodifferencesisnottheiroverallorientationmdashtowardtheIslamicfoundational textsandthepristinenormsofIslamrsquosfirstgenerationsmdashbutratherthepreciseimplica-tionsofthisorientationforbeliefandconductinthepresentAconsider-ationofsomeofthesedifferencesshouldinturnfurtherillustratehowtheSalafisoughttobedistinguishedfromothercompetingcamps

WheremanySalafisseetheschoolsoflawasobstructingandindeeddistortingthesimplemessageofthefoundationaltextsothersviewthelegaltraditionasrepresentingIslamrsquosrichintellectuallegacyfromwhichMuslimsought todrawboth inspirationandguidanceQaradawi forinstance has been critical not just of the Muslimmodernists but alsooffellowSalafisfortheirirreverencetowardtherichesofthelegaltradi-tiontheiruneducatedproclivitytosetitasidealltoocallouslyOnthisviewarejectionofthetaqlid-boundlsquoulamashouldnotleadtotheotherextrememdashexemplifiedbynotafewSalafismdashofjettisoningthescholarlytraditionaltogether SalafisalsodifferamongthemselvesintheirattitudestowardmodernWesterninstitutionsandpracticesInthelatenineteenthandearlytwen-tieth centuries Salafi reformers like Muhammad lsquoAbduh and RashidRidainEgyptandJamalal-dinal-Qasimi(d1914)inSyriahadcalledforareorientationtowardthefoundationaltextsasawayofjustifyingnotresistingchangesinlawandeducationaswellasotherfacetsofso-cialreform(cfHourani1983Commins1990)OnthisviewadirectrecoursetotheQurrsquoanandthesunnaofferedthebestwayofdemonstrat-ing the accord between their teachings and the reformist project15 In

15SymptomaticofotherdisagreementsamongtheSalafisistheveryquestionofpreciselywhothesalafarewhoseexampleoughttobeemulatedThenarrowerviewslimitthesalaftothefirstthreegenerationsofIslammdashtheageoftheProphetMuhammadandhiscompan-ionstheirsuccessorsandthelatterrsquosimmediatesuccessorsmdashbuteventhesenarrowviews

21

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INTRODUCTION

contemporaryEuropeTariqRamadananinfluentialSwissArabphilos-opherhasarguedthatMuslimslivinginWesternsocietiesoughttofeelathomeinandcontributetoward thosesocietieswhileretainingandcultivatingtheirdistinctIslamicidentityHetooappearstoseehimselfinthegenealogyofwhathecharacterizesasldquoSalafireformismrdquo(onthischaracterization see Ramadan 2004 26ndash27) and he has echoed Qa-radawiinsomeofhisviews(cfRamadan199993ndash99) Other Salafis have remained staunchly opposed to institutions andpracticesofaWesternprovenanceAnespeciallyinfluentialfigureinthegenealogyofthelatterpositionistheeighteenth-centurypuritanicalre-former Muhammad ibn lsquoAbd al-Wahhab (d 1792) whose alliance in1744 with Muhammad ibn Salsquoud contributed to the establishment ofthefirstSaudistateinthelateeighteenthcenturyIbnlsquoAbdal-WahhabwashostilenotonlytoShilsquoismandtoSufidevotionalismbutalsotoany-thinghedeemednottobeinstrictconformitywiththeteachingsofthefoundationaltextsTherewasmuchthatseemedtohimtofailthisstan-dardallofwhichhebrandedasoneoranotherformofunbeliefTheWahhabismdashas the followers of Ibn lsquoAbd al-Wahhab are oftenknownthoughtheyprefertothinkofthemselvessimplyasgoodMuslimsoratbestasSalafismdashoftenadheretothelegalnormsoftheHanbalischooloflawthoughitistheteachingsofthefoundationaltextsirrespectiveofthisoranyotherschooldoctrinethattheyprofesstofollowThemoststringentoftheSaudiSalafisaswellasotherselsewhereareaveryfarcryindeedfromwhatQaradawiwouldcharacterizeasldquocentristrdquoSalafireformersletalonefromtheearlytwentieth-centurySalafimodernists

ThepoliticalviewsoftheWahhabisandmorebroadlyoftheSalafisare likewiseanythingbutuniformInSaudiArabiaWahhabireligiousscholarshavelongaffirmedaquietistpoliticalstancewhichhasmeantleavingmattersofthestatetotherulingfamilyFormuchofthehistoryofmodernSaudiArabiatherulingelitefor itsparthas imposedfewconstraintsontheSaudilsquoulamainmattersofreligiouslifetheregulationofsocialnormsandjudicialadministration(cfVogel2000)Onseveraloccasions however this relationship has come under severe strain In1979agroupofWahhabiswhorejectedthelegitimacyoftheSaudistateyethadtieswithsomeprominentreligiousscholarsmdashincludinglsquoAbdal-

feelconstrainedtomakeroomforsuchreveredfiguresasAhmadibnHanbaltheputativefounderoftheHanbalischooloflawandthefourteenth-centuryDamascenescholarIbnTaymiyya(d1328)OtherviewsarerathermoreexpansivenotjustinchronologicalbutalsoandcruciallyinintellectualtermsThusMuhammadlsquoAbduhthoughtthesalaftoalsoincludesuchtheologiansasal-Ashlsquoari(d935)al-Baqillani(d1013)andal-Maturidi(d944)SeeHourani1983149SuchaviewobviouslyopensthedoorforpreciselythesortoftheologicaldebatesthatotherSalafisaswellasIslamistsoftenfrownuponfortakingthebelieversveryfarfromthesimpleanddirectwordsofGod lsquoAbduhrsquosdiscipleRidaagaintookanarrowerviewofthesalafandlaterinhiscareerbecameastrongdefenderoftheWahhabisCfHourani1983230ndash32

22

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

lsquoAzizBinBaz(d1999)laterthegrandmuftiofSaudiArabiamdashtookoverthesacredprecinctsoftheKalsquobainMeccainashort-livedbutextremelyembarrassingchallenge toSaudi royalauthority (cfHegghammerandLacroix2007)In1990KingFahdrsquosdecisiontoinviteAmericantroopstodefendthekingdomagainstthethreatofanIraqiinvasioncreatedwide-spreadresentmentamongSaudis theeffectsofwhichcontinue to thisdayThestationingofnon-MuslimmilitarypersonnelinIslamrsquosholiestlandwasdeemedbythekingrsquoscriticstobescandalousandevensacrile-giousAnumberofprominentSaudiSalafispubliclycriticizedthekingrsquosdecisiononthisoccasioncallinguponhimaswellasonBinBazandoth-ersatthehelmoftheSaudireligiousestablishmenttoreorienttheSaudipolitytowarditstruereligiousfoundationsManyofthesedissidentsmdashwhowerealsojoinedbyldquosecularrdquoSaudicriticsoftheroyalfamilymdashwereandhaveremainedrestrainedintheircriticismevenastheycalledforstricterconformitytoIslamicnormsasthepanaceaforallills(cfFandy1999)OthershoweverhavedenouncedtheroyalfamilyanditsWesternalliesinnouncertaintermsBinLadenisonlythemostnotoriousofthosewhobrokewiththeroyalfamilyinthewakeofKingFahdrsquosdecisiontoinviteWesterntroopsin1990andwhocalledfortheoverthrowoftheroyal familyand for jihadagainstWesternpowers Such strident callshavebeencontinuedbyotherSalafisbothbeforeandaftertheterroristattacksofSeptember112001aswellasintheaftermathoftheUS-ledinvasionofIraq(al-Rasheed2007)

ItshouldbeclearinlightoftheforegoingthatanyunderstandingofthedifferencesbetweenIslamistsandtheSalafismustrestontakingac-countofthediversityamongtheSalafisSalafiswhooftenrejectmuchoftheIslamicscholarlytraditioninfavorofadirectrecoursetothefoun-dationaltextsarenotnecessarilyrenderedldquoIslamistrdquosimplybyvirtueofthisstanceForasnotedmanyoftheseSalafiscontinuetoprofessareso-lutelyquietiststancewhichinthecaseoftheSaudiSalafismeansaf-firmingallegiancetotheSaudiroyalfamilyThispositionisrepresentedforinstancebyBinBaztheerstwhilegrandmuftiaswellasbyotherleading members of the Saudi religious establishment A pro-regimestanceoroneindifferenttopoliticsisnolessldquopoliticalrdquoofcoursethana position of strident hostility to the established order at home andabroadForourpurposeshoweveritisonlywhentheSalafisrejecttheexistingdispensationandbeginstrivingmdashthoughnotnecessarilythroughmilitantmeansmdashforanewreligio-politicalorderthattheycanbesaidtojointheranksoftheIslamists

ItisworthnotingfinallythatSalafipositionsamongSaudisandelse-wherearemarkednotonlybydiversitybutalsobyconsiderablefluidity(al-Rasheed 2007) The same activist or intellectual might at varioustimesmoveamongavarietyofseeminglyincompatiblepositionsmdashap-pearingtobemoreldquomoderaterdquoonsomeissuesthanonothersForallhiscriticismofradicalIslamistsQaradawiforinstancehashimselfwrittenin justificationofsuicidebombingsbyPalestiniansagainst Israelis (see

23

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

chapter 9 on Qaradawi) And Saudi Salafis like Safar al-Hawali andSalmanal-lsquoAwdamdashwhocame toprominence in the early1990smdashhavealternatedbetweencriticismoftheSaudipoliciesanddenunciationsofradicalSalaficallstojihadagainsttheSaudiregime(seeal-Rasheed200759ndash101onal-HawalialsoseeReichmuth2006)Theirshiftingviewsreflect changes in their relations with the Saudi regime but they alsopointtothebroadspectrumofpositionswhichSalafishavetakenatdif-ferenttimesindifferentcontextsandbeforedifferentaudiencesThusevenasal-Hawaliandal-lsquoAwdahavecondemnedterroristactsdirectedagainstSaudiArabiaandadvisedSaudisnottofightAmericantroopsinpostndashSaddamHusseinIraqtheyhavecalledupontheIraqisthemselvestoresistAmericantroopsandhavecharacterizedthateffortasaldquodefen-sivejihadrdquo(al-Rasheed200794ndash95)

Sufi s and Islamists

ItseemsmuchsimpleronthefaceofittodistinguishbetweenIslamistsandSufisThecharacteristicSuficonvictionthattherearelevelsofmean-ingintheQurrsquoanthatgobeyondtheliteralandtheobviousandthataselectfewmdashtheldquofriendsofGodrdquomdashareendowedwiththeuniqueabilityto discern them is anathema to all those who insist that God intendsHisteachingstobeequallyintelligibletoallDespitetheirtendencytoviewthemselvesasbearersof true Islam Islamists typicallyregard theSufi idea that somepeoplehaveaprivileged relationshipwithGodassuspectthebasisnotonlyforsanctioninginterpretationsofIslamthatlackwarrantintheplainteachingsofGodandtheProphetbutalsoforpracticallyldquoworshipingrdquothesefriendsofGodIslamists(andmodernists)havefrequentlyalsobeencriticalofthewaySufidevotionalismcanyieldaturningawayfromtheworldratherthananefforttochangeitaswellasapreoccupationwithpersonalspiritualtransformationattheexpenseofconcernsforthewelfareofthecommunityatlarge SufipracticesandtheteachingsoftheSufimastershavevariedenor-mouslythroughoutthehistoryofIslamyetIslamistcritiquesofSufismareseldomattentivetoitsnuancesortothecomplexwaysithasrelatedtootherfacetsofIslamNorhaveIslamiststakenmuchaccountofthefactthatmanyleadingfiguresofearliertimeswerebesidesmuchelseSufisaswellThisistrueevenofIbnTaymiyya(d1328)whoseprestigeinIslamistandSalaficirclesismatchedbyfewothersandwhowasinhisdayamemberoftheQadiriSufiorder(Makdisi1974)EvenifonearguesmdashasanIslamistmightbeinclinedtomdashthatldquogoodrdquoSufismisnoth-ingbutproperIslamitselftheveryfactthatsuchfigureshadaSufiiden-tityatallnecessarilycomplicateswhatissupposedtobethepristinesim-plicityofafaithsharedequallybyallbelievers

Complicatingthingsstillfurtheristhevarietyofwaysinwhichsomeleading Islamists relate to Sufism Ayatollah Khomeini was a lifelongstudentofIslamicmysticismandtheinfluenceofthemedievalSpanish

24

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

Sufi Ibn lsquoArabi loomed especially large in his thought To Khomeinimysticismmdashoften referred to as lsquoirfan (gnosis) especially when inter-twinedwithIslamicphilosophyandtheology(Knysh1992632)mdashwascrucialtoaproperunderstandingofGodrsquosrelationshipwiththeworldandwiththehumanbeingItwasalsoessentialforonersquosethicalforma-tionforamasteryovertheselfandultimatelyforrealizinginoneselftheattributesofwhat Ibn lsquoArabihadcalledldquotheperfectmanrdquo (cfKnysh1992 635 also Mottahedeh 1985 180ndash85) Some of the austerity ofKhomeinirsquospersonallifeprobablyalsoderivedfromSufiasceticismAndthoughheanchoredhisconceptionofIslamicgovernmentinanexposi-tionofShilsquoijuridicalthoughtratherthaninIslamicmysticismthesortofreligiousauthorityhecametoenjoyonthebasisofhisreformulationofShilsquoipoliticaltheologyseemstoechomysticalideasoftheperfectmanwho embodies and upholds the moral order as the microcosm of theuniverse

UnlikeKhomeiniQutbwasnotaSufiandhegivesnoindicationofsharinganyofKhomeinirsquosenthusiasmforthegreatSufithinkersofear-liertimesEvensoechoesofamysticrsquosdirectencounterwiththefoun-tainheadoftruthandknowledgearehardtomissinQutbrsquoswritingses-peciallyinhiscommentaryontheQurrsquoan(cfCarreacute200395ndash97)TheveryfirstsentenceofhiscommentarymdashldquolifeintheshadeoftheQurrsquoanisablessingunknowntoanyonewhohasnrsquottasteditrdquomdashevokesthefa-miliarSufiideathatincontrovertibleknowledgeofRealityisultimatelyacquired only through direct personal experience (dhawq that is theldquotasterdquooftheTruth)ThegreatmedievalSufial-Ghazali(d1111)hadauthoredafamousautobiographicalaccountofhowitwasonlythroughthe immediacyofhispersonalmysticalexperience thathewasable toovercomehisdebilitatingepistemologicaldoubtsandreassurehimselfofthenecessarytruths(Watt199857)QutbdoesnotmentionGhazaliinthiscontextbutitisdifficultnottobestruckbythemysticalresonanceofsomeofhislanguageHereisoneexamplewhichoccursinhiscom-mentaryonsura(chapter)53oftheQurrsquoan16

16TheearlyversesinthissuraoftheQurrsquoanhavebeenunderstoodbyMuslimexegetesasreferringtotheProphetrsquosrevelatoryexperienceaswellastohisldquonightjourneyrdquoandhisascensiontoheavenormilsquoraj inthecourseofonenighthewastransportedfirstfromMeccatoJerusalemandthentothepresenceofGodbeforebeingreturnedtoMecca

UnrelatedtothenightjourneybutrelatedtohisrevelatoryexperiencestheexegeticalsignificanceofthisQurrsquoanicsuraalsoliesinitsconnectionwiththeso-calledSatanicVersesAccordingtocertainexegeticalreportsMuhammadwasinthecourseofreceivingarevela-tionwhenSataninterpolatedsomeversesintoitmdashversespraisingthreegoddessesreveredbythepolytheistsofMeccaItwasnotuntilsometimelaterthatMuhammadrealizedhiserrorwhereupontheversesinterpolatedbySatanwereremovedTheepisodeoftheldquoSa-tanicVersesrdquohasbeenacontroversialoneinIslamichistorylongbeforeSalmanRushdiersquosnovelofthatnameandKhomeinirsquosjuridicalruling(fatwa)callingforRushdiersquosdeathMostMuslimscholarshavefoundittooshockingtobelievethattheProphetcouldhavemadesuchagrievouserrorandhavedeniedthatanysuch incidentever tookplaceYetsome

25

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

IwaschattingoneeveningwithsomecompanionswhentoourearscamethesoundofsomeonerecitingtheQurrsquoannearbyrecitingtheSuraoftheStar[al-Najm]andweinterruptedourconversationtolistentotheNobleQurrsquoanLittlebylittlemyheartenteredintowhatwasbeing recited into theheartofMuhammadashe jour-neyedtotheHeavenlyHostIwaswithhimashesawGabrielintheangelicforminwhichGodhadcreatedhimIwaswithhiminhis loftyandfree-flying journey to theLoteTreeof theBoundaryandtheGardenoftheRefugeIwaswithhimtotheextentthatmyimaginationcouldformavisionofitandtotheextentthatmyfeelings couldbear itThen came the final cry andmywholebeingshookatthefearfulreproachldquoDoyoumarvelatthisdiscourseanddoyoulaughandnotweepandmakemerryrdquo[Q5359ndash61]WhenIheardldquoBowdownbeforeGodandserveHimrdquo[Q5362]thetremblinginmyhearthadbecomeaphysicalandvisibletremblingthroughoutmybodythatIcouldnotresistMybodykeptshakingandIcouldnotcontrolitNorcouldIholdbackthetearsthatwerepouringforthhowevermuchItried(QutbZilalvol7part2774ndash75quotedfromCarreacute2003333ndash34withminorchanges)

TheQurrsquoanrsquosprofoundimpactontheaestheticsensibilitiesofitslisten-ersisafamiliarmotifindiscussionsofitsliteraryqualities(cfGrahamandKermani2006)AssomeonewhoseearlywritingswereconcernedwithArabicliterarycriticismandspecificallywiththeliteraryexcellenceoftheIslamicscripture(Qutb1949b)QutbwasespeciallyreceptivetothisaspectoftheQurrsquoanThesenseofbeingtransportedbacktothetimeoftheProphetandtowitnessingtheProphetrsquosascension(milsquoraj)tothepresence of Godmdashwhich is how the passage being commented on byQutbherehascommonlybeeninterpretedbytheexegetesmdashcanlikewisebeseenasanillustrationoftheoverpoweringimpactthewordsoftheQurrsquoancanhaveonthebelieverQutbrsquosaccountofconversingwithGodthrough the Qurrsquoan (cited earlier) is again something he may havewantedtoseeallbelieversdoYetallbelieverscanscarcelydosoany-morethanallaspirantsevenontheSufipathcanexperiencethetransfor-mativemysticalldquostatesrdquothatGodbestowsonHisspecialfriends(awlshyiya)IrrespectiveofwhetherhesawitinquitethiswayQutbrsquosassertionthatheisabletoenterldquointotheheartofMuhammadrdquoandtoseeGabrielasMuhammad sawhimsurelygiveshimaperspective thatothers en-counteringthewordofGoddonothave

ThepointisnotofcoursethatQutbwaseverrecognizedbyhisfol-lowersasaSufimasterbutthatsomeofthehermeneuticalauthorityheclaimshasadistinctiveSufiringtoitMorebroadlythesortofunques-

leadingscholarsofearlyandmedievalIslammdashincludingIbnTaymiyyamdashacceptedthehisto-ricityofthisincidentSeeSAhmed1998

26

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INTRODUCTION

tioningreligio-politicalauthorityIslamistleadershaveoftenenjoyedovertheirfollowersisnotunlikethatoftheSufimasteroverhisfollowersBe-ginningwithHasanal-BannathefounderoftheMuslimBrotherhoodandoncehimselfamemberofaSufiordertheleaderofthisorganizationis formally referred to as themurshid (guide)ormore specificallyalshymurshid alshylsquoam (thegeneralguide[RMitchell1993165])whichisafamiliartermforthemasterinSuficontextsForhispartAbdessalamYassine the founder and leader of lsquoAdl warsquol-Ihsan Party of Morocco(oftenreferredtoastheJusticeandSpiritualityAssociationorJSA)haslike Khomeini gone well beyond simply echoing Sufi conceptions ofauthorityinhisowndiscoursesHetoowasonceamemberofaMoroc-canSufiorderandhehascontinuedtodrawonSufithemesinhiswrit-ingsTheverynameofYassinersquospoliticalorganizationevokesacentralSufiideanamelyihsanThisisaQurrsquoanicterm(cfQ756)thattrans-latedliterallymeansldquotodogoodrdquothoughSufishaveunderstoodittomeanmuchmore thanthatFollowingawell-knownstatementattrib-uted to theProphetMuhammad theyhaveoften interpreted ihsan tomeangoingbeyondtheexternalsofIslamicritualpracticestoldquoworshipGodasifyouseeHimrdquo(Schimmel197529)thatiscultivatingasenseof personal communion and intimacy with God Even as Yassine hassoughttodistancehimselffromwhathedeemstobetheexcessesofSu-fismthereislittledoubtthathispoliticalappealowesmuchtocarefullycalibratedeffortstocombinedistinctiveSufiideaswithhisownbrandofIslamism(cfLauziegravere2005seealsochapter12onNadiaYassineinthisvolume)

FinallyMawdudirsquosJamalsquoat-iIslamimdashoneoftheearliestIslamistorga-nizations in the Sunni worldmdashillustrates both the Islamistsrsquo complexrelationshipwith Sufismand their pragmatic recognitionof its appealinmanyMuslimsocietiesMawdudihadoncebeenaharshcriticofSu-fismblamingitformanyillsafflictingMuslimsocietiesYettheJama-lsquoat-iIslamigraduallycametosoftenitsstanceonSufipracticesconsider-ablynodoubtintheinterestofbroadeningsomeofitssupportbaseinPakistanwheresaintsandSufishrinesareanimportantpartofthereli-giousandpoliticallandscapeAlreadyinMawdudirsquoslifetimeMianTufaylMuhammadhissuccessorastheheadoftheJamalsquoat-iIslamihadtakentheextraordinaryinitiativeoftranslatinganearlySuficlassictheKashf alshymahjub into Urdu The author of this work Shaykh lsquoAli Hujwiri(d1072)isburiedinLahoreinPakistanandhismuch-frequentedshrineishometoprecisely thesortofdevotionalpractices that Islamistsandmodernist reformers letaloneSalafishaveoften frownedupon (Nasr1996124)

ThesediverseexamplesarenotintendedtoobscuretherealdifferencesbetweenthegeneralityofIslamistsandmostSufisTheirsignificanceliesratherinillustratingthedifficultyofdistinguishingbetweenIslamismandotherreligiousintellectualandpoliticaltrendsintermsofneatcharac-

27

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INTRODUCTION

terizationsofgrandtranslocalgeneralizationsAstheforegoingsuggeststhesameistrueandmoresowhenitcomestocharacterizingIslamistsinrelationtothelsquoulamatheMuslimmodernistsandtheSalafisIndeedasLorenLybargerhasarguedwithreferencetothoseusuallycharacter-izedasldquosecularnationalistrdquoorldquoIslamistrdquoPalestiniansintheWestBankandGazadifferenceswithintheranksofyoungsecularnationalistsandIslamistscansometimesalsoshadeintosignificantsimilaritiesbetweenthesesupposedlyrivalorientations(Lybarger2007)ManyIslamistshavesoughttodistancethemselvesfromwhattheyseeastherigidityandau-thoritarianismofotherIslamistsandtoarguenotjustfortheimplemen-tationofthesharilsquoabutalsofordemocracyandpluralismConverselynot a few of the younger secular nationalists have ldquoadopted IslamisttheodiciesthatexplainedthefailuretoovercomeIsraelastheresultoffallingawayfrompietytheirconclusionsmirroredIslamistonestootheroadbackfromthebrinkhadtotraceitscoursethrougharenewedcom-mitmenttoIslambutnotnecessarilyinthemannerthattheIslamistmove-mentsmighthaveintendedrdquo(Lybarger2007237ndash38quotationat238)

Yet ifneatcategoriesremainelusiveacombinationoftheIslamistsrsquoself-consciouslypoliticalgoalstheirmultifacetedifnotalwaysexplicitpoliticalcritiquesofmanypastandpresentwaysofunderstandingandlivingIslamandanunshakeableconfidenceintheirownabilitytodis-cern Godrsquos will from the foundational texts do often provide enoughgrounds tobroadlydistinguish themfromotheractivists intellectualsand orientations in the Muslim public sphere What this combinationamountstovariesfromonesocialpoliticalreligiousandculturalcon-texttoanotherandsothereforedothewaysinwhichIslamistsrelatetooneanotherorcompeteandoverlapwithothergroupsandorientations

The Politics of Islamism

FromAeneasrsquosmythicalfoundingofRometothedeathandresurrectionofJesusChristtoMuhammadrsquosmigrationtoMedinafoundationalnar-rativesareascommontocollectivelifeasthemovementsthatperiodi-callyarisetorevivethemandclaimantstothemantleoflegitimacytheyconferSounderstoodIslamistsrsquopoliticalaspirationstorestorefounda-tionslocatedinamythicalpastarefarfromuniqueNorareIslamistsaloneintheirconvictionthatscripturalauthorityisguaranteedbyitsdi-vineauthormdashforinthatallMuslimsagreeRatherthechaptersinthisvolumesuggest thatwhatmakes Islamistpoliticsdistinctive (ifnotsui generis)istheclaimtorecuperateanldquoauthenticIslamrdquocomprisedofself-evidenttruthspurgedofalienandcorruptinginfluencesalongwithaninsistenceonremakingthefoundationsofthestateinitsimageGiventhelimitsofhumanunderstandingrelativetoGodrsquosknowledgeIslamistssimultaneouslydepictsuchfidelitytotheunadulteratedwordofAllahas

28

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INTRODUCTION

theultimateexpressionofdeferencetodivineomniscienceandportrayhumilityasaconstitutivefeatureofthehumanconditionAspirationstofullyknowandmasterthenaturalandsocialworldsthusentailnotonlyahumanhubrisdeaftotheQurrsquoanicadmonitionthatldquoAllahknowsbutandyoudonotknowrdquo(Q366)butalsoatransgressionagainstadi-vinely-ordainedontologicalorder

ItisnotablehoweverthattheIslamistemphasisonthelimitsofhumanknowledgerequireshumilityonlyinrelationtoAllahitrarelyyieldshu-milityinregardtotheirownclaimstospeakinHisnameortowardotherhumanbeingswhodissentfromthepremiseofdivineomnipotenceandIslamistaccountsofwhat it requiresThis suggests thatwhile IslamistchallengestostatepowerareobviouslypoliticaltheIslamistclaimtoau-thenticityisalsopolitical inthecoercivepoweritroutinelyenactsandjustifiesmostnotablybywayofthesilencesitimposesandthedebatesitforeclosesAzizal-Azmehpointsoutthatldquothenotionofauthenticityisnotsomuchadeterminateconceptasitisanodeofassociationsandin-terpellationsatropebymeansofwhichthehistoricalworldisreducedtoaparticularorderandatokenwhichmarksoffsocialandpoliticalgroupsandforgesandreconstituteshistoricalidentitiesrdquo(al-Azmeh199341)WhetherintheserviceofArabnationalismChristianfundamental-ismEuropeanromanticismorMuslimmodernismtheclaimofauthen-ticityisanactofpowerthatfunctionsnotjusttoreflecttheworldbuttoconstructitbydeterminingwhoisincludedandexcludedwhomayandmaynotspeakauthoritativelywhatistheproperrealmofdebateandwhatisbeyondcontestation

ItiscertainlythecasethatasingleldquoIslamrdquocapturesandorganizestheperspectivesofmillionswhoself-identifyasMuslim(amongotherthings)yetwhattravelsunderitsrubricisinescapablydiversemultiethnicanddefined asmuchbydisagreement as consensus Just as theTorah andBible lend themselves toat times radicallydivergent interpretationsofwhatitmeanstobeJewishorChristiantheQurrsquoanandhaditharecom-plexandsusceptibletomanydifferentandattimescontradictoryenact-mentsSounderstoodIslamislessafixedessencethanalivingtraditionthatcaptureswhatisimaginedascontinuousandunitaryindialecticalrelationshiptothoseconcretearticulationsandpracticesbywhichitistransformedandadaptedindifferentcontextsforpluralpurposesItispreciselythisunderstandingofreligionthatisanathematoIslamistswhoseek tofix theparametersof Islamicauthenticityonceandforallandtherebyarrogateforthemselvestherighttodeterminewhoqualifiesasagood Muslim to discredit those lsquoulama unable or unwilling to purgeIslamofpurportedimpietiestodeclarenominallyMuslimrulersapos-tatesunfittogovernandtocharacterizeallwhodisagreeascorrupthe-reticalguiltyofunbelieforvictimsoffalseconsciousness

Thesegeneralpoliticaltendencieshowevermustbecarefullysituatedwithinadialecticoftheglobalandthevernacularunderstoodtoreflect

29

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INTRODUCTION

thewaysinwhichunifyingmacrohistoricaldynamicsinformandareinturntransformedbydiversecontingentandfluidlocalcircumstancesInaworldstampedbyWesterndominanceandtheconsolidationofpostco-lonial authoritarian regimes Islamists confront a common set of con-straintsandchallengesInasmuchassuchconstraintsandchallengeshavemade Islamist thinkers (often reluctant) participants in conversationsacrossbothcultureandhistorytheireffortstoremakethefoundationsofcollectiveliferevealasharedinterpretiveframeworkandcommonreli-gio-political grammar At the same time this frame and grammar arecontinuallybeingreworkedinrelationtothedistinctpublicspheresinwhichIslamistsoperateandtowhichtheycarefullycalibratetheirpoliti-calcommitments

Attention to this complex dynamic suggests that the Islamist move-mentcannotsimplybecharacterizedasviolentantidemocraticandop-pressiveofwomenlabelsinvokedsofrequentlyinscholarlyandpopularliterature on the subject that they have become virtually synonymouswithIslamistpoliticsSuchcharacterizationsdocapturecrucialdimen-sionsofIslamistpoliticsyettheyalsosidesteptheparadoxesitsvarie-gatedandoftencontradictoryexpressionspresentInsteadwearguethatIslamistpoliticscanbeproductivelyreadin terms ofandagainst the grain ofsuchbroadcategorizationsasantidemocraticantiwomanorviolentmdashthat is as commitments that at different moments in various localesbothencourageandconstrainbroad-basedpoliticalparticipationdisruptandratifyhierarchicalgendernormsresistandreproducestate-sanctionedbrutalityThepointofreadingIslamistpoliticsinthiswayisnottosug-gestthatIslamistsaresecretlydemocraticfeministandopposedtovio-lenceRatherthepointistodrawattentiontothecomplexityandcon-tradictionserasedbyeasygeneralizationsontheonehandandtheoftenunacknowledgedfluidityandculturaladaptabilityofotherwisefamiliarpoliticalcategoriesontheother

Islamism and Democracy

DespiteimportantdifferencesamongIslamistthinkerstheyhaveincom-monatendencytoviewhumansovereigntyastransgressiveofdivinelawandsharetheaspirationtoestablishsharilsquoaastheprimaryorsolesourceofauthorityAsisoftennotedsuchpremisesandaspirationsrunafoulofassumptionsaboutpopularruleattheheartofdemocracynamelythathumanbeingshavetherighttolegislaterulesforcollectivebehaviorandarecapableofthewisdomrequiredtodevisejustlawsInrecentyearspolicymakersandcommentatorshaveevincedaparticularpreoccupa-tionwiththewaysinwhichIslamistnotionsofdivineauthoritythrottlethespiritandpracticeofpopularsovereigntySomehaveevengonesofarastocharacterizeIslamistsasldquoIslamo-fascistsrdquoanimatedbyhatredoftheldquodemocratic Westrdquo psychologically unable to contend with the fluidity

30

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INTRODUCTION

andindeterminacythatmarkpopularruleandeagertoconvertelectionsintoaldquoone-manone-voteone-timerdquomechanismforestablishinganIs-lamicstate(Murdock2002MRubin2005Kramer1993)

SuchviewsareechoedbythoseIslamistskeentoportraydemocracynotonlyasantitheticaltothesupremacyofdivinelawbutasaTrojanhorseforWesternimperialismFormanyIslamistsincludingseveralinthis volumedemocracy is justone symptomofametastasizingmoralandspiritualbankruptcywherebymoraltransgressionsaretransfiguredintonaturalurgescrassself-interestbecomesthebedrockofcollectivelifeandthedivineplanfortheuniverseandallthingsinitisreducedtoa system of physical causality just waiting to be mastered by way ofhumaningenuity(REuben2007)Qutbcallsthisdiseasedviewoftheworldjahiliyyaanditsignalsnotonlyhumanarrogancebutatransgres-sionagainstdivineauthoritythescopeofwhichencompassesbothpub-licandprivatedomainsofhumanaffairsaswellasbothvisibleandun-seendimensionsoftheuniverseFormanyIslamistssuchtransgressionisattherootofmuchofwhatpassesforMuslimruleinthecontemporaryworldmdashnationalistdemocraticandmonarchicalalikeSucharroganceisalsosaidtobethepatternunderlyingalonghistoryofunrelievedWest-ernaggressionagainstIslaminwhichtheChristianCrusadesEuropeancolonialismIsraelitreatmentofPalestiniansethniccleansinginBosniaGermananti-TurkishviolencetheAmericaninvasionofIraqandDutchcartoonsofMuhammadarebutafewexamples

YetthereisarangeofviewsamongIslamistsaboutboththesubstanceofdemocracyanditscompatibilitywiththereligio-politicalrenewaltheyadvocateAccordingtoQaradawiforexampleldquotheessenceofdemoc-racyisthatpeoplechoosewhorulesoverthemandmanagestheiraf-fairsthatnorulerorregimetheydislikeisforceduponthemthattheyhavetherighttocalltherulertoaccountifheerrsandtoremovehimfromofficeincaseofmisconductandthatpeoplearenotforcedineco-nomicsocialculturalorpoliticaldirectionsthattheyneitherrecognizenor acceptrdquo (Qaradawi1997132 also chapter9 in this volume)TohimthereisnoheavierburdenoppressingMuslimsinthecontemporaryworld thandespotism indeed it is throughdespoticgovernments thatMuslimshavebeenforcedtosubmittootherillsincludingtheneglectofthesharilsquoaandthecoerciveimpositionofsecularismandwesternizationDemocracy then recommends itself to Qaradawi as the most effectiveavailableantidotetodespotismandtheafflictionsofwhichitservesasavehicle

WheremanyamongtheIslamistsandthelsquoulamahaveseenconsider-able tensionbetween IslamanddemocracyQaradawiprofesses to seenoneAswesuggestedearlierbyfarthemostcommonoftheIslamistreservationsaboutademocraticsystemrelatestothesovereigntyofthepeoplewhichistakentocontravenetheideathatGodaloneissovereignQaradawi however is unperturbedby such concernsThe rule of the

31

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INTRODUCTION

peopleoughttobeseenhearguesnotinoppositiontotheruleofGodbutratherinoppositiontotheruleofthedespotMorefundamentallyQaradawirsquos view of democracy does not necessarily require that thepeopleshouldbeabletooverturndivinelyinstitutednormsRatherhisassumptionisthatpeopleexercisetheirsovereigntywithinconstitutionalboundsandMuslimslivinginapredominantlyMuslimdemocraticpol-itywouldlikewisenotwishtotransgresstheparametersoflegitimatehumanactionlaiddownintheIslamicfoundationaltexts(seeQaradawichapter9inthisvolumeandcfFeldman2007)

NadiaYassineofMoroccorsquosJusticeandSpiritualityAssociationisan-othercaseinpointWhilecriticalofthedemocraticgesturesembracedbyamonarchythatshedepictsasallergictogenuinelypopularsovereigntyYassineinsiststhatthemodelofMuslimruleadumbratedintheummafoundedbytheProphetMuhammadandinparticulartheConstitutionofMedina17isnothingshortofdemocratic(NYassine2005d2005e)UnliketheMuslimdynastiesthatarosetousurpitYassinecontendsthiscommunity was participatory egalitarian committed to freedom andexpressiveofGodrsquosmercyMostimportantitwasgovernedalwaysbytheQurrsquoanicprincipleofshura (consultation)bywhichYassinemeansaphilosophy of power that places sovereignty in the community ratherthaninanyindividuallinksvirtuetodeliberationratherthanobedienceandexhortsbelieverstocontinuallyadaptQurrsquoanicprinciplesthroughijtihad rather than adhere reflexively to precedent (N Yassine 2006a182ndash862005d)ManyscholarsandjournalistsremainskepticaloftheJSArsquosasyetuntestedcommitment toproceduraldemocracyandworrythatNadiaandher fatherAbdessalamultimatelyseektoestablishanIslamic state inhospitable to tolerance pluralism and civil liberties(Maghraoui2001Brandon2007Whitlock2006)YetothersarguethattheJSAisagenuinelypopulistorganizationthatrepresentstheunrepre-sentedtendstothewelfareofthedispossessedandbothexpressesandcontributestoanincreasinglyvibrantcivilsocietyinMorocco(Cavatorta2006Entelis2002)

QaradawirsquosandYassinersquosargumentstogethersuggestthatdemocracycanandhasservedaseitheracosmeticcoverfordespotismoranauthen-ticallyIslamiccheckuponcorruptandarbitraryruleAtissueinIslamistargumentsforandagainstdemocracythenarenotonlywhatcountsasldquoauthenticIslamrdquoandtheintentionsofthosewhoclaimtoknowitbutalsothecontentandcharacterofdemocracyitselfParadoxicallybothIslamistsopposedtodemocracyandthosewhotakeIslamismasinher-entlyantidemocraticregardthisasasimplematterwithanobviousan-swerdemocracyisanexpressionofandevensynonymouswithliberal-ismcapitalismandtheWestYetdemocracyisbothmorecapaciousand

17TheConstitutionofMedinawasanagreementtheProphethadenteredintowiththelocalcommunitiesincludingJewishtribesuponhisemigrationfromMeccatoMedina

32

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

moredistinctthanthispresumptionsuggestsTheworditselfofcoursederivesfromtheancientGreekdemokratiawhichmeansrule(kratos)ofthepeople(demos)andmanyderivetheequationofdemocracyandtheWestfromthisassociationwithclassicalGreeceYetancientGreekphi-losopherssuchasPlatosawindemocracythespecterofmobrulepartic-ularly vulnerable to demagoguery and despotism (a suspicion notablyechoedbyAmerican founder JamesMadison)Contrary to thedemo-cratic idealof inclusivenessmoreover citizenship inGreekdemocracyexcludedasubstantialpartofthepopulationincludingwomenslavesandforeignersFinallytheextenttowhichtheancientGreeksmayevenbecalledWesternisamatterofgreatdisputeparticularlyastheldquoWestrdquoisacategoryofrelativelyrecentprovenancethroughwhichhistoryandgeographyhavebeenretroactivelyorganized18DespitedepictionsoftheHellenicworldasWesternancientGreeksdidnotinfactviewthem-selvesintheseterms19

TheequationofdemocracywiththeWestalsopresupposestheexis-tenceofacoherentldquoWesterncivilizationrdquowitheitherculturallyhomoge-neousrootsorclearlydelineatedhistoricalandcontemporarybounda-riesorbothYetwhatiscalledtheWestisanamalgamationofmultipletraditionsincludingtheGreekRomanJudaicChristianandIslamicmdashtraditionsthatarethemselvespolyvalentratherthanhomogeneousmdashandistodaycharacterizedbyporousbordershybridsubculturesandmyriaddebtstodiversecivilizationspastandpresent20AsageographicmarkeritisvirtuallyimpossibletopinpointexactlywheretheWestbeginsandendsandthisisespeciallysonowthatpeoplesinformationandmate-rial goods crisscross cultural andnational borders atwill creating allkindsoftransnationalsubnationalandmultipleidentitiesthatshiftandreconstitutethemselvesinunpredictablewaysEventhosevaluesidenti-fiedasWesternoftenappearelsewhereinotherguisesIndeedscholarssuggestthatavarietyoftheldquostandardsexportedbytheWestanditscul-turalindustriesthemselvesturnouttobeofculturallymixedcharacterifweexaminetheirculturallineagesrdquo(Pieterse199553)

Manyalsoarguethatdemocracyisnotonlydistinctfrombutinten-sionwithboththetheoryandpracticeofpoliticsinldquoWesternrdquosocieties

18MichaelGillespie(19997ndash10)arguesthattherereadingofhistorygeographyandculturethroughtheprismofthissenseofldquotheWestrdquobegannoearlierthanthenineteenthcenturyTheideaofatimelessandbrightlinebetweenWestandEastisalsochallengedbyJeremyBrottonrsquosstudy(19989096ndash97)ofthediplomaticandintellectualexchangesbe-tweenEuropeandtheOttomanEmpireintheearlymodernperiodBrottonshowsnotonlytheextentandamityofsuchexchangesbutapersistentuncertaintyaboutwherepreciselyEuropeldquoendedrdquoandAsialdquobeganrdquo

19AncientGreeksunderstoodthemselvesasgeographicallywestofthebarbariansbutnotWesterninthecontemporarysensethatisasbothaculturalandhistoricalcategory

20StevenRuncimanrsquoswork(19543480)ontheCrusadesforexampledemonstratesaldquolongsequenceofinteractionandfusionbetweenOrientandOccidentoutofwhichourcivilizationhasgrownrdquo

33

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INTRODUCTION

many of which are more accurately classified as liberal and capitalist(Wood1994Wolin2001BallandDagger1999)Whileitisnowcom-monplacetospeakofldquoliberaldemocracyrdquoinasinglebreathliberalismanddemocracyareconceptsandpracticeswithverydifferenthistoriesandpresuppositionsUnlikedemocracyforexampleliberalismemergedfromthecrucibleofChristianreligiouswarsandintandemwiththeas-cendanceofamiddleclassthatpresagedtheendofEuropeanfeudalismTheliberalnation-statecanthusbeviewedasbothanexpressionandaconsolidationofcapitalismontheonehandandtheprincipleofasepa-rationbetweenchurchandstateontheotherBycontrastthereisnoth-ingaboutdemocracyeitherasasystemofgovernanceoracultureofpar-ticipationthatisinherentlysecularIndeedAlexisdeTocquevillefamouslyinsistedthatAmericandemocracycannotandshouldnotbesecularasreligionhelpsshiftattentionawayfromimmediatematerialpreoccupa-tionstolargerconcernsofcommunitycooperationandmoralityInfactmanydemocratictheoristsarguethatgenuinelyinclusivepopularsover-eignty is antithetical to the sharp inequalities of wealth and politicalpowerthatcapitalismoftenproducesandlegitimates

SuchongoingdefinitionalandsubstantivedebatessuggestthatthereismuchmoreatstakeindemocraticpoliticsthanprocedurespertainingtogovernmentauthorityandorderandpointtoawidespreadifelusiveunderstandingofdemocracynotjustasasetofinstitutionsbutasTocque-villesuggestsawayoflifeSeveralpoliticaltheoristshavecharacterizedthiselusiveunderstandingintermsofaldquodemocraticethosrdquoBythistheymeanbothanidealandanargumentforacultureofparticipationactivepowersharingmutualaccountabilityinclusivenessanddeliberationinwhichcitizensmayroutinelyandsafelychallengenotonlyspecificpoli-ciesandpolitical institutionsbutalso thevalues thatgoverncollectivelifeprinciplesofinclusionandexclusionandthepremisesofauthorityitself(Connolly1995JPEuben2003Sadiki2004)AdemocraticethosismuchmoredifficulttomeasureorquantifythanforexampleSamuelHuntingtonrsquosparsimoniousdefinitionofdemocracyasapolityinwhichtherehavebeentwoconsecutivepeacefulchangesofgovernmentbywayof freeand fairelections (Huntington1991)21Yetademocraticethosmakesitpossibletobothrecognizeanddisaggregatethepreconditionsaspirations mechanisms and institutions bundled into ldquodemocracyrdquotherebybringingintofocusforexamplethefrequentlyantidemocratic

21Manypoliticalscientistsprefertodefinedemocracyintermsofproceduresdesignedtorealizepopularruleincludingfreecompetitiveandfairelectionsalongwithstateprotec-tionofcertainrightsandlibertiesSuchaformalminimalistdefinitionhastheadvantageofdetachingdemocracyfromquestionsoforiginsandofferingastandardtowhichallgov-ernmentsmaybeheldregardlessofcultureandplaceAsKeithTopper(2005205ndash7)ar-gueshoweveritalsotendstosidestepknottyquestionsaboutthesubstanceofrepresenta-tion power responsiveness and accountability that are arguably central to democraticpolitics

34

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

casttoelectionsimposedbyelitesorforeignpowersthefeltimpotenceofmanycitizensinestablisheddemocraciesandthosehighlyparticipa-torycivilsocietiesthatflourishevenundermonarchicortheocraticrule

Forourpurposes inparticularademocraticethosmakesvisible theparadoxofanIslamistmovementthatseekstomobilizeordinaryMus-limsagainstcoercivepowerbutinthenameofareligio-politicalorderlargelyimmunizedfromchallengeQutbisanaptillustrationhereashistendencytogroundhisownspecialauthorityandinsightintheunsulliedwisdomofordinarybelieversmakesitpossibletoreadhisworkaseitherabriefagainstdemocracy(amongotherthings)oranenactmentofitIn-asmuchasdemocracyasaformofgovernanceisidentifiedwithpopularsovereigntyQutbrsquosbasicpremisethat thefoundationof legitimateau-thoritymustbedivineratherthanhumansuggeststhatheisunambigu-ouslyantidemocraticMoreoverQutbrsquoseffortstopluralizereligiousandpolitical authority express not a confidence in common wisdom butratheradesiretoclaimforhimselfthestatureofareligiousexpertwhodespitehislackofIslamicacademiccredentialscanclearlyseewhatoth-erscannotQutbcharacterizestherealIslamasself-evidentbuthealsoassumesthatonlyasmallvanguardofbelieversbesideshimselfwillhavetheabilitytorecognizeitandactdecisivelytoremaketheworldinitsimageSounderstoodthesignofldquochosennessrdquoisunyieldingcommitmenttoestablishingareligio-politicalorderthatsimultaneouslypresumesthesupremacyofthefewcapableoftrueknowledgeandpromisesaworldinwhichdissentitselfwillbecomebothunnecessaryandillegitimate

Yetifdemocracyrefersnotonlytoasystemofgovernanceorsetofprocedurestorealizepopularsovereigntybutalsotopracticesthatdis-ruptthoseforceswhichconcentratepowerandestablishpoliticalexclu-sionthecharacterizationofQutbrsquosworkassimplyantidemocraticmissesa crucial dimensionof its significance and appealAs the sacred textscontaintherulesandregulationsmeanttogovernbothpublicandpri-vateaffairsQutbrsquosinsistencethatordinaryuntrainedMuslimsmusten-gagethemdirectlyisinmanywaysademocratizationofaccesstoau-thoritySuchaccesscandisruptdeeplyentrenchedpatternsofpowerandpowerlessness particularlywhen conjoined to Islamist arguments thatarbitrarypowerisun-Islamicthatreligiousknowledgedependsoncom-mitmentratherthantrainingorexpertise thatMuslimshavetherightandobligationtodeterminewhenrulersareillegitimateandthatthosewhopreferordertojusticesecuritytofreedomandmoneytopietyhaveforfeitedanyclaimtoauthority

ThisaspectofIslamismhasfrequentlybeencomparedtotheProtestantReformationandmorespecificallytoCalvinistsrsquoattemptstotransferldquore-ligiousauthorityawayfromofficiallysanctionedindividualswhointer-prettextstoordinarycitizensrdquo(EGoldberg19913alsocfLoimeier2005)Suchaparallelhassparkedagreatdealofscholarlyspeculation

35

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

regardingapossibleldquoIslamicReformationrdquo22andarangeofargumentsaboutwhetherandhowIslamismmightfacilitatethedemocratizationofMuslim societies much as the Protestant Reformation is said to haveheralded the emergence of European ldquoliberal democracyrdquo While suchcomparisonsareevocativeafullerunderstandingof IslamismrequiresfirstsituatingitinrelationtoahistoricalshiftinthenatureandlocusofreligiousauthorityinIslambeginninginthenineteenthcenturyAsschol-arsofMuslimsocietieshavepointedouttheimpactofmasseducationnewtechnologiesfordisseminatingknowledgeandinformationanddra-matically changed social economic and political contexts have madeavailabletoamateurswhathadpreviouslybeenthepurviewofreligiousexpertsAtthesametimeithasinauguratedafragmentationofauthor-itywithintheveryranksofthelsquoulamathatcontinuestothepresentday23

InthiscontexttheascendanceandinfluenceofautodidactssuchasQutbHasanal-BannalsquoAbdal-SalamFarajandBinLadensimultaneouslyex-pressandaccelerateanongoingrenegotiationofauthorityoverwhomayspeakforIslamandonwhatbasisthepathofwhichisstillunfoldingandtheoutcomeasyetuncertain

Islamism and Gender

One already apparent consequence of this ongoing renegotiation overwhomayspeakforIslamandonwhatbasisistheentryofwomenintothe interpretive fray This development is increasingly unsettling thoseunwrittengendernormsarguablyattheveryheartofIslamistthoughtdisruptingthestandardsofmasculinityandfemininitythatreflecthowparticularculturesorganizehumanbeingsrsquosocialandreproductiveactiv-itiesintorolesthatareinturnthoughttoexpresstheldquonaturerdquoofmenand women Such norms are frequently considered tangential to theknottyproblemsofdefiningIslamismandadumbratingitscentralideasyetarangeofscholarshiponculturespastandpresenthasshownthatgenderisconsistentlytheterrainoverwhichbattlesforpoliticalcontrolandculturalidentityarefoughtMorespecificallyresearchindisciplinessuchasanthropologyhistoryclassicsandpostcolonialstudieshasdem-onstratedthatculturesinwhichfemalebodiesandbehaviorareregardedas indicesofmoralpurity tend to symbolically transformwomen intoconduitsof cultural corruption in timesof internal crisis and externalthreat(Papenek1994Chatterjee1990Tavakoli-Targhi1991Just1989Cohen1991Welter1966Bloch1978)Thisisespeciallytrueofcontem-

22Foralatenineteenth-centuryassessmentoftheprospectsforaldquoMuhammadanRefor-mationrdquoseeBlunt1882132ndash73

23EickelmanandPiscatori199637ndash39131ndash35Zaman2006Suchfragmentationhasinmanywaysbeenacceleratedbytheexplosionofdigitalcultureswhichpromoteamongotherthingsaldquoformofempoweredamateurismrdquo(Mirzoeff20026)

36

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

poraryreligio-politicalmovementswhosememberstendtoldquoidealizepa-triarchalstructuresofauthorityandmoralityrdquoendorsegenderdualismasgod-givenornaturalandcondemnvigorouslyrecentchangesingen-derrelationsasasymptomandsymbolofsecularistmoralbankruptcy(Riesebrodt1993Moghadam1992Hawley1994)

SeveralchaptersinthisvolumeilluminateIslamistgendernormsbyre-vealing thecharacterandcontentof Islamistconcernsabout theplaceandpurityofMuslimwomenmdashpreoccupationsFatimaMernissi(199199)hasgonesofarastocharacterizeasanobsessionDespiteimportantdifferences among Islamists thinkers many endorse gender norms inwhichthefairlyconventionalinsistencethatfemalenatureisdefinedinand through reproduction undergirds an understanding of women assymbolsofmoralvirtueandvesselsofculturalpurityThisviewsustainstheclaimthatmenandwomenareequalinreligiousbeliefbutperformfundamentallydifferentandcomplementaryfunctionsinsocietyWhilemenarenaturallymadetoruleinboththepublicandprivatedomainawomanbelongsinthedomesticrealmwhereherprimaryroleistobeawifeandmotheraswellastoinsuretheintegrityofthefamilythefirstschoolofmoraleducationAssuchfunctionsarerootedinaninescap-ablehumannaturefashionedbyGodawomanrsquosinabilityorunwilling-nesstoperformherdutiessignalsadisobediencetothedivinewillandpresages the corruption of the Muslim family from within From thisvantagepointtheWesterninsistenceonfullequalitybetweenthesexesisdoubly pernicious it at once liberates women from basic moral con-straintsandenslavesthemtomutuallyreinforcingsexualandcapitalistexploitationAsMurtazaMutahhari(1998xxxi)arguescapitalismmakesuseofwomentomarket itsgoodsldquoby trading inhonourandrespectthrough[their]powertoenticerdquotherebyldquotransform[ing]manintoaninvoluntaryagentofconsumptionrdquoInasmuchaswomenareresponsiblefor producing the next generation of Muslim men destined to restoreIslamtoitsformergloryitisnotonlythevirtueofwomenortheinteg-rityofthefamilythathangsinthebalancebutthefutureofIslamiccivili-zationitself

Zaynab al-Ghazali andMutahharimake several of these argumentsexplicitlyandindetail(seechapters10and11)butinmuchofIslamistrhetoricthenatureandsignificanceofwomenareestablishedindirectlyandsymbolicallyandthroughthreerecurrentimagesinparticularThefirstisofwomenassilentsymbolsofculturalmoralandsexualvulnera-bilityvoicelessfiguresinneedofmasculineprotectionorwhenitistoolatedefiledbodiesthatmutelydemandvengeanceSoforexamplelsquoAb-dallahlsquoAzzam(oneofBinLadenrsquosmentorsseechapter18)graphicallydetailstheagonizinghumiliationofyoungmenunabletoactwhentheAfghanwoman isldquocryingout forhelpher childrenarebeing slaugh-tered her women are being raped the innocent are killed and theircorpsesscatteredrdquo(lsquoAzzam1987a)Inthesecondimagewomenfunction

37

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INTRODUCTION

muchlikeachorusthatspeaksinpermittedcadencestoratifymasculineendeavorsSuchisthecaseforexampleinBinLadenrsquos1996ldquoDeclara-tionofWaragainsttheAmericansOccupyingtheLandoftheTwoHolyPlacesrdquo(seechapter18)wherethewomenexhortmentojihadinthefollowing way ldquoPrepare yourself like a struggler the matter is biggerthanwordsAreyougoingtoleaveusforthewolvesofKufr[unbe-lief]eatingourwingsWherearethefreemendefendingfreewomenbyarmsDeath isbetter than life inhumiliation Some scandals andshameswillneverbeotherwiseeradicatedrdquo24InthethirdimagewomenarecreaturesnotofthisworldbutofanothervirginalrewardsforthecourageousmartyrintheafterlifeThisisevidentinthefinalinstructionsforthe911hijackersforexamplewhereMuslimldquobrothersrdquoareurgedto purify their carnal impulses sharpen their knives for the dhabh (slaughter)andheedthecallofthehur lsquoayn (theblack-eyedones)await-ingtheminParadise(seechapter19)

Such rhetoric primarily registers women as an extensionmirror ormeasure of masculinity and together with explicit Islamist argumentsabouthumannatureandthefamilyarticulatesIslamistgendernormsinwhichmenandwomeneachhaveaproperlocationandpurposeinadi-vinely ordained social hierarchy Deviance from this gendered scriptthussignalsdisruptionofamuchbroaderreligio-politicalorderitbothpresumes and seeks to bring into existence The disruption caused byforeign aggression in particular exacerbates the tendency to translateconflict into an assault on Muslim masculinity and to conceptualizewomenaspotentialvehiclesforWesterncorruptioninneedofguidingand guarding Women such as Zaynab al-Ghazali and Nadia Yassinewho seek a prominent place and voice within the Islamist movementhavehadlittlechoicebuttocontendwiththisgenderedscriptDoingsohasentailedamongotherthingsnavigatingcarefullybetweenIslamistcharacterizations of womenrsquos visibility and agency as symptomatic ofthe new jahiliyya on the one hand and essentializing arguments thatequateIslamwithveilingfemalegenitalmutilationandhonorkillingsontheother

AsthechaptersonGhazaliandYassinesuggestIslamistwomenhavenegotiatedbetweensuchconstraintsandpressuresandtheirownambi-tionsindifferentwaysApioneeringdalsquoiya(onewhoinvitesMuslimstogreater piety)Ghazalirsquos own life reveals a fierce resistance to conven-tionalnormsofdomesticityevenasmuchofher(earlier)workappearsto embrace an Islamist gender ideology that defines women as wivesmothers andldquobuilders ofmenrdquo (al-Hashimi 1990 118)By contrastYassineisawifeandmotherwhoembracesanldquoIslamicfeminismrdquothatrequiresldquoreappropriatingtheinstrumentsofclassicaltheologyrdquoanden-

24TheIslamistjournalSawt alshyJihadhasgonesofarastofeatureldquowomenrsquosvoicesrdquointheformofrolemodelsnamedforexampleumm alshyshahid(motherofthemartyr)al-thoughitisunclearthattheseldquovoicesrdquoareactuallywomenrsquos(SUsher2004)

38

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

gaging the textsdirectly through ijtihad (NYassine2003) In this re-spect Yassine must be understood as part of a broader effort amongMuslimwomenwithdifferentpoliticalcommitmentstosimultaneouslyadvocateandenacttheirrighttorecuperatetheldquooriginalintentrdquooftheIslamictextsIfwomenandmendoinfacthavedistinctperspectivesontheworldYassinesuggestswomenhaveaspecialobligationtoexcavatewhattheyseeasthegenderparityoftheQurrsquoanburiedbeneaththoseldquomachointerpretationsrdquoofIslamuponwhichmenhavebuilttheirprivi-legeandpower(Khalaf2006)25

ManyAnglo-AmericanandEuropean feministsworry that Islamistsseekonly to secureor restorepatriarchalpowerConverselymany Is-lamist women view feminism as a term and a movement inescapablyWesterninoriginfreightedwiththelegacyofcolonialismanduneasilyimplicatedinculturalimperialismThisapplieseventoYassinewhoisunwillingtoadoptwithoutqualificationalabelsheassociateswithagen-dasopposedtoherowntheWesttheMoroccanstateMaghribi(North-westAfrican)elitesYetfeminismitselfisahighlycontestedtermwithin theso-calledWestitisthebearerofmultiplemeaningssomeofwhichareevenopposedandischaracterizedbydeepdisagreementsaboutwhowomenarewhatwomenneedwhoisauthorizedtoworkonwomenrsquosbehalf andbywhatmeans Inasmuch as these various feminismsmayshareonlyastatedconcernforwomenrsquoswelfarethereisnothinginco-herentinmodifyingldquofeminismrdquowithldquoIslamicrdquoldquoMuslimrdquoorevenldquoIs-lamistrdquounlessone iscommitted toarguing thatfirst Islam isanun-changingessencebeyondhistorypoliticsandculturesecondthereisaneutralobjectivevantagefromwhichtoidentifythisessenceonceandforallandfinallytheIslamicessencesoidentifiedisfundamentallyin-compatiblewitheffortstoimprovetheconditionsandqualityofwomenrsquoslivesBythesametokenIslamistwomenwhorejectthetermfeminismcanbe(althoughnotalwaysare)deeplycommittedtoimprovingwom-enrsquoswelfareaswellasactivelyresistanttoeffortsthatreduceortrans-formthemintosilentaccessoriesofmalepower

YassineandGhazalidifferaboutwhatwomenareandshouldbeyetbroadlyspeakingbothmaybeconsideredpartofarecenttrendtowardthe feminizationofdalsquowa Dalsquowa literallymeanscallappealor sum-monsbutthetermhascometosignifyavarietyofpracticesandargu-mentsmeanttoexhortinviteandguideMuslimstowhatisregardedasproperconductandmoraldevotionWomenrsquosparticipationindalsquowais

25WomenrsquosparticipationintheldquoproductionofofficialIslamicknowledgerdquohasalonghistoryalthoughtheyhaveoftendonesoinrelativeobscurityandwithoutthebenefitofeducation in the Islamicsciences thathas legitimateddirectengagementwith thesacredtexts (Cooke 2001 xiv Badran and Cooke 2004) Pioneering attempts to read genderequalityinIslamarealsonotconfinedtowritingbywomenasevincedbyQasimAminrsquosTahrir alshymarrsquoa [TheLiberationofWoman] (1899)andMumtaz lsquoAlirsquosHuquqshye niswan [TheRightsofWomen](1898)

39

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

notabrandnewphenomenonasisevidentinGhazalirsquosworkwiththeEgyptianSocietyofMuslimLadiesinthe1930sYetfromEgypttoPaki-stantoSaudiArabiatotheUnitedStatesthenumberoffemaledalsquoiyashasproliferatedexponentially inrecentyears(Cooke2001Mahmood2005Hirschkind2006)Thisreflectsinpartcurrentdoctrinalempha-sesondalsquowaasincumbentuponbothmenandwomenanddependentlessupontechnicalknowledgethanmoralvirtueandpracticalfamiliaritywiththeIslamictradition(Mahmood200565ndash66)It isalsoaconse-quenceofrecentpoliticalandsocioeconomictransformationsinMuslimsocietiesincludingtheexpansionofmasseducationthathasnotonlyin-creasedwomenrsquosliteracyandsocialmobilitybutalsomadeIslamictextsmoreaccessibletheproliferationoftechnologiesmdashfromthecassettetapetotheInternetmdashthatfacilitatethecirculationofreligiousknowledgeevenamongthosewhocannotreadortraveltheprecedentsetbythevigorousparticipationof IranianwomeninpostrevolutiondebatesaboutIslamandthemodeloflegalactivismevidentintheIslamistmovementrsquosownchallenge to the lsquoulamarsquos status as gatekeepers of religious knowledge(Singerman2005Mir-Hosseini1999)

If Ghazali and Yassine exemplify the feminization of dalsquowa amongelitesthemosquemovementinEgyptillustratesthegrowingparticipa-tionofwomenfromdiversesocialbackgroundsinreligiousclassesde-votedtostudyinganddebatingwhatIslamrequiresforawomantobeldquomorallyuprightrdquointhecontemporaryworld(Mahmood2005)Con-ceptualizingpiety in termsof adeepandholistic commitment to self-transformationparticipantsinthemosquemovementareconcernedlesswithmattersofsovereigntyandpoliticsconventionallyunderstoodandmorewiththeldquomoralcultivationrdquoofthosedailypracticesseenascrucialtobecomingclosertoGod(Mahmood2005)SomeIslamistshavecriti-cizedthis focusonpracticesofworshipasapoliticalandoverlypriva-tizedyetsuchcriticismmissestheforceofIslamistsrsquoowninsistenceondin(religion)asawayoflifeinwhichthedomainsofpublicandprivateare inextricably linked26AsSabaMahmood (2005193194) showsthesewomenrsquosintenseeffortsatldquoretrainingethicalsensibilitiesrdquohavealdquosociopoliticalforcerdquothatextendswellbeyondmattersofgovernancefacilitatingnolessthantheemergenceofaldquonewsocialandmoralorderrdquoEvidenceofitstransformativepowermaybefoundnotonlyinthesheernumbersandvarietyofwomenmdashwealthyandpoor literateand illiter-atemdashparticipatinginthemosquemovementbutalsointherhetoricalandpoliticaleffortsbythestateandsomeIslamiststocurtailcontrolordis-creditit(Mahmood200571194)

26ParticipantsinthemosquemovementinturnareoftencriticalofwhattheyseeasthereductionofIslamtotokensofculturalauthenticityorofitsinstrumentalizationbybothnationalistsandIslamiststheycharacterizeasmoreinterestedinpoliticalmaneuveringthanreligiouspiety

40

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

Understoodtoincludebothwrittenandembodiedpracticesthefemi-nizationof dalsquowa illustrates theways inwhichwomen fromdifferentperspectivesandsocialclassesareinsistingonengagingthesacredtextsdirectly for and with one another without the mediating authority ofmenwhohavetraditionallyheldthemonopolyonsuchactivitiesAsSu-danese Islamist Lubabah al-Fadl argues ldquoAs an insan [human being]whohappenstobeawomanIhavearighttorejectthemanipulativeexegesesofoursharilsquoa thatthreatenmyexistenceinawaythat isnotconsistentwiththeGodlywayandtoapplymyownijtihadtorectifyer-roneoustendenciesbysomeshuyukh[pluralofshaykh]rdquo(Sadiki2004290)DespitetheproliferationofvoicesintentonclaimingforthemselvestheauthoritytodemarcatewhatisauthenticallyIslamicandun-Islamiconceandforallcontestationoveritsscopeandmeaningproceedsapacefacilitatedatleastinpartbywomenformerlyexcludedfromtheconver-sationAtthesametimeIslamistwomenrsquosagencyandclaimstoauthorityarefrequentlystillpredicatedonawillingnesstofollowfairlypatriarchalrulesaboutwherehowandwithwhomtheymaypracticetheirvocation(Hirschkind2003Sadiki2004283)

Islamism and Violence

IfgenderisfrequentlyanimplicitpreoccupationamongIslamistsjihadisarguably Islamistsrsquomost consistently explicit concern Jihad is derivedfromtheArabicverbthatmeanstostruggleortostriveyetitisaparticu-larkindofstruggle that isofconcern tomanyof thefigurescollectedheretheoftenviolentstruggleagainstapostatesandinfidelsbothathomeandabroadtowhicheveryindividualMuslimmustcontributeTheclaimthatfightingunbelieversisthepreeminentenactmentofindividualMus-limpiety seems to justify characterizationsof Islam ingeneral and Is-lamisminparticularassanctioningevenencouragingviolenceYetwhatIslamistsrepresentasjihadtout courtisahistoricallyspecificunderstand-ingderivedfromahighlyselectiveuseoftextsandprecedentsprominentamongthemaformerlyobscureclaimbytheinfluentialfourteenth-cen-tury jurist IbnTaymiyya thatMongol rulerswhohad contravened Is-lamiclawcouldbesubjecttoforcibleremovalFarfromadefinitiveex-pressionof Islamldquoproperlyunderstoodrdquo such Islamist argumentsnotonlymarkasignificantdeparturefrommuchofantecedentdoctrineandpractice but also diminish the importance of ongoing disagreementsamongMuslimsabouttheformandpurposesofjihad

TobeginwithMuslimscholarshavetendedtoconsiderjihadagainstforeignenemiesafard kifaya(collectiveobligation)thatisadutyagroupofpeoplewithinthecommunitymayperformonbehalfoftherestandonethatpresupposesalegitimateMuslimleadertodeclareorleadthechargeJuristshavedistinguishedthisfromthefard lsquoayn(individualduty)thatmustbefulfilledbyeverysingleMuslimincasesofdefensivejihad

41

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INTRODUCTION

thatiswhentheummaisunderattackManyIslamistsincludedheretakeamuchlessnuancedviewofjihadAsamodeofpoliticalactionQutbarguesjihadmustberegardedasaldquopermanentconditionnotanocca-sionalconcernrdquoonethatincurrentcircumstancesrequiresdeedsratherthanwordsstruggleratherthancontemplationrevolutionathomeaswellasresistanceabroad(Qutb199167ndash6882)lsquoAbdal-SalamFarajarguesalongsimilarlinesthatthenatureoftheattackonIslammakespolitical authorization by a caliph (ldquodeputyrdquo referring to a legitimatesuccessortotheProphetrsquosleadership)unnecessaryafterallldquoleadershipovertheMuslimsis(always)intheirownhandsifonlytheymakethismanifestIfthereissomethinglackingintheleadershipwellthereisnothingthatcannotbeacquiredrdquo(Jansen1986asec93)

SuchargumentsareadeliberaterejectionofearlyMuslimmodernistswhohademphasizedthelargelydefensivecharacterofjihadandsoughttoshowthatrelationsbetweenMuslimsandnon-MuslimswerenormallypeacefulratherthanantagonisticMahmudShaltut(d1963)therectorof al-Azhar from 1958 to 1963 had argued for example that theQurrsquoanicversesonfightingldquoprohibittheprovocationofhostilityandthisprohibitionisreinforcedbyGodrsquosrepugnancetoaggressionandbyhisdislikeofthosewhoprovokehostilityrdquo(Peters199674onShaltutseeZebiri1993)ConversionbyforceisanathematoIslamShaltutaversandfightingiscommandedonlyindefenseinresponsetoaggressionini-tiatedbyothersEvendefensivejihadmustaimatldquotheterminationoftheaggressionandtheestablishmentofreligiouslibertydevotedtoGodandfreefromanypressureorforcerdquo(Peters199675)

ManyIslamistsexplicitlydismisssuchargumentsasasymptomoffalseconsciousnessoneamongmanydestructiveeffectsofcolonialdomina-tionMawdudiargues for example thatwhile imperialists ravage theworld to satisfy their greed jihad alone ldquoconjures up the vision of amarching band of religious fanatics with savage beards and fiery eyesbrandishingdrawnswordsandattackingtheinfidelswherevertheymeetthemrdquoHavinginternalizedthis imageMuslimsrushtoapologizeandrenouncearmedstruggleInthiswayhelamentscolonialistsretaintheexclusiverighttoldquofightwitharmsandammunitionwhilewearecon-tented with our pen and our tonguerdquo (Mawdudi 1948 1ndash3) SayyidQutbforhispartagreedthatIslamdoesnotcountenancespreadingitsmessagebyforceandcoercionyethehadlittlepatiencewiththosewhosoughttopresentjihadaslegitimateonlyinself-defense

IfweinsistoncallingIslamicjihadadefensivemovementthenwemustchangethemeaningofthewordldquodefenserdquoandmeanbyitldquothedefenseofmanrdquoagainstallthoseforcesthatlimithisfreedomWhenwetakethisbroadmeaningofthewordldquodefenserdquoweunder-standthetruecharacterofIslaminthatitproclaimstheuniversalfreedomofeverypersonandcommunityfromservitudetoanyother

42

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

individualorsocietytheendofmanrsquosarroganceandselfishnesstheestablishmentofthesovereigntyofAllahandHisLordshipthrough-outtheworldandtheruleofthedivinesharilsquoainhumanaffairs(Qutb199050)

Qutbdoesnotnameanynamesincastigatingtheldquowriterswithdefeatistandapologeticmentalities[who]writeaboutlsquojihadinIslamrsquoandtrytoremovethislsquoblotrsquofromIslamrdquo(Qutb199046)buthecouldverywellhavehadhisdistinguishedfellowEgyptianMahmudShaltutinmind

These arguments about jihad may be said to constitute a commongrammarandframeworkofanalysisformanyIslamistsalthoughseveralthinkers in this volume carefully calibrate such claims to suit variouspurposesanddifferentpublicspheresInhisjustificationfortheassassi-nationofEgyptianpresidentAnwaral-SadatforexamplelsquoAbdal-SalamFarajdepictsthestruggletoreclaimthemoralfoundationsoftheEgyp-tianstateasafightagainstjahiliyyafromwithinarguingthatthejihadagainstacorruptnationalistregimeathomemusttakeprecedenceoverfightingenemieselsewhereTheCharterofHamas(seechapter15)how-everinsiststhatallMuslimsrecognizetheprimacyofthejihadforJeru-salemweldingIslamistrhetorictothatofnationalistresistanceinanef-fortbothtofightIsraelioccupationandtocompeteforadherentswiththePalestinianLiberationOrganization(PLO)IncontrasttobothFarajandHamasBinLadenembracesaglobaljihadthatessentiallycollapsesdistinctionsbetweennationalandinternationaloffensiveanddefensivefightingenemiesathomeandthosefromafar

Yet despite such differences these arguments tend to presume thatviolent jihad is a necessary response to the pervasive power of thosewithdemonstratedhostilitytoMuslimliveslandspietiesandsensibili-tiesaformofretaliationwhoseurgencyandlegitimacyderivefromtheviolencemdashpsychologicalandeconomicaswellasphysicalmdashoftheinitialassaultThisviewofjihadsubsumesindividualsintoarchetypesofldquoin-fidelsrdquoandldquobelieversrdquoandinsodoingvitiatesmoreconventionaldis-tinctionsbetweenforexamplesoldierandcivilianorcollectiveandin-dividual responsibility It is far from inevitable that thosewhoharborsuchviewswillautomaticallyactuponthemyetthecarnagewroughtbytheattacksontheWorldTradeCenterandthePentagonin2001aBalinightclub in 2002 Madrid commuter trains in 2004 and throughoutIraqonadailybasissuggestjusthowlethalsuchclaimscanbegiventheright circumstances The fact that such violence does not discriminateamongvictimsonlyfurtherfuelsrhetoriccharacterizingIslamistsasirra-tional fanatics ldquoin love with deathrdquo terrorists animated by a religioncharacterizedbyapropensityforviolenceandauthoritarianism27

27AnxietiesabouttheparticularsusceptibilityofMuslimstoirrationalityinsularityandfanaticismhavealonganddistinguishedpedigreeinEuro-AmericanhistoryandpoliticalthoughtSeeforexampleRenan18833

43

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

AsinsomanyothermattershoweverIslamistsarehardlyofonemindonthesubjectofjihadindeedthereareIslamistswhoexplicitlyrejectthereductionof struggle toviolenceAcase inpoint isNadiaYassine(20032005c)whoinsiststhatjihadisthededicatedstruggleagainstisshytikbar(arrogance)particularlyinitscommonformasthelustforpoweranddominationAsjihadagainstistikbarisbothafinalgoalandapre-scriptionforactionYassinesuggestsitisantitheticaltoviolentpracticesthataimatdominationTheprimaryinstrumentsofjihadarenotbombsbutwords particularly thosedeployed in the art of persuasion (Fara-marzi2005NYassine2006a)WhenIslamistssuchaslsquoAbdal-SalamFarajandlsquoUmarlsquoAbdal-RahmanseektolegitimizeviolentrevolutionbyrecoursetoIslamictextsshearguestheycontravenethetruemeaningofjihadtoservetheirownarrogantendsBythesametokenBinLadenrsquosdecisiontoldquofightevilwithevilandbarbaritywithbarbarityrdquonotonlyviolatesspecificIslamicprohibitionsagainstharmingcivilianswomenandchildrenbutalsobetraystheethicalimperativetoembodythemes-sageofamercifulGodwhocautionsbelieversthat(Q8822)ldquoYouhavenopoweroverthemrdquo(NYassine2005cDaily Excelsior2002)

SuchpersistentdisagreementsamongMuslimspastandpresentsug-gest that Islam isnomore inherently violent andbloody-minded thanitmdashorChristianityor Judaism for thatmattermdashis inherentlypeacefulIslamists often claim to speak for an unchanging authentic Islam thatexistsoutsideoftimeandspaceyetthepoliticalpurchaseoftheirper-spective derives from the ways it assembles disparate yet recognizablecontemporaryexperiencesofsufferingfrustrationandlossintoanex-planationthatresonateswithMuslimswholiveincommunitiescultur-allylinguisticallyandgeographicallydistantfromoneanotherTheex-tenttowhichIslamistargumentsresonatebroadlyacrossMuslimsocie-tiesthusdependsuponasetofexperiencesandphenomenathatmarkthisparticularmomentinhistoryincludingthewaysinwhichcontempo-raryglobalinequalitiescompoundalegacyofhistoricalasymmetriestocontinuallyreproduceasenseofMuslimpowerlessnessmdashbothrealandimaginedmdashrelativetotheWestcontinuingEuro-Americanpoliticalandfinancialsupportofcorruptautocratsmanyofwhompresideoverna-tion-statesbrutallystitchedtogetherbyWesternfiat thepersistenceofauthoritarian regimes eager to control domestic unrest by catalyzingldquoMuslimragerdquotowardexternaltargetsthesenseofemasculationpro-ducedbydecadesofpoliticalrepressionandeconomicfrustrationandthecontinualflowofimagesofbloodiedMuslimbodiesdeliveredbyaburgeoningarrayofvideosatelliteandelectronicmedia

It is notable that the understanding of jihad many Islamists proffermirrorstheverystate-sanctionedviolenceagainstwhichtheyhavestrug-gledforalmostacenturyAlongwiththousandsofMuslimscaughtinthemachineryoftwentieth-centurystateviolenceprominentIslamistsfromQutbtoGhazalitoAymanal-Zawahirimdashal-Qalsquoidarsquossecondincommandmdash

44

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

arewellknowntohavebeenradicalizedbyextendedandoftenbrutaltermsofincarcerationinEgyptSyriaIraqJordanIsraelAlgeriaandelsewhere(onal-ZawahiriandprisoncfKepelandMilelli2008152ndash54)ItisthusfarfromsurprisingthatIslamistsforgedbyinterrogationtortureinprisoncampswouldconcludethatthepreeminentenactmentofMuslimpietyisviolentstruggleldquoPrisonrdquoasPalestinianKhaledAbuHilalhassaidldquoismyuniversityrdquo(Erlanger2007)anargumentmadeingreaterdetailinadifferenttimeandplacebyRussianwriterandrevolu-tionaryMaximGorky(1868ndash1936)

Apeoplebroughtupinaschoolthatremindsoneofthetormentsofhellonasmallscaleapeopleaccustomedtotheclenched-fistprisonandthewhipwillnotbeblestwithatenderheartApeoplethatthepoliceagentshaveriddenoverwillbecapableintheirturnofwalk-ingoverthebodiesofothersInacountrywhereunresthasreignedsolongit isdifficultforthepeopletorealizefromonedaytothenextthepowerofrightOnecannotdemandfromamanwhohasneverknownjusticethatheshouldbejust(Gorky1920)

InthiscontextasTimothyMitchell(1990195ndash96199207ndash8)suggestsIslamistviewsoftheworldcanbecharacterizedasbothamodeofresis-tancetostatemechanismsofcoercionandanexpressionofthemSuchisthedynamic evident inGhazalirsquosmemoirs for examplewhen shede-scribeshowtheldquodarknessofprisonsthebladesoftortureandthevi-ciousbeatingsonly increasetheenduranceandresolveofthefaithfulrdquo(Ghazali19786)

There is no doubt a great deal of pragmatism at work in IslamistargumentsaboutviolenceAsQutb(19916447ndash48)drylynotesthepathtofreedommustoccasionallybehewnbywayoftheswordbecausetyrants are not reasoned out of power and ldquojahiliyya is not lsquoabstracttheoryrsquo[it]consciouslyorunconsciouslystrivestopreserveitsownexistence to defend its essence to annihilate dangerous elementswhichthreatenitsverybeingrdquoYetitisalsothecasethatformanyoftheseIslamistsjihadisbothameansandanendanefforttoeradicatethoseobstacles torestoringa justcommunityonearththatsimultane-ouslybringshumanaction intoaccordwithGodrsquosplansandpurposes(Haddad198321)While theQurrsquoan (2256) states thatldquothere isnocompulsioninreligionrdquoIslamistscontendthatonlyinastateinwhichIslamiclawreignssupremearehumanbeingsfreefromenslavementtooneanotherrsquosruleandallareequalbyvirtueoftheircommonsubmissiontoGodAsQutb(1991107ndash8)argues

WhenthehighestauthorityinsocietyisGodalonemdashexpressedintheruleofdivinelawmdashonlythenishumanitytrulyandcompletelyliber-atedfromslaverytomenOnlythisisldquohumancivilizationrdquobecausetheessentialfoundationofhumancivilizationisthetrueandcom-

45

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

pletefreedomofhumanityandtheabsolutedignityofeveryindivid-ualinsocietyThereisnotruefreedomanddignityforhumanityortheindividualinasocietywheresomepeoplearelordswholegislateandothersareslaveswhoobey

From this perspective the realization of justice liberty equality andchoiceitselfnecessitatestheforcibleremovaloftheconstraintsimposedbyjahiliyyaalongwiththosewhoaidandabetitno matter the costAsMawdudi(1954160ndash61)writes

[W]hyisitthatinreligionsuchimportanceisgiventojihadthattheQurrsquoanpronouncesthejudgmentofhypocrisyuponthosewhoshirkandevadeitJihadisbutanothernamefortheattempttoerectthesystemoftruthandtheQurrsquoandeclaresjihadtobeatouchstoneonthesamefootingwithamanrsquosfaithInotherwordshewhohasfaithinhisheartwillneitherbecontentwiththedominationofthesystemofevilnorwillhegrudgetheexpenditureoflifeandwealthinthestruggleforerectingthesystemoftruthIfoneshowsweaknessinthismatterhisfaithitselfisdoubtfulWhatcananythingelsebesidethenprofithimThemanwhoprofesses faith in this religioncannotfulfillhisdutyonlybytryingasfaraspossibletopatternhislifeonIslamThenatureofhisfaithitselfrequiresthatheshouldconcentrateallhiseffortuponwrestingleadershipfromunbelievingandcorruptmentoentrustittotherighteousanduponerectingthesystemoftruththathasbeenordainedfortheconductoftheworldaccordingtothewillofGodBecausethisendisunattainablewith-out thehighestdegreeofcollectiveeffort theremustexistarigh-teouscommunitycommittedtotheprincipleoftruthanddevotedtothesolepurposeintheworldoferectingmaintainingandproperlyrealizingthesystemoftruth

ThefactthatsomeIslamistthinkerssanctifyviolentstruggleinsuchtermsdoesnotmeanofcoursethatallthosewhoadvocateorengageinjihadendorseviolence28NordoesitimplythatthosewhoclaimtokillforIslamareentirelywithoutulteriormotivesthosemanipulativepur-poses andpsychologicalmotivations that even themost rarified scrip-turalargumentscanexpressorserveWhattheprecedinganalysisdoessuggesthoweveristhatthereductionofthisviewofjihadtoirrationalbloodlusttheself-interestedgrabfortemporalpoweroradoorthroughwhichtopassintothehereaftermissesacrucialdimensionofitssignifi-canceandappealfortruebelieversjihadisnolessthananenactmentof

28EvenashespokeofaneweraofjahiliyyaandofjihadMawdudihimselfstoppedwellshortof recommendingor condoning the actual resort to violence in themannermanyotherIslamistsdidAsNasr(199670)observesMawdudirsquosorganizationtheJamalsquoat-iIs-lamildquohasavoidedviolentsocialchangeandhasinsteadviewedthepathtotheIslamicstateaslyingwithintheexistingsociopoliticalorderrdquoAlsoseethechapters5and3onQutbandMawdudiinthisvolume

46

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INTRODUCTION

adivineimperativetoremakethefoundationsofcollectivelifeInthisre-spectIslamistviewsofjihadcanbeseenaspartofalong-standingasso-ciationbetweenviolenceandpoliticalfoundingsuponwhichnoparticu-larcultureorhistoricalepochhasamonopolyThisassociationandtheldquolegacyofviolencerdquoitbequeathstofuturegenerationsarenolessappar-entinthoseradicalrevolutionsofrenewalthatmovebywayoftheswordfromthemarginstothecenterthanthosepoliticalfoundingsthatclaimtocreatesomethingoutofnothing(Connolly1995251)Ineithercasethetollofsuchbrutalitycanbeimmeasurableforinadditiontothevic-timswhosufferdirectlytheldquopracticeofviolencelikeallactionchangestheworldbutthemostprobablechangeistoamoreviolentworldrdquo(Ar-endt1972177)

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Page 19: Chapter 1 INTRODUCTION - assets.press.princeton.eduassets.press.princeton.edu/chapters/s9067.pdf · Chapter 1 INTRODUCTION This volume is intended as a broad introduction to the evolution

19

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INTRODUCTION

ventionrsquowhowentalongwiththefastorprayednowandthenbecausethiswaslsquocustomandtraditionrsquo(lsquoada wa taqlid)ThislackofconsciouszealousadherencetoIslamhadresultedinsocialweaknessleadingtode-featatthehandsofIsraelrdquo(Lybarger2007211)ThereismuchthatsuchanalysessharewiththewritingsandpronouncementsoftheleadingIs-lamistintellectuals

Islamists and Salafi s

JustasitisnotalwayseasytodifferentiatelsquoulamafromIslamistsorIs-lamists frommodernists it is sometimesdifficult to clearlydistinguishbetweenIslamistsandtheSalafisThelatterderivethisself-designationfromclaimsofstrictadherencetothenormativepracticeofalshysalaf alshysalih(thepiousforbears)usuallyunderstoodastheMuslimsofthefirstgenerations of Islam The guiding Salafi assumption is that these firstMuslims inbeingcontemporariesof theProphetMuhammadandtheimmediatesuccessorsofthosecontemporariesexemplifymostperfectlywhatitmeanstobeavirtuousMuslimandthatlatergenerationscandonobetterthanemulatetheexampleofthesefirstgenerationsSomever-sionofthisviewwouldfindbroadresonanceamongIslamistsbutalsoordinary believers though the Shilsquoa of various doctrinal orientationshavealwayshada farmore restrictiveviewofpreciselywho isworthemulating Again like the Islamists the Salafis insist on deriving theirnormsdirectlyfromtheIslamicfoundationaltextstheQurrsquoanandtheexampleoftheProphetMuhammadunmediatedbythemedievalschoolsoflawThismeansdoingawaywiththesortofhistoricallyarticulatedscholarlytraditionfromwhichthelsquoulamahavetendedtodrawmuchoftheirauthorityTheSalafisdohavetheirownlsquoulamamdashQaradawiisano-tableinstanceasaremembersoftheSaudireligiousestablishmentmdashbuteventheirauthorityisbasedfarmoreondirectlyinterpretingthefounda-tional texts than it is on any systematic engagement with the Islamicscholarlytradition

AllthissoundsagooddealnotjustliketheIslamistsbutalsolikethemodernistsThisshouldnotbesurprisingfortheSalafiorientationisanimportantpartofthegenealogyofbothmodernismandIslamismTheSalafi reformer Muhammad lsquoAbduh though a traditionally educatedscholarwhoservedtowardtheendofhislifeasthegrandmuftiofEgyptwasakeyinfluenceinthedevelopmentofIslamicmodernismButwhilesomeoflsquoAbduhrsquosdisciplesdevelopedhisideasinthedirectionofsecularnationalismothersmdashnotablytheSalafijournalistandQurrsquoancommenta-torRashidRidamdasheventuallytookthemdespitehismodernistproclivi-tiesinadecidedlyconservativedirection(Hourani1983alsocfDallal2000)Hasan al-Banna the founder of the MuslimBrotherhoodwasclose to many Egyptian Salafis Muhibb al-din al-Khatib (d 1969) aleadingSalafiofthetimeandtheowneroftheSalafiPublishingHousein

20

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INTRODUCTION

CairowasinchargeofoneoftheBrotherhoodrsquosfirstjournals(Mitchell1993185)andafterRidarsquosdeathin1935itwasatBannarsquosinitiativethatRidarsquosinfluentialjournalalshyManarwouldcontinuetobepublishedforsomeyears(RMitchell1993186)

ForalltheiraffinitieshoweverSalafiscannotsimplybesubsumedwiththeIslamistsanymorethantheycanwiththemodernistsUnliketheearlySalafisandothermodernists Islamistshavealmost invariablysought toaddressthemselvestoawidepopularaudienceratherthantotheintellec-tualelite(cfRMitchell1993211)TheSalafishavealsobeenfarmorepreoccupiedwithmattersofcorrectbeliefthenuancesofdoctrinethanhaveeither the Islamistsor themodernists (cfHaykel2009 [forthcom-ing])BythesametokenwhilemanyIslamistshavehadasomewhatam-bivalentrelationshipwithSufismSalafishaveusuallybeenunrelentinglyhostile to devotional Sufi practices But if it is useful to distinguish theSalafisfromothercompetingorientationsinmodernIslamitisimportantalsotorecognizethatthereismuchonwhichSalafisthemselveshavedis-agreedsometimessharplyInquestionintheseldquointernalrdquodifferencesisnottheiroverallorientationmdashtowardtheIslamicfoundational textsandthepristinenormsofIslamrsquosfirstgenerationsmdashbutratherthepreciseimplica-tionsofthisorientationforbeliefandconductinthepresentAconsider-ationofsomeofthesedifferencesshouldinturnfurtherillustratehowtheSalafisoughttobedistinguishedfromothercompetingcamps

WheremanySalafisseetheschoolsoflawasobstructingandindeeddistortingthesimplemessageofthefoundationaltextsothersviewthelegaltraditionasrepresentingIslamrsquosrichintellectuallegacyfromwhichMuslimsought todrawboth inspirationandguidanceQaradawi forinstance has been critical not just of the Muslimmodernists but alsooffellowSalafisfortheirirreverencetowardtherichesofthelegaltradi-tiontheiruneducatedproclivitytosetitasidealltoocallouslyOnthisviewarejectionofthetaqlid-boundlsquoulamashouldnotleadtotheotherextrememdashexemplifiedbynotafewSalafismdashofjettisoningthescholarlytraditionaltogether SalafisalsodifferamongthemselvesintheirattitudestowardmodernWesterninstitutionsandpracticesInthelatenineteenthandearlytwen-tieth centuries Salafi reformers like Muhammad lsquoAbduh and RashidRidainEgyptandJamalal-dinal-Qasimi(d1914)inSyriahadcalledforareorientationtowardthefoundationaltextsasawayofjustifyingnotresistingchangesinlawandeducationaswellasotherfacetsofso-cialreform(cfHourani1983Commins1990)OnthisviewadirectrecoursetotheQurrsquoanandthesunnaofferedthebestwayofdemonstrat-ing the accord between their teachings and the reformist project15 In

15SymptomaticofotherdisagreementsamongtheSalafisistheveryquestionofpreciselywhothesalafarewhoseexampleoughttobeemulatedThenarrowerviewslimitthesalaftothefirstthreegenerationsofIslammdashtheageoftheProphetMuhammadandhiscompan-ionstheirsuccessorsandthelatterrsquosimmediatesuccessorsmdashbuteventhesenarrowviews

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Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

contemporaryEuropeTariqRamadananinfluentialSwissArabphilos-opherhasarguedthatMuslimslivinginWesternsocietiesoughttofeelathomeinandcontributetoward thosesocietieswhileretainingandcultivatingtheirdistinctIslamicidentityHetooappearstoseehimselfinthegenealogyofwhathecharacterizesasldquoSalafireformismrdquo(onthischaracterization see Ramadan 2004 26ndash27) and he has echoed Qa-radawiinsomeofhisviews(cfRamadan199993ndash99) Other Salafis have remained staunchly opposed to institutions andpracticesofaWesternprovenanceAnespeciallyinfluentialfigureinthegenealogyofthelatterpositionistheeighteenth-centurypuritanicalre-former Muhammad ibn lsquoAbd al-Wahhab (d 1792) whose alliance in1744 with Muhammad ibn Salsquoud contributed to the establishment ofthefirstSaudistateinthelateeighteenthcenturyIbnlsquoAbdal-WahhabwashostilenotonlytoShilsquoismandtoSufidevotionalismbutalsotoany-thinghedeemednottobeinstrictconformitywiththeteachingsofthefoundationaltextsTherewasmuchthatseemedtohimtofailthisstan-dardallofwhichhebrandedasoneoranotherformofunbeliefTheWahhabismdashas the followers of Ibn lsquoAbd al-Wahhab are oftenknownthoughtheyprefertothinkofthemselvessimplyasgoodMuslimsoratbestasSalafismdashoftenadheretothelegalnormsoftheHanbalischooloflawthoughitistheteachingsofthefoundationaltextsirrespectiveofthisoranyotherschooldoctrinethattheyprofesstofollowThemoststringentoftheSaudiSalafisaswellasotherselsewhereareaveryfarcryindeedfromwhatQaradawiwouldcharacterizeasldquocentristrdquoSalafireformersletalonefromtheearlytwentieth-centurySalafimodernists

ThepoliticalviewsoftheWahhabisandmorebroadlyoftheSalafisare likewiseanythingbutuniformInSaudiArabiaWahhabireligiousscholarshavelongaffirmedaquietistpoliticalstancewhichhasmeantleavingmattersofthestatetotherulingfamilyFormuchofthehistoryofmodernSaudiArabiatherulingelitefor itsparthas imposedfewconstraintsontheSaudilsquoulamainmattersofreligiouslifetheregulationofsocialnormsandjudicialadministration(cfVogel2000)Onseveraloccasions however this relationship has come under severe strain In1979agroupofWahhabiswhorejectedthelegitimacyoftheSaudistateyethadtieswithsomeprominentreligiousscholarsmdashincludinglsquoAbdal-

feelconstrainedtomakeroomforsuchreveredfiguresasAhmadibnHanbaltheputativefounderoftheHanbalischooloflawandthefourteenth-centuryDamascenescholarIbnTaymiyya(d1328)OtherviewsarerathermoreexpansivenotjustinchronologicalbutalsoandcruciallyinintellectualtermsThusMuhammadlsquoAbduhthoughtthesalaftoalsoincludesuchtheologiansasal-Ashlsquoari(d935)al-Baqillani(d1013)andal-Maturidi(d944)SeeHourani1983149SuchaviewobviouslyopensthedoorforpreciselythesortoftheologicaldebatesthatotherSalafisaswellasIslamistsoftenfrownuponfortakingthebelieversveryfarfromthesimpleanddirectwordsofGod lsquoAbduhrsquosdiscipleRidaagaintookanarrowerviewofthesalafandlaterinhiscareerbecameastrongdefenderoftheWahhabisCfHourani1983230ndash32

22

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INTRODUCTION

lsquoAzizBinBaz(d1999)laterthegrandmuftiofSaudiArabiamdashtookoverthesacredprecinctsoftheKalsquobainMeccainashort-livedbutextremelyembarrassingchallenge toSaudi royalauthority (cfHegghammerandLacroix2007)In1990KingFahdrsquosdecisiontoinviteAmericantroopstodefendthekingdomagainstthethreatofanIraqiinvasioncreatedwide-spreadresentmentamongSaudis theeffectsofwhichcontinue to thisdayThestationingofnon-MuslimmilitarypersonnelinIslamrsquosholiestlandwasdeemedbythekingrsquoscriticstobescandalousandevensacrile-giousAnumberofprominentSaudiSalafispubliclycriticizedthekingrsquosdecisiononthisoccasioncallinguponhimaswellasonBinBazandoth-ersatthehelmoftheSaudireligiousestablishmenttoreorienttheSaudipolitytowarditstruereligiousfoundationsManyofthesedissidentsmdashwhowerealsojoinedbyldquosecularrdquoSaudicriticsoftheroyalfamilymdashwereandhaveremainedrestrainedintheircriticismevenastheycalledforstricterconformitytoIslamicnormsasthepanaceaforallills(cfFandy1999)OthershoweverhavedenouncedtheroyalfamilyanditsWesternalliesinnouncertaintermsBinLadenisonlythemostnotoriousofthosewhobrokewiththeroyalfamilyinthewakeofKingFahdrsquosdecisiontoinviteWesterntroopsin1990andwhocalledfortheoverthrowoftheroyal familyand for jihadagainstWesternpowers Such strident callshavebeencontinuedbyotherSalafisbothbeforeandaftertheterroristattacksofSeptember112001aswellasintheaftermathoftheUS-ledinvasionofIraq(al-Rasheed2007)

ItshouldbeclearinlightoftheforegoingthatanyunderstandingofthedifferencesbetweenIslamistsandtheSalafismustrestontakingac-countofthediversityamongtheSalafisSalafiswhooftenrejectmuchoftheIslamicscholarlytraditioninfavorofadirectrecoursetothefoun-dationaltextsarenotnecessarilyrenderedldquoIslamistrdquosimplybyvirtueofthisstanceForasnotedmanyoftheseSalafiscontinuetoprofessareso-lutelyquietiststancewhichinthecaseoftheSaudiSalafismeansaf-firmingallegiancetotheSaudiroyalfamilyThispositionisrepresentedforinstancebyBinBaztheerstwhilegrandmuftiaswellasbyotherleading members of the Saudi religious establishment A pro-regimestanceoroneindifferenttopoliticsisnolessldquopoliticalrdquoofcoursethana position of strident hostility to the established order at home andabroadForourpurposeshoweveritisonlywhentheSalafisrejecttheexistingdispensationandbeginstrivingmdashthoughnotnecessarilythroughmilitantmeansmdashforanewreligio-politicalorderthattheycanbesaidtojointheranksoftheIslamists

ItisworthnotingfinallythatSalafipositionsamongSaudisandelse-wherearemarkednotonlybydiversitybutalsobyconsiderablefluidity(al-Rasheed 2007) The same activist or intellectual might at varioustimesmoveamongavarietyofseeminglyincompatiblepositionsmdashap-pearingtobemoreldquomoderaterdquoonsomeissuesthanonothersForallhiscriticismofradicalIslamistsQaradawiforinstancehashimselfwrittenin justificationofsuicidebombingsbyPalestiniansagainst Israelis (see

23

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INTRODUCTION

chapter 9 on Qaradawi) And Saudi Salafis like Safar al-Hawali andSalmanal-lsquoAwdamdashwhocame toprominence in the early1990smdashhavealternatedbetweencriticismoftheSaudipoliciesanddenunciationsofradicalSalaficallstojihadagainsttheSaudiregime(seeal-Rasheed200759ndash101onal-HawalialsoseeReichmuth2006)Theirshiftingviewsreflect changes in their relations with the Saudi regime but they alsopointtothebroadspectrumofpositionswhichSalafishavetakenatdif-ferenttimesindifferentcontextsandbeforedifferentaudiencesThusevenasal-Hawaliandal-lsquoAwdahavecondemnedterroristactsdirectedagainstSaudiArabiaandadvisedSaudisnottofightAmericantroopsinpostndashSaddamHusseinIraqtheyhavecalledupontheIraqisthemselvestoresistAmericantroopsandhavecharacterizedthateffortasaldquodefen-sivejihadrdquo(al-Rasheed200794ndash95)

Sufi s and Islamists

ItseemsmuchsimpleronthefaceofittodistinguishbetweenIslamistsandSufisThecharacteristicSuficonvictionthattherearelevelsofmean-ingintheQurrsquoanthatgobeyondtheliteralandtheobviousandthataselectfewmdashtheldquofriendsofGodrdquomdashareendowedwiththeuniqueabilityto discern them is anathema to all those who insist that God intendsHisteachingstobeequallyintelligibletoallDespitetheirtendencytoviewthemselvesasbearersof true Islam Islamists typicallyregard theSufi idea that somepeoplehaveaprivileged relationshipwithGodassuspectthebasisnotonlyforsanctioninginterpretationsofIslamthatlackwarrantintheplainteachingsofGodandtheProphetbutalsoforpracticallyldquoworshipingrdquothesefriendsofGodIslamists(andmodernists)havefrequentlyalsobeencriticalofthewaySufidevotionalismcanyieldaturningawayfromtheworldratherthananefforttochangeitaswellasapreoccupationwithpersonalspiritualtransformationattheexpenseofconcernsforthewelfareofthecommunityatlarge SufipracticesandtheteachingsoftheSufimastershavevariedenor-mouslythroughoutthehistoryofIslamyetIslamistcritiquesofSufismareseldomattentivetoitsnuancesortothecomplexwaysithasrelatedtootherfacetsofIslamNorhaveIslamiststakenmuchaccountofthefactthatmanyleadingfiguresofearliertimeswerebesidesmuchelseSufisaswellThisistrueevenofIbnTaymiyya(d1328)whoseprestigeinIslamistandSalaficirclesismatchedbyfewothersandwhowasinhisdayamemberoftheQadiriSufiorder(Makdisi1974)EvenifonearguesmdashasanIslamistmightbeinclinedtomdashthatldquogoodrdquoSufismisnoth-ingbutproperIslamitselftheveryfactthatsuchfigureshadaSufiiden-tityatallnecessarilycomplicateswhatissupposedtobethepristinesim-plicityofafaithsharedequallybyallbelievers

Complicatingthingsstillfurtheristhevarietyofwaysinwhichsomeleading Islamists relate to Sufism Ayatollah Khomeini was a lifelongstudentofIslamicmysticismandtheinfluenceofthemedievalSpanish

24

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INTRODUCTION

Sufi Ibn lsquoArabi loomed especially large in his thought To Khomeinimysticismmdashoften referred to as lsquoirfan (gnosis) especially when inter-twinedwithIslamicphilosophyandtheology(Knysh1992632)mdashwascrucialtoaproperunderstandingofGodrsquosrelationshipwiththeworldandwiththehumanbeingItwasalsoessentialforonersquosethicalforma-tionforamasteryovertheselfandultimatelyforrealizinginoneselftheattributesofwhat Ibn lsquoArabihadcalledldquotheperfectmanrdquo (cfKnysh1992 635 also Mottahedeh 1985 180ndash85) Some of the austerity ofKhomeinirsquospersonallifeprobablyalsoderivedfromSufiasceticismAndthoughheanchoredhisconceptionofIslamicgovernmentinanexposi-tionofShilsquoijuridicalthoughtratherthaninIslamicmysticismthesortofreligiousauthorityhecametoenjoyonthebasisofhisreformulationofShilsquoipoliticaltheologyseemstoechomysticalideasoftheperfectmanwho embodies and upholds the moral order as the microcosm of theuniverse

UnlikeKhomeiniQutbwasnotaSufiandhegivesnoindicationofsharinganyofKhomeinirsquosenthusiasmforthegreatSufithinkersofear-liertimesEvensoechoesofamysticrsquosdirectencounterwiththefoun-tainheadoftruthandknowledgearehardtomissinQutbrsquoswritingses-peciallyinhiscommentaryontheQurrsquoan(cfCarreacute200395ndash97)TheveryfirstsentenceofhiscommentarymdashldquolifeintheshadeoftheQurrsquoanisablessingunknowntoanyonewhohasnrsquottasteditrdquomdashevokesthefa-miliarSufiideathatincontrovertibleknowledgeofRealityisultimatelyacquired only through direct personal experience (dhawq that is theldquotasterdquooftheTruth)ThegreatmedievalSufial-Ghazali(d1111)hadauthoredafamousautobiographicalaccountofhowitwasonlythroughthe immediacyofhispersonalmysticalexperience thathewasable toovercomehisdebilitatingepistemologicaldoubtsandreassurehimselfofthenecessarytruths(Watt199857)QutbdoesnotmentionGhazaliinthiscontextbutitisdifficultnottobestruckbythemysticalresonanceofsomeofhislanguageHereisoneexamplewhichoccursinhiscom-mentaryonsura(chapter)53oftheQurrsquoan16

16TheearlyversesinthissuraoftheQurrsquoanhavebeenunderstoodbyMuslimexegetesasreferringtotheProphetrsquosrevelatoryexperienceaswellastohisldquonightjourneyrdquoandhisascensiontoheavenormilsquoraj inthecourseofonenighthewastransportedfirstfromMeccatoJerusalemandthentothepresenceofGodbeforebeingreturnedtoMecca

UnrelatedtothenightjourneybutrelatedtohisrevelatoryexperiencestheexegeticalsignificanceofthisQurrsquoanicsuraalsoliesinitsconnectionwiththeso-calledSatanicVersesAccordingtocertainexegeticalreportsMuhammadwasinthecourseofreceivingarevela-tionwhenSataninterpolatedsomeversesintoitmdashversespraisingthreegoddessesreveredbythepolytheistsofMeccaItwasnotuntilsometimelaterthatMuhammadrealizedhiserrorwhereupontheversesinterpolatedbySatanwereremovedTheepisodeoftheldquoSa-tanicVersesrdquohasbeenacontroversialoneinIslamichistorylongbeforeSalmanRushdiersquosnovelofthatnameandKhomeinirsquosjuridicalruling(fatwa)callingforRushdiersquosdeathMostMuslimscholarshavefoundittooshockingtobelievethattheProphetcouldhavemadesuchagrievouserrorandhavedeniedthatanysuch incidentever tookplaceYetsome

25

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

IwaschattingoneeveningwithsomecompanionswhentoourearscamethesoundofsomeonerecitingtheQurrsquoannearbyrecitingtheSuraoftheStar[al-Najm]andweinterruptedourconversationtolistentotheNobleQurrsquoanLittlebylittlemyheartenteredintowhatwasbeing recited into theheartofMuhammadashe jour-neyedtotheHeavenlyHostIwaswithhimashesawGabrielintheangelicforminwhichGodhadcreatedhimIwaswithhiminhis loftyandfree-flying journey to theLoteTreeof theBoundaryandtheGardenoftheRefugeIwaswithhimtotheextentthatmyimaginationcouldformavisionofitandtotheextentthatmyfeelings couldbear itThen came the final cry andmywholebeingshookatthefearfulreproachldquoDoyoumarvelatthisdiscourseanddoyoulaughandnotweepandmakemerryrdquo[Q5359ndash61]WhenIheardldquoBowdownbeforeGodandserveHimrdquo[Q5362]thetremblinginmyhearthadbecomeaphysicalandvisibletremblingthroughoutmybodythatIcouldnotresistMybodykeptshakingandIcouldnotcontrolitNorcouldIholdbackthetearsthatwerepouringforthhowevermuchItried(QutbZilalvol7part2774ndash75quotedfromCarreacute2003333ndash34withminorchanges)

TheQurrsquoanrsquosprofoundimpactontheaestheticsensibilitiesofitslisten-ersisafamiliarmotifindiscussionsofitsliteraryqualities(cfGrahamandKermani2006)AssomeonewhoseearlywritingswereconcernedwithArabicliterarycriticismandspecificallywiththeliteraryexcellenceoftheIslamicscripture(Qutb1949b)QutbwasespeciallyreceptivetothisaspectoftheQurrsquoanThesenseofbeingtransportedbacktothetimeoftheProphetandtowitnessingtheProphetrsquosascension(milsquoraj)tothepresence of Godmdashwhich is how the passage being commented on byQutbherehascommonlybeeninterpretedbytheexegetesmdashcanlikewisebeseenasanillustrationoftheoverpoweringimpactthewordsoftheQurrsquoancanhaveonthebelieverQutbrsquosaccountofconversingwithGodthrough the Qurrsquoan (cited earlier) is again something he may havewantedtoseeallbelieversdoYetallbelieverscanscarcelydosoany-morethanallaspirantsevenontheSufipathcanexperiencethetransfor-mativemysticalldquostatesrdquothatGodbestowsonHisspecialfriends(awlshyiya)IrrespectiveofwhetherhesawitinquitethiswayQutbrsquosassertionthatheisabletoenterldquointotheheartofMuhammadrdquoandtoseeGabrielasMuhammad sawhimsurelygiveshimaperspective thatothers en-counteringthewordofGoddonothave

ThepointisnotofcoursethatQutbwaseverrecognizedbyhisfol-lowersasaSufimasterbutthatsomeofthehermeneuticalauthorityheclaimshasadistinctiveSufiringtoitMorebroadlythesortofunques-

leadingscholarsofearlyandmedievalIslammdashincludingIbnTaymiyyamdashacceptedthehisto-ricityofthisincidentSeeSAhmed1998

26

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INTRODUCTION

tioningreligio-politicalauthorityIslamistleadershaveoftenenjoyedovertheirfollowersisnotunlikethatoftheSufimasteroverhisfollowersBe-ginningwithHasanal-BannathefounderoftheMuslimBrotherhoodandoncehimselfamemberofaSufiordertheleaderofthisorganizationis formally referred to as themurshid (guide)ormore specificallyalshymurshid alshylsquoam (thegeneralguide[RMitchell1993165])whichisafamiliartermforthemasterinSuficontextsForhispartAbdessalamYassine the founder and leader of lsquoAdl warsquol-Ihsan Party of Morocco(oftenreferredtoastheJusticeandSpiritualityAssociationorJSA)haslike Khomeini gone well beyond simply echoing Sufi conceptions ofauthorityinhisowndiscoursesHetoowasonceamemberofaMoroc-canSufiorderandhehascontinuedtodrawonSufithemesinhiswrit-ingsTheverynameofYassinersquospoliticalorganizationevokesacentralSufiideanamelyihsanThisisaQurrsquoanicterm(cfQ756)thattrans-latedliterallymeansldquotodogoodrdquothoughSufishaveunderstoodittomeanmuchmore thanthatFollowingawell-knownstatementattrib-uted to theProphetMuhammad theyhaveoften interpreted ihsan tomeangoingbeyondtheexternalsofIslamicritualpracticestoldquoworshipGodasifyouseeHimrdquo(Schimmel197529)thatiscultivatingasenseof personal communion and intimacy with God Even as Yassine hassoughttodistancehimselffromwhathedeemstobetheexcessesofSu-fismthereislittledoubtthathispoliticalappealowesmuchtocarefullycalibratedeffortstocombinedistinctiveSufiideaswithhisownbrandofIslamism(cfLauziegravere2005seealsochapter12onNadiaYassineinthisvolume)

FinallyMawdudirsquosJamalsquoat-iIslamimdashoneoftheearliestIslamistorga-nizations in the Sunni worldmdashillustrates both the Islamistsrsquo complexrelationshipwith Sufismand their pragmatic recognitionof its appealinmanyMuslimsocietiesMawdudihadoncebeenaharshcriticofSu-fismblamingitformanyillsafflictingMuslimsocietiesYettheJama-lsquoat-iIslamigraduallycametosoftenitsstanceonSufipracticesconsider-ablynodoubtintheinterestofbroadeningsomeofitssupportbaseinPakistanwheresaintsandSufishrinesareanimportantpartofthereli-giousandpoliticallandscapeAlreadyinMawdudirsquoslifetimeMianTufaylMuhammadhissuccessorastheheadoftheJamalsquoat-iIslamihadtakentheextraordinaryinitiativeoftranslatinganearlySuficlassictheKashf alshymahjub into Urdu The author of this work Shaykh lsquoAli Hujwiri(d1072)isburiedinLahoreinPakistanandhismuch-frequentedshrineishometoprecisely thesortofdevotionalpractices that Islamistsandmodernist reformers letaloneSalafishaveoften frownedupon (Nasr1996124)

ThesediverseexamplesarenotintendedtoobscuretherealdifferencesbetweenthegeneralityofIslamistsandmostSufisTheirsignificanceliesratherinillustratingthedifficultyofdistinguishingbetweenIslamismandotherreligiousintellectualandpoliticaltrendsintermsofneatcharac-

27

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INTRODUCTION

terizationsofgrandtranslocalgeneralizationsAstheforegoingsuggeststhesameistrueandmoresowhenitcomestocharacterizingIslamistsinrelationtothelsquoulamatheMuslimmodernistsandtheSalafisIndeedasLorenLybargerhasarguedwithreferencetothoseusuallycharacter-izedasldquosecularnationalistrdquoorldquoIslamistrdquoPalestiniansintheWestBankandGazadifferenceswithintheranksofyoungsecularnationalistsandIslamistscansometimesalsoshadeintosignificantsimilaritiesbetweenthesesupposedlyrivalorientations(Lybarger2007)ManyIslamistshavesoughttodistancethemselvesfromwhattheyseeastherigidityandau-thoritarianismofotherIslamistsandtoarguenotjustfortheimplemen-tationofthesharilsquoabutalsofordemocracyandpluralismConverselynot a few of the younger secular nationalists have ldquoadopted IslamisttheodiciesthatexplainedthefailuretoovercomeIsraelastheresultoffallingawayfrompietytheirconclusionsmirroredIslamistonestootheroadbackfromthebrinkhadtotraceitscoursethrougharenewedcom-mitmenttoIslambutnotnecessarilyinthemannerthattheIslamistmove-mentsmighthaveintendedrdquo(Lybarger2007237ndash38quotationat238)

Yet ifneatcategoriesremainelusiveacombinationoftheIslamistsrsquoself-consciouslypoliticalgoalstheirmultifacetedifnotalwaysexplicitpoliticalcritiquesofmanypastandpresentwaysofunderstandingandlivingIslamandanunshakeableconfidenceintheirownabilitytodis-cern Godrsquos will from the foundational texts do often provide enoughgrounds tobroadlydistinguish themfromotheractivists intellectualsand orientations in the Muslim public sphere What this combinationamountstovariesfromonesocialpoliticalreligiousandculturalcon-texttoanotherandsothereforedothewaysinwhichIslamistsrelatetooneanotherorcompeteandoverlapwithothergroupsandorientations

The Politics of Islamism

FromAeneasrsquosmythicalfoundingofRometothedeathandresurrectionofJesusChristtoMuhammadrsquosmigrationtoMedinafoundationalnar-rativesareascommontocollectivelifeasthemovementsthatperiodi-callyarisetorevivethemandclaimantstothemantleoflegitimacytheyconferSounderstoodIslamistsrsquopoliticalaspirationstorestorefounda-tionslocatedinamythicalpastarefarfromuniqueNorareIslamistsaloneintheirconvictionthatscripturalauthorityisguaranteedbyitsdi-vineauthormdashforinthatallMuslimsagreeRatherthechaptersinthisvolumesuggest thatwhatmakes Islamistpoliticsdistinctive (ifnotsui generis)istheclaimtorecuperateanldquoauthenticIslamrdquocomprisedofself-evidenttruthspurgedofalienandcorruptinginfluencesalongwithaninsistenceonremakingthefoundationsofthestateinitsimageGiventhelimitsofhumanunderstandingrelativetoGodrsquosknowledgeIslamistssimultaneouslydepictsuchfidelitytotheunadulteratedwordofAllahas

28

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INTRODUCTION

theultimateexpressionofdeferencetodivineomniscienceandportrayhumilityasaconstitutivefeatureofthehumanconditionAspirationstofullyknowandmasterthenaturalandsocialworldsthusentailnotonlyahumanhubrisdeaftotheQurrsquoanicadmonitionthatldquoAllahknowsbutandyoudonotknowrdquo(Q366)butalsoatransgressionagainstadi-vinely-ordainedontologicalorder

ItisnotablehoweverthattheIslamistemphasisonthelimitsofhumanknowledgerequireshumilityonlyinrelationtoAllahitrarelyyieldshu-milityinregardtotheirownclaimstospeakinHisnameortowardotherhumanbeingswhodissentfromthepremiseofdivineomnipotenceandIslamistaccountsofwhat it requiresThis suggests thatwhile IslamistchallengestostatepowerareobviouslypoliticaltheIslamistclaimtoau-thenticityisalsopolitical inthecoercivepoweritroutinelyenactsandjustifiesmostnotablybywayofthesilencesitimposesandthedebatesitforeclosesAzizal-Azmehpointsoutthatldquothenotionofauthenticityisnotsomuchadeterminateconceptasitisanodeofassociationsandin-terpellationsatropebymeansofwhichthehistoricalworldisreducedtoaparticularorderandatokenwhichmarksoffsocialandpoliticalgroupsandforgesandreconstituteshistoricalidentitiesrdquo(al-Azmeh199341)WhetherintheserviceofArabnationalismChristianfundamental-ismEuropeanromanticismorMuslimmodernismtheclaimofauthen-ticityisanactofpowerthatfunctionsnotjusttoreflecttheworldbuttoconstructitbydeterminingwhoisincludedandexcludedwhomayandmaynotspeakauthoritativelywhatistheproperrealmofdebateandwhatisbeyondcontestation

ItiscertainlythecasethatasingleldquoIslamrdquocapturesandorganizestheperspectivesofmillionswhoself-identifyasMuslim(amongotherthings)yetwhattravelsunderitsrubricisinescapablydiversemultiethnicanddefined asmuchbydisagreement as consensus Just as theTorah andBible lend themselves toat times radicallydivergent interpretationsofwhatitmeanstobeJewishorChristiantheQurrsquoanandhaditharecom-plexandsusceptibletomanydifferentandattimescontradictoryenact-mentsSounderstoodIslamislessafixedessencethanalivingtraditionthatcaptureswhatisimaginedascontinuousandunitaryindialecticalrelationshiptothoseconcretearticulationsandpracticesbywhichitistransformedandadaptedindifferentcontextsforpluralpurposesItispreciselythisunderstandingofreligionthatisanathematoIslamistswhoseek tofix theparametersof Islamicauthenticityonceandforallandtherebyarrogateforthemselvestherighttodeterminewhoqualifiesasagood Muslim to discredit those lsquoulama unable or unwilling to purgeIslamofpurportedimpietiestodeclarenominallyMuslimrulersapos-tatesunfittogovernandtocharacterizeallwhodisagreeascorrupthe-reticalguiltyofunbelieforvictimsoffalseconsciousness

Thesegeneralpoliticaltendencieshowevermustbecarefullysituatedwithinadialecticoftheglobalandthevernacularunderstoodtoreflect

29

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

thewaysinwhichunifyingmacrohistoricaldynamicsinformandareinturntransformedbydiversecontingentandfluidlocalcircumstancesInaworldstampedbyWesterndominanceandtheconsolidationofpostco-lonial authoritarian regimes Islamists confront a common set of con-straintsandchallengesInasmuchassuchconstraintsandchallengeshavemade Islamist thinkers (often reluctant) participants in conversationsacrossbothcultureandhistorytheireffortstoremakethefoundationsofcollectiveliferevealasharedinterpretiveframeworkandcommonreli-gio-political grammar At the same time this frame and grammar arecontinuallybeingreworkedinrelationtothedistinctpublicspheresinwhichIslamistsoperateandtowhichtheycarefullycalibratetheirpoliti-calcommitments

Attention to this complex dynamic suggests that the Islamist move-mentcannotsimplybecharacterizedasviolentantidemocraticandop-pressiveofwomenlabelsinvokedsofrequentlyinscholarlyandpopularliterature on the subject that they have become virtually synonymouswithIslamistpoliticsSuchcharacterizationsdocapturecrucialdimen-sionsofIslamistpoliticsyettheyalsosidesteptheparadoxesitsvarie-gatedandoftencontradictoryexpressionspresentInsteadwearguethatIslamistpoliticscanbeproductivelyreadin terms ofandagainst the grain ofsuchbroadcategorizationsasantidemocraticantiwomanorviolentmdashthat is as commitments that at different moments in various localesbothencourageandconstrainbroad-basedpoliticalparticipationdisruptandratifyhierarchicalgendernormsresistandreproducestate-sanctionedbrutalityThepointofreadingIslamistpoliticsinthiswayisnottosug-gestthatIslamistsaresecretlydemocraticfeministandopposedtovio-lenceRatherthepointistodrawattentiontothecomplexityandcon-tradictionserasedbyeasygeneralizationsontheonehandandtheoftenunacknowledgedfluidityandculturaladaptabilityofotherwisefamiliarpoliticalcategoriesontheother

Islamism and Democracy

DespiteimportantdifferencesamongIslamistthinkerstheyhaveincom-monatendencytoviewhumansovereigntyastransgressiveofdivinelawandsharetheaspirationtoestablishsharilsquoaastheprimaryorsolesourceofauthorityAsisoftennotedsuchpremisesandaspirationsrunafoulofassumptionsaboutpopularruleattheheartofdemocracynamelythathumanbeingshavetherighttolegislaterulesforcollectivebehaviorandarecapableofthewisdomrequiredtodevisejustlawsInrecentyearspolicymakersandcommentatorshaveevincedaparticularpreoccupa-tionwiththewaysinwhichIslamistnotionsofdivineauthoritythrottlethespiritandpracticeofpopularsovereigntySomehaveevengonesofarastocharacterizeIslamistsasldquoIslamo-fascistsrdquoanimatedbyhatredoftheldquodemocratic Westrdquo psychologically unable to contend with the fluidity

30

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INTRODUCTION

andindeterminacythatmarkpopularruleandeagertoconvertelectionsintoaldquoone-manone-voteone-timerdquomechanismforestablishinganIs-lamicstate(Murdock2002MRubin2005Kramer1993)

SuchviewsareechoedbythoseIslamistskeentoportraydemocracynotonlyasantitheticaltothesupremacyofdivinelawbutasaTrojanhorseforWesternimperialismFormanyIslamistsincludingseveralinthis volumedemocracy is justone symptomofametastasizingmoralandspiritualbankruptcywherebymoraltransgressionsaretransfiguredintonaturalurgescrassself-interestbecomesthebedrockofcollectivelifeandthedivineplanfortheuniverseandallthingsinitisreducedtoa system of physical causality just waiting to be mastered by way ofhumaningenuity(REuben2007)Qutbcallsthisdiseasedviewoftheworldjahiliyyaanditsignalsnotonlyhumanarrogancebutatransgres-sionagainstdivineauthoritythescopeofwhichencompassesbothpub-licandprivatedomainsofhumanaffairsaswellasbothvisibleandun-seendimensionsoftheuniverseFormanyIslamistssuchtransgressionisattherootofmuchofwhatpassesforMuslimruleinthecontemporaryworldmdashnationalistdemocraticandmonarchicalalikeSucharroganceisalsosaidtobethepatternunderlyingalonghistoryofunrelievedWest-ernaggressionagainstIslaminwhichtheChristianCrusadesEuropeancolonialismIsraelitreatmentofPalestiniansethniccleansinginBosniaGermananti-TurkishviolencetheAmericaninvasionofIraqandDutchcartoonsofMuhammadarebutafewexamples

YetthereisarangeofviewsamongIslamistsaboutboththesubstanceofdemocracyanditscompatibilitywiththereligio-politicalrenewaltheyadvocateAccordingtoQaradawiforexampleldquotheessenceofdemoc-racyisthatpeoplechoosewhorulesoverthemandmanagestheiraf-fairsthatnorulerorregimetheydislikeisforceduponthemthattheyhavetherighttocalltherulertoaccountifheerrsandtoremovehimfromofficeincaseofmisconductandthatpeoplearenotforcedineco-nomicsocialculturalorpoliticaldirectionsthattheyneitherrecognizenor acceptrdquo (Qaradawi1997132 also chapter9 in this volume)TohimthereisnoheavierburdenoppressingMuslimsinthecontemporaryworld thandespotism indeed it is throughdespoticgovernments thatMuslimshavebeenforcedtosubmittootherillsincludingtheneglectofthesharilsquoaandthecoerciveimpositionofsecularismandwesternizationDemocracy then recommends itself to Qaradawi as the most effectiveavailableantidotetodespotismandtheafflictionsofwhichitservesasavehicle

WheremanyamongtheIslamistsandthelsquoulamahaveseenconsider-able tensionbetween IslamanddemocracyQaradawiprofesses to seenoneAswesuggestedearlierbyfarthemostcommonoftheIslamistreservationsaboutademocraticsystemrelatestothesovereigntyofthepeoplewhichistakentocontravenetheideathatGodaloneissovereignQaradawi however is unperturbedby such concernsThe rule of the

31

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INTRODUCTION

peopleoughttobeseenhearguesnotinoppositiontotheruleofGodbutratherinoppositiontotheruleofthedespotMorefundamentallyQaradawirsquos view of democracy does not necessarily require that thepeopleshouldbeabletooverturndivinelyinstitutednormsRatherhisassumptionisthatpeopleexercisetheirsovereigntywithinconstitutionalboundsandMuslimslivinginapredominantlyMuslimdemocraticpol-itywouldlikewisenotwishtotransgresstheparametersoflegitimatehumanactionlaiddownintheIslamicfoundationaltexts(seeQaradawichapter9inthisvolumeandcfFeldman2007)

NadiaYassineofMoroccorsquosJusticeandSpiritualityAssociationisan-othercaseinpointWhilecriticalofthedemocraticgesturesembracedbyamonarchythatshedepictsasallergictogenuinelypopularsovereigntyYassineinsiststhatthemodelofMuslimruleadumbratedintheummafoundedbytheProphetMuhammadandinparticulartheConstitutionofMedina17isnothingshortofdemocratic(NYassine2005d2005e)UnliketheMuslimdynastiesthatarosetousurpitYassinecontendsthiscommunity was participatory egalitarian committed to freedom andexpressiveofGodrsquosmercyMostimportantitwasgovernedalwaysbytheQurrsquoanicprincipleofshura (consultation)bywhichYassinemeansaphilosophy of power that places sovereignty in the community ratherthaninanyindividuallinksvirtuetodeliberationratherthanobedienceandexhortsbelieverstocontinuallyadaptQurrsquoanicprinciplesthroughijtihad rather than adhere reflexively to precedent (N Yassine 2006a182ndash862005d)ManyscholarsandjournalistsremainskepticaloftheJSArsquosasyetuntestedcommitment toproceduraldemocracyandworrythatNadiaandher fatherAbdessalamultimatelyseektoestablishanIslamic state inhospitable to tolerance pluralism and civil liberties(Maghraoui2001Brandon2007Whitlock2006)YetothersarguethattheJSAisagenuinelypopulistorganizationthatrepresentstheunrepre-sentedtendstothewelfareofthedispossessedandbothexpressesandcontributestoanincreasinglyvibrantcivilsocietyinMorocco(Cavatorta2006Entelis2002)

QaradawirsquosandYassinersquosargumentstogethersuggestthatdemocracycanandhasservedaseitheracosmeticcoverfordespotismoranauthen-ticallyIslamiccheckuponcorruptandarbitraryruleAtissueinIslamistargumentsforandagainstdemocracythenarenotonlywhatcountsasldquoauthenticIslamrdquoandtheintentionsofthosewhoclaimtoknowitbutalsothecontentandcharacterofdemocracyitselfParadoxicallybothIslamistsopposedtodemocracyandthosewhotakeIslamismasinher-entlyantidemocraticregardthisasasimplematterwithanobviousan-swerdemocracyisanexpressionofandevensynonymouswithliberal-ismcapitalismandtheWestYetdemocracyisbothmorecapaciousand

17TheConstitutionofMedinawasanagreementtheProphethadenteredintowiththelocalcommunitiesincludingJewishtribesuponhisemigrationfromMeccatoMedina

32

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

moredistinctthanthispresumptionsuggestsTheworditselfofcoursederivesfromtheancientGreekdemokratiawhichmeansrule(kratos)ofthepeople(demos)andmanyderivetheequationofdemocracyandtheWestfromthisassociationwithclassicalGreeceYetancientGreekphi-losopherssuchasPlatosawindemocracythespecterofmobrulepartic-ularly vulnerable to demagoguery and despotism (a suspicion notablyechoedbyAmerican founder JamesMadison)Contrary to thedemo-cratic idealof inclusivenessmoreover citizenship inGreekdemocracyexcludedasubstantialpartofthepopulationincludingwomenslavesandforeignersFinallytheextenttowhichtheancientGreeksmayevenbecalledWesternisamatterofgreatdisputeparticularlyastheldquoWestrdquoisacategoryofrelativelyrecentprovenancethroughwhichhistoryandgeographyhavebeenretroactivelyorganized18DespitedepictionsoftheHellenicworldasWesternancientGreeksdidnotinfactviewthem-selvesintheseterms19

TheequationofdemocracywiththeWestalsopresupposestheexis-tenceofacoherentldquoWesterncivilizationrdquowitheitherculturallyhomoge-neousrootsorclearlydelineatedhistoricalandcontemporarybounda-riesorbothYetwhatiscalledtheWestisanamalgamationofmultipletraditionsincludingtheGreekRomanJudaicChristianandIslamicmdashtraditionsthatarethemselvespolyvalentratherthanhomogeneousmdashandistodaycharacterizedbyporousbordershybridsubculturesandmyriaddebtstodiversecivilizationspastandpresent20AsageographicmarkeritisvirtuallyimpossibletopinpointexactlywheretheWestbeginsandendsandthisisespeciallysonowthatpeoplesinformationandmate-rial goods crisscross cultural andnational borders atwill creating allkindsoftransnationalsubnationalandmultipleidentitiesthatshiftandreconstitutethemselvesinunpredictablewaysEventhosevaluesidenti-fiedasWesternoftenappearelsewhereinotherguisesIndeedscholarssuggestthatavarietyoftheldquostandardsexportedbytheWestanditscul-turalindustriesthemselvesturnouttobeofculturallymixedcharacterifweexaminetheirculturallineagesrdquo(Pieterse199553)

Manyalsoarguethatdemocracyisnotonlydistinctfrombutinten-sionwithboththetheoryandpracticeofpoliticsinldquoWesternrdquosocieties

18MichaelGillespie(19997ndash10)arguesthattherereadingofhistorygeographyandculturethroughtheprismofthissenseofldquotheWestrdquobegannoearlierthanthenineteenthcenturyTheideaofatimelessandbrightlinebetweenWestandEastisalsochallengedbyJeremyBrottonrsquosstudy(19989096ndash97)ofthediplomaticandintellectualexchangesbe-tweenEuropeandtheOttomanEmpireintheearlymodernperiodBrottonshowsnotonlytheextentandamityofsuchexchangesbutapersistentuncertaintyaboutwherepreciselyEuropeldquoendedrdquoandAsialdquobeganrdquo

19AncientGreeksunderstoodthemselvesasgeographicallywestofthebarbariansbutnotWesterninthecontemporarysensethatisasbothaculturalandhistoricalcategory

20StevenRuncimanrsquoswork(19543480)ontheCrusadesforexampledemonstratesaldquolongsequenceofinteractionandfusionbetweenOrientandOccidentoutofwhichourcivilizationhasgrownrdquo

33

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INTRODUCTION

many of which are more accurately classified as liberal and capitalist(Wood1994Wolin2001BallandDagger1999)Whileitisnowcom-monplacetospeakofldquoliberaldemocracyrdquoinasinglebreathliberalismanddemocracyareconceptsandpracticeswithverydifferenthistoriesandpresuppositionsUnlikedemocracyforexampleliberalismemergedfromthecrucibleofChristianreligiouswarsandintandemwiththeas-cendanceofamiddleclassthatpresagedtheendofEuropeanfeudalismTheliberalnation-statecanthusbeviewedasbothanexpressionandaconsolidationofcapitalismontheonehandandtheprincipleofasepa-rationbetweenchurchandstateontheotherBycontrastthereisnoth-ingaboutdemocracyeitherasasystemofgovernanceoracultureofpar-ticipationthatisinherentlysecularIndeedAlexisdeTocquevillefamouslyinsistedthatAmericandemocracycannotandshouldnotbesecularasreligionhelpsshiftattentionawayfromimmediatematerialpreoccupa-tionstolargerconcernsofcommunitycooperationandmoralityInfactmanydemocratictheoristsarguethatgenuinelyinclusivepopularsover-eignty is antithetical to the sharp inequalities of wealth and politicalpowerthatcapitalismoftenproducesandlegitimates

SuchongoingdefinitionalandsubstantivedebatessuggestthatthereismuchmoreatstakeindemocraticpoliticsthanprocedurespertainingtogovernmentauthorityandorderandpointtoawidespreadifelusiveunderstandingofdemocracynotjustasasetofinstitutionsbutasTocque-villesuggestsawayoflifeSeveralpoliticaltheoristshavecharacterizedthiselusiveunderstandingintermsofaldquodemocraticethosrdquoBythistheymeanbothanidealandanargumentforacultureofparticipationactivepowersharingmutualaccountabilityinclusivenessanddeliberationinwhichcitizensmayroutinelyandsafelychallengenotonlyspecificpoli-ciesandpolitical institutionsbutalso thevalues thatgoverncollectivelifeprinciplesofinclusionandexclusionandthepremisesofauthorityitself(Connolly1995JPEuben2003Sadiki2004)AdemocraticethosismuchmoredifficulttomeasureorquantifythanforexampleSamuelHuntingtonrsquosparsimoniousdefinitionofdemocracyasapolityinwhichtherehavebeentwoconsecutivepeacefulchangesofgovernmentbywayof freeand fairelections (Huntington1991)21Yetademocraticethosmakesitpossibletobothrecognizeanddisaggregatethepreconditionsaspirations mechanisms and institutions bundled into ldquodemocracyrdquotherebybringingintofocusforexamplethefrequentlyantidemocratic

21Manypoliticalscientistsprefertodefinedemocracyintermsofproceduresdesignedtorealizepopularruleincludingfreecompetitiveandfairelectionsalongwithstateprotec-tionofcertainrightsandlibertiesSuchaformalminimalistdefinitionhastheadvantageofdetachingdemocracyfromquestionsoforiginsandofferingastandardtowhichallgov-ernmentsmaybeheldregardlessofcultureandplaceAsKeithTopper(2005205ndash7)ar-gueshoweveritalsotendstosidestepknottyquestionsaboutthesubstanceofrepresenta-tion power responsiveness and accountability that are arguably central to democraticpolitics

34

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

casttoelectionsimposedbyelitesorforeignpowersthefeltimpotenceofmanycitizensinestablisheddemocraciesandthosehighlyparticipa-torycivilsocietiesthatflourishevenundermonarchicortheocraticrule

Forourpurposes inparticularademocraticethosmakesvisible theparadoxofanIslamistmovementthatseekstomobilizeordinaryMus-limsagainstcoercivepowerbutinthenameofareligio-politicalorderlargelyimmunizedfromchallengeQutbisanaptillustrationhereashistendencytogroundhisownspecialauthorityandinsightintheunsulliedwisdomofordinarybelieversmakesitpossibletoreadhisworkaseitherabriefagainstdemocracy(amongotherthings)oranenactmentofitIn-asmuchasdemocracyasaformofgovernanceisidentifiedwithpopularsovereigntyQutbrsquosbasicpremisethat thefoundationof legitimateau-thoritymustbedivineratherthanhumansuggeststhatheisunambigu-ouslyantidemocraticMoreoverQutbrsquoseffortstopluralizereligiousandpolitical authority express not a confidence in common wisdom butratheradesiretoclaimforhimselfthestatureofareligiousexpertwhodespitehislackofIslamicacademiccredentialscanclearlyseewhatoth-erscannotQutbcharacterizestherealIslamasself-evidentbuthealsoassumesthatonlyasmallvanguardofbelieversbesideshimselfwillhavetheabilitytorecognizeitandactdecisivelytoremaketheworldinitsimageSounderstoodthesignofldquochosennessrdquoisunyieldingcommitmenttoestablishingareligio-politicalorderthatsimultaneouslypresumesthesupremacyofthefewcapableoftrueknowledgeandpromisesaworldinwhichdissentitselfwillbecomebothunnecessaryandillegitimate

Yetifdemocracyrefersnotonlytoasystemofgovernanceorsetofprocedurestorealizepopularsovereigntybutalsotopracticesthatdis-ruptthoseforceswhichconcentratepowerandestablishpoliticalexclu-sionthecharacterizationofQutbrsquosworkassimplyantidemocraticmissesa crucial dimensionof its significance and appealAs the sacred textscontaintherulesandregulationsmeanttogovernbothpublicandpri-vateaffairsQutbrsquosinsistencethatordinaryuntrainedMuslimsmusten-gagethemdirectlyisinmanywaysademocratizationofaccesstoau-thoritySuchaccesscandisruptdeeplyentrenchedpatternsofpowerandpowerlessness particularlywhen conjoined to Islamist arguments thatarbitrarypowerisun-Islamicthatreligiousknowledgedependsoncom-mitmentratherthantrainingorexpertise thatMuslimshavetherightandobligationtodeterminewhenrulersareillegitimateandthatthosewhopreferordertojusticesecuritytofreedomandmoneytopietyhaveforfeitedanyclaimtoauthority

ThisaspectofIslamismhasfrequentlybeencomparedtotheProtestantReformationandmorespecificallytoCalvinistsrsquoattemptstotransferldquore-ligiousauthorityawayfromofficiallysanctionedindividualswhointer-prettextstoordinarycitizensrdquo(EGoldberg19913alsocfLoimeier2005)Suchaparallelhassparkedagreatdealofscholarlyspeculation

35

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INTRODUCTION

regardingapossibleldquoIslamicReformationrdquo22andarangeofargumentsaboutwhetherandhowIslamismmightfacilitatethedemocratizationofMuslim societies much as the Protestant Reformation is said to haveheralded the emergence of European ldquoliberal democracyrdquo While suchcomparisonsareevocativeafullerunderstandingof IslamismrequiresfirstsituatingitinrelationtoahistoricalshiftinthenatureandlocusofreligiousauthorityinIslambeginninginthenineteenthcenturyAsschol-arsofMuslimsocietieshavepointedouttheimpactofmasseducationnewtechnologiesfordisseminatingknowledgeandinformationanddra-matically changed social economic and political contexts have madeavailabletoamateurswhathadpreviouslybeenthepurviewofreligiousexpertsAtthesametimeithasinauguratedafragmentationofauthor-itywithintheveryranksofthelsquoulamathatcontinuestothepresentday23

InthiscontexttheascendanceandinfluenceofautodidactssuchasQutbHasanal-BannalsquoAbdal-SalamFarajandBinLadensimultaneouslyex-pressandaccelerateanongoingrenegotiationofauthorityoverwhomayspeakforIslamandonwhatbasisthepathofwhichisstillunfoldingandtheoutcomeasyetuncertain

Islamism and Gender

One already apparent consequence of this ongoing renegotiation overwhomayspeakforIslamandonwhatbasisistheentryofwomenintothe interpretive fray This development is increasingly unsettling thoseunwrittengendernormsarguablyattheveryheartofIslamistthoughtdisruptingthestandardsofmasculinityandfemininitythatreflecthowparticularculturesorganizehumanbeingsrsquosocialandreproductiveactiv-itiesintorolesthatareinturnthoughttoexpresstheldquonaturerdquoofmenand women Such norms are frequently considered tangential to theknottyproblemsofdefiningIslamismandadumbratingitscentralideasyetarangeofscholarshiponculturespastandpresenthasshownthatgenderisconsistentlytheterrainoverwhichbattlesforpoliticalcontrolandculturalidentityarefoughtMorespecificallyresearchindisciplinessuchasanthropologyhistoryclassicsandpostcolonialstudieshasdem-onstratedthatculturesinwhichfemalebodiesandbehaviorareregardedas indicesofmoralpurity tend to symbolically transformwomen intoconduitsof cultural corruption in timesof internal crisis and externalthreat(Papenek1994Chatterjee1990Tavakoli-Targhi1991Just1989Cohen1991Welter1966Bloch1978)Thisisespeciallytrueofcontem-

22Foralatenineteenth-centuryassessmentoftheprospectsforaldquoMuhammadanRefor-mationrdquoseeBlunt1882132ndash73

23EickelmanandPiscatori199637ndash39131ndash35Zaman2006Suchfragmentationhasinmanywaysbeenacceleratedbytheexplosionofdigitalcultureswhichpromoteamongotherthingsaldquoformofempoweredamateurismrdquo(Mirzoeff20026)

36

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INTRODUCTION

poraryreligio-politicalmovementswhosememberstendtoldquoidealizepa-triarchalstructuresofauthorityandmoralityrdquoendorsegenderdualismasgod-givenornaturalandcondemnvigorouslyrecentchangesingen-derrelationsasasymptomandsymbolofsecularistmoralbankruptcy(Riesebrodt1993Moghadam1992Hawley1994)

SeveralchaptersinthisvolumeilluminateIslamistgendernormsbyre-vealing thecharacterandcontentof Islamistconcernsabout theplaceandpurityofMuslimwomenmdashpreoccupationsFatimaMernissi(199199)hasgonesofarastocharacterizeasanobsessionDespiteimportantdifferences among Islamists thinkers many endorse gender norms inwhichthefairlyconventionalinsistencethatfemalenatureisdefinedinand through reproduction undergirds an understanding of women assymbolsofmoralvirtueandvesselsofculturalpurityThisviewsustainstheclaimthatmenandwomenareequalinreligiousbeliefbutperformfundamentallydifferentandcomplementaryfunctionsinsocietyWhilemenarenaturallymadetoruleinboththepublicandprivatedomainawomanbelongsinthedomesticrealmwhereherprimaryroleistobeawifeandmotheraswellastoinsuretheintegrityofthefamilythefirstschoolofmoraleducationAssuchfunctionsarerootedinaninescap-ablehumannaturefashionedbyGodawomanrsquosinabilityorunwilling-nesstoperformherdutiessignalsadisobediencetothedivinewillandpresages the corruption of the Muslim family from within From thisvantagepointtheWesterninsistenceonfullequalitybetweenthesexesisdoubly pernicious it at once liberates women from basic moral con-straintsandenslavesthemtomutuallyreinforcingsexualandcapitalistexploitationAsMurtazaMutahhari(1998xxxi)arguescapitalismmakesuseofwomentomarket itsgoodsldquoby trading inhonourandrespectthrough[their]powertoenticerdquotherebyldquotransform[ing]manintoaninvoluntaryagentofconsumptionrdquoInasmuchaswomenareresponsiblefor producing the next generation of Muslim men destined to restoreIslamtoitsformergloryitisnotonlythevirtueofwomenortheinteg-rityofthefamilythathangsinthebalancebutthefutureofIslamiccivili-zationitself

Zaynab al-Ghazali andMutahharimake several of these argumentsexplicitlyandindetail(seechapters10and11)butinmuchofIslamistrhetoricthenatureandsignificanceofwomenareestablishedindirectlyandsymbolicallyandthroughthreerecurrentimagesinparticularThefirstisofwomenassilentsymbolsofculturalmoralandsexualvulnera-bilityvoicelessfiguresinneedofmasculineprotectionorwhenitistoolatedefiledbodiesthatmutelydemandvengeanceSoforexamplelsquoAb-dallahlsquoAzzam(oneofBinLadenrsquosmentorsseechapter18)graphicallydetailstheagonizinghumiliationofyoungmenunabletoactwhentheAfghanwoman isldquocryingout forhelpher childrenarebeing slaugh-tered her women are being raped the innocent are killed and theircorpsesscatteredrdquo(lsquoAzzam1987a)Inthesecondimagewomenfunction

37

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INTRODUCTION

muchlikeachorusthatspeaksinpermittedcadencestoratifymasculineendeavorsSuchisthecaseforexampleinBinLadenrsquos1996ldquoDeclara-tionofWaragainsttheAmericansOccupyingtheLandoftheTwoHolyPlacesrdquo(seechapter18)wherethewomenexhortmentojihadinthefollowing way ldquoPrepare yourself like a struggler the matter is biggerthanwordsAreyougoingtoleaveusforthewolvesofKufr[unbe-lief]eatingourwingsWherearethefreemendefendingfreewomenbyarmsDeath isbetter than life inhumiliation Some scandals andshameswillneverbeotherwiseeradicatedrdquo24InthethirdimagewomenarecreaturesnotofthisworldbutofanothervirginalrewardsforthecourageousmartyrintheafterlifeThisisevidentinthefinalinstructionsforthe911hijackersforexamplewhereMuslimldquobrothersrdquoareurgedto purify their carnal impulses sharpen their knives for the dhabh (slaughter)andheedthecallofthehur lsquoayn (theblack-eyedones)await-ingtheminParadise(seechapter19)

Such rhetoric primarily registers women as an extensionmirror ormeasure of masculinity and together with explicit Islamist argumentsabouthumannatureandthefamilyarticulatesIslamistgendernormsinwhichmenandwomeneachhaveaproperlocationandpurposeinadi-vinely ordained social hierarchy Deviance from this gendered scriptthussignalsdisruptionofamuchbroaderreligio-politicalorderitbothpresumes and seeks to bring into existence The disruption caused byforeign aggression in particular exacerbates the tendency to translateconflict into an assault on Muslim masculinity and to conceptualizewomenaspotentialvehiclesforWesterncorruptioninneedofguidingand guarding Women such as Zaynab al-Ghazali and Nadia Yassinewho seek a prominent place and voice within the Islamist movementhavehadlittlechoicebuttocontendwiththisgenderedscriptDoingsohasentailedamongotherthingsnavigatingcarefullybetweenIslamistcharacterizations of womenrsquos visibility and agency as symptomatic ofthe new jahiliyya on the one hand and essentializing arguments thatequateIslamwithveilingfemalegenitalmutilationandhonorkillingsontheother

AsthechaptersonGhazaliandYassinesuggestIslamistwomenhavenegotiatedbetweensuchconstraintsandpressuresandtheirownambi-tionsindifferentwaysApioneeringdalsquoiya(onewhoinvitesMuslimstogreater piety)Ghazalirsquos own life reveals a fierce resistance to conven-tionalnormsofdomesticityevenasmuchofher(earlier)workappearsto embrace an Islamist gender ideology that defines women as wivesmothers andldquobuilders ofmenrdquo (al-Hashimi 1990 118)By contrastYassineisawifeandmotherwhoembracesanldquoIslamicfeminismrdquothatrequiresldquoreappropriatingtheinstrumentsofclassicaltheologyrdquoanden-

24TheIslamistjournalSawt alshyJihadhasgonesofarastofeatureldquowomenrsquosvoicesrdquointheformofrolemodelsnamedforexampleumm alshyshahid(motherofthemartyr)al-thoughitisunclearthattheseldquovoicesrdquoareactuallywomenrsquos(SUsher2004)

38

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INTRODUCTION

gaging the textsdirectly through ijtihad (NYassine2003) In this re-spect Yassine must be understood as part of a broader effort amongMuslimwomenwithdifferentpoliticalcommitmentstosimultaneouslyadvocateandenacttheirrighttorecuperatetheldquooriginalintentrdquooftheIslamictextsIfwomenandmendoinfacthavedistinctperspectivesontheworldYassinesuggestswomenhaveaspecialobligationtoexcavatewhattheyseeasthegenderparityoftheQurrsquoanburiedbeneaththoseldquomachointerpretationsrdquoofIslamuponwhichmenhavebuilttheirprivi-legeandpower(Khalaf2006)25

ManyAnglo-AmericanandEuropean feministsworry that Islamistsseekonly to secureor restorepatriarchalpowerConverselymany Is-lamist women view feminism as a term and a movement inescapablyWesterninoriginfreightedwiththelegacyofcolonialismanduneasilyimplicatedinculturalimperialismThisapplieseventoYassinewhoisunwillingtoadoptwithoutqualificationalabelsheassociateswithagen-dasopposedtoherowntheWesttheMoroccanstateMaghribi(North-westAfrican)elitesYetfeminismitselfisahighlycontestedtermwithin theso-calledWestitisthebearerofmultiplemeaningssomeofwhichareevenopposedandischaracterizedbydeepdisagreementsaboutwhowomenarewhatwomenneedwhoisauthorizedtoworkonwomenrsquosbehalf andbywhatmeans Inasmuch as these various feminismsmayshareonlyastatedconcernforwomenrsquoswelfarethereisnothinginco-herentinmodifyingldquofeminismrdquowithldquoIslamicrdquoldquoMuslimrdquoorevenldquoIs-lamistrdquounlessone iscommitted toarguing thatfirst Islam isanun-changingessencebeyondhistorypoliticsandculturesecondthereisaneutralobjectivevantagefromwhichtoidentifythisessenceonceandforallandfinallytheIslamicessencesoidentifiedisfundamentallyin-compatiblewitheffortstoimprovetheconditionsandqualityofwomenrsquoslivesBythesametokenIslamistwomenwhorejectthetermfeminismcanbe(althoughnotalwaysare)deeplycommittedtoimprovingwom-enrsquoswelfareaswellasactivelyresistanttoeffortsthatreduceortrans-formthemintosilentaccessoriesofmalepower

YassineandGhazalidifferaboutwhatwomenareandshouldbeyetbroadlyspeakingbothmaybeconsideredpartofarecenttrendtowardthe feminizationofdalsquowa Dalsquowa literallymeanscallappealor sum-monsbutthetermhascometosignifyavarietyofpracticesandargu-mentsmeanttoexhortinviteandguideMuslimstowhatisregardedasproperconductandmoraldevotionWomenrsquosparticipationindalsquowais

25WomenrsquosparticipationintheldquoproductionofofficialIslamicknowledgerdquohasalonghistoryalthoughtheyhaveoftendonesoinrelativeobscurityandwithoutthebenefitofeducation in the Islamicsciences thathas legitimateddirectengagementwith thesacredtexts (Cooke 2001 xiv Badran and Cooke 2004) Pioneering attempts to read genderequalityinIslamarealsonotconfinedtowritingbywomenasevincedbyQasimAminrsquosTahrir alshymarrsquoa [TheLiberationofWoman] (1899)andMumtaz lsquoAlirsquosHuquqshye niswan [TheRightsofWomen](1898)

39

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

notabrandnewphenomenonasisevidentinGhazalirsquosworkwiththeEgyptianSocietyofMuslimLadiesinthe1930sYetfromEgypttoPaki-stantoSaudiArabiatotheUnitedStatesthenumberoffemaledalsquoiyashasproliferatedexponentially inrecentyears(Cooke2001Mahmood2005Hirschkind2006)Thisreflectsinpartcurrentdoctrinalempha-sesondalsquowaasincumbentuponbothmenandwomenanddependentlessupontechnicalknowledgethanmoralvirtueandpracticalfamiliaritywiththeIslamictradition(Mahmood200565ndash66)It isalsoaconse-quenceofrecentpoliticalandsocioeconomictransformationsinMuslimsocietiesincludingtheexpansionofmasseducationthathasnotonlyin-creasedwomenrsquosliteracyandsocialmobilitybutalsomadeIslamictextsmoreaccessibletheproliferationoftechnologiesmdashfromthecassettetapetotheInternetmdashthatfacilitatethecirculationofreligiousknowledgeevenamongthosewhocannotreadortraveltheprecedentsetbythevigorousparticipationof IranianwomeninpostrevolutiondebatesaboutIslamandthemodeloflegalactivismevidentintheIslamistmovementrsquosownchallenge to the lsquoulamarsquos status as gatekeepers of religious knowledge(Singerman2005Mir-Hosseini1999)

If Ghazali and Yassine exemplify the feminization of dalsquowa amongelitesthemosquemovementinEgyptillustratesthegrowingparticipa-tionofwomenfromdiversesocialbackgroundsinreligiousclassesde-votedtostudyinganddebatingwhatIslamrequiresforawomantobeldquomorallyuprightrdquointhecontemporaryworld(Mahmood2005)Con-ceptualizingpiety in termsof adeepandholistic commitment to self-transformationparticipantsinthemosquemovementareconcernedlesswithmattersofsovereigntyandpoliticsconventionallyunderstoodandmorewiththeldquomoralcultivationrdquoofthosedailypracticesseenascrucialtobecomingclosertoGod(Mahmood2005)SomeIslamistshavecriti-cizedthis focusonpracticesofworshipasapoliticalandoverlypriva-tizedyetsuchcriticismmissestheforceofIslamistsrsquoowninsistenceondin(religion)asawayoflifeinwhichthedomainsofpublicandprivateare inextricably linked26AsSabaMahmood (2005193194) showsthesewomenrsquosintenseeffortsatldquoretrainingethicalsensibilitiesrdquohavealdquosociopoliticalforcerdquothatextendswellbeyondmattersofgovernancefacilitatingnolessthantheemergenceofaldquonewsocialandmoralorderrdquoEvidenceofitstransformativepowermaybefoundnotonlyinthesheernumbersandvarietyofwomenmdashwealthyandpoor literateand illiter-atemdashparticipatinginthemosquemovementbutalsointherhetoricalandpoliticaleffortsbythestateandsomeIslamiststocurtailcontrolordis-creditit(Mahmood200571194)

26ParticipantsinthemosquemovementinturnareoftencriticalofwhattheyseeasthereductionofIslamtotokensofculturalauthenticityorofitsinstrumentalizationbybothnationalistsandIslamiststheycharacterizeasmoreinterestedinpoliticalmaneuveringthanreligiouspiety

40

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

Understoodtoincludebothwrittenandembodiedpracticesthefemi-nizationof dalsquowa illustrates theways inwhichwomen fromdifferentperspectivesandsocialclassesareinsistingonengagingthesacredtextsdirectly for and with one another without the mediating authority ofmenwhohavetraditionallyheldthemonopolyonsuchactivitiesAsSu-danese Islamist Lubabah al-Fadl argues ldquoAs an insan [human being]whohappenstobeawomanIhavearighttorejectthemanipulativeexegesesofoursharilsquoa thatthreatenmyexistenceinawaythat isnotconsistentwiththeGodlywayandtoapplymyownijtihadtorectifyer-roneoustendenciesbysomeshuyukh[pluralofshaykh]rdquo(Sadiki2004290)DespitetheproliferationofvoicesintentonclaimingforthemselvestheauthoritytodemarcatewhatisauthenticallyIslamicandun-Islamiconceandforallcontestationoveritsscopeandmeaningproceedsapacefacilitatedatleastinpartbywomenformerlyexcludedfromtheconver-sationAtthesametimeIslamistwomenrsquosagencyandclaimstoauthorityarefrequentlystillpredicatedonawillingnesstofollowfairlypatriarchalrulesaboutwherehowandwithwhomtheymaypracticetheirvocation(Hirschkind2003Sadiki2004283)

Islamism and Violence

IfgenderisfrequentlyanimplicitpreoccupationamongIslamistsjihadisarguably Islamistsrsquomost consistently explicit concern Jihad is derivedfromtheArabicverbthatmeanstostruggleortostriveyetitisaparticu-larkindofstruggle that isofconcern tomanyof thefigurescollectedheretheoftenviolentstruggleagainstapostatesandinfidelsbothathomeandabroadtowhicheveryindividualMuslimmustcontributeTheclaimthatfightingunbelieversisthepreeminentenactmentofindividualMus-limpiety seems to justify characterizationsof Islam ingeneral and Is-lamisminparticularassanctioningevenencouragingviolenceYetwhatIslamistsrepresentasjihadtout courtisahistoricallyspecificunderstand-ingderivedfromahighlyselectiveuseoftextsandprecedentsprominentamongthemaformerlyobscureclaimbytheinfluentialfourteenth-cen-tury jurist IbnTaymiyya thatMongol rulerswhohad contravened Is-lamiclawcouldbesubjecttoforcibleremovalFarfromadefinitiveex-pressionof Islamldquoproperlyunderstoodrdquo such Islamist argumentsnotonlymarkasignificantdeparturefrommuchofantecedentdoctrineandpractice but also diminish the importance of ongoing disagreementsamongMuslimsabouttheformandpurposesofjihad

TobeginwithMuslimscholarshavetendedtoconsiderjihadagainstforeignenemiesafard kifaya(collectiveobligation)thatisadutyagroupofpeoplewithinthecommunitymayperformonbehalfoftherestandonethatpresupposesalegitimateMuslimleadertodeclareorleadthechargeJuristshavedistinguishedthisfromthefard lsquoayn(individualduty)thatmustbefulfilledbyeverysingleMuslimincasesofdefensivejihad

41

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

thatiswhentheummaisunderattackManyIslamistsincludedheretakeamuchlessnuancedviewofjihadAsamodeofpoliticalactionQutbarguesjihadmustberegardedasaldquopermanentconditionnotanocca-sionalconcernrdquoonethatincurrentcircumstancesrequiresdeedsratherthanwordsstruggleratherthancontemplationrevolutionathomeaswellasresistanceabroad(Qutb199167ndash6882)lsquoAbdal-SalamFarajarguesalongsimilarlinesthatthenatureoftheattackonIslammakespolitical authorization by a caliph (ldquodeputyrdquo referring to a legitimatesuccessortotheProphetrsquosleadership)unnecessaryafterallldquoleadershipovertheMuslimsis(always)intheirownhandsifonlytheymakethismanifestIfthereissomethinglackingintheleadershipwellthereisnothingthatcannotbeacquiredrdquo(Jansen1986asec93)

SuchargumentsareadeliberaterejectionofearlyMuslimmodernistswhohademphasizedthelargelydefensivecharacterofjihadandsoughttoshowthatrelationsbetweenMuslimsandnon-MuslimswerenormallypeacefulratherthanantagonisticMahmudShaltut(d1963)therectorof al-Azhar from 1958 to 1963 had argued for example that theQurrsquoanicversesonfightingldquoprohibittheprovocationofhostilityandthisprohibitionisreinforcedbyGodrsquosrepugnancetoaggressionandbyhisdislikeofthosewhoprovokehostilityrdquo(Peters199674onShaltutseeZebiri1993)ConversionbyforceisanathematoIslamShaltutaversandfightingiscommandedonlyindefenseinresponsetoaggressionini-tiatedbyothersEvendefensivejihadmustaimatldquotheterminationoftheaggressionandtheestablishmentofreligiouslibertydevotedtoGodandfreefromanypressureorforcerdquo(Peters199675)

ManyIslamistsexplicitlydismisssuchargumentsasasymptomoffalseconsciousnessoneamongmanydestructiveeffectsofcolonialdomina-tionMawdudiargues for example thatwhile imperialists ravage theworld to satisfy their greed jihad alone ldquoconjures up the vision of amarching band of religious fanatics with savage beards and fiery eyesbrandishingdrawnswordsandattackingtheinfidelswherevertheymeetthemrdquoHavinginternalizedthis imageMuslimsrushtoapologizeandrenouncearmedstruggleInthiswayhelamentscolonialistsretaintheexclusiverighttoldquofightwitharmsandammunitionwhilewearecon-tented with our pen and our tonguerdquo (Mawdudi 1948 1ndash3) SayyidQutbforhispartagreedthatIslamdoesnotcountenancespreadingitsmessagebyforceandcoercionyethehadlittlepatiencewiththosewhosoughttopresentjihadaslegitimateonlyinself-defense

IfweinsistoncallingIslamicjihadadefensivemovementthenwemustchangethemeaningofthewordldquodefenserdquoandmeanbyitldquothedefenseofmanrdquoagainstallthoseforcesthatlimithisfreedomWhenwetakethisbroadmeaningofthewordldquodefenserdquoweunder-standthetruecharacterofIslaminthatitproclaimstheuniversalfreedomofeverypersonandcommunityfromservitudetoanyother

42

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

individualorsocietytheendofmanrsquosarroganceandselfishnesstheestablishmentofthesovereigntyofAllahandHisLordshipthrough-outtheworldandtheruleofthedivinesharilsquoainhumanaffairs(Qutb199050)

Qutbdoesnotnameanynamesincastigatingtheldquowriterswithdefeatistandapologeticmentalities[who]writeaboutlsquojihadinIslamrsquoandtrytoremovethislsquoblotrsquofromIslamrdquo(Qutb199046)buthecouldverywellhavehadhisdistinguishedfellowEgyptianMahmudShaltutinmind

These arguments about jihad may be said to constitute a commongrammarandframeworkofanalysisformanyIslamistsalthoughseveralthinkers in this volume carefully calibrate such claims to suit variouspurposesanddifferentpublicspheresInhisjustificationfortheassassi-nationofEgyptianpresidentAnwaral-SadatforexamplelsquoAbdal-SalamFarajdepictsthestruggletoreclaimthemoralfoundationsoftheEgyp-tianstateasafightagainstjahiliyyafromwithinarguingthatthejihadagainstacorruptnationalistregimeathomemusttakeprecedenceoverfightingenemieselsewhereTheCharterofHamas(seechapter15)how-everinsiststhatallMuslimsrecognizetheprimacyofthejihadforJeru-salemweldingIslamistrhetorictothatofnationalistresistanceinanef-fortbothtofightIsraelioccupationandtocompeteforadherentswiththePalestinianLiberationOrganization(PLO)IncontrasttobothFarajandHamasBinLadenembracesaglobaljihadthatessentiallycollapsesdistinctionsbetweennationalandinternationaloffensiveanddefensivefightingenemiesathomeandthosefromafar

Yet despite such differences these arguments tend to presume thatviolent jihad is a necessary response to the pervasive power of thosewithdemonstratedhostilitytoMuslimliveslandspietiesandsensibili-tiesaformofretaliationwhoseurgencyandlegitimacyderivefromtheviolencemdashpsychologicalandeconomicaswellasphysicalmdashoftheinitialassaultThisviewofjihadsubsumesindividualsintoarchetypesofldquoin-fidelsrdquoandldquobelieversrdquoandinsodoingvitiatesmoreconventionaldis-tinctionsbetweenforexamplesoldierandcivilianorcollectiveandin-dividual responsibility It is far from inevitable that thosewhoharborsuchviewswillautomaticallyactuponthemyetthecarnagewroughtbytheattacksontheWorldTradeCenterandthePentagonin2001aBalinightclub in 2002 Madrid commuter trains in 2004 and throughoutIraqonadailybasissuggestjusthowlethalsuchclaimscanbegiventheright circumstances The fact that such violence does not discriminateamongvictimsonlyfurtherfuelsrhetoriccharacterizingIslamistsasirra-tional fanatics ldquoin love with deathrdquo terrorists animated by a religioncharacterizedbyapropensityforviolenceandauthoritarianism27

27AnxietiesabouttheparticularsusceptibilityofMuslimstoirrationalityinsularityandfanaticismhavealonganddistinguishedpedigreeinEuro-AmericanhistoryandpoliticalthoughtSeeforexampleRenan18833

43

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

AsinsomanyothermattershoweverIslamistsarehardlyofonemindonthesubjectofjihadindeedthereareIslamistswhoexplicitlyrejectthereductionof struggle toviolenceAcase inpoint isNadiaYassine(20032005c)whoinsiststhatjihadisthededicatedstruggleagainstisshytikbar(arrogance)particularlyinitscommonformasthelustforpoweranddominationAsjihadagainstistikbarisbothafinalgoalandapre-scriptionforactionYassinesuggestsitisantitheticaltoviolentpracticesthataimatdominationTheprimaryinstrumentsofjihadarenotbombsbutwords particularly thosedeployed in the art of persuasion (Fara-marzi2005NYassine2006a)WhenIslamistssuchaslsquoAbdal-SalamFarajandlsquoUmarlsquoAbdal-RahmanseektolegitimizeviolentrevolutionbyrecoursetoIslamictextsshearguestheycontravenethetruemeaningofjihadtoservetheirownarrogantendsBythesametokenBinLadenrsquosdecisiontoldquofightevilwithevilandbarbaritywithbarbarityrdquonotonlyviolatesspecificIslamicprohibitionsagainstharmingcivilianswomenandchildrenbutalsobetraystheethicalimperativetoembodythemes-sageofamercifulGodwhocautionsbelieversthat(Q8822)ldquoYouhavenopoweroverthemrdquo(NYassine2005cDaily Excelsior2002)

SuchpersistentdisagreementsamongMuslimspastandpresentsug-gest that Islam isnomore inherently violent andbloody-minded thanitmdashorChristianityor Judaism for thatmattermdashis inherentlypeacefulIslamists often claim to speak for an unchanging authentic Islam thatexistsoutsideoftimeandspaceyetthepoliticalpurchaseoftheirper-spective derives from the ways it assembles disparate yet recognizablecontemporaryexperiencesofsufferingfrustrationandlossintoanex-planationthatresonateswithMuslimswholiveincommunitiescultur-allylinguisticallyandgeographicallydistantfromoneanotherTheex-tenttowhichIslamistargumentsresonatebroadlyacrossMuslimsocie-tiesthusdependsuponasetofexperiencesandphenomenathatmarkthisparticularmomentinhistoryincludingthewaysinwhichcontempo-raryglobalinequalitiescompoundalegacyofhistoricalasymmetriestocontinuallyreproduceasenseofMuslimpowerlessnessmdashbothrealandimaginedmdashrelativetotheWestcontinuingEuro-Americanpoliticalandfinancialsupportofcorruptautocratsmanyofwhompresideoverna-tion-statesbrutallystitchedtogetherbyWesternfiat thepersistenceofauthoritarian regimes eager to control domestic unrest by catalyzingldquoMuslimragerdquotowardexternaltargetsthesenseofemasculationpro-ducedbydecadesofpoliticalrepressionandeconomicfrustrationandthecontinualflowofimagesofbloodiedMuslimbodiesdeliveredbyaburgeoningarrayofvideosatelliteandelectronicmedia

It is notable that the understanding of jihad many Islamists proffermirrorstheverystate-sanctionedviolenceagainstwhichtheyhavestrug-gledforalmostacenturyAlongwiththousandsofMuslimscaughtinthemachineryoftwentieth-centurystateviolenceprominentIslamistsfromQutbtoGhazalitoAymanal-Zawahirimdashal-Qalsquoidarsquossecondincommandmdash

44

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

arewellknowntohavebeenradicalizedbyextendedandoftenbrutaltermsofincarcerationinEgyptSyriaIraqJordanIsraelAlgeriaandelsewhere(onal-ZawahiriandprisoncfKepelandMilelli2008152ndash54)ItisthusfarfromsurprisingthatIslamistsforgedbyinterrogationtortureinprisoncampswouldconcludethatthepreeminentenactmentofMuslimpietyisviolentstruggleldquoPrisonrdquoasPalestinianKhaledAbuHilalhassaidldquoismyuniversityrdquo(Erlanger2007)anargumentmadeingreaterdetailinadifferenttimeandplacebyRussianwriterandrevolu-tionaryMaximGorky(1868ndash1936)

Apeoplebroughtupinaschoolthatremindsoneofthetormentsofhellonasmallscaleapeopleaccustomedtotheclenched-fistprisonandthewhipwillnotbeblestwithatenderheartApeoplethatthepoliceagentshaveriddenoverwillbecapableintheirturnofwalk-ingoverthebodiesofothersInacountrywhereunresthasreignedsolongit isdifficultforthepeopletorealizefromonedaytothenextthepowerofrightOnecannotdemandfromamanwhohasneverknownjusticethatheshouldbejust(Gorky1920)

InthiscontextasTimothyMitchell(1990195ndash96199207ndash8)suggestsIslamistviewsoftheworldcanbecharacterizedasbothamodeofresis-tancetostatemechanismsofcoercionandanexpressionofthemSuchisthedynamic evident inGhazalirsquosmemoirs for examplewhen shede-scribeshowtheldquodarknessofprisonsthebladesoftortureandthevi-ciousbeatingsonly increasetheenduranceandresolveofthefaithfulrdquo(Ghazali19786)

There is no doubt a great deal of pragmatism at work in IslamistargumentsaboutviolenceAsQutb(19916447ndash48)drylynotesthepathtofreedommustoccasionallybehewnbywayoftheswordbecausetyrants are not reasoned out of power and ldquojahiliyya is not lsquoabstracttheoryrsquo[it]consciouslyorunconsciouslystrivestopreserveitsownexistence to defend its essence to annihilate dangerous elementswhichthreatenitsverybeingrdquoYetitisalsothecasethatformanyoftheseIslamistsjihadisbothameansandanendanefforttoeradicatethoseobstacles torestoringa justcommunityonearththatsimultane-ouslybringshumanaction intoaccordwithGodrsquosplansandpurposes(Haddad198321)While theQurrsquoan (2256) states thatldquothere isnocompulsioninreligionrdquoIslamistscontendthatonlyinastateinwhichIslamiclawreignssupremearehumanbeingsfreefromenslavementtooneanotherrsquosruleandallareequalbyvirtueoftheircommonsubmissiontoGodAsQutb(1991107ndash8)argues

WhenthehighestauthorityinsocietyisGodalonemdashexpressedintheruleofdivinelawmdashonlythenishumanitytrulyandcompletelyliber-atedfromslaverytomenOnlythisisldquohumancivilizationrdquobecausetheessentialfoundationofhumancivilizationisthetrueandcom-

45

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

pletefreedomofhumanityandtheabsolutedignityofeveryindivid-ualinsocietyThereisnotruefreedomanddignityforhumanityortheindividualinasocietywheresomepeoplearelordswholegislateandothersareslaveswhoobey

From this perspective the realization of justice liberty equality andchoiceitselfnecessitatestheforcibleremovaloftheconstraintsimposedbyjahiliyyaalongwiththosewhoaidandabetitno matter the costAsMawdudi(1954160ndash61)writes

[W]hyisitthatinreligionsuchimportanceisgiventojihadthattheQurrsquoanpronouncesthejudgmentofhypocrisyuponthosewhoshirkandevadeitJihadisbutanothernamefortheattempttoerectthesystemoftruthandtheQurrsquoandeclaresjihadtobeatouchstoneonthesamefootingwithamanrsquosfaithInotherwordshewhohasfaithinhisheartwillneitherbecontentwiththedominationofthesystemofevilnorwillhegrudgetheexpenditureoflifeandwealthinthestruggleforerectingthesystemoftruthIfoneshowsweaknessinthismatterhisfaithitselfisdoubtfulWhatcananythingelsebesidethenprofithimThemanwhoprofesses faith in this religioncannotfulfillhisdutyonlybytryingasfaraspossibletopatternhislifeonIslamThenatureofhisfaithitselfrequiresthatheshouldconcentrateallhiseffortuponwrestingleadershipfromunbelievingandcorruptmentoentrustittotherighteousanduponerectingthesystemoftruththathasbeenordainedfortheconductoftheworldaccordingtothewillofGodBecausethisendisunattainablewith-out thehighestdegreeofcollectiveeffort theremustexistarigh-teouscommunitycommittedtotheprincipleoftruthanddevotedtothesolepurposeintheworldoferectingmaintainingandproperlyrealizingthesystemoftruth

ThefactthatsomeIslamistthinkerssanctifyviolentstruggleinsuchtermsdoesnotmeanofcoursethatallthosewhoadvocateorengageinjihadendorseviolence28NordoesitimplythatthosewhoclaimtokillforIslamareentirelywithoutulteriormotivesthosemanipulativepur-poses andpsychologicalmotivations that even themost rarified scrip-turalargumentscanexpressorserveWhattheprecedinganalysisdoessuggesthoweveristhatthereductionofthisviewofjihadtoirrationalbloodlusttheself-interestedgrabfortemporalpoweroradoorthroughwhichtopassintothehereaftermissesacrucialdimensionofitssignifi-canceandappealfortruebelieversjihadisnolessthananenactmentof

28EvenashespokeofaneweraofjahiliyyaandofjihadMawdudihimselfstoppedwellshortof recommendingor condoning the actual resort to violence in themannermanyotherIslamistsdidAsNasr(199670)observesMawdudirsquosorganizationtheJamalsquoat-iIs-lamildquohasavoidedviolentsocialchangeandhasinsteadviewedthepathtotheIslamicstateaslyingwithintheexistingsociopoliticalorderrdquoAlsoseethechapters5and3onQutbandMawdudiinthisvolume

46

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

adivineimperativetoremakethefoundationsofcollectivelifeInthisre-spectIslamistviewsofjihadcanbeseenaspartofalong-standingasso-ciationbetweenviolenceandpoliticalfoundingsuponwhichnoparticu-larcultureorhistoricalepochhasamonopolyThisassociationandtheldquolegacyofviolencerdquoitbequeathstofuturegenerationsarenolessappar-entinthoseradicalrevolutionsofrenewalthatmovebywayoftheswordfromthemarginstothecenterthanthosepoliticalfoundingsthatclaimtocreatesomethingoutofnothing(Connolly1995251)Ineithercasethetollofsuchbrutalitycanbeimmeasurableforinadditiontothevic-timswhosufferdirectlytheldquopracticeofviolencelikeallactionchangestheworldbutthemostprobablechangeistoamoreviolentworldrdquo(Ar-endt1972177)

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geoptimaliseerd voor prepress-afdrukken van hoge kwaliteit De gemaakte PDF-documenten kunnen worden geopend met Acrobat en Adobe Reader 50 en hoger) NOR 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 PTB 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ltFEFF0041006e007600e4006e00640020006400650020006800e4007200200069006e0073007400e4006c006c006e0069006e006700610072006e00610020006f006d002000640075002000760069006c006c00200073006b006100700061002000410064006f006200650020005000440046002d0064006f006b0075006d0065006e007400200073006f006d002000e400720020006c00e4006d0070006c0069006700610020006600f60072002000700072006500700072006500730073002d007500740073006b00720069006600740020006d006500640020006800f600670020006b00760061006c0069007400650074002e002000200053006b006100700061006400650020005000440046002d0064006f006b0075006d0065006e00740020006b0061006e002000f600700070006e00610073002000690020004100630072006f0062006100740020006f00630068002000410064006f00620065002000520065006100640065007200200035002e00300020006f00630068002000730065006e006100720065002egt ENU (Use these settings to create Adobe PDF documents best suited for high-quality prepress printing Created PDF documents can be opened with Acrobat and Adobe Reader 50 and later) gtgt Namespace [ 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Page 20: Chapter 1 INTRODUCTION - assets.press.princeton.eduassets.press.princeton.edu/chapters/s9067.pdf · Chapter 1 INTRODUCTION This volume is intended as a broad introduction to the evolution

20

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INTRODUCTION

CairowasinchargeofoneoftheBrotherhoodrsquosfirstjournals(Mitchell1993185)andafterRidarsquosdeathin1935itwasatBannarsquosinitiativethatRidarsquosinfluentialjournalalshyManarwouldcontinuetobepublishedforsomeyears(RMitchell1993186)

ForalltheiraffinitieshoweverSalafiscannotsimplybesubsumedwiththeIslamistsanymorethantheycanwiththemodernistsUnliketheearlySalafisandothermodernists Islamistshavealmost invariablysought toaddressthemselvestoawidepopularaudienceratherthantotheintellec-tualelite(cfRMitchell1993211)TheSalafishavealsobeenfarmorepreoccupiedwithmattersofcorrectbeliefthenuancesofdoctrinethanhaveeither the Islamistsor themodernists (cfHaykel2009 [forthcom-ing])BythesametokenwhilemanyIslamistshavehadasomewhatam-bivalentrelationshipwithSufismSalafishaveusuallybeenunrelentinglyhostile to devotional Sufi practices But if it is useful to distinguish theSalafisfromothercompetingorientationsinmodernIslamitisimportantalsotorecognizethatthereismuchonwhichSalafisthemselveshavedis-agreedsometimessharplyInquestionintheseldquointernalrdquodifferencesisnottheiroverallorientationmdashtowardtheIslamicfoundational textsandthepristinenormsofIslamrsquosfirstgenerationsmdashbutratherthepreciseimplica-tionsofthisorientationforbeliefandconductinthepresentAconsider-ationofsomeofthesedifferencesshouldinturnfurtherillustratehowtheSalafisoughttobedistinguishedfromothercompetingcamps

WheremanySalafisseetheschoolsoflawasobstructingandindeeddistortingthesimplemessageofthefoundationaltextsothersviewthelegaltraditionasrepresentingIslamrsquosrichintellectuallegacyfromwhichMuslimsought todrawboth inspirationandguidanceQaradawi forinstance has been critical not just of the Muslimmodernists but alsooffellowSalafisfortheirirreverencetowardtherichesofthelegaltradi-tiontheiruneducatedproclivitytosetitasidealltoocallouslyOnthisviewarejectionofthetaqlid-boundlsquoulamashouldnotleadtotheotherextrememdashexemplifiedbynotafewSalafismdashofjettisoningthescholarlytraditionaltogether SalafisalsodifferamongthemselvesintheirattitudestowardmodernWesterninstitutionsandpracticesInthelatenineteenthandearlytwen-tieth centuries Salafi reformers like Muhammad lsquoAbduh and RashidRidainEgyptandJamalal-dinal-Qasimi(d1914)inSyriahadcalledforareorientationtowardthefoundationaltextsasawayofjustifyingnotresistingchangesinlawandeducationaswellasotherfacetsofso-cialreform(cfHourani1983Commins1990)OnthisviewadirectrecoursetotheQurrsquoanandthesunnaofferedthebestwayofdemonstrat-ing the accord between their teachings and the reformist project15 In

15SymptomaticofotherdisagreementsamongtheSalafisistheveryquestionofpreciselywhothesalafarewhoseexampleoughttobeemulatedThenarrowerviewslimitthesalaftothefirstthreegenerationsofIslammdashtheageoftheProphetMuhammadandhiscompan-ionstheirsuccessorsandthelatterrsquosimmediatesuccessorsmdashbuteventhesenarrowviews

21

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INTRODUCTION

contemporaryEuropeTariqRamadananinfluentialSwissArabphilos-opherhasarguedthatMuslimslivinginWesternsocietiesoughttofeelathomeinandcontributetoward thosesocietieswhileretainingandcultivatingtheirdistinctIslamicidentityHetooappearstoseehimselfinthegenealogyofwhathecharacterizesasldquoSalafireformismrdquo(onthischaracterization see Ramadan 2004 26ndash27) and he has echoed Qa-radawiinsomeofhisviews(cfRamadan199993ndash99) Other Salafis have remained staunchly opposed to institutions andpracticesofaWesternprovenanceAnespeciallyinfluentialfigureinthegenealogyofthelatterpositionistheeighteenth-centurypuritanicalre-former Muhammad ibn lsquoAbd al-Wahhab (d 1792) whose alliance in1744 with Muhammad ibn Salsquoud contributed to the establishment ofthefirstSaudistateinthelateeighteenthcenturyIbnlsquoAbdal-WahhabwashostilenotonlytoShilsquoismandtoSufidevotionalismbutalsotoany-thinghedeemednottobeinstrictconformitywiththeteachingsofthefoundationaltextsTherewasmuchthatseemedtohimtofailthisstan-dardallofwhichhebrandedasoneoranotherformofunbeliefTheWahhabismdashas the followers of Ibn lsquoAbd al-Wahhab are oftenknownthoughtheyprefertothinkofthemselvessimplyasgoodMuslimsoratbestasSalafismdashoftenadheretothelegalnormsoftheHanbalischooloflawthoughitistheteachingsofthefoundationaltextsirrespectiveofthisoranyotherschooldoctrinethattheyprofesstofollowThemoststringentoftheSaudiSalafisaswellasotherselsewhereareaveryfarcryindeedfromwhatQaradawiwouldcharacterizeasldquocentristrdquoSalafireformersletalonefromtheearlytwentieth-centurySalafimodernists

ThepoliticalviewsoftheWahhabisandmorebroadlyoftheSalafisare likewiseanythingbutuniformInSaudiArabiaWahhabireligiousscholarshavelongaffirmedaquietistpoliticalstancewhichhasmeantleavingmattersofthestatetotherulingfamilyFormuchofthehistoryofmodernSaudiArabiatherulingelitefor itsparthas imposedfewconstraintsontheSaudilsquoulamainmattersofreligiouslifetheregulationofsocialnormsandjudicialadministration(cfVogel2000)Onseveraloccasions however this relationship has come under severe strain In1979agroupofWahhabiswhorejectedthelegitimacyoftheSaudistateyethadtieswithsomeprominentreligiousscholarsmdashincludinglsquoAbdal-

feelconstrainedtomakeroomforsuchreveredfiguresasAhmadibnHanbaltheputativefounderoftheHanbalischooloflawandthefourteenth-centuryDamascenescholarIbnTaymiyya(d1328)OtherviewsarerathermoreexpansivenotjustinchronologicalbutalsoandcruciallyinintellectualtermsThusMuhammadlsquoAbduhthoughtthesalaftoalsoincludesuchtheologiansasal-Ashlsquoari(d935)al-Baqillani(d1013)andal-Maturidi(d944)SeeHourani1983149SuchaviewobviouslyopensthedoorforpreciselythesortoftheologicaldebatesthatotherSalafisaswellasIslamistsoftenfrownuponfortakingthebelieversveryfarfromthesimpleanddirectwordsofGod lsquoAbduhrsquosdiscipleRidaagaintookanarrowerviewofthesalafandlaterinhiscareerbecameastrongdefenderoftheWahhabisCfHourani1983230ndash32

22

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INTRODUCTION

lsquoAzizBinBaz(d1999)laterthegrandmuftiofSaudiArabiamdashtookoverthesacredprecinctsoftheKalsquobainMeccainashort-livedbutextremelyembarrassingchallenge toSaudi royalauthority (cfHegghammerandLacroix2007)In1990KingFahdrsquosdecisiontoinviteAmericantroopstodefendthekingdomagainstthethreatofanIraqiinvasioncreatedwide-spreadresentmentamongSaudis theeffectsofwhichcontinue to thisdayThestationingofnon-MuslimmilitarypersonnelinIslamrsquosholiestlandwasdeemedbythekingrsquoscriticstobescandalousandevensacrile-giousAnumberofprominentSaudiSalafispubliclycriticizedthekingrsquosdecisiononthisoccasioncallinguponhimaswellasonBinBazandoth-ersatthehelmoftheSaudireligiousestablishmenttoreorienttheSaudipolitytowarditstruereligiousfoundationsManyofthesedissidentsmdashwhowerealsojoinedbyldquosecularrdquoSaudicriticsoftheroyalfamilymdashwereandhaveremainedrestrainedintheircriticismevenastheycalledforstricterconformitytoIslamicnormsasthepanaceaforallills(cfFandy1999)OthershoweverhavedenouncedtheroyalfamilyanditsWesternalliesinnouncertaintermsBinLadenisonlythemostnotoriousofthosewhobrokewiththeroyalfamilyinthewakeofKingFahdrsquosdecisiontoinviteWesterntroopsin1990andwhocalledfortheoverthrowoftheroyal familyand for jihadagainstWesternpowers Such strident callshavebeencontinuedbyotherSalafisbothbeforeandaftertheterroristattacksofSeptember112001aswellasintheaftermathoftheUS-ledinvasionofIraq(al-Rasheed2007)

ItshouldbeclearinlightoftheforegoingthatanyunderstandingofthedifferencesbetweenIslamistsandtheSalafismustrestontakingac-countofthediversityamongtheSalafisSalafiswhooftenrejectmuchoftheIslamicscholarlytraditioninfavorofadirectrecoursetothefoun-dationaltextsarenotnecessarilyrenderedldquoIslamistrdquosimplybyvirtueofthisstanceForasnotedmanyoftheseSalafiscontinuetoprofessareso-lutelyquietiststancewhichinthecaseoftheSaudiSalafismeansaf-firmingallegiancetotheSaudiroyalfamilyThispositionisrepresentedforinstancebyBinBaztheerstwhilegrandmuftiaswellasbyotherleading members of the Saudi religious establishment A pro-regimestanceoroneindifferenttopoliticsisnolessldquopoliticalrdquoofcoursethana position of strident hostility to the established order at home andabroadForourpurposeshoweveritisonlywhentheSalafisrejecttheexistingdispensationandbeginstrivingmdashthoughnotnecessarilythroughmilitantmeansmdashforanewreligio-politicalorderthattheycanbesaidtojointheranksoftheIslamists

ItisworthnotingfinallythatSalafipositionsamongSaudisandelse-wherearemarkednotonlybydiversitybutalsobyconsiderablefluidity(al-Rasheed 2007) The same activist or intellectual might at varioustimesmoveamongavarietyofseeminglyincompatiblepositionsmdashap-pearingtobemoreldquomoderaterdquoonsomeissuesthanonothersForallhiscriticismofradicalIslamistsQaradawiforinstancehashimselfwrittenin justificationofsuicidebombingsbyPalestiniansagainst Israelis (see

23

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INTRODUCTION

chapter 9 on Qaradawi) And Saudi Salafis like Safar al-Hawali andSalmanal-lsquoAwdamdashwhocame toprominence in the early1990smdashhavealternatedbetweencriticismoftheSaudipoliciesanddenunciationsofradicalSalaficallstojihadagainsttheSaudiregime(seeal-Rasheed200759ndash101onal-HawalialsoseeReichmuth2006)Theirshiftingviewsreflect changes in their relations with the Saudi regime but they alsopointtothebroadspectrumofpositionswhichSalafishavetakenatdif-ferenttimesindifferentcontextsandbeforedifferentaudiencesThusevenasal-Hawaliandal-lsquoAwdahavecondemnedterroristactsdirectedagainstSaudiArabiaandadvisedSaudisnottofightAmericantroopsinpostndashSaddamHusseinIraqtheyhavecalledupontheIraqisthemselvestoresistAmericantroopsandhavecharacterizedthateffortasaldquodefen-sivejihadrdquo(al-Rasheed200794ndash95)

Sufi s and Islamists

ItseemsmuchsimpleronthefaceofittodistinguishbetweenIslamistsandSufisThecharacteristicSuficonvictionthattherearelevelsofmean-ingintheQurrsquoanthatgobeyondtheliteralandtheobviousandthataselectfewmdashtheldquofriendsofGodrdquomdashareendowedwiththeuniqueabilityto discern them is anathema to all those who insist that God intendsHisteachingstobeequallyintelligibletoallDespitetheirtendencytoviewthemselvesasbearersof true Islam Islamists typicallyregard theSufi idea that somepeoplehaveaprivileged relationshipwithGodassuspectthebasisnotonlyforsanctioninginterpretationsofIslamthatlackwarrantintheplainteachingsofGodandtheProphetbutalsoforpracticallyldquoworshipingrdquothesefriendsofGodIslamists(andmodernists)havefrequentlyalsobeencriticalofthewaySufidevotionalismcanyieldaturningawayfromtheworldratherthananefforttochangeitaswellasapreoccupationwithpersonalspiritualtransformationattheexpenseofconcernsforthewelfareofthecommunityatlarge SufipracticesandtheteachingsoftheSufimastershavevariedenor-mouslythroughoutthehistoryofIslamyetIslamistcritiquesofSufismareseldomattentivetoitsnuancesortothecomplexwaysithasrelatedtootherfacetsofIslamNorhaveIslamiststakenmuchaccountofthefactthatmanyleadingfiguresofearliertimeswerebesidesmuchelseSufisaswellThisistrueevenofIbnTaymiyya(d1328)whoseprestigeinIslamistandSalaficirclesismatchedbyfewothersandwhowasinhisdayamemberoftheQadiriSufiorder(Makdisi1974)EvenifonearguesmdashasanIslamistmightbeinclinedtomdashthatldquogoodrdquoSufismisnoth-ingbutproperIslamitselftheveryfactthatsuchfigureshadaSufiiden-tityatallnecessarilycomplicateswhatissupposedtobethepristinesim-plicityofafaithsharedequallybyallbelievers

Complicatingthingsstillfurtheristhevarietyofwaysinwhichsomeleading Islamists relate to Sufism Ayatollah Khomeini was a lifelongstudentofIslamicmysticismandtheinfluenceofthemedievalSpanish

24

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

Sufi Ibn lsquoArabi loomed especially large in his thought To Khomeinimysticismmdashoften referred to as lsquoirfan (gnosis) especially when inter-twinedwithIslamicphilosophyandtheology(Knysh1992632)mdashwascrucialtoaproperunderstandingofGodrsquosrelationshipwiththeworldandwiththehumanbeingItwasalsoessentialforonersquosethicalforma-tionforamasteryovertheselfandultimatelyforrealizinginoneselftheattributesofwhat Ibn lsquoArabihadcalledldquotheperfectmanrdquo (cfKnysh1992 635 also Mottahedeh 1985 180ndash85) Some of the austerity ofKhomeinirsquospersonallifeprobablyalsoderivedfromSufiasceticismAndthoughheanchoredhisconceptionofIslamicgovernmentinanexposi-tionofShilsquoijuridicalthoughtratherthaninIslamicmysticismthesortofreligiousauthorityhecametoenjoyonthebasisofhisreformulationofShilsquoipoliticaltheologyseemstoechomysticalideasoftheperfectmanwho embodies and upholds the moral order as the microcosm of theuniverse

UnlikeKhomeiniQutbwasnotaSufiandhegivesnoindicationofsharinganyofKhomeinirsquosenthusiasmforthegreatSufithinkersofear-liertimesEvensoechoesofamysticrsquosdirectencounterwiththefoun-tainheadoftruthandknowledgearehardtomissinQutbrsquoswritingses-peciallyinhiscommentaryontheQurrsquoan(cfCarreacute200395ndash97)TheveryfirstsentenceofhiscommentarymdashldquolifeintheshadeoftheQurrsquoanisablessingunknowntoanyonewhohasnrsquottasteditrdquomdashevokesthefa-miliarSufiideathatincontrovertibleknowledgeofRealityisultimatelyacquired only through direct personal experience (dhawq that is theldquotasterdquooftheTruth)ThegreatmedievalSufial-Ghazali(d1111)hadauthoredafamousautobiographicalaccountofhowitwasonlythroughthe immediacyofhispersonalmysticalexperience thathewasable toovercomehisdebilitatingepistemologicaldoubtsandreassurehimselfofthenecessarytruths(Watt199857)QutbdoesnotmentionGhazaliinthiscontextbutitisdifficultnottobestruckbythemysticalresonanceofsomeofhislanguageHereisoneexamplewhichoccursinhiscom-mentaryonsura(chapter)53oftheQurrsquoan16

16TheearlyversesinthissuraoftheQurrsquoanhavebeenunderstoodbyMuslimexegetesasreferringtotheProphetrsquosrevelatoryexperienceaswellastohisldquonightjourneyrdquoandhisascensiontoheavenormilsquoraj inthecourseofonenighthewastransportedfirstfromMeccatoJerusalemandthentothepresenceofGodbeforebeingreturnedtoMecca

UnrelatedtothenightjourneybutrelatedtohisrevelatoryexperiencestheexegeticalsignificanceofthisQurrsquoanicsuraalsoliesinitsconnectionwiththeso-calledSatanicVersesAccordingtocertainexegeticalreportsMuhammadwasinthecourseofreceivingarevela-tionwhenSataninterpolatedsomeversesintoitmdashversespraisingthreegoddessesreveredbythepolytheistsofMeccaItwasnotuntilsometimelaterthatMuhammadrealizedhiserrorwhereupontheversesinterpolatedbySatanwereremovedTheepisodeoftheldquoSa-tanicVersesrdquohasbeenacontroversialoneinIslamichistorylongbeforeSalmanRushdiersquosnovelofthatnameandKhomeinirsquosjuridicalruling(fatwa)callingforRushdiersquosdeathMostMuslimscholarshavefoundittooshockingtobelievethattheProphetcouldhavemadesuchagrievouserrorandhavedeniedthatanysuch incidentever tookplaceYetsome

25

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

IwaschattingoneeveningwithsomecompanionswhentoourearscamethesoundofsomeonerecitingtheQurrsquoannearbyrecitingtheSuraoftheStar[al-Najm]andweinterruptedourconversationtolistentotheNobleQurrsquoanLittlebylittlemyheartenteredintowhatwasbeing recited into theheartofMuhammadashe jour-neyedtotheHeavenlyHostIwaswithhimashesawGabrielintheangelicforminwhichGodhadcreatedhimIwaswithhiminhis loftyandfree-flying journey to theLoteTreeof theBoundaryandtheGardenoftheRefugeIwaswithhimtotheextentthatmyimaginationcouldformavisionofitandtotheextentthatmyfeelings couldbear itThen came the final cry andmywholebeingshookatthefearfulreproachldquoDoyoumarvelatthisdiscourseanddoyoulaughandnotweepandmakemerryrdquo[Q5359ndash61]WhenIheardldquoBowdownbeforeGodandserveHimrdquo[Q5362]thetremblinginmyhearthadbecomeaphysicalandvisibletremblingthroughoutmybodythatIcouldnotresistMybodykeptshakingandIcouldnotcontrolitNorcouldIholdbackthetearsthatwerepouringforthhowevermuchItried(QutbZilalvol7part2774ndash75quotedfromCarreacute2003333ndash34withminorchanges)

TheQurrsquoanrsquosprofoundimpactontheaestheticsensibilitiesofitslisten-ersisafamiliarmotifindiscussionsofitsliteraryqualities(cfGrahamandKermani2006)AssomeonewhoseearlywritingswereconcernedwithArabicliterarycriticismandspecificallywiththeliteraryexcellenceoftheIslamicscripture(Qutb1949b)QutbwasespeciallyreceptivetothisaspectoftheQurrsquoanThesenseofbeingtransportedbacktothetimeoftheProphetandtowitnessingtheProphetrsquosascension(milsquoraj)tothepresence of Godmdashwhich is how the passage being commented on byQutbherehascommonlybeeninterpretedbytheexegetesmdashcanlikewisebeseenasanillustrationoftheoverpoweringimpactthewordsoftheQurrsquoancanhaveonthebelieverQutbrsquosaccountofconversingwithGodthrough the Qurrsquoan (cited earlier) is again something he may havewantedtoseeallbelieversdoYetallbelieverscanscarcelydosoany-morethanallaspirantsevenontheSufipathcanexperiencethetransfor-mativemysticalldquostatesrdquothatGodbestowsonHisspecialfriends(awlshyiya)IrrespectiveofwhetherhesawitinquitethiswayQutbrsquosassertionthatheisabletoenterldquointotheheartofMuhammadrdquoandtoseeGabrielasMuhammad sawhimsurelygiveshimaperspective thatothers en-counteringthewordofGoddonothave

ThepointisnotofcoursethatQutbwaseverrecognizedbyhisfol-lowersasaSufimasterbutthatsomeofthehermeneuticalauthorityheclaimshasadistinctiveSufiringtoitMorebroadlythesortofunques-

leadingscholarsofearlyandmedievalIslammdashincludingIbnTaymiyyamdashacceptedthehisto-ricityofthisincidentSeeSAhmed1998

26

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

tioningreligio-politicalauthorityIslamistleadershaveoftenenjoyedovertheirfollowersisnotunlikethatoftheSufimasteroverhisfollowersBe-ginningwithHasanal-BannathefounderoftheMuslimBrotherhoodandoncehimselfamemberofaSufiordertheleaderofthisorganizationis formally referred to as themurshid (guide)ormore specificallyalshymurshid alshylsquoam (thegeneralguide[RMitchell1993165])whichisafamiliartermforthemasterinSuficontextsForhispartAbdessalamYassine the founder and leader of lsquoAdl warsquol-Ihsan Party of Morocco(oftenreferredtoastheJusticeandSpiritualityAssociationorJSA)haslike Khomeini gone well beyond simply echoing Sufi conceptions ofauthorityinhisowndiscoursesHetoowasonceamemberofaMoroc-canSufiorderandhehascontinuedtodrawonSufithemesinhiswrit-ingsTheverynameofYassinersquospoliticalorganizationevokesacentralSufiideanamelyihsanThisisaQurrsquoanicterm(cfQ756)thattrans-latedliterallymeansldquotodogoodrdquothoughSufishaveunderstoodittomeanmuchmore thanthatFollowingawell-knownstatementattrib-uted to theProphetMuhammad theyhaveoften interpreted ihsan tomeangoingbeyondtheexternalsofIslamicritualpracticestoldquoworshipGodasifyouseeHimrdquo(Schimmel197529)thatiscultivatingasenseof personal communion and intimacy with God Even as Yassine hassoughttodistancehimselffromwhathedeemstobetheexcessesofSu-fismthereislittledoubtthathispoliticalappealowesmuchtocarefullycalibratedeffortstocombinedistinctiveSufiideaswithhisownbrandofIslamism(cfLauziegravere2005seealsochapter12onNadiaYassineinthisvolume)

FinallyMawdudirsquosJamalsquoat-iIslamimdashoneoftheearliestIslamistorga-nizations in the Sunni worldmdashillustrates both the Islamistsrsquo complexrelationshipwith Sufismand their pragmatic recognitionof its appealinmanyMuslimsocietiesMawdudihadoncebeenaharshcriticofSu-fismblamingitformanyillsafflictingMuslimsocietiesYettheJama-lsquoat-iIslamigraduallycametosoftenitsstanceonSufipracticesconsider-ablynodoubtintheinterestofbroadeningsomeofitssupportbaseinPakistanwheresaintsandSufishrinesareanimportantpartofthereli-giousandpoliticallandscapeAlreadyinMawdudirsquoslifetimeMianTufaylMuhammadhissuccessorastheheadoftheJamalsquoat-iIslamihadtakentheextraordinaryinitiativeoftranslatinganearlySuficlassictheKashf alshymahjub into Urdu The author of this work Shaykh lsquoAli Hujwiri(d1072)isburiedinLahoreinPakistanandhismuch-frequentedshrineishometoprecisely thesortofdevotionalpractices that Islamistsandmodernist reformers letaloneSalafishaveoften frownedupon (Nasr1996124)

ThesediverseexamplesarenotintendedtoobscuretherealdifferencesbetweenthegeneralityofIslamistsandmostSufisTheirsignificanceliesratherinillustratingthedifficultyofdistinguishingbetweenIslamismandotherreligiousintellectualandpoliticaltrendsintermsofneatcharac-

27

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INTRODUCTION

terizationsofgrandtranslocalgeneralizationsAstheforegoingsuggeststhesameistrueandmoresowhenitcomestocharacterizingIslamistsinrelationtothelsquoulamatheMuslimmodernistsandtheSalafisIndeedasLorenLybargerhasarguedwithreferencetothoseusuallycharacter-izedasldquosecularnationalistrdquoorldquoIslamistrdquoPalestiniansintheWestBankandGazadifferenceswithintheranksofyoungsecularnationalistsandIslamistscansometimesalsoshadeintosignificantsimilaritiesbetweenthesesupposedlyrivalorientations(Lybarger2007)ManyIslamistshavesoughttodistancethemselvesfromwhattheyseeastherigidityandau-thoritarianismofotherIslamistsandtoarguenotjustfortheimplemen-tationofthesharilsquoabutalsofordemocracyandpluralismConverselynot a few of the younger secular nationalists have ldquoadopted IslamisttheodiciesthatexplainedthefailuretoovercomeIsraelastheresultoffallingawayfrompietytheirconclusionsmirroredIslamistonestootheroadbackfromthebrinkhadtotraceitscoursethrougharenewedcom-mitmenttoIslambutnotnecessarilyinthemannerthattheIslamistmove-mentsmighthaveintendedrdquo(Lybarger2007237ndash38quotationat238)

Yet ifneatcategoriesremainelusiveacombinationoftheIslamistsrsquoself-consciouslypoliticalgoalstheirmultifacetedifnotalwaysexplicitpoliticalcritiquesofmanypastandpresentwaysofunderstandingandlivingIslamandanunshakeableconfidenceintheirownabilitytodis-cern Godrsquos will from the foundational texts do often provide enoughgrounds tobroadlydistinguish themfromotheractivists intellectualsand orientations in the Muslim public sphere What this combinationamountstovariesfromonesocialpoliticalreligiousandculturalcon-texttoanotherandsothereforedothewaysinwhichIslamistsrelatetooneanotherorcompeteandoverlapwithothergroupsandorientations

The Politics of Islamism

FromAeneasrsquosmythicalfoundingofRometothedeathandresurrectionofJesusChristtoMuhammadrsquosmigrationtoMedinafoundationalnar-rativesareascommontocollectivelifeasthemovementsthatperiodi-callyarisetorevivethemandclaimantstothemantleoflegitimacytheyconferSounderstoodIslamistsrsquopoliticalaspirationstorestorefounda-tionslocatedinamythicalpastarefarfromuniqueNorareIslamistsaloneintheirconvictionthatscripturalauthorityisguaranteedbyitsdi-vineauthormdashforinthatallMuslimsagreeRatherthechaptersinthisvolumesuggest thatwhatmakes Islamistpoliticsdistinctive (ifnotsui generis)istheclaimtorecuperateanldquoauthenticIslamrdquocomprisedofself-evidenttruthspurgedofalienandcorruptinginfluencesalongwithaninsistenceonremakingthefoundationsofthestateinitsimageGiventhelimitsofhumanunderstandingrelativetoGodrsquosknowledgeIslamistssimultaneouslydepictsuchfidelitytotheunadulteratedwordofAllahas

28

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INTRODUCTION

theultimateexpressionofdeferencetodivineomniscienceandportrayhumilityasaconstitutivefeatureofthehumanconditionAspirationstofullyknowandmasterthenaturalandsocialworldsthusentailnotonlyahumanhubrisdeaftotheQurrsquoanicadmonitionthatldquoAllahknowsbutandyoudonotknowrdquo(Q366)butalsoatransgressionagainstadi-vinely-ordainedontologicalorder

ItisnotablehoweverthattheIslamistemphasisonthelimitsofhumanknowledgerequireshumilityonlyinrelationtoAllahitrarelyyieldshu-milityinregardtotheirownclaimstospeakinHisnameortowardotherhumanbeingswhodissentfromthepremiseofdivineomnipotenceandIslamistaccountsofwhat it requiresThis suggests thatwhile IslamistchallengestostatepowerareobviouslypoliticaltheIslamistclaimtoau-thenticityisalsopolitical inthecoercivepoweritroutinelyenactsandjustifiesmostnotablybywayofthesilencesitimposesandthedebatesitforeclosesAzizal-Azmehpointsoutthatldquothenotionofauthenticityisnotsomuchadeterminateconceptasitisanodeofassociationsandin-terpellationsatropebymeansofwhichthehistoricalworldisreducedtoaparticularorderandatokenwhichmarksoffsocialandpoliticalgroupsandforgesandreconstituteshistoricalidentitiesrdquo(al-Azmeh199341)WhetherintheserviceofArabnationalismChristianfundamental-ismEuropeanromanticismorMuslimmodernismtheclaimofauthen-ticityisanactofpowerthatfunctionsnotjusttoreflecttheworldbuttoconstructitbydeterminingwhoisincludedandexcludedwhomayandmaynotspeakauthoritativelywhatistheproperrealmofdebateandwhatisbeyondcontestation

ItiscertainlythecasethatasingleldquoIslamrdquocapturesandorganizestheperspectivesofmillionswhoself-identifyasMuslim(amongotherthings)yetwhattravelsunderitsrubricisinescapablydiversemultiethnicanddefined asmuchbydisagreement as consensus Just as theTorah andBible lend themselves toat times radicallydivergent interpretationsofwhatitmeanstobeJewishorChristiantheQurrsquoanandhaditharecom-plexandsusceptibletomanydifferentandattimescontradictoryenact-mentsSounderstoodIslamislessafixedessencethanalivingtraditionthatcaptureswhatisimaginedascontinuousandunitaryindialecticalrelationshiptothoseconcretearticulationsandpracticesbywhichitistransformedandadaptedindifferentcontextsforpluralpurposesItispreciselythisunderstandingofreligionthatisanathematoIslamistswhoseek tofix theparametersof Islamicauthenticityonceandforallandtherebyarrogateforthemselvestherighttodeterminewhoqualifiesasagood Muslim to discredit those lsquoulama unable or unwilling to purgeIslamofpurportedimpietiestodeclarenominallyMuslimrulersapos-tatesunfittogovernandtocharacterizeallwhodisagreeascorrupthe-reticalguiltyofunbelieforvictimsoffalseconsciousness

Thesegeneralpoliticaltendencieshowevermustbecarefullysituatedwithinadialecticoftheglobalandthevernacularunderstoodtoreflect

29

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INTRODUCTION

thewaysinwhichunifyingmacrohistoricaldynamicsinformandareinturntransformedbydiversecontingentandfluidlocalcircumstancesInaworldstampedbyWesterndominanceandtheconsolidationofpostco-lonial authoritarian regimes Islamists confront a common set of con-straintsandchallengesInasmuchassuchconstraintsandchallengeshavemade Islamist thinkers (often reluctant) participants in conversationsacrossbothcultureandhistorytheireffortstoremakethefoundationsofcollectiveliferevealasharedinterpretiveframeworkandcommonreli-gio-political grammar At the same time this frame and grammar arecontinuallybeingreworkedinrelationtothedistinctpublicspheresinwhichIslamistsoperateandtowhichtheycarefullycalibratetheirpoliti-calcommitments

Attention to this complex dynamic suggests that the Islamist move-mentcannotsimplybecharacterizedasviolentantidemocraticandop-pressiveofwomenlabelsinvokedsofrequentlyinscholarlyandpopularliterature on the subject that they have become virtually synonymouswithIslamistpoliticsSuchcharacterizationsdocapturecrucialdimen-sionsofIslamistpoliticsyettheyalsosidesteptheparadoxesitsvarie-gatedandoftencontradictoryexpressionspresentInsteadwearguethatIslamistpoliticscanbeproductivelyreadin terms ofandagainst the grain ofsuchbroadcategorizationsasantidemocraticantiwomanorviolentmdashthat is as commitments that at different moments in various localesbothencourageandconstrainbroad-basedpoliticalparticipationdisruptandratifyhierarchicalgendernormsresistandreproducestate-sanctionedbrutalityThepointofreadingIslamistpoliticsinthiswayisnottosug-gestthatIslamistsaresecretlydemocraticfeministandopposedtovio-lenceRatherthepointistodrawattentiontothecomplexityandcon-tradictionserasedbyeasygeneralizationsontheonehandandtheoftenunacknowledgedfluidityandculturaladaptabilityofotherwisefamiliarpoliticalcategoriesontheother

Islamism and Democracy

DespiteimportantdifferencesamongIslamistthinkerstheyhaveincom-monatendencytoviewhumansovereigntyastransgressiveofdivinelawandsharetheaspirationtoestablishsharilsquoaastheprimaryorsolesourceofauthorityAsisoftennotedsuchpremisesandaspirationsrunafoulofassumptionsaboutpopularruleattheheartofdemocracynamelythathumanbeingshavetherighttolegislaterulesforcollectivebehaviorandarecapableofthewisdomrequiredtodevisejustlawsInrecentyearspolicymakersandcommentatorshaveevincedaparticularpreoccupa-tionwiththewaysinwhichIslamistnotionsofdivineauthoritythrottlethespiritandpracticeofpopularsovereigntySomehaveevengonesofarastocharacterizeIslamistsasldquoIslamo-fascistsrdquoanimatedbyhatredoftheldquodemocratic Westrdquo psychologically unable to contend with the fluidity

30

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INTRODUCTION

andindeterminacythatmarkpopularruleandeagertoconvertelectionsintoaldquoone-manone-voteone-timerdquomechanismforestablishinganIs-lamicstate(Murdock2002MRubin2005Kramer1993)

SuchviewsareechoedbythoseIslamistskeentoportraydemocracynotonlyasantitheticaltothesupremacyofdivinelawbutasaTrojanhorseforWesternimperialismFormanyIslamistsincludingseveralinthis volumedemocracy is justone symptomofametastasizingmoralandspiritualbankruptcywherebymoraltransgressionsaretransfiguredintonaturalurgescrassself-interestbecomesthebedrockofcollectivelifeandthedivineplanfortheuniverseandallthingsinitisreducedtoa system of physical causality just waiting to be mastered by way ofhumaningenuity(REuben2007)Qutbcallsthisdiseasedviewoftheworldjahiliyyaanditsignalsnotonlyhumanarrogancebutatransgres-sionagainstdivineauthoritythescopeofwhichencompassesbothpub-licandprivatedomainsofhumanaffairsaswellasbothvisibleandun-seendimensionsoftheuniverseFormanyIslamistssuchtransgressionisattherootofmuchofwhatpassesforMuslimruleinthecontemporaryworldmdashnationalistdemocraticandmonarchicalalikeSucharroganceisalsosaidtobethepatternunderlyingalonghistoryofunrelievedWest-ernaggressionagainstIslaminwhichtheChristianCrusadesEuropeancolonialismIsraelitreatmentofPalestiniansethniccleansinginBosniaGermananti-TurkishviolencetheAmericaninvasionofIraqandDutchcartoonsofMuhammadarebutafewexamples

YetthereisarangeofviewsamongIslamistsaboutboththesubstanceofdemocracyanditscompatibilitywiththereligio-politicalrenewaltheyadvocateAccordingtoQaradawiforexampleldquotheessenceofdemoc-racyisthatpeoplechoosewhorulesoverthemandmanagestheiraf-fairsthatnorulerorregimetheydislikeisforceduponthemthattheyhavetherighttocalltherulertoaccountifheerrsandtoremovehimfromofficeincaseofmisconductandthatpeoplearenotforcedineco-nomicsocialculturalorpoliticaldirectionsthattheyneitherrecognizenor acceptrdquo (Qaradawi1997132 also chapter9 in this volume)TohimthereisnoheavierburdenoppressingMuslimsinthecontemporaryworld thandespotism indeed it is throughdespoticgovernments thatMuslimshavebeenforcedtosubmittootherillsincludingtheneglectofthesharilsquoaandthecoerciveimpositionofsecularismandwesternizationDemocracy then recommends itself to Qaradawi as the most effectiveavailableantidotetodespotismandtheafflictionsofwhichitservesasavehicle

WheremanyamongtheIslamistsandthelsquoulamahaveseenconsider-able tensionbetween IslamanddemocracyQaradawiprofesses to seenoneAswesuggestedearlierbyfarthemostcommonoftheIslamistreservationsaboutademocraticsystemrelatestothesovereigntyofthepeoplewhichistakentocontravenetheideathatGodaloneissovereignQaradawi however is unperturbedby such concernsThe rule of the

31

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INTRODUCTION

peopleoughttobeseenhearguesnotinoppositiontotheruleofGodbutratherinoppositiontotheruleofthedespotMorefundamentallyQaradawirsquos view of democracy does not necessarily require that thepeopleshouldbeabletooverturndivinelyinstitutednormsRatherhisassumptionisthatpeopleexercisetheirsovereigntywithinconstitutionalboundsandMuslimslivinginapredominantlyMuslimdemocraticpol-itywouldlikewisenotwishtotransgresstheparametersoflegitimatehumanactionlaiddownintheIslamicfoundationaltexts(seeQaradawichapter9inthisvolumeandcfFeldman2007)

NadiaYassineofMoroccorsquosJusticeandSpiritualityAssociationisan-othercaseinpointWhilecriticalofthedemocraticgesturesembracedbyamonarchythatshedepictsasallergictogenuinelypopularsovereigntyYassineinsiststhatthemodelofMuslimruleadumbratedintheummafoundedbytheProphetMuhammadandinparticulartheConstitutionofMedina17isnothingshortofdemocratic(NYassine2005d2005e)UnliketheMuslimdynastiesthatarosetousurpitYassinecontendsthiscommunity was participatory egalitarian committed to freedom andexpressiveofGodrsquosmercyMostimportantitwasgovernedalwaysbytheQurrsquoanicprincipleofshura (consultation)bywhichYassinemeansaphilosophy of power that places sovereignty in the community ratherthaninanyindividuallinksvirtuetodeliberationratherthanobedienceandexhortsbelieverstocontinuallyadaptQurrsquoanicprinciplesthroughijtihad rather than adhere reflexively to precedent (N Yassine 2006a182ndash862005d)ManyscholarsandjournalistsremainskepticaloftheJSArsquosasyetuntestedcommitment toproceduraldemocracyandworrythatNadiaandher fatherAbdessalamultimatelyseektoestablishanIslamic state inhospitable to tolerance pluralism and civil liberties(Maghraoui2001Brandon2007Whitlock2006)YetothersarguethattheJSAisagenuinelypopulistorganizationthatrepresentstheunrepre-sentedtendstothewelfareofthedispossessedandbothexpressesandcontributestoanincreasinglyvibrantcivilsocietyinMorocco(Cavatorta2006Entelis2002)

QaradawirsquosandYassinersquosargumentstogethersuggestthatdemocracycanandhasservedaseitheracosmeticcoverfordespotismoranauthen-ticallyIslamiccheckuponcorruptandarbitraryruleAtissueinIslamistargumentsforandagainstdemocracythenarenotonlywhatcountsasldquoauthenticIslamrdquoandtheintentionsofthosewhoclaimtoknowitbutalsothecontentandcharacterofdemocracyitselfParadoxicallybothIslamistsopposedtodemocracyandthosewhotakeIslamismasinher-entlyantidemocraticregardthisasasimplematterwithanobviousan-swerdemocracyisanexpressionofandevensynonymouswithliberal-ismcapitalismandtheWestYetdemocracyisbothmorecapaciousand

17TheConstitutionofMedinawasanagreementtheProphethadenteredintowiththelocalcommunitiesincludingJewishtribesuponhisemigrationfromMeccatoMedina

32

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INTRODUCTION

moredistinctthanthispresumptionsuggestsTheworditselfofcoursederivesfromtheancientGreekdemokratiawhichmeansrule(kratos)ofthepeople(demos)andmanyderivetheequationofdemocracyandtheWestfromthisassociationwithclassicalGreeceYetancientGreekphi-losopherssuchasPlatosawindemocracythespecterofmobrulepartic-ularly vulnerable to demagoguery and despotism (a suspicion notablyechoedbyAmerican founder JamesMadison)Contrary to thedemo-cratic idealof inclusivenessmoreover citizenship inGreekdemocracyexcludedasubstantialpartofthepopulationincludingwomenslavesandforeignersFinallytheextenttowhichtheancientGreeksmayevenbecalledWesternisamatterofgreatdisputeparticularlyastheldquoWestrdquoisacategoryofrelativelyrecentprovenancethroughwhichhistoryandgeographyhavebeenretroactivelyorganized18DespitedepictionsoftheHellenicworldasWesternancientGreeksdidnotinfactviewthem-selvesintheseterms19

TheequationofdemocracywiththeWestalsopresupposestheexis-tenceofacoherentldquoWesterncivilizationrdquowitheitherculturallyhomoge-neousrootsorclearlydelineatedhistoricalandcontemporarybounda-riesorbothYetwhatiscalledtheWestisanamalgamationofmultipletraditionsincludingtheGreekRomanJudaicChristianandIslamicmdashtraditionsthatarethemselvespolyvalentratherthanhomogeneousmdashandistodaycharacterizedbyporousbordershybridsubculturesandmyriaddebtstodiversecivilizationspastandpresent20AsageographicmarkeritisvirtuallyimpossibletopinpointexactlywheretheWestbeginsandendsandthisisespeciallysonowthatpeoplesinformationandmate-rial goods crisscross cultural andnational borders atwill creating allkindsoftransnationalsubnationalandmultipleidentitiesthatshiftandreconstitutethemselvesinunpredictablewaysEventhosevaluesidenti-fiedasWesternoftenappearelsewhereinotherguisesIndeedscholarssuggestthatavarietyoftheldquostandardsexportedbytheWestanditscul-turalindustriesthemselvesturnouttobeofculturallymixedcharacterifweexaminetheirculturallineagesrdquo(Pieterse199553)

Manyalsoarguethatdemocracyisnotonlydistinctfrombutinten-sionwithboththetheoryandpracticeofpoliticsinldquoWesternrdquosocieties

18MichaelGillespie(19997ndash10)arguesthattherereadingofhistorygeographyandculturethroughtheprismofthissenseofldquotheWestrdquobegannoearlierthanthenineteenthcenturyTheideaofatimelessandbrightlinebetweenWestandEastisalsochallengedbyJeremyBrottonrsquosstudy(19989096ndash97)ofthediplomaticandintellectualexchangesbe-tweenEuropeandtheOttomanEmpireintheearlymodernperiodBrottonshowsnotonlytheextentandamityofsuchexchangesbutapersistentuncertaintyaboutwherepreciselyEuropeldquoendedrdquoandAsialdquobeganrdquo

19AncientGreeksunderstoodthemselvesasgeographicallywestofthebarbariansbutnotWesterninthecontemporarysensethatisasbothaculturalandhistoricalcategory

20StevenRuncimanrsquoswork(19543480)ontheCrusadesforexampledemonstratesaldquolongsequenceofinteractionandfusionbetweenOrientandOccidentoutofwhichourcivilizationhasgrownrdquo

33

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INTRODUCTION

many of which are more accurately classified as liberal and capitalist(Wood1994Wolin2001BallandDagger1999)Whileitisnowcom-monplacetospeakofldquoliberaldemocracyrdquoinasinglebreathliberalismanddemocracyareconceptsandpracticeswithverydifferenthistoriesandpresuppositionsUnlikedemocracyforexampleliberalismemergedfromthecrucibleofChristianreligiouswarsandintandemwiththeas-cendanceofamiddleclassthatpresagedtheendofEuropeanfeudalismTheliberalnation-statecanthusbeviewedasbothanexpressionandaconsolidationofcapitalismontheonehandandtheprincipleofasepa-rationbetweenchurchandstateontheotherBycontrastthereisnoth-ingaboutdemocracyeitherasasystemofgovernanceoracultureofpar-ticipationthatisinherentlysecularIndeedAlexisdeTocquevillefamouslyinsistedthatAmericandemocracycannotandshouldnotbesecularasreligionhelpsshiftattentionawayfromimmediatematerialpreoccupa-tionstolargerconcernsofcommunitycooperationandmoralityInfactmanydemocratictheoristsarguethatgenuinelyinclusivepopularsover-eignty is antithetical to the sharp inequalities of wealth and politicalpowerthatcapitalismoftenproducesandlegitimates

SuchongoingdefinitionalandsubstantivedebatessuggestthatthereismuchmoreatstakeindemocraticpoliticsthanprocedurespertainingtogovernmentauthorityandorderandpointtoawidespreadifelusiveunderstandingofdemocracynotjustasasetofinstitutionsbutasTocque-villesuggestsawayoflifeSeveralpoliticaltheoristshavecharacterizedthiselusiveunderstandingintermsofaldquodemocraticethosrdquoBythistheymeanbothanidealandanargumentforacultureofparticipationactivepowersharingmutualaccountabilityinclusivenessanddeliberationinwhichcitizensmayroutinelyandsafelychallengenotonlyspecificpoli-ciesandpolitical institutionsbutalso thevalues thatgoverncollectivelifeprinciplesofinclusionandexclusionandthepremisesofauthorityitself(Connolly1995JPEuben2003Sadiki2004)AdemocraticethosismuchmoredifficulttomeasureorquantifythanforexampleSamuelHuntingtonrsquosparsimoniousdefinitionofdemocracyasapolityinwhichtherehavebeentwoconsecutivepeacefulchangesofgovernmentbywayof freeand fairelections (Huntington1991)21Yetademocraticethosmakesitpossibletobothrecognizeanddisaggregatethepreconditionsaspirations mechanisms and institutions bundled into ldquodemocracyrdquotherebybringingintofocusforexamplethefrequentlyantidemocratic

21Manypoliticalscientistsprefertodefinedemocracyintermsofproceduresdesignedtorealizepopularruleincludingfreecompetitiveandfairelectionsalongwithstateprotec-tionofcertainrightsandlibertiesSuchaformalminimalistdefinitionhastheadvantageofdetachingdemocracyfromquestionsoforiginsandofferingastandardtowhichallgov-ernmentsmaybeheldregardlessofcultureandplaceAsKeithTopper(2005205ndash7)ar-gueshoweveritalsotendstosidestepknottyquestionsaboutthesubstanceofrepresenta-tion power responsiveness and accountability that are arguably central to democraticpolitics

34

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

casttoelectionsimposedbyelitesorforeignpowersthefeltimpotenceofmanycitizensinestablisheddemocraciesandthosehighlyparticipa-torycivilsocietiesthatflourishevenundermonarchicortheocraticrule

Forourpurposes inparticularademocraticethosmakesvisible theparadoxofanIslamistmovementthatseekstomobilizeordinaryMus-limsagainstcoercivepowerbutinthenameofareligio-politicalorderlargelyimmunizedfromchallengeQutbisanaptillustrationhereashistendencytogroundhisownspecialauthorityandinsightintheunsulliedwisdomofordinarybelieversmakesitpossibletoreadhisworkaseitherabriefagainstdemocracy(amongotherthings)oranenactmentofitIn-asmuchasdemocracyasaformofgovernanceisidentifiedwithpopularsovereigntyQutbrsquosbasicpremisethat thefoundationof legitimateau-thoritymustbedivineratherthanhumansuggeststhatheisunambigu-ouslyantidemocraticMoreoverQutbrsquoseffortstopluralizereligiousandpolitical authority express not a confidence in common wisdom butratheradesiretoclaimforhimselfthestatureofareligiousexpertwhodespitehislackofIslamicacademiccredentialscanclearlyseewhatoth-erscannotQutbcharacterizestherealIslamasself-evidentbuthealsoassumesthatonlyasmallvanguardofbelieversbesideshimselfwillhavetheabilitytorecognizeitandactdecisivelytoremaketheworldinitsimageSounderstoodthesignofldquochosennessrdquoisunyieldingcommitmenttoestablishingareligio-politicalorderthatsimultaneouslypresumesthesupremacyofthefewcapableoftrueknowledgeandpromisesaworldinwhichdissentitselfwillbecomebothunnecessaryandillegitimate

Yetifdemocracyrefersnotonlytoasystemofgovernanceorsetofprocedurestorealizepopularsovereigntybutalsotopracticesthatdis-ruptthoseforceswhichconcentratepowerandestablishpoliticalexclu-sionthecharacterizationofQutbrsquosworkassimplyantidemocraticmissesa crucial dimensionof its significance and appealAs the sacred textscontaintherulesandregulationsmeanttogovernbothpublicandpri-vateaffairsQutbrsquosinsistencethatordinaryuntrainedMuslimsmusten-gagethemdirectlyisinmanywaysademocratizationofaccesstoau-thoritySuchaccesscandisruptdeeplyentrenchedpatternsofpowerandpowerlessness particularlywhen conjoined to Islamist arguments thatarbitrarypowerisun-Islamicthatreligiousknowledgedependsoncom-mitmentratherthantrainingorexpertise thatMuslimshavetherightandobligationtodeterminewhenrulersareillegitimateandthatthosewhopreferordertojusticesecuritytofreedomandmoneytopietyhaveforfeitedanyclaimtoauthority

ThisaspectofIslamismhasfrequentlybeencomparedtotheProtestantReformationandmorespecificallytoCalvinistsrsquoattemptstotransferldquore-ligiousauthorityawayfromofficiallysanctionedindividualswhointer-prettextstoordinarycitizensrdquo(EGoldberg19913alsocfLoimeier2005)Suchaparallelhassparkedagreatdealofscholarlyspeculation

35

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INTRODUCTION

regardingapossibleldquoIslamicReformationrdquo22andarangeofargumentsaboutwhetherandhowIslamismmightfacilitatethedemocratizationofMuslim societies much as the Protestant Reformation is said to haveheralded the emergence of European ldquoliberal democracyrdquo While suchcomparisonsareevocativeafullerunderstandingof IslamismrequiresfirstsituatingitinrelationtoahistoricalshiftinthenatureandlocusofreligiousauthorityinIslambeginninginthenineteenthcenturyAsschol-arsofMuslimsocietieshavepointedouttheimpactofmasseducationnewtechnologiesfordisseminatingknowledgeandinformationanddra-matically changed social economic and political contexts have madeavailabletoamateurswhathadpreviouslybeenthepurviewofreligiousexpertsAtthesametimeithasinauguratedafragmentationofauthor-itywithintheveryranksofthelsquoulamathatcontinuestothepresentday23

InthiscontexttheascendanceandinfluenceofautodidactssuchasQutbHasanal-BannalsquoAbdal-SalamFarajandBinLadensimultaneouslyex-pressandaccelerateanongoingrenegotiationofauthorityoverwhomayspeakforIslamandonwhatbasisthepathofwhichisstillunfoldingandtheoutcomeasyetuncertain

Islamism and Gender

One already apparent consequence of this ongoing renegotiation overwhomayspeakforIslamandonwhatbasisistheentryofwomenintothe interpretive fray This development is increasingly unsettling thoseunwrittengendernormsarguablyattheveryheartofIslamistthoughtdisruptingthestandardsofmasculinityandfemininitythatreflecthowparticularculturesorganizehumanbeingsrsquosocialandreproductiveactiv-itiesintorolesthatareinturnthoughttoexpresstheldquonaturerdquoofmenand women Such norms are frequently considered tangential to theknottyproblemsofdefiningIslamismandadumbratingitscentralideasyetarangeofscholarshiponculturespastandpresenthasshownthatgenderisconsistentlytheterrainoverwhichbattlesforpoliticalcontrolandculturalidentityarefoughtMorespecificallyresearchindisciplinessuchasanthropologyhistoryclassicsandpostcolonialstudieshasdem-onstratedthatculturesinwhichfemalebodiesandbehaviorareregardedas indicesofmoralpurity tend to symbolically transformwomen intoconduitsof cultural corruption in timesof internal crisis and externalthreat(Papenek1994Chatterjee1990Tavakoli-Targhi1991Just1989Cohen1991Welter1966Bloch1978)Thisisespeciallytrueofcontem-

22Foralatenineteenth-centuryassessmentoftheprospectsforaldquoMuhammadanRefor-mationrdquoseeBlunt1882132ndash73

23EickelmanandPiscatori199637ndash39131ndash35Zaman2006Suchfragmentationhasinmanywaysbeenacceleratedbytheexplosionofdigitalcultureswhichpromoteamongotherthingsaldquoformofempoweredamateurismrdquo(Mirzoeff20026)

36

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INTRODUCTION

poraryreligio-politicalmovementswhosememberstendtoldquoidealizepa-triarchalstructuresofauthorityandmoralityrdquoendorsegenderdualismasgod-givenornaturalandcondemnvigorouslyrecentchangesingen-derrelationsasasymptomandsymbolofsecularistmoralbankruptcy(Riesebrodt1993Moghadam1992Hawley1994)

SeveralchaptersinthisvolumeilluminateIslamistgendernormsbyre-vealing thecharacterandcontentof Islamistconcernsabout theplaceandpurityofMuslimwomenmdashpreoccupationsFatimaMernissi(199199)hasgonesofarastocharacterizeasanobsessionDespiteimportantdifferences among Islamists thinkers many endorse gender norms inwhichthefairlyconventionalinsistencethatfemalenatureisdefinedinand through reproduction undergirds an understanding of women assymbolsofmoralvirtueandvesselsofculturalpurityThisviewsustainstheclaimthatmenandwomenareequalinreligiousbeliefbutperformfundamentallydifferentandcomplementaryfunctionsinsocietyWhilemenarenaturallymadetoruleinboththepublicandprivatedomainawomanbelongsinthedomesticrealmwhereherprimaryroleistobeawifeandmotheraswellastoinsuretheintegrityofthefamilythefirstschoolofmoraleducationAssuchfunctionsarerootedinaninescap-ablehumannaturefashionedbyGodawomanrsquosinabilityorunwilling-nesstoperformherdutiessignalsadisobediencetothedivinewillandpresages the corruption of the Muslim family from within From thisvantagepointtheWesterninsistenceonfullequalitybetweenthesexesisdoubly pernicious it at once liberates women from basic moral con-straintsandenslavesthemtomutuallyreinforcingsexualandcapitalistexploitationAsMurtazaMutahhari(1998xxxi)arguescapitalismmakesuseofwomentomarket itsgoodsldquoby trading inhonourandrespectthrough[their]powertoenticerdquotherebyldquotransform[ing]manintoaninvoluntaryagentofconsumptionrdquoInasmuchaswomenareresponsiblefor producing the next generation of Muslim men destined to restoreIslamtoitsformergloryitisnotonlythevirtueofwomenortheinteg-rityofthefamilythathangsinthebalancebutthefutureofIslamiccivili-zationitself

Zaynab al-Ghazali andMutahharimake several of these argumentsexplicitlyandindetail(seechapters10and11)butinmuchofIslamistrhetoricthenatureandsignificanceofwomenareestablishedindirectlyandsymbolicallyandthroughthreerecurrentimagesinparticularThefirstisofwomenassilentsymbolsofculturalmoralandsexualvulnera-bilityvoicelessfiguresinneedofmasculineprotectionorwhenitistoolatedefiledbodiesthatmutelydemandvengeanceSoforexamplelsquoAb-dallahlsquoAzzam(oneofBinLadenrsquosmentorsseechapter18)graphicallydetailstheagonizinghumiliationofyoungmenunabletoactwhentheAfghanwoman isldquocryingout forhelpher childrenarebeing slaugh-tered her women are being raped the innocent are killed and theircorpsesscatteredrdquo(lsquoAzzam1987a)Inthesecondimagewomenfunction

37

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INTRODUCTION

muchlikeachorusthatspeaksinpermittedcadencestoratifymasculineendeavorsSuchisthecaseforexampleinBinLadenrsquos1996ldquoDeclara-tionofWaragainsttheAmericansOccupyingtheLandoftheTwoHolyPlacesrdquo(seechapter18)wherethewomenexhortmentojihadinthefollowing way ldquoPrepare yourself like a struggler the matter is biggerthanwordsAreyougoingtoleaveusforthewolvesofKufr[unbe-lief]eatingourwingsWherearethefreemendefendingfreewomenbyarmsDeath isbetter than life inhumiliation Some scandals andshameswillneverbeotherwiseeradicatedrdquo24InthethirdimagewomenarecreaturesnotofthisworldbutofanothervirginalrewardsforthecourageousmartyrintheafterlifeThisisevidentinthefinalinstructionsforthe911hijackersforexamplewhereMuslimldquobrothersrdquoareurgedto purify their carnal impulses sharpen their knives for the dhabh (slaughter)andheedthecallofthehur lsquoayn (theblack-eyedones)await-ingtheminParadise(seechapter19)

Such rhetoric primarily registers women as an extensionmirror ormeasure of masculinity and together with explicit Islamist argumentsabouthumannatureandthefamilyarticulatesIslamistgendernormsinwhichmenandwomeneachhaveaproperlocationandpurposeinadi-vinely ordained social hierarchy Deviance from this gendered scriptthussignalsdisruptionofamuchbroaderreligio-politicalorderitbothpresumes and seeks to bring into existence The disruption caused byforeign aggression in particular exacerbates the tendency to translateconflict into an assault on Muslim masculinity and to conceptualizewomenaspotentialvehiclesforWesterncorruptioninneedofguidingand guarding Women such as Zaynab al-Ghazali and Nadia Yassinewho seek a prominent place and voice within the Islamist movementhavehadlittlechoicebuttocontendwiththisgenderedscriptDoingsohasentailedamongotherthingsnavigatingcarefullybetweenIslamistcharacterizations of womenrsquos visibility and agency as symptomatic ofthe new jahiliyya on the one hand and essentializing arguments thatequateIslamwithveilingfemalegenitalmutilationandhonorkillingsontheother

AsthechaptersonGhazaliandYassinesuggestIslamistwomenhavenegotiatedbetweensuchconstraintsandpressuresandtheirownambi-tionsindifferentwaysApioneeringdalsquoiya(onewhoinvitesMuslimstogreater piety)Ghazalirsquos own life reveals a fierce resistance to conven-tionalnormsofdomesticityevenasmuchofher(earlier)workappearsto embrace an Islamist gender ideology that defines women as wivesmothers andldquobuilders ofmenrdquo (al-Hashimi 1990 118)By contrastYassineisawifeandmotherwhoembracesanldquoIslamicfeminismrdquothatrequiresldquoreappropriatingtheinstrumentsofclassicaltheologyrdquoanden-

24TheIslamistjournalSawt alshyJihadhasgonesofarastofeatureldquowomenrsquosvoicesrdquointheformofrolemodelsnamedforexampleumm alshyshahid(motherofthemartyr)al-thoughitisunclearthattheseldquovoicesrdquoareactuallywomenrsquos(SUsher2004)

38

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INTRODUCTION

gaging the textsdirectly through ijtihad (NYassine2003) In this re-spect Yassine must be understood as part of a broader effort amongMuslimwomenwithdifferentpoliticalcommitmentstosimultaneouslyadvocateandenacttheirrighttorecuperatetheldquooriginalintentrdquooftheIslamictextsIfwomenandmendoinfacthavedistinctperspectivesontheworldYassinesuggestswomenhaveaspecialobligationtoexcavatewhattheyseeasthegenderparityoftheQurrsquoanburiedbeneaththoseldquomachointerpretationsrdquoofIslamuponwhichmenhavebuilttheirprivi-legeandpower(Khalaf2006)25

ManyAnglo-AmericanandEuropean feministsworry that Islamistsseekonly to secureor restorepatriarchalpowerConverselymany Is-lamist women view feminism as a term and a movement inescapablyWesterninoriginfreightedwiththelegacyofcolonialismanduneasilyimplicatedinculturalimperialismThisapplieseventoYassinewhoisunwillingtoadoptwithoutqualificationalabelsheassociateswithagen-dasopposedtoherowntheWesttheMoroccanstateMaghribi(North-westAfrican)elitesYetfeminismitselfisahighlycontestedtermwithin theso-calledWestitisthebearerofmultiplemeaningssomeofwhichareevenopposedandischaracterizedbydeepdisagreementsaboutwhowomenarewhatwomenneedwhoisauthorizedtoworkonwomenrsquosbehalf andbywhatmeans Inasmuch as these various feminismsmayshareonlyastatedconcernforwomenrsquoswelfarethereisnothinginco-herentinmodifyingldquofeminismrdquowithldquoIslamicrdquoldquoMuslimrdquoorevenldquoIs-lamistrdquounlessone iscommitted toarguing thatfirst Islam isanun-changingessencebeyondhistorypoliticsandculturesecondthereisaneutralobjectivevantagefromwhichtoidentifythisessenceonceandforallandfinallytheIslamicessencesoidentifiedisfundamentallyin-compatiblewitheffortstoimprovetheconditionsandqualityofwomenrsquoslivesBythesametokenIslamistwomenwhorejectthetermfeminismcanbe(althoughnotalwaysare)deeplycommittedtoimprovingwom-enrsquoswelfareaswellasactivelyresistanttoeffortsthatreduceortrans-formthemintosilentaccessoriesofmalepower

YassineandGhazalidifferaboutwhatwomenareandshouldbeyetbroadlyspeakingbothmaybeconsideredpartofarecenttrendtowardthe feminizationofdalsquowa Dalsquowa literallymeanscallappealor sum-monsbutthetermhascometosignifyavarietyofpracticesandargu-mentsmeanttoexhortinviteandguideMuslimstowhatisregardedasproperconductandmoraldevotionWomenrsquosparticipationindalsquowais

25WomenrsquosparticipationintheldquoproductionofofficialIslamicknowledgerdquohasalonghistoryalthoughtheyhaveoftendonesoinrelativeobscurityandwithoutthebenefitofeducation in the Islamicsciences thathas legitimateddirectengagementwith thesacredtexts (Cooke 2001 xiv Badran and Cooke 2004) Pioneering attempts to read genderequalityinIslamarealsonotconfinedtowritingbywomenasevincedbyQasimAminrsquosTahrir alshymarrsquoa [TheLiberationofWoman] (1899)andMumtaz lsquoAlirsquosHuquqshye niswan [TheRightsofWomen](1898)

39

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

notabrandnewphenomenonasisevidentinGhazalirsquosworkwiththeEgyptianSocietyofMuslimLadiesinthe1930sYetfromEgypttoPaki-stantoSaudiArabiatotheUnitedStatesthenumberoffemaledalsquoiyashasproliferatedexponentially inrecentyears(Cooke2001Mahmood2005Hirschkind2006)Thisreflectsinpartcurrentdoctrinalempha-sesondalsquowaasincumbentuponbothmenandwomenanddependentlessupontechnicalknowledgethanmoralvirtueandpracticalfamiliaritywiththeIslamictradition(Mahmood200565ndash66)It isalsoaconse-quenceofrecentpoliticalandsocioeconomictransformationsinMuslimsocietiesincludingtheexpansionofmasseducationthathasnotonlyin-creasedwomenrsquosliteracyandsocialmobilitybutalsomadeIslamictextsmoreaccessibletheproliferationoftechnologiesmdashfromthecassettetapetotheInternetmdashthatfacilitatethecirculationofreligiousknowledgeevenamongthosewhocannotreadortraveltheprecedentsetbythevigorousparticipationof IranianwomeninpostrevolutiondebatesaboutIslamandthemodeloflegalactivismevidentintheIslamistmovementrsquosownchallenge to the lsquoulamarsquos status as gatekeepers of religious knowledge(Singerman2005Mir-Hosseini1999)

If Ghazali and Yassine exemplify the feminization of dalsquowa amongelitesthemosquemovementinEgyptillustratesthegrowingparticipa-tionofwomenfromdiversesocialbackgroundsinreligiousclassesde-votedtostudyinganddebatingwhatIslamrequiresforawomantobeldquomorallyuprightrdquointhecontemporaryworld(Mahmood2005)Con-ceptualizingpiety in termsof adeepandholistic commitment to self-transformationparticipantsinthemosquemovementareconcernedlesswithmattersofsovereigntyandpoliticsconventionallyunderstoodandmorewiththeldquomoralcultivationrdquoofthosedailypracticesseenascrucialtobecomingclosertoGod(Mahmood2005)SomeIslamistshavecriti-cizedthis focusonpracticesofworshipasapoliticalandoverlypriva-tizedyetsuchcriticismmissestheforceofIslamistsrsquoowninsistenceondin(religion)asawayoflifeinwhichthedomainsofpublicandprivateare inextricably linked26AsSabaMahmood (2005193194) showsthesewomenrsquosintenseeffortsatldquoretrainingethicalsensibilitiesrdquohavealdquosociopoliticalforcerdquothatextendswellbeyondmattersofgovernancefacilitatingnolessthantheemergenceofaldquonewsocialandmoralorderrdquoEvidenceofitstransformativepowermaybefoundnotonlyinthesheernumbersandvarietyofwomenmdashwealthyandpoor literateand illiter-atemdashparticipatinginthemosquemovementbutalsointherhetoricalandpoliticaleffortsbythestateandsomeIslamiststocurtailcontrolordis-creditit(Mahmood200571194)

26ParticipantsinthemosquemovementinturnareoftencriticalofwhattheyseeasthereductionofIslamtotokensofculturalauthenticityorofitsinstrumentalizationbybothnationalistsandIslamiststheycharacterizeasmoreinterestedinpoliticalmaneuveringthanreligiouspiety

40

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INTRODUCTION

Understoodtoincludebothwrittenandembodiedpracticesthefemi-nizationof dalsquowa illustrates theways inwhichwomen fromdifferentperspectivesandsocialclassesareinsistingonengagingthesacredtextsdirectly for and with one another without the mediating authority ofmenwhohavetraditionallyheldthemonopolyonsuchactivitiesAsSu-danese Islamist Lubabah al-Fadl argues ldquoAs an insan [human being]whohappenstobeawomanIhavearighttorejectthemanipulativeexegesesofoursharilsquoa thatthreatenmyexistenceinawaythat isnotconsistentwiththeGodlywayandtoapplymyownijtihadtorectifyer-roneoustendenciesbysomeshuyukh[pluralofshaykh]rdquo(Sadiki2004290)DespitetheproliferationofvoicesintentonclaimingforthemselvestheauthoritytodemarcatewhatisauthenticallyIslamicandun-Islamiconceandforallcontestationoveritsscopeandmeaningproceedsapacefacilitatedatleastinpartbywomenformerlyexcludedfromtheconver-sationAtthesametimeIslamistwomenrsquosagencyandclaimstoauthorityarefrequentlystillpredicatedonawillingnesstofollowfairlypatriarchalrulesaboutwherehowandwithwhomtheymaypracticetheirvocation(Hirschkind2003Sadiki2004283)

Islamism and Violence

IfgenderisfrequentlyanimplicitpreoccupationamongIslamistsjihadisarguably Islamistsrsquomost consistently explicit concern Jihad is derivedfromtheArabicverbthatmeanstostruggleortostriveyetitisaparticu-larkindofstruggle that isofconcern tomanyof thefigurescollectedheretheoftenviolentstruggleagainstapostatesandinfidelsbothathomeandabroadtowhicheveryindividualMuslimmustcontributeTheclaimthatfightingunbelieversisthepreeminentenactmentofindividualMus-limpiety seems to justify characterizationsof Islam ingeneral and Is-lamisminparticularassanctioningevenencouragingviolenceYetwhatIslamistsrepresentasjihadtout courtisahistoricallyspecificunderstand-ingderivedfromahighlyselectiveuseoftextsandprecedentsprominentamongthemaformerlyobscureclaimbytheinfluentialfourteenth-cen-tury jurist IbnTaymiyya thatMongol rulerswhohad contravened Is-lamiclawcouldbesubjecttoforcibleremovalFarfromadefinitiveex-pressionof Islamldquoproperlyunderstoodrdquo such Islamist argumentsnotonlymarkasignificantdeparturefrommuchofantecedentdoctrineandpractice but also diminish the importance of ongoing disagreementsamongMuslimsabouttheformandpurposesofjihad

TobeginwithMuslimscholarshavetendedtoconsiderjihadagainstforeignenemiesafard kifaya(collectiveobligation)thatisadutyagroupofpeoplewithinthecommunitymayperformonbehalfoftherestandonethatpresupposesalegitimateMuslimleadertodeclareorleadthechargeJuristshavedistinguishedthisfromthefard lsquoayn(individualduty)thatmustbefulfilledbyeverysingleMuslimincasesofdefensivejihad

41

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INTRODUCTION

thatiswhentheummaisunderattackManyIslamistsincludedheretakeamuchlessnuancedviewofjihadAsamodeofpoliticalactionQutbarguesjihadmustberegardedasaldquopermanentconditionnotanocca-sionalconcernrdquoonethatincurrentcircumstancesrequiresdeedsratherthanwordsstruggleratherthancontemplationrevolutionathomeaswellasresistanceabroad(Qutb199167ndash6882)lsquoAbdal-SalamFarajarguesalongsimilarlinesthatthenatureoftheattackonIslammakespolitical authorization by a caliph (ldquodeputyrdquo referring to a legitimatesuccessortotheProphetrsquosleadership)unnecessaryafterallldquoleadershipovertheMuslimsis(always)intheirownhandsifonlytheymakethismanifestIfthereissomethinglackingintheleadershipwellthereisnothingthatcannotbeacquiredrdquo(Jansen1986asec93)

SuchargumentsareadeliberaterejectionofearlyMuslimmodernistswhohademphasizedthelargelydefensivecharacterofjihadandsoughttoshowthatrelationsbetweenMuslimsandnon-MuslimswerenormallypeacefulratherthanantagonisticMahmudShaltut(d1963)therectorof al-Azhar from 1958 to 1963 had argued for example that theQurrsquoanicversesonfightingldquoprohibittheprovocationofhostilityandthisprohibitionisreinforcedbyGodrsquosrepugnancetoaggressionandbyhisdislikeofthosewhoprovokehostilityrdquo(Peters199674onShaltutseeZebiri1993)ConversionbyforceisanathematoIslamShaltutaversandfightingiscommandedonlyindefenseinresponsetoaggressionini-tiatedbyothersEvendefensivejihadmustaimatldquotheterminationoftheaggressionandtheestablishmentofreligiouslibertydevotedtoGodandfreefromanypressureorforcerdquo(Peters199675)

ManyIslamistsexplicitlydismisssuchargumentsasasymptomoffalseconsciousnessoneamongmanydestructiveeffectsofcolonialdomina-tionMawdudiargues for example thatwhile imperialists ravage theworld to satisfy their greed jihad alone ldquoconjures up the vision of amarching band of religious fanatics with savage beards and fiery eyesbrandishingdrawnswordsandattackingtheinfidelswherevertheymeetthemrdquoHavinginternalizedthis imageMuslimsrushtoapologizeandrenouncearmedstruggleInthiswayhelamentscolonialistsretaintheexclusiverighttoldquofightwitharmsandammunitionwhilewearecon-tented with our pen and our tonguerdquo (Mawdudi 1948 1ndash3) SayyidQutbforhispartagreedthatIslamdoesnotcountenancespreadingitsmessagebyforceandcoercionyethehadlittlepatiencewiththosewhosoughttopresentjihadaslegitimateonlyinself-defense

IfweinsistoncallingIslamicjihadadefensivemovementthenwemustchangethemeaningofthewordldquodefenserdquoandmeanbyitldquothedefenseofmanrdquoagainstallthoseforcesthatlimithisfreedomWhenwetakethisbroadmeaningofthewordldquodefenserdquoweunder-standthetruecharacterofIslaminthatitproclaimstheuniversalfreedomofeverypersonandcommunityfromservitudetoanyother

42

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

individualorsocietytheendofmanrsquosarroganceandselfishnesstheestablishmentofthesovereigntyofAllahandHisLordshipthrough-outtheworldandtheruleofthedivinesharilsquoainhumanaffairs(Qutb199050)

Qutbdoesnotnameanynamesincastigatingtheldquowriterswithdefeatistandapologeticmentalities[who]writeaboutlsquojihadinIslamrsquoandtrytoremovethislsquoblotrsquofromIslamrdquo(Qutb199046)buthecouldverywellhavehadhisdistinguishedfellowEgyptianMahmudShaltutinmind

These arguments about jihad may be said to constitute a commongrammarandframeworkofanalysisformanyIslamistsalthoughseveralthinkers in this volume carefully calibrate such claims to suit variouspurposesanddifferentpublicspheresInhisjustificationfortheassassi-nationofEgyptianpresidentAnwaral-SadatforexamplelsquoAbdal-SalamFarajdepictsthestruggletoreclaimthemoralfoundationsoftheEgyp-tianstateasafightagainstjahiliyyafromwithinarguingthatthejihadagainstacorruptnationalistregimeathomemusttakeprecedenceoverfightingenemieselsewhereTheCharterofHamas(seechapter15)how-everinsiststhatallMuslimsrecognizetheprimacyofthejihadforJeru-salemweldingIslamistrhetorictothatofnationalistresistanceinanef-fortbothtofightIsraelioccupationandtocompeteforadherentswiththePalestinianLiberationOrganization(PLO)IncontrasttobothFarajandHamasBinLadenembracesaglobaljihadthatessentiallycollapsesdistinctionsbetweennationalandinternationaloffensiveanddefensivefightingenemiesathomeandthosefromafar

Yet despite such differences these arguments tend to presume thatviolent jihad is a necessary response to the pervasive power of thosewithdemonstratedhostilitytoMuslimliveslandspietiesandsensibili-tiesaformofretaliationwhoseurgencyandlegitimacyderivefromtheviolencemdashpsychologicalandeconomicaswellasphysicalmdashoftheinitialassaultThisviewofjihadsubsumesindividualsintoarchetypesofldquoin-fidelsrdquoandldquobelieversrdquoandinsodoingvitiatesmoreconventionaldis-tinctionsbetweenforexamplesoldierandcivilianorcollectiveandin-dividual responsibility It is far from inevitable that thosewhoharborsuchviewswillautomaticallyactuponthemyetthecarnagewroughtbytheattacksontheWorldTradeCenterandthePentagonin2001aBalinightclub in 2002 Madrid commuter trains in 2004 and throughoutIraqonadailybasissuggestjusthowlethalsuchclaimscanbegiventheright circumstances The fact that such violence does not discriminateamongvictimsonlyfurtherfuelsrhetoriccharacterizingIslamistsasirra-tional fanatics ldquoin love with deathrdquo terrorists animated by a religioncharacterizedbyapropensityforviolenceandauthoritarianism27

27AnxietiesabouttheparticularsusceptibilityofMuslimstoirrationalityinsularityandfanaticismhavealonganddistinguishedpedigreeinEuro-AmericanhistoryandpoliticalthoughtSeeforexampleRenan18833

43

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

AsinsomanyothermattershoweverIslamistsarehardlyofonemindonthesubjectofjihadindeedthereareIslamistswhoexplicitlyrejectthereductionof struggle toviolenceAcase inpoint isNadiaYassine(20032005c)whoinsiststhatjihadisthededicatedstruggleagainstisshytikbar(arrogance)particularlyinitscommonformasthelustforpoweranddominationAsjihadagainstistikbarisbothafinalgoalandapre-scriptionforactionYassinesuggestsitisantitheticaltoviolentpracticesthataimatdominationTheprimaryinstrumentsofjihadarenotbombsbutwords particularly thosedeployed in the art of persuasion (Fara-marzi2005NYassine2006a)WhenIslamistssuchaslsquoAbdal-SalamFarajandlsquoUmarlsquoAbdal-RahmanseektolegitimizeviolentrevolutionbyrecoursetoIslamictextsshearguestheycontravenethetruemeaningofjihadtoservetheirownarrogantendsBythesametokenBinLadenrsquosdecisiontoldquofightevilwithevilandbarbaritywithbarbarityrdquonotonlyviolatesspecificIslamicprohibitionsagainstharmingcivilianswomenandchildrenbutalsobetraystheethicalimperativetoembodythemes-sageofamercifulGodwhocautionsbelieversthat(Q8822)ldquoYouhavenopoweroverthemrdquo(NYassine2005cDaily Excelsior2002)

SuchpersistentdisagreementsamongMuslimspastandpresentsug-gest that Islam isnomore inherently violent andbloody-minded thanitmdashorChristianityor Judaism for thatmattermdashis inherentlypeacefulIslamists often claim to speak for an unchanging authentic Islam thatexistsoutsideoftimeandspaceyetthepoliticalpurchaseoftheirper-spective derives from the ways it assembles disparate yet recognizablecontemporaryexperiencesofsufferingfrustrationandlossintoanex-planationthatresonateswithMuslimswholiveincommunitiescultur-allylinguisticallyandgeographicallydistantfromoneanotherTheex-tenttowhichIslamistargumentsresonatebroadlyacrossMuslimsocie-tiesthusdependsuponasetofexperiencesandphenomenathatmarkthisparticularmomentinhistoryincludingthewaysinwhichcontempo-raryglobalinequalitiescompoundalegacyofhistoricalasymmetriestocontinuallyreproduceasenseofMuslimpowerlessnessmdashbothrealandimaginedmdashrelativetotheWestcontinuingEuro-Americanpoliticalandfinancialsupportofcorruptautocratsmanyofwhompresideoverna-tion-statesbrutallystitchedtogetherbyWesternfiat thepersistenceofauthoritarian regimes eager to control domestic unrest by catalyzingldquoMuslimragerdquotowardexternaltargetsthesenseofemasculationpro-ducedbydecadesofpoliticalrepressionandeconomicfrustrationandthecontinualflowofimagesofbloodiedMuslimbodiesdeliveredbyaburgeoningarrayofvideosatelliteandelectronicmedia

It is notable that the understanding of jihad many Islamists proffermirrorstheverystate-sanctionedviolenceagainstwhichtheyhavestrug-gledforalmostacenturyAlongwiththousandsofMuslimscaughtinthemachineryoftwentieth-centurystateviolenceprominentIslamistsfromQutbtoGhazalitoAymanal-Zawahirimdashal-Qalsquoidarsquossecondincommandmdash

44

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

arewellknowntohavebeenradicalizedbyextendedandoftenbrutaltermsofincarcerationinEgyptSyriaIraqJordanIsraelAlgeriaandelsewhere(onal-ZawahiriandprisoncfKepelandMilelli2008152ndash54)ItisthusfarfromsurprisingthatIslamistsforgedbyinterrogationtortureinprisoncampswouldconcludethatthepreeminentenactmentofMuslimpietyisviolentstruggleldquoPrisonrdquoasPalestinianKhaledAbuHilalhassaidldquoismyuniversityrdquo(Erlanger2007)anargumentmadeingreaterdetailinadifferenttimeandplacebyRussianwriterandrevolu-tionaryMaximGorky(1868ndash1936)

Apeoplebroughtupinaschoolthatremindsoneofthetormentsofhellonasmallscaleapeopleaccustomedtotheclenched-fistprisonandthewhipwillnotbeblestwithatenderheartApeoplethatthepoliceagentshaveriddenoverwillbecapableintheirturnofwalk-ingoverthebodiesofothersInacountrywhereunresthasreignedsolongit isdifficultforthepeopletorealizefromonedaytothenextthepowerofrightOnecannotdemandfromamanwhohasneverknownjusticethatheshouldbejust(Gorky1920)

InthiscontextasTimothyMitchell(1990195ndash96199207ndash8)suggestsIslamistviewsoftheworldcanbecharacterizedasbothamodeofresis-tancetostatemechanismsofcoercionandanexpressionofthemSuchisthedynamic evident inGhazalirsquosmemoirs for examplewhen shede-scribeshowtheldquodarknessofprisonsthebladesoftortureandthevi-ciousbeatingsonly increasetheenduranceandresolveofthefaithfulrdquo(Ghazali19786)

There is no doubt a great deal of pragmatism at work in IslamistargumentsaboutviolenceAsQutb(19916447ndash48)drylynotesthepathtofreedommustoccasionallybehewnbywayoftheswordbecausetyrants are not reasoned out of power and ldquojahiliyya is not lsquoabstracttheoryrsquo[it]consciouslyorunconsciouslystrivestopreserveitsownexistence to defend its essence to annihilate dangerous elementswhichthreatenitsverybeingrdquoYetitisalsothecasethatformanyoftheseIslamistsjihadisbothameansandanendanefforttoeradicatethoseobstacles torestoringa justcommunityonearththatsimultane-ouslybringshumanaction intoaccordwithGodrsquosplansandpurposes(Haddad198321)While theQurrsquoan (2256) states thatldquothere isnocompulsioninreligionrdquoIslamistscontendthatonlyinastateinwhichIslamiclawreignssupremearehumanbeingsfreefromenslavementtooneanotherrsquosruleandallareequalbyvirtueoftheircommonsubmissiontoGodAsQutb(1991107ndash8)argues

WhenthehighestauthorityinsocietyisGodalonemdashexpressedintheruleofdivinelawmdashonlythenishumanitytrulyandcompletelyliber-atedfromslaverytomenOnlythisisldquohumancivilizationrdquobecausetheessentialfoundationofhumancivilizationisthetrueandcom-

45

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

pletefreedomofhumanityandtheabsolutedignityofeveryindivid-ualinsocietyThereisnotruefreedomanddignityforhumanityortheindividualinasocietywheresomepeoplearelordswholegislateandothersareslaveswhoobey

From this perspective the realization of justice liberty equality andchoiceitselfnecessitatestheforcibleremovaloftheconstraintsimposedbyjahiliyyaalongwiththosewhoaidandabetitno matter the costAsMawdudi(1954160ndash61)writes

[W]hyisitthatinreligionsuchimportanceisgiventojihadthattheQurrsquoanpronouncesthejudgmentofhypocrisyuponthosewhoshirkandevadeitJihadisbutanothernamefortheattempttoerectthesystemoftruthandtheQurrsquoandeclaresjihadtobeatouchstoneonthesamefootingwithamanrsquosfaithInotherwordshewhohasfaithinhisheartwillneitherbecontentwiththedominationofthesystemofevilnorwillhegrudgetheexpenditureoflifeandwealthinthestruggleforerectingthesystemoftruthIfoneshowsweaknessinthismatterhisfaithitselfisdoubtfulWhatcananythingelsebesidethenprofithimThemanwhoprofesses faith in this religioncannotfulfillhisdutyonlybytryingasfaraspossibletopatternhislifeonIslamThenatureofhisfaithitselfrequiresthatheshouldconcentrateallhiseffortuponwrestingleadershipfromunbelievingandcorruptmentoentrustittotherighteousanduponerectingthesystemoftruththathasbeenordainedfortheconductoftheworldaccordingtothewillofGodBecausethisendisunattainablewith-out thehighestdegreeofcollectiveeffort theremustexistarigh-teouscommunitycommittedtotheprincipleoftruthanddevotedtothesolepurposeintheworldoferectingmaintainingandproperlyrealizingthesystemoftruth

ThefactthatsomeIslamistthinkerssanctifyviolentstruggleinsuchtermsdoesnotmeanofcoursethatallthosewhoadvocateorengageinjihadendorseviolence28NordoesitimplythatthosewhoclaimtokillforIslamareentirelywithoutulteriormotivesthosemanipulativepur-poses andpsychologicalmotivations that even themost rarified scrip-turalargumentscanexpressorserveWhattheprecedinganalysisdoessuggesthoweveristhatthereductionofthisviewofjihadtoirrationalbloodlusttheself-interestedgrabfortemporalpoweroradoorthroughwhichtopassintothehereaftermissesacrucialdimensionofitssignifi-canceandappealfortruebelieversjihadisnolessthananenactmentof

28EvenashespokeofaneweraofjahiliyyaandofjihadMawdudihimselfstoppedwellshortof recommendingor condoning the actual resort to violence in themannermanyotherIslamistsdidAsNasr(199670)observesMawdudirsquosorganizationtheJamalsquoat-iIs-lamildquohasavoidedviolentsocialchangeandhasinsteadviewedthepathtotheIslamicstateaslyingwithintheexistingsociopoliticalorderrdquoAlsoseethechapters5and3onQutbandMawdudiinthisvolume

46

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

adivineimperativetoremakethefoundationsofcollectivelifeInthisre-spectIslamistviewsofjihadcanbeseenaspartofalong-standingasso-ciationbetweenviolenceandpoliticalfoundingsuponwhichnoparticu-larcultureorhistoricalepochhasamonopolyThisassociationandtheldquolegacyofviolencerdquoitbequeathstofuturegenerationsarenolessappar-entinthoseradicalrevolutionsofrenewalthatmovebywayoftheswordfromthemarginstothecenterthanthosepoliticalfoundingsthatclaimtocreatesomethingoutofnothing(Connolly1995251)Ineithercasethetollofsuchbrutalitycanbeimmeasurableforinadditiontothevic-timswhosufferdirectlytheldquopracticeofviolencelikeallactionchangestheworldbutthemostprobablechangeistoamoreviolentworldrdquo(Ar-endt1972177)

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Page 21: Chapter 1 INTRODUCTION - assets.press.princeton.eduassets.press.princeton.edu/chapters/s9067.pdf · Chapter 1 INTRODUCTION This volume is intended as a broad introduction to the evolution

21

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INTRODUCTION

contemporaryEuropeTariqRamadananinfluentialSwissArabphilos-opherhasarguedthatMuslimslivinginWesternsocietiesoughttofeelathomeinandcontributetoward thosesocietieswhileretainingandcultivatingtheirdistinctIslamicidentityHetooappearstoseehimselfinthegenealogyofwhathecharacterizesasldquoSalafireformismrdquo(onthischaracterization see Ramadan 2004 26ndash27) and he has echoed Qa-radawiinsomeofhisviews(cfRamadan199993ndash99) Other Salafis have remained staunchly opposed to institutions andpracticesofaWesternprovenanceAnespeciallyinfluentialfigureinthegenealogyofthelatterpositionistheeighteenth-centurypuritanicalre-former Muhammad ibn lsquoAbd al-Wahhab (d 1792) whose alliance in1744 with Muhammad ibn Salsquoud contributed to the establishment ofthefirstSaudistateinthelateeighteenthcenturyIbnlsquoAbdal-WahhabwashostilenotonlytoShilsquoismandtoSufidevotionalismbutalsotoany-thinghedeemednottobeinstrictconformitywiththeteachingsofthefoundationaltextsTherewasmuchthatseemedtohimtofailthisstan-dardallofwhichhebrandedasoneoranotherformofunbeliefTheWahhabismdashas the followers of Ibn lsquoAbd al-Wahhab are oftenknownthoughtheyprefertothinkofthemselvessimplyasgoodMuslimsoratbestasSalafismdashoftenadheretothelegalnormsoftheHanbalischooloflawthoughitistheteachingsofthefoundationaltextsirrespectiveofthisoranyotherschooldoctrinethattheyprofesstofollowThemoststringentoftheSaudiSalafisaswellasotherselsewhereareaveryfarcryindeedfromwhatQaradawiwouldcharacterizeasldquocentristrdquoSalafireformersletalonefromtheearlytwentieth-centurySalafimodernists

ThepoliticalviewsoftheWahhabisandmorebroadlyoftheSalafisare likewiseanythingbutuniformInSaudiArabiaWahhabireligiousscholarshavelongaffirmedaquietistpoliticalstancewhichhasmeantleavingmattersofthestatetotherulingfamilyFormuchofthehistoryofmodernSaudiArabiatherulingelitefor itsparthas imposedfewconstraintsontheSaudilsquoulamainmattersofreligiouslifetheregulationofsocialnormsandjudicialadministration(cfVogel2000)Onseveraloccasions however this relationship has come under severe strain In1979agroupofWahhabiswhorejectedthelegitimacyoftheSaudistateyethadtieswithsomeprominentreligiousscholarsmdashincludinglsquoAbdal-

feelconstrainedtomakeroomforsuchreveredfiguresasAhmadibnHanbaltheputativefounderoftheHanbalischooloflawandthefourteenth-centuryDamascenescholarIbnTaymiyya(d1328)OtherviewsarerathermoreexpansivenotjustinchronologicalbutalsoandcruciallyinintellectualtermsThusMuhammadlsquoAbduhthoughtthesalaftoalsoincludesuchtheologiansasal-Ashlsquoari(d935)al-Baqillani(d1013)andal-Maturidi(d944)SeeHourani1983149SuchaviewobviouslyopensthedoorforpreciselythesortoftheologicaldebatesthatotherSalafisaswellasIslamistsoftenfrownuponfortakingthebelieversveryfarfromthesimpleanddirectwordsofGod lsquoAbduhrsquosdiscipleRidaagaintookanarrowerviewofthesalafandlaterinhiscareerbecameastrongdefenderoftheWahhabisCfHourani1983230ndash32

22

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

lsquoAzizBinBaz(d1999)laterthegrandmuftiofSaudiArabiamdashtookoverthesacredprecinctsoftheKalsquobainMeccainashort-livedbutextremelyembarrassingchallenge toSaudi royalauthority (cfHegghammerandLacroix2007)In1990KingFahdrsquosdecisiontoinviteAmericantroopstodefendthekingdomagainstthethreatofanIraqiinvasioncreatedwide-spreadresentmentamongSaudis theeffectsofwhichcontinue to thisdayThestationingofnon-MuslimmilitarypersonnelinIslamrsquosholiestlandwasdeemedbythekingrsquoscriticstobescandalousandevensacrile-giousAnumberofprominentSaudiSalafispubliclycriticizedthekingrsquosdecisiononthisoccasioncallinguponhimaswellasonBinBazandoth-ersatthehelmoftheSaudireligiousestablishmenttoreorienttheSaudipolitytowarditstruereligiousfoundationsManyofthesedissidentsmdashwhowerealsojoinedbyldquosecularrdquoSaudicriticsoftheroyalfamilymdashwereandhaveremainedrestrainedintheircriticismevenastheycalledforstricterconformitytoIslamicnormsasthepanaceaforallills(cfFandy1999)OthershoweverhavedenouncedtheroyalfamilyanditsWesternalliesinnouncertaintermsBinLadenisonlythemostnotoriousofthosewhobrokewiththeroyalfamilyinthewakeofKingFahdrsquosdecisiontoinviteWesterntroopsin1990andwhocalledfortheoverthrowoftheroyal familyand for jihadagainstWesternpowers Such strident callshavebeencontinuedbyotherSalafisbothbeforeandaftertheterroristattacksofSeptember112001aswellasintheaftermathoftheUS-ledinvasionofIraq(al-Rasheed2007)

ItshouldbeclearinlightoftheforegoingthatanyunderstandingofthedifferencesbetweenIslamistsandtheSalafismustrestontakingac-countofthediversityamongtheSalafisSalafiswhooftenrejectmuchoftheIslamicscholarlytraditioninfavorofadirectrecoursetothefoun-dationaltextsarenotnecessarilyrenderedldquoIslamistrdquosimplybyvirtueofthisstanceForasnotedmanyoftheseSalafiscontinuetoprofessareso-lutelyquietiststancewhichinthecaseoftheSaudiSalafismeansaf-firmingallegiancetotheSaudiroyalfamilyThispositionisrepresentedforinstancebyBinBaztheerstwhilegrandmuftiaswellasbyotherleading members of the Saudi religious establishment A pro-regimestanceoroneindifferenttopoliticsisnolessldquopoliticalrdquoofcoursethana position of strident hostility to the established order at home andabroadForourpurposeshoweveritisonlywhentheSalafisrejecttheexistingdispensationandbeginstrivingmdashthoughnotnecessarilythroughmilitantmeansmdashforanewreligio-politicalorderthattheycanbesaidtojointheranksoftheIslamists

ItisworthnotingfinallythatSalafipositionsamongSaudisandelse-wherearemarkednotonlybydiversitybutalsobyconsiderablefluidity(al-Rasheed 2007) The same activist or intellectual might at varioustimesmoveamongavarietyofseeminglyincompatiblepositionsmdashap-pearingtobemoreldquomoderaterdquoonsomeissuesthanonothersForallhiscriticismofradicalIslamistsQaradawiforinstancehashimselfwrittenin justificationofsuicidebombingsbyPalestiniansagainst Israelis (see

23

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

chapter 9 on Qaradawi) And Saudi Salafis like Safar al-Hawali andSalmanal-lsquoAwdamdashwhocame toprominence in the early1990smdashhavealternatedbetweencriticismoftheSaudipoliciesanddenunciationsofradicalSalaficallstojihadagainsttheSaudiregime(seeal-Rasheed200759ndash101onal-HawalialsoseeReichmuth2006)Theirshiftingviewsreflect changes in their relations with the Saudi regime but they alsopointtothebroadspectrumofpositionswhichSalafishavetakenatdif-ferenttimesindifferentcontextsandbeforedifferentaudiencesThusevenasal-Hawaliandal-lsquoAwdahavecondemnedterroristactsdirectedagainstSaudiArabiaandadvisedSaudisnottofightAmericantroopsinpostndashSaddamHusseinIraqtheyhavecalledupontheIraqisthemselvestoresistAmericantroopsandhavecharacterizedthateffortasaldquodefen-sivejihadrdquo(al-Rasheed200794ndash95)

Sufi s and Islamists

ItseemsmuchsimpleronthefaceofittodistinguishbetweenIslamistsandSufisThecharacteristicSuficonvictionthattherearelevelsofmean-ingintheQurrsquoanthatgobeyondtheliteralandtheobviousandthataselectfewmdashtheldquofriendsofGodrdquomdashareendowedwiththeuniqueabilityto discern them is anathema to all those who insist that God intendsHisteachingstobeequallyintelligibletoallDespitetheirtendencytoviewthemselvesasbearersof true Islam Islamists typicallyregard theSufi idea that somepeoplehaveaprivileged relationshipwithGodassuspectthebasisnotonlyforsanctioninginterpretationsofIslamthatlackwarrantintheplainteachingsofGodandtheProphetbutalsoforpracticallyldquoworshipingrdquothesefriendsofGodIslamists(andmodernists)havefrequentlyalsobeencriticalofthewaySufidevotionalismcanyieldaturningawayfromtheworldratherthananefforttochangeitaswellasapreoccupationwithpersonalspiritualtransformationattheexpenseofconcernsforthewelfareofthecommunityatlarge SufipracticesandtheteachingsoftheSufimastershavevariedenor-mouslythroughoutthehistoryofIslamyetIslamistcritiquesofSufismareseldomattentivetoitsnuancesortothecomplexwaysithasrelatedtootherfacetsofIslamNorhaveIslamiststakenmuchaccountofthefactthatmanyleadingfiguresofearliertimeswerebesidesmuchelseSufisaswellThisistrueevenofIbnTaymiyya(d1328)whoseprestigeinIslamistandSalaficirclesismatchedbyfewothersandwhowasinhisdayamemberoftheQadiriSufiorder(Makdisi1974)EvenifonearguesmdashasanIslamistmightbeinclinedtomdashthatldquogoodrdquoSufismisnoth-ingbutproperIslamitselftheveryfactthatsuchfigureshadaSufiiden-tityatallnecessarilycomplicateswhatissupposedtobethepristinesim-plicityofafaithsharedequallybyallbelievers

Complicatingthingsstillfurtheristhevarietyofwaysinwhichsomeleading Islamists relate to Sufism Ayatollah Khomeini was a lifelongstudentofIslamicmysticismandtheinfluenceofthemedievalSpanish

24

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

Sufi Ibn lsquoArabi loomed especially large in his thought To Khomeinimysticismmdashoften referred to as lsquoirfan (gnosis) especially when inter-twinedwithIslamicphilosophyandtheology(Knysh1992632)mdashwascrucialtoaproperunderstandingofGodrsquosrelationshipwiththeworldandwiththehumanbeingItwasalsoessentialforonersquosethicalforma-tionforamasteryovertheselfandultimatelyforrealizinginoneselftheattributesofwhat Ibn lsquoArabihadcalledldquotheperfectmanrdquo (cfKnysh1992 635 also Mottahedeh 1985 180ndash85) Some of the austerity ofKhomeinirsquospersonallifeprobablyalsoderivedfromSufiasceticismAndthoughheanchoredhisconceptionofIslamicgovernmentinanexposi-tionofShilsquoijuridicalthoughtratherthaninIslamicmysticismthesortofreligiousauthorityhecametoenjoyonthebasisofhisreformulationofShilsquoipoliticaltheologyseemstoechomysticalideasoftheperfectmanwho embodies and upholds the moral order as the microcosm of theuniverse

UnlikeKhomeiniQutbwasnotaSufiandhegivesnoindicationofsharinganyofKhomeinirsquosenthusiasmforthegreatSufithinkersofear-liertimesEvensoechoesofamysticrsquosdirectencounterwiththefoun-tainheadoftruthandknowledgearehardtomissinQutbrsquoswritingses-peciallyinhiscommentaryontheQurrsquoan(cfCarreacute200395ndash97)TheveryfirstsentenceofhiscommentarymdashldquolifeintheshadeoftheQurrsquoanisablessingunknowntoanyonewhohasnrsquottasteditrdquomdashevokesthefa-miliarSufiideathatincontrovertibleknowledgeofRealityisultimatelyacquired only through direct personal experience (dhawq that is theldquotasterdquooftheTruth)ThegreatmedievalSufial-Ghazali(d1111)hadauthoredafamousautobiographicalaccountofhowitwasonlythroughthe immediacyofhispersonalmysticalexperience thathewasable toovercomehisdebilitatingepistemologicaldoubtsandreassurehimselfofthenecessarytruths(Watt199857)QutbdoesnotmentionGhazaliinthiscontextbutitisdifficultnottobestruckbythemysticalresonanceofsomeofhislanguageHereisoneexamplewhichoccursinhiscom-mentaryonsura(chapter)53oftheQurrsquoan16

16TheearlyversesinthissuraoftheQurrsquoanhavebeenunderstoodbyMuslimexegetesasreferringtotheProphetrsquosrevelatoryexperienceaswellastohisldquonightjourneyrdquoandhisascensiontoheavenormilsquoraj inthecourseofonenighthewastransportedfirstfromMeccatoJerusalemandthentothepresenceofGodbeforebeingreturnedtoMecca

UnrelatedtothenightjourneybutrelatedtohisrevelatoryexperiencestheexegeticalsignificanceofthisQurrsquoanicsuraalsoliesinitsconnectionwiththeso-calledSatanicVersesAccordingtocertainexegeticalreportsMuhammadwasinthecourseofreceivingarevela-tionwhenSataninterpolatedsomeversesintoitmdashversespraisingthreegoddessesreveredbythepolytheistsofMeccaItwasnotuntilsometimelaterthatMuhammadrealizedhiserrorwhereupontheversesinterpolatedbySatanwereremovedTheepisodeoftheldquoSa-tanicVersesrdquohasbeenacontroversialoneinIslamichistorylongbeforeSalmanRushdiersquosnovelofthatnameandKhomeinirsquosjuridicalruling(fatwa)callingforRushdiersquosdeathMostMuslimscholarshavefoundittooshockingtobelievethattheProphetcouldhavemadesuchagrievouserrorandhavedeniedthatanysuch incidentever tookplaceYetsome

25

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INTRODUCTION

IwaschattingoneeveningwithsomecompanionswhentoourearscamethesoundofsomeonerecitingtheQurrsquoannearbyrecitingtheSuraoftheStar[al-Najm]andweinterruptedourconversationtolistentotheNobleQurrsquoanLittlebylittlemyheartenteredintowhatwasbeing recited into theheartofMuhammadashe jour-neyedtotheHeavenlyHostIwaswithhimashesawGabrielintheangelicforminwhichGodhadcreatedhimIwaswithhiminhis loftyandfree-flying journey to theLoteTreeof theBoundaryandtheGardenoftheRefugeIwaswithhimtotheextentthatmyimaginationcouldformavisionofitandtotheextentthatmyfeelings couldbear itThen came the final cry andmywholebeingshookatthefearfulreproachldquoDoyoumarvelatthisdiscourseanddoyoulaughandnotweepandmakemerryrdquo[Q5359ndash61]WhenIheardldquoBowdownbeforeGodandserveHimrdquo[Q5362]thetremblinginmyhearthadbecomeaphysicalandvisibletremblingthroughoutmybodythatIcouldnotresistMybodykeptshakingandIcouldnotcontrolitNorcouldIholdbackthetearsthatwerepouringforthhowevermuchItried(QutbZilalvol7part2774ndash75quotedfromCarreacute2003333ndash34withminorchanges)

TheQurrsquoanrsquosprofoundimpactontheaestheticsensibilitiesofitslisten-ersisafamiliarmotifindiscussionsofitsliteraryqualities(cfGrahamandKermani2006)AssomeonewhoseearlywritingswereconcernedwithArabicliterarycriticismandspecificallywiththeliteraryexcellenceoftheIslamicscripture(Qutb1949b)QutbwasespeciallyreceptivetothisaspectoftheQurrsquoanThesenseofbeingtransportedbacktothetimeoftheProphetandtowitnessingtheProphetrsquosascension(milsquoraj)tothepresence of Godmdashwhich is how the passage being commented on byQutbherehascommonlybeeninterpretedbytheexegetesmdashcanlikewisebeseenasanillustrationoftheoverpoweringimpactthewordsoftheQurrsquoancanhaveonthebelieverQutbrsquosaccountofconversingwithGodthrough the Qurrsquoan (cited earlier) is again something he may havewantedtoseeallbelieversdoYetallbelieverscanscarcelydosoany-morethanallaspirantsevenontheSufipathcanexperiencethetransfor-mativemysticalldquostatesrdquothatGodbestowsonHisspecialfriends(awlshyiya)IrrespectiveofwhetherhesawitinquitethiswayQutbrsquosassertionthatheisabletoenterldquointotheheartofMuhammadrdquoandtoseeGabrielasMuhammad sawhimsurelygiveshimaperspective thatothers en-counteringthewordofGoddonothave

ThepointisnotofcoursethatQutbwaseverrecognizedbyhisfol-lowersasaSufimasterbutthatsomeofthehermeneuticalauthorityheclaimshasadistinctiveSufiringtoitMorebroadlythesortofunques-

leadingscholarsofearlyandmedievalIslammdashincludingIbnTaymiyyamdashacceptedthehisto-ricityofthisincidentSeeSAhmed1998

26

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INTRODUCTION

tioningreligio-politicalauthorityIslamistleadershaveoftenenjoyedovertheirfollowersisnotunlikethatoftheSufimasteroverhisfollowersBe-ginningwithHasanal-BannathefounderoftheMuslimBrotherhoodandoncehimselfamemberofaSufiordertheleaderofthisorganizationis formally referred to as themurshid (guide)ormore specificallyalshymurshid alshylsquoam (thegeneralguide[RMitchell1993165])whichisafamiliartermforthemasterinSuficontextsForhispartAbdessalamYassine the founder and leader of lsquoAdl warsquol-Ihsan Party of Morocco(oftenreferredtoastheJusticeandSpiritualityAssociationorJSA)haslike Khomeini gone well beyond simply echoing Sufi conceptions ofauthorityinhisowndiscoursesHetoowasonceamemberofaMoroc-canSufiorderandhehascontinuedtodrawonSufithemesinhiswrit-ingsTheverynameofYassinersquospoliticalorganizationevokesacentralSufiideanamelyihsanThisisaQurrsquoanicterm(cfQ756)thattrans-latedliterallymeansldquotodogoodrdquothoughSufishaveunderstoodittomeanmuchmore thanthatFollowingawell-knownstatementattrib-uted to theProphetMuhammad theyhaveoften interpreted ihsan tomeangoingbeyondtheexternalsofIslamicritualpracticestoldquoworshipGodasifyouseeHimrdquo(Schimmel197529)thatiscultivatingasenseof personal communion and intimacy with God Even as Yassine hassoughttodistancehimselffromwhathedeemstobetheexcessesofSu-fismthereislittledoubtthathispoliticalappealowesmuchtocarefullycalibratedeffortstocombinedistinctiveSufiideaswithhisownbrandofIslamism(cfLauziegravere2005seealsochapter12onNadiaYassineinthisvolume)

FinallyMawdudirsquosJamalsquoat-iIslamimdashoneoftheearliestIslamistorga-nizations in the Sunni worldmdashillustrates both the Islamistsrsquo complexrelationshipwith Sufismand their pragmatic recognitionof its appealinmanyMuslimsocietiesMawdudihadoncebeenaharshcriticofSu-fismblamingitformanyillsafflictingMuslimsocietiesYettheJama-lsquoat-iIslamigraduallycametosoftenitsstanceonSufipracticesconsider-ablynodoubtintheinterestofbroadeningsomeofitssupportbaseinPakistanwheresaintsandSufishrinesareanimportantpartofthereli-giousandpoliticallandscapeAlreadyinMawdudirsquoslifetimeMianTufaylMuhammadhissuccessorastheheadoftheJamalsquoat-iIslamihadtakentheextraordinaryinitiativeoftranslatinganearlySuficlassictheKashf alshymahjub into Urdu The author of this work Shaykh lsquoAli Hujwiri(d1072)isburiedinLahoreinPakistanandhismuch-frequentedshrineishometoprecisely thesortofdevotionalpractices that Islamistsandmodernist reformers letaloneSalafishaveoften frownedupon (Nasr1996124)

ThesediverseexamplesarenotintendedtoobscuretherealdifferencesbetweenthegeneralityofIslamistsandmostSufisTheirsignificanceliesratherinillustratingthedifficultyofdistinguishingbetweenIslamismandotherreligiousintellectualandpoliticaltrendsintermsofneatcharac-

27

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INTRODUCTION

terizationsofgrandtranslocalgeneralizationsAstheforegoingsuggeststhesameistrueandmoresowhenitcomestocharacterizingIslamistsinrelationtothelsquoulamatheMuslimmodernistsandtheSalafisIndeedasLorenLybargerhasarguedwithreferencetothoseusuallycharacter-izedasldquosecularnationalistrdquoorldquoIslamistrdquoPalestiniansintheWestBankandGazadifferenceswithintheranksofyoungsecularnationalistsandIslamistscansometimesalsoshadeintosignificantsimilaritiesbetweenthesesupposedlyrivalorientations(Lybarger2007)ManyIslamistshavesoughttodistancethemselvesfromwhattheyseeastherigidityandau-thoritarianismofotherIslamistsandtoarguenotjustfortheimplemen-tationofthesharilsquoabutalsofordemocracyandpluralismConverselynot a few of the younger secular nationalists have ldquoadopted IslamisttheodiciesthatexplainedthefailuretoovercomeIsraelastheresultoffallingawayfrompietytheirconclusionsmirroredIslamistonestootheroadbackfromthebrinkhadtotraceitscoursethrougharenewedcom-mitmenttoIslambutnotnecessarilyinthemannerthattheIslamistmove-mentsmighthaveintendedrdquo(Lybarger2007237ndash38quotationat238)

Yet ifneatcategoriesremainelusiveacombinationoftheIslamistsrsquoself-consciouslypoliticalgoalstheirmultifacetedifnotalwaysexplicitpoliticalcritiquesofmanypastandpresentwaysofunderstandingandlivingIslamandanunshakeableconfidenceintheirownabilitytodis-cern Godrsquos will from the foundational texts do often provide enoughgrounds tobroadlydistinguish themfromotheractivists intellectualsand orientations in the Muslim public sphere What this combinationamountstovariesfromonesocialpoliticalreligiousandculturalcon-texttoanotherandsothereforedothewaysinwhichIslamistsrelatetooneanotherorcompeteandoverlapwithothergroupsandorientations

The Politics of Islamism

FromAeneasrsquosmythicalfoundingofRometothedeathandresurrectionofJesusChristtoMuhammadrsquosmigrationtoMedinafoundationalnar-rativesareascommontocollectivelifeasthemovementsthatperiodi-callyarisetorevivethemandclaimantstothemantleoflegitimacytheyconferSounderstoodIslamistsrsquopoliticalaspirationstorestorefounda-tionslocatedinamythicalpastarefarfromuniqueNorareIslamistsaloneintheirconvictionthatscripturalauthorityisguaranteedbyitsdi-vineauthormdashforinthatallMuslimsagreeRatherthechaptersinthisvolumesuggest thatwhatmakes Islamistpoliticsdistinctive (ifnotsui generis)istheclaimtorecuperateanldquoauthenticIslamrdquocomprisedofself-evidenttruthspurgedofalienandcorruptinginfluencesalongwithaninsistenceonremakingthefoundationsofthestateinitsimageGiventhelimitsofhumanunderstandingrelativetoGodrsquosknowledgeIslamistssimultaneouslydepictsuchfidelitytotheunadulteratedwordofAllahas

28

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INTRODUCTION

theultimateexpressionofdeferencetodivineomniscienceandportrayhumilityasaconstitutivefeatureofthehumanconditionAspirationstofullyknowandmasterthenaturalandsocialworldsthusentailnotonlyahumanhubrisdeaftotheQurrsquoanicadmonitionthatldquoAllahknowsbutandyoudonotknowrdquo(Q366)butalsoatransgressionagainstadi-vinely-ordainedontologicalorder

ItisnotablehoweverthattheIslamistemphasisonthelimitsofhumanknowledgerequireshumilityonlyinrelationtoAllahitrarelyyieldshu-milityinregardtotheirownclaimstospeakinHisnameortowardotherhumanbeingswhodissentfromthepremiseofdivineomnipotenceandIslamistaccountsofwhat it requiresThis suggests thatwhile IslamistchallengestostatepowerareobviouslypoliticaltheIslamistclaimtoau-thenticityisalsopolitical inthecoercivepoweritroutinelyenactsandjustifiesmostnotablybywayofthesilencesitimposesandthedebatesitforeclosesAzizal-Azmehpointsoutthatldquothenotionofauthenticityisnotsomuchadeterminateconceptasitisanodeofassociationsandin-terpellationsatropebymeansofwhichthehistoricalworldisreducedtoaparticularorderandatokenwhichmarksoffsocialandpoliticalgroupsandforgesandreconstituteshistoricalidentitiesrdquo(al-Azmeh199341)WhetherintheserviceofArabnationalismChristianfundamental-ismEuropeanromanticismorMuslimmodernismtheclaimofauthen-ticityisanactofpowerthatfunctionsnotjusttoreflecttheworldbuttoconstructitbydeterminingwhoisincludedandexcludedwhomayandmaynotspeakauthoritativelywhatistheproperrealmofdebateandwhatisbeyondcontestation

ItiscertainlythecasethatasingleldquoIslamrdquocapturesandorganizestheperspectivesofmillionswhoself-identifyasMuslim(amongotherthings)yetwhattravelsunderitsrubricisinescapablydiversemultiethnicanddefined asmuchbydisagreement as consensus Just as theTorah andBible lend themselves toat times radicallydivergent interpretationsofwhatitmeanstobeJewishorChristiantheQurrsquoanandhaditharecom-plexandsusceptibletomanydifferentandattimescontradictoryenact-mentsSounderstoodIslamislessafixedessencethanalivingtraditionthatcaptureswhatisimaginedascontinuousandunitaryindialecticalrelationshiptothoseconcretearticulationsandpracticesbywhichitistransformedandadaptedindifferentcontextsforpluralpurposesItispreciselythisunderstandingofreligionthatisanathematoIslamistswhoseek tofix theparametersof Islamicauthenticityonceandforallandtherebyarrogateforthemselvestherighttodeterminewhoqualifiesasagood Muslim to discredit those lsquoulama unable or unwilling to purgeIslamofpurportedimpietiestodeclarenominallyMuslimrulersapos-tatesunfittogovernandtocharacterizeallwhodisagreeascorrupthe-reticalguiltyofunbelieforvictimsoffalseconsciousness

Thesegeneralpoliticaltendencieshowevermustbecarefullysituatedwithinadialecticoftheglobalandthevernacularunderstoodtoreflect

29

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INTRODUCTION

thewaysinwhichunifyingmacrohistoricaldynamicsinformandareinturntransformedbydiversecontingentandfluidlocalcircumstancesInaworldstampedbyWesterndominanceandtheconsolidationofpostco-lonial authoritarian regimes Islamists confront a common set of con-straintsandchallengesInasmuchassuchconstraintsandchallengeshavemade Islamist thinkers (often reluctant) participants in conversationsacrossbothcultureandhistorytheireffortstoremakethefoundationsofcollectiveliferevealasharedinterpretiveframeworkandcommonreli-gio-political grammar At the same time this frame and grammar arecontinuallybeingreworkedinrelationtothedistinctpublicspheresinwhichIslamistsoperateandtowhichtheycarefullycalibratetheirpoliti-calcommitments

Attention to this complex dynamic suggests that the Islamist move-mentcannotsimplybecharacterizedasviolentantidemocraticandop-pressiveofwomenlabelsinvokedsofrequentlyinscholarlyandpopularliterature on the subject that they have become virtually synonymouswithIslamistpoliticsSuchcharacterizationsdocapturecrucialdimen-sionsofIslamistpoliticsyettheyalsosidesteptheparadoxesitsvarie-gatedandoftencontradictoryexpressionspresentInsteadwearguethatIslamistpoliticscanbeproductivelyreadin terms ofandagainst the grain ofsuchbroadcategorizationsasantidemocraticantiwomanorviolentmdashthat is as commitments that at different moments in various localesbothencourageandconstrainbroad-basedpoliticalparticipationdisruptandratifyhierarchicalgendernormsresistandreproducestate-sanctionedbrutalityThepointofreadingIslamistpoliticsinthiswayisnottosug-gestthatIslamistsaresecretlydemocraticfeministandopposedtovio-lenceRatherthepointistodrawattentiontothecomplexityandcon-tradictionserasedbyeasygeneralizationsontheonehandandtheoftenunacknowledgedfluidityandculturaladaptabilityofotherwisefamiliarpoliticalcategoriesontheother

Islamism and Democracy

DespiteimportantdifferencesamongIslamistthinkerstheyhaveincom-monatendencytoviewhumansovereigntyastransgressiveofdivinelawandsharetheaspirationtoestablishsharilsquoaastheprimaryorsolesourceofauthorityAsisoftennotedsuchpremisesandaspirationsrunafoulofassumptionsaboutpopularruleattheheartofdemocracynamelythathumanbeingshavetherighttolegislaterulesforcollectivebehaviorandarecapableofthewisdomrequiredtodevisejustlawsInrecentyearspolicymakersandcommentatorshaveevincedaparticularpreoccupa-tionwiththewaysinwhichIslamistnotionsofdivineauthoritythrottlethespiritandpracticeofpopularsovereigntySomehaveevengonesofarastocharacterizeIslamistsasldquoIslamo-fascistsrdquoanimatedbyhatredoftheldquodemocratic Westrdquo psychologically unable to contend with the fluidity

30

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INTRODUCTION

andindeterminacythatmarkpopularruleandeagertoconvertelectionsintoaldquoone-manone-voteone-timerdquomechanismforestablishinganIs-lamicstate(Murdock2002MRubin2005Kramer1993)

SuchviewsareechoedbythoseIslamistskeentoportraydemocracynotonlyasantitheticaltothesupremacyofdivinelawbutasaTrojanhorseforWesternimperialismFormanyIslamistsincludingseveralinthis volumedemocracy is justone symptomofametastasizingmoralandspiritualbankruptcywherebymoraltransgressionsaretransfiguredintonaturalurgescrassself-interestbecomesthebedrockofcollectivelifeandthedivineplanfortheuniverseandallthingsinitisreducedtoa system of physical causality just waiting to be mastered by way ofhumaningenuity(REuben2007)Qutbcallsthisdiseasedviewoftheworldjahiliyyaanditsignalsnotonlyhumanarrogancebutatransgres-sionagainstdivineauthoritythescopeofwhichencompassesbothpub-licandprivatedomainsofhumanaffairsaswellasbothvisibleandun-seendimensionsoftheuniverseFormanyIslamistssuchtransgressionisattherootofmuchofwhatpassesforMuslimruleinthecontemporaryworldmdashnationalistdemocraticandmonarchicalalikeSucharroganceisalsosaidtobethepatternunderlyingalonghistoryofunrelievedWest-ernaggressionagainstIslaminwhichtheChristianCrusadesEuropeancolonialismIsraelitreatmentofPalestiniansethniccleansinginBosniaGermananti-TurkishviolencetheAmericaninvasionofIraqandDutchcartoonsofMuhammadarebutafewexamples

YetthereisarangeofviewsamongIslamistsaboutboththesubstanceofdemocracyanditscompatibilitywiththereligio-politicalrenewaltheyadvocateAccordingtoQaradawiforexampleldquotheessenceofdemoc-racyisthatpeoplechoosewhorulesoverthemandmanagestheiraf-fairsthatnorulerorregimetheydislikeisforceduponthemthattheyhavetherighttocalltherulertoaccountifheerrsandtoremovehimfromofficeincaseofmisconductandthatpeoplearenotforcedineco-nomicsocialculturalorpoliticaldirectionsthattheyneitherrecognizenor acceptrdquo (Qaradawi1997132 also chapter9 in this volume)TohimthereisnoheavierburdenoppressingMuslimsinthecontemporaryworld thandespotism indeed it is throughdespoticgovernments thatMuslimshavebeenforcedtosubmittootherillsincludingtheneglectofthesharilsquoaandthecoerciveimpositionofsecularismandwesternizationDemocracy then recommends itself to Qaradawi as the most effectiveavailableantidotetodespotismandtheafflictionsofwhichitservesasavehicle

WheremanyamongtheIslamistsandthelsquoulamahaveseenconsider-able tensionbetween IslamanddemocracyQaradawiprofesses to seenoneAswesuggestedearlierbyfarthemostcommonoftheIslamistreservationsaboutademocraticsystemrelatestothesovereigntyofthepeoplewhichistakentocontravenetheideathatGodaloneissovereignQaradawi however is unperturbedby such concernsThe rule of the

31

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INTRODUCTION

peopleoughttobeseenhearguesnotinoppositiontotheruleofGodbutratherinoppositiontotheruleofthedespotMorefundamentallyQaradawirsquos view of democracy does not necessarily require that thepeopleshouldbeabletooverturndivinelyinstitutednormsRatherhisassumptionisthatpeopleexercisetheirsovereigntywithinconstitutionalboundsandMuslimslivinginapredominantlyMuslimdemocraticpol-itywouldlikewisenotwishtotransgresstheparametersoflegitimatehumanactionlaiddownintheIslamicfoundationaltexts(seeQaradawichapter9inthisvolumeandcfFeldman2007)

NadiaYassineofMoroccorsquosJusticeandSpiritualityAssociationisan-othercaseinpointWhilecriticalofthedemocraticgesturesembracedbyamonarchythatshedepictsasallergictogenuinelypopularsovereigntyYassineinsiststhatthemodelofMuslimruleadumbratedintheummafoundedbytheProphetMuhammadandinparticulartheConstitutionofMedina17isnothingshortofdemocratic(NYassine2005d2005e)UnliketheMuslimdynastiesthatarosetousurpitYassinecontendsthiscommunity was participatory egalitarian committed to freedom andexpressiveofGodrsquosmercyMostimportantitwasgovernedalwaysbytheQurrsquoanicprincipleofshura (consultation)bywhichYassinemeansaphilosophy of power that places sovereignty in the community ratherthaninanyindividuallinksvirtuetodeliberationratherthanobedienceandexhortsbelieverstocontinuallyadaptQurrsquoanicprinciplesthroughijtihad rather than adhere reflexively to precedent (N Yassine 2006a182ndash862005d)ManyscholarsandjournalistsremainskepticaloftheJSArsquosasyetuntestedcommitment toproceduraldemocracyandworrythatNadiaandher fatherAbdessalamultimatelyseektoestablishanIslamic state inhospitable to tolerance pluralism and civil liberties(Maghraoui2001Brandon2007Whitlock2006)YetothersarguethattheJSAisagenuinelypopulistorganizationthatrepresentstheunrepre-sentedtendstothewelfareofthedispossessedandbothexpressesandcontributestoanincreasinglyvibrantcivilsocietyinMorocco(Cavatorta2006Entelis2002)

QaradawirsquosandYassinersquosargumentstogethersuggestthatdemocracycanandhasservedaseitheracosmeticcoverfordespotismoranauthen-ticallyIslamiccheckuponcorruptandarbitraryruleAtissueinIslamistargumentsforandagainstdemocracythenarenotonlywhatcountsasldquoauthenticIslamrdquoandtheintentionsofthosewhoclaimtoknowitbutalsothecontentandcharacterofdemocracyitselfParadoxicallybothIslamistsopposedtodemocracyandthosewhotakeIslamismasinher-entlyantidemocraticregardthisasasimplematterwithanobviousan-swerdemocracyisanexpressionofandevensynonymouswithliberal-ismcapitalismandtheWestYetdemocracyisbothmorecapaciousand

17TheConstitutionofMedinawasanagreementtheProphethadenteredintowiththelocalcommunitiesincludingJewishtribesuponhisemigrationfromMeccatoMedina

32

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INTRODUCTION

moredistinctthanthispresumptionsuggestsTheworditselfofcoursederivesfromtheancientGreekdemokratiawhichmeansrule(kratos)ofthepeople(demos)andmanyderivetheequationofdemocracyandtheWestfromthisassociationwithclassicalGreeceYetancientGreekphi-losopherssuchasPlatosawindemocracythespecterofmobrulepartic-ularly vulnerable to demagoguery and despotism (a suspicion notablyechoedbyAmerican founder JamesMadison)Contrary to thedemo-cratic idealof inclusivenessmoreover citizenship inGreekdemocracyexcludedasubstantialpartofthepopulationincludingwomenslavesandforeignersFinallytheextenttowhichtheancientGreeksmayevenbecalledWesternisamatterofgreatdisputeparticularlyastheldquoWestrdquoisacategoryofrelativelyrecentprovenancethroughwhichhistoryandgeographyhavebeenretroactivelyorganized18DespitedepictionsoftheHellenicworldasWesternancientGreeksdidnotinfactviewthem-selvesintheseterms19

TheequationofdemocracywiththeWestalsopresupposestheexis-tenceofacoherentldquoWesterncivilizationrdquowitheitherculturallyhomoge-neousrootsorclearlydelineatedhistoricalandcontemporarybounda-riesorbothYetwhatiscalledtheWestisanamalgamationofmultipletraditionsincludingtheGreekRomanJudaicChristianandIslamicmdashtraditionsthatarethemselvespolyvalentratherthanhomogeneousmdashandistodaycharacterizedbyporousbordershybridsubculturesandmyriaddebtstodiversecivilizationspastandpresent20AsageographicmarkeritisvirtuallyimpossibletopinpointexactlywheretheWestbeginsandendsandthisisespeciallysonowthatpeoplesinformationandmate-rial goods crisscross cultural andnational borders atwill creating allkindsoftransnationalsubnationalandmultipleidentitiesthatshiftandreconstitutethemselvesinunpredictablewaysEventhosevaluesidenti-fiedasWesternoftenappearelsewhereinotherguisesIndeedscholarssuggestthatavarietyoftheldquostandardsexportedbytheWestanditscul-turalindustriesthemselvesturnouttobeofculturallymixedcharacterifweexaminetheirculturallineagesrdquo(Pieterse199553)

Manyalsoarguethatdemocracyisnotonlydistinctfrombutinten-sionwithboththetheoryandpracticeofpoliticsinldquoWesternrdquosocieties

18MichaelGillespie(19997ndash10)arguesthattherereadingofhistorygeographyandculturethroughtheprismofthissenseofldquotheWestrdquobegannoearlierthanthenineteenthcenturyTheideaofatimelessandbrightlinebetweenWestandEastisalsochallengedbyJeremyBrottonrsquosstudy(19989096ndash97)ofthediplomaticandintellectualexchangesbe-tweenEuropeandtheOttomanEmpireintheearlymodernperiodBrottonshowsnotonlytheextentandamityofsuchexchangesbutapersistentuncertaintyaboutwherepreciselyEuropeldquoendedrdquoandAsialdquobeganrdquo

19AncientGreeksunderstoodthemselvesasgeographicallywestofthebarbariansbutnotWesterninthecontemporarysensethatisasbothaculturalandhistoricalcategory

20StevenRuncimanrsquoswork(19543480)ontheCrusadesforexampledemonstratesaldquolongsequenceofinteractionandfusionbetweenOrientandOccidentoutofwhichourcivilizationhasgrownrdquo

33

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INTRODUCTION

many of which are more accurately classified as liberal and capitalist(Wood1994Wolin2001BallandDagger1999)Whileitisnowcom-monplacetospeakofldquoliberaldemocracyrdquoinasinglebreathliberalismanddemocracyareconceptsandpracticeswithverydifferenthistoriesandpresuppositionsUnlikedemocracyforexampleliberalismemergedfromthecrucibleofChristianreligiouswarsandintandemwiththeas-cendanceofamiddleclassthatpresagedtheendofEuropeanfeudalismTheliberalnation-statecanthusbeviewedasbothanexpressionandaconsolidationofcapitalismontheonehandandtheprincipleofasepa-rationbetweenchurchandstateontheotherBycontrastthereisnoth-ingaboutdemocracyeitherasasystemofgovernanceoracultureofpar-ticipationthatisinherentlysecularIndeedAlexisdeTocquevillefamouslyinsistedthatAmericandemocracycannotandshouldnotbesecularasreligionhelpsshiftattentionawayfromimmediatematerialpreoccupa-tionstolargerconcernsofcommunitycooperationandmoralityInfactmanydemocratictheoristsarguethatgenuinelyinclusivepopularsover-eignty is antithetical to the sharp inequalities of wealth and politicalpowerthatcapitalismoftenproducesandlegitimates

SuchongoingdefinitionalandsubstantivedebatessuggestthatthereismuchmoreatstakeindemocraticpoliticsthanprocedurespertainingtogovernmentauthorityandorderandpointtoawidespreadifelusiveunderstandingofdemocracynotjustasasetofinstitutionsbutasTocque-villesuggestsawayoflifeSeveralpoliticaltheoristshavecharacterizedthiselusiveunderstandingintermsofaldquodemocraticethosrdquoBythistheymeanbothanidealandanargumentforacultureofparticipationactivepowersharingmutualaccountabilityinclusivenessanddeliberationinwhichcitizensmayroutinelyandsafelychallengenotonlyspecificpoli-ciesandpolitical institutionsbutalso thevalues thatgoverncollectivelifeprinciplesofinclusionandexclusionandthepremisesofauthorityitself(Connolly1995JPEuben2003Sadiki2004)AdemocraticethosismuchmoredifficulttomeasureorquantifythanforexampleSamuelHuntingtonrsquosparsimoniousdefinitionofdemocracyasapolityinwhichtherehavebeentwoconsecutivepeacefulchangesofgovernmentbywayof freeand fairelections (Huntington1991)21Yetademocraticethosmakesitpossibletobothrecognizeanddisaggregatethepreconditionsaspirations mechanisms and institutions bundled into ldquodemocracyrdquotherebybringingintofocusforexamplethefrequentlyantidemocratic

21Manypoliticalscientistsprefertodefinedemocracyintermsofproceduresdesignedtorealizepopularruleincludingfreecompetitiveandfairelectionsalongwithstateprotec-tionofcertainrightsandlibertiesSuchaformalminimalistdefinitionhastheadvantageofdetachingdemocracyfromquestionsoforiginsandofferingastandardtowhichallgov-ernmentsmaybeheldregardlessofcultureandplaceAsKeithTopper(2005205ndash7)ar-gueshoweveritalsotendstosidestepknottyquestionsaboutthesubstanceofrepresenta-tion power responsiveness and accountability that are arguably central to democraticpolitics

34

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INTRODUCTION

casttoelectionsimposedbyelitesorforeignpowersthefeltimpotenceofmanycitizensinestablisheddemocraciesandthosehighlyparticipa-torycivilsocietiesthatflourishevenundermonarchicortheocraticrule

Forourpurposes inparticularademocraticethosmakesvisible theparadoxofanIslamistmovementthatseekstomobilizeordinaryMus-limsagainstcoercivepowerbutinthenameofareligio-politicalorderlargelyimmunizedfromchallengeQutbisanaptillustrationhereashistendencytogroundhisownspecialauthorityandinsightintheunsulliedwisdomofordinarybelieversmakesitpossibletoreadhisworkaseitherabriefagainstdemocracy(amongotherthings)oranenactmentofitIn-asmuchasdemocracyasaformofgovernanceisidentifiedwithpopularsovereigntyQutbrsquosbasicpremisethat thefoundationof legitimateau-thoritymustbedivineratherthanhumansuggeststhatheisunambigu-ouslyantidemocraticMoreoverQutbrsquoseffortstopluralizereligiousandpolitical authority express not a confidence in common wisdom butratheradesiretoclaimforhimselfthestatureofareligiousexpertwhodespitehislackofIslamicacademiccredentialscanclearlyseewhatoth-erscannotQutbcharacterizestherealIslamasself-evidentbuthealsoassumesthatonlyasmallvanguardofbelieversbesideshimselfwillhavetheabilitytorecognizeitandactdecisivelytoremaketheworldinitsimageSounderstoodthesignofldquochosennessrdquoisunyieldingcommitmenttoestablishingareligio-politicalorderthatsimultaneouslypresumesthesupremacyofthefewcapableoftrueknowledgeandpromisesaworldinwhichdissentitselfwillbecomebothunnecessaryandillegitimate

Yetifdemocracyrefersnotonlytoasystemofgovernanceorsetofprocedurestorealizepopularsovereigntybutalsotopracticesthatdis-ruptthoseforceswhichconcentratepowerandestablishpoliticalexclu-sionthecharacterizationofQutbrsquosworkassimplyantidemocraticmissesa crucial dimensionof its significance and appealAs the sacred textscontaintherulesandregulationsmeanttogovernbothpublicandpri-vateaffairsQutbrsquosinsistencethatordinaryuntrainedMuslimsmusten-gagethemdirectlyisinmanywaysademocratizationofaccesstoau-thoritySuchaccesscandisruptdeeplyentrenchedpatternsofpowerandpowerlessness particularlywhen conjoined to Islamist arguments thatarbitrarypowerisun-Islamicthatreligiousknowledgedependsoncom-mitmentratherthantrainingorexpertise thatMuslimshavetherightandobligationtodeterminewhenrulersareillegitimateandthatthosewhopreferordertojusticesecuritytofreedomandmoneytopietyhaveforfeitedanyclaimtoauthority

ThisaspectofIslamismhasfrequentlybeencomparedtotheProtestantReformationandmorespecificallytoCalvinistsrsquoattemptstotransferldquore-ligiousauthorityawayfromofficiallysanctionedindividualswhointer-prettextstoordinarycitizensrdquo(EGoldberg19913alsocfLoimeier2005)Suchaparallelhassparkedagreatdealofscholarlyspeculation

35

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

regardingapossibleldquoIslamicReformationrdquo22andarangeofargumentsaboutwhetherandhowIslamismmightfacilitatethedemocratizationofMuslim societies much as the Protestant Reformation is said to haveheralded the emergence of European ldquoliberal democracyrdquo While suchcomparisonsareevocativeafullerunderstandingof IslamismrequiresfirstsituatingitinrelationtoahistoricalshiftinthenatureandlocusofreligiousauthorityinIslambeginninginthenineteenthcenturyAsschol-arsofMuslimsocietieshavepointedouttheimpactofmasseducationnewtechnologiesfordisseminatingknowledgeandinformationanddra-matically changed social economic and political contexts have madeavailabletoamateurswhathadpreviouslybeenthepurviewofreligiousexpertsAtthesametimeithasinauguratedafragmentationofauthor-itywithintheveryranksofthelsquoulamathatcontinuestothepresentday23

InthiscontexttheascendanceandinfluenceofautodidactssuchasQutbHasanal-BannalsquoAbdal-SalamFarajandBinLadensimultaneouslyex-pressandaccelerateanongoingrenegotiationofauthorityoverwhomayspeakforIslamandonwhatbasisthepathofwhichisstillunfoldingandtheoutcomeasyetuncertain

Islamism and Gender

One already apparent consequence of this ongoing renegotiation overwhomayspeakforIslamandonwhatbasisistheentryofwomenintothe interpretive fray This development is increasingly unsettling thoseunwrittengendernormsarguablyattheveryheartofIslamistthoughtdisruptingthestandardsofmasculinityandfemininitythatreflecthowparticularculturesorganizehumanbeingsrsquosocialandreproductiveactiv-itiesintorolesthatareinturnthoughttoexpresstheldquonaturerdquoofmenand women Such norms are frequently considered tangential to theknottyproblemsofdefiningIslamismandadumbratingitscentralideasyetarangeofscholarshiponculturespastandpresenthasshownthatgenderisconsistentlytheterrainoverwhichbattlesforpoliticalcontrolandculturalidentityarefoughtMorespecificallyresearchindisciplinessuchasanthropologyhistoryclassicsandpostcolonialstudieshasdem-onstratedthatculturesinwhichfemalebodiesandbehaviorareregardedas indicesofmoralpurity tend to symbolically transformwomen intoconduitsof cultural corruption in timesof internal crisis and externalthreat(Papenek1994Chatterjee1990Tavakoli-Targhi1991Just1989Cohen1991Welter1966Bloch1978)Thisisespeciallytrueofcontem-

22Foralatenineteenth-centuryassessmentoftheprospectsforaldquoMuhammadanRefor-mationrdquoseeBlunt1882132ndash73

23EickelmanandPiscatori199637ndash39131ndash35Zaman2006Suchfragmentationhasinmanywaysbeenacceleratedbytheexplosionofdigitalcultureswhichpromoteamongotherthingsaldquoformofempoweredamateurismrdquo(Mirzoeff20026)

36

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

poraryreligio-politicalmovementswhosememberstendtoldquoidealizepa-triarchalstructuresofauthorityandmoralityrdquoendorsegenderdualismasgod-givenornaturalandcondemnvigorouslyrecentchangesingen-derrelationsasasymptomandsymbolofsecularistmoralbankruptcy(Riesebrodt1993Moghadam1992Hawley1994)

SeveralchaptersinthisvolumeilluminateIslamistgendernormsbyre-vealing thecharacterandcontentof Islamistconcernsabout theplaceandpurityofMuslimwomenmdashpreoccupationsFatimaMernissi(199199)hasgonesofarastocharacterizeasanobsessionDespiteimportantdifferences among Islamists thinkers many endorse gender norms inwhichthefairlyconventionalinsistencethatfemalenatureisdefinedinand through reproduction undergirds an understanding of women assymbolsofmoralvirtueandvesselsofculturalpurityThisviewsustainstheclaimthatmenandwomenareequalinreligiousbeliefbutperformfundamentallydifferentandcomplementaryfunctionsinsocietyWhilemenarenaturallymadetoruleinboththepublicandprivatedomainawomanbelongsinthedomesticrealmwhereherprimaryroleistobeawifeandmotheraswellastoinsuretheintegrityofthefamilythefirstschoolofmoraleducationAssuchfunctionsarerootedinaninescap-ablehumannaturefashionedbyGodawomanrsquosinabilityorunwilling-nesstoperformherdutiessignalsadisobediencetothedivinewillandpresages the corruption of the Muslim family from within From thisvantagepointtheWesterninsistenceonfullequalitybetweenthesexesisdoubly pernicious it at once liberates women from basic moral con-straintsandenslavesthemtomutuallyreinforcingsexualandcapitalistexploitationAsMurtazaMutahhari(1998xxxi)arguescapitalismmakesuseofwomentomarket itsgoodsldquoby trading inhonourandrespectthrough[their]powertoenticerdquotherebyldquotransform[ing]manintoaninvoluntaryagentofconsumptionrdquoInasmuchaswomenareresponsiblefor producing the next generation of Muslim men destined to restoreIslamtoitsformergloryitisnotonlythevirtueofwomenortheinteg-rityofthefamilythathangsinthebalancebutthefutureofIslamiccivili-zationitself

Zaynab al-Ghazali andMutahharimake several of these argumentsexplicitlyandindetail(seechapters10and11)butinmuchofIslamistrhetoricthenatureandsignificanceofwomenareestablishedindirectlyandsymbolicallyandthroughthreerecurrentimagesinparticularThefirstisofwomenassilentsymbolsofculturalmoralandsexualvulnera-bilityvoicelessfiguresinneedofmasculineprotectionorwhenitistoolatedefiledbodiesthatmutelydemandvengeanceSoforexamplelsquoAb-dallahlsquoAzzam(oneofBinLadenrsquosmentorsseechapter18)graphicallydetailstheagonizinghumiliationofyoungmenunabletoactwhentheAfghanwoman isldquocryingout forhelpher childrenarebeing slaugh-tered her women are being raped the innocent are killed and theircorpsesscatteredrdquo(lsquoAzzam1987a)Inthesecondimagewomenfunction

37

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

muchlikeachorusthatspeaksinpermittedcadencestoratifymasculineendeavorsSuchisthecaseforexampleinBinLadenrsquos1996ldquoDeclara-tionofWaragainsttheAmericansOccupyingtheLandoftheTwoHolyPlacesrdquo(seechapter18)wherethewomenexhortmentojihadinthefollowing way ldquoPrepare yourself like a struggler the matter is biggerthanwordsAreyougoingtoleaveusforthewolvesofKufr[unbe-lief]eatingourwingsWherearethefreemendefendingfreewomenbyarmsDeath isbetter than life inhumiliation Some scandals andshameswillneverbeotherwiseeradicatedrdquo24InthethirdimagewomenarecreaturesnotofthisworldbutofanothervirginalrewardsforthecourageousmartyrintheafterlifeThisisevidentinthefinalinstructionsforthe911hijackersforexamplewhereMuslimldquobrothersrdquoareurgedto purify their carnal impulses sharpen their knives for the dhabh (slaughter)andheedthecallofthehur lsquoayn (theblack-eyedones)await-ingtheminParadise(seechapter19)

Such rhetoric primarily registers women as an extensionmirror ormeasure of masculinity and together with explicit Islamist argumentsabouthumannatureandthefamilyarticulatesIslamistgendernormsinwhichmenandwomeneachhaveaproperlocationandpurposeinadi-vinely ordained social hierarchy Deviance from this gendered scriptthussignalsdisruptionofamuchbroaderreligio-politicalorderitbothpresumes and seeks to bring into existence The disruption caused byforeign aggression in particular exacerbates the tendency to translateconflict into an assault on Muslim masculinity and to conceptualizewomenaspotentialvehiclesforWesterncorruptioninneedofguidingand guarding Women such as Zaynab al-Ghazali and Nadia Yassinewho seek a prominent place and voice within the Islamist movementhavehadlittlechoicebuttocontendwiththisgenderedscriptDoingsohasentailedamongotherthingsnavigatingcarefullybetweenIslamistcharacterizations of womenrsquos visibility and agency as symptomatic ofthe new jahiliyya on the one hand and essentializing arguments thatequateIslamwithveilingfemalegenitalmutilationandhonorkillingsontheother

AsthechaptersonGhazaliandYassinesuggestIslamistwomenhavenegotiatedbetweensuchconstraintsandpressuresandtheirownambi-tionsindifferentwaysApioneeringdalsquoiya(onewhoinvitesMuslimstogreater piety)Ghazalirsquos own life reveals a fierce resistance to conven-tionalnormsofdomesticityevenasmuchofher(earlier)workappearsto embrace an Islamist gender ideology that defines women as wivesmothers andldquobuilders ofmenrdquo (al-Hashimi 1990 118)By contrastYassineisawifeandmotherwhoembracesanldquoIslamicfeminismrdquothatrequiresldquoreappropriatingtheinstrumentsofclassicaltheologyrdquoanden-

24TheIslamistjournalSawt alshyJihadhasgonesofarastofeatureldquowomenrsquosvoicesrdquointheformofrolemodelsnamedforexampleumm alshyshahid(motherofthemartyr)al-thoughitisunclearthattheseldquovoicesrdquoareactuallywomenrsquos(SUsher2004)

38

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INTRODUCTION

gaging the textsdirectly through ijtihad (NYassine2003) In this re-spect Yassine must be understood as part of a broader effort amongMuslimwomenwithdifferentpoliticalcommitmentstosimultaneouslyadvocateandenacttheirrighttorecuperatetheldquooriginalintentrdquooftheIslamictextsIfwomenandmendoinfacthavedistinctperspectivesontheworldYassinesuggestswomenhaveaspecialobligationtoexcavatewhattheyseeasthegenderparityoftheQurrsquoanburiedbeneaththoseldquomachointerpretationsrdquoofIslamuponwhichmenhavebuilttheirprivi-legeandpower(Khalaf2006)25

ManyAnglo-AmericanandEuropean feministsworry that Islamistsseekonly to secureor restorepatriarchalpowerConverselymany Is-lamist women view feminism as a term and a movement inescapablyWesterninoriginfreightedwiththelegacyofcolonialismanduneasilyimplicatedinculturalimperialismThisapplieseventoYassinewhoisunwillingtoadoptwithoutqualificationalabelsheassociateswithagen-dasopposedtoherowntheWesttheMoroccanstateMaghribi(North-westAfrican)elitesYetfeminismitselfisahighlycontestedtermwithin theso-calledWestitisthebearerofmultiplemeaningssomeofwhichareevenopposedandischaracterizedbydeepdisagreementsaboutwhowomenarewhatwomenneedwhoisauthorizedtoworkonwomenrsquosbehalf andbywhatmeans Inasmuch as these various feminismsmayshareonlyastatedconcernforwomenrsquoswelfarethereisnothinginco-herentinmodifyingldquofeminismrdquowithldquoIslamicrdquoldquoMuslimrdquoorevenldquoIs-lamistrdquounlessone iscommitted toarguing thatfirst Islam isanun-changingessencebeyondhistorypoliticsandculturesecondthereisaneutralobjectivevantagefromwhichtoidentifythisessenceonceandforallandfinallytheIslamicessencesoidentifiedisfundamentallyin-compatiblewitheffortstoimprovetheconditionsandqualityofwomenrsquoslivesBythesametokenIslamistwomenwhorejectthetermfeminismcanbe(althoughnotalwaysare)deeplycommittedtoimprovingwom-enrsquoswelfareaswellasactivelyresistanttoeffortsthatreduceortrans-formthemintosilentaccessoriesofmalepower

YassineandGhazalidifferaboutwhatwomenareandshouldbeyetbroadlyspeakingbothmaybeconsideredpartofarecenttrendtowardthe feminizationofdalsquowa Dalsquowa literallymeanscallappealor sum-monsbutthetermhascometosignifyavarietyofpracticesandargu-mentsmeanttoexhortinviteandguideMuslimstowhatisregardedasproperconductandmoraldevotionWomenrsquosparticipationindalsquowais

25WomenrsquosparticipationintheldquoproductionofofficialIslamicknowledgerdquohasalonghistoryalthoughtheyhaveoftendonesoinrelativeobscurityandwithoutthebenefitofeducation in the Islamicsciences thathas legitimateddirectengagementwith thesacredtexts (Cooke 2001 xiv Badran and Cooke 2004) Pioneering attempts to read genderequalityinIslamarealsonotconfinedtowritingbywomenasevincedbyQasimAminrsquosTahrir alshymarrsquoa [TheLiberationofWoman] (1899)andMumtaz lsquoAlirsquosHuquqshye niswan [TheRightsofWomen](1898)

39

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

notabrandnewphenomenonasisevidentinGhazalirsquosworkwiththeEgyptianSocietyofMuslimLadiesinthe1930sYetfromEgypttoPaki-stantoSaudiArabiatotheUnitedStatesthenumberoffemaledalsquoiyashasproliferatedexponentially inrecentyears(Cooke2001Mahmood2005Hirschkind2006)Thisreflectsinpartcurrentdoctrinalempha-sesondalsquowaasincumbentuponbothmenandwomenanddependentlessupontechnicalknowledgethanmoralvirtueandpracticalfamiliaritywiththeIslamictradition(Mahmood200565ndash66)It isalsoaconse-quenceofrecentpoliticalandsocioeconomictransformationsinMuslimsocietiesincludingtheexpansionofmasseducationthathasnotonlyin-creasedwomenrsquosliteracyandsocialmobilitybutalsomadeIslamictextsmoreaccessibletheproliferationoftechnologiesmdashfromthecassettetapetotheInternetmdashthatfacilitatethecirculationofreligiousknowledgeevenamongthosewhocannotreadortraveltheprecedentsetbythevigorousparticipationof IranianwomeninpostrevolutiondebatesaboutIslamandthemodeloflegalactivismevidentintheIslamistmovementrsquosownchallenge to the lsquoulamarsquos status as gatekeepers of religious knowledge(Singerman2005Mir-Hosseini1999)

If Ghazali and Yassine exemplify the feminization of dalsquowa amongelitesthemosquemovementinEgyptillustratesthegrowingparticipa-tionofwomenfromdiversesocialbackgroundsinreligiousclassesde-votedtostudyinganddebatingwhatIslamrequiresforawomantobeldquomorallyuprightrdquointhecontemporaryworld(Mahmood2005)Con-ceptualizingpiety in termsof adeepandholistic commitment to self-transformationparticipantsinthemosquemovementareconcernedlesswithmattersofsovereigntyandpoliticsconventionallyunderstoodandmorewiththeldquomoralcultivationrdquoofthosedailypracticesseenascrucialtobecomingclosertoGod(Mahmood2005)SomeIslamistshavecriti-cizedthis focusonpracticesofworshipasapoliticalandoverlypriva-tizedyetsuchcriticismmissestheforceofIslamistsrsquoowninsistenceondin(religion)asawayoflifeinwhichthedomainsofpublicandprivateare inextricably linked26AsSabaMahmood (2005193194) showsthesewomenrsquosintenseeffortsatldquoretrainingethicalsensibilitiesrdquohavealdquosociopoliticalforcerdquothatextendswellbeyondmattersofgovernancefacilitatingnolessthantheemergenceofaldquonewsocialandmoralorderrdquoEvidenceofitstransformativepowermaybefoundnotonlyinthesheernumbersandvarietyofwomenmdashwealthyandpoor literateand illiter-atemdashparticipatinginthemosquemovementbutalsointherhetoricalandpoliticaleffortsbythestateandsomeIslamiststocurtailcontrolordis-creditit(Mahmood200571194)

26ParticipantsinthemosquemovementinturnareoftencriticalofwhattheyseeasthereductionofIslamtotokensofculturalauthenticityorofitsinstrumentalizationbybothnationalistsandIslamiststheycharacterizeasmoreinterestedinpoliticalmaneuveringthanreligiouspiety

40

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

Understoodtoincludebothwrittenandembodiedpracticesthefemi-nizationof dalsquowa illustrates theways inwhichwomen fromdifferentperspectivesandsocialclassesareinsistingonengagingthesacredtextsdirectly for and with one another without the mediating authority ofmenwhohavetraditionallyheldthemonopolyonsuchactivitiesAsSu-danese Islamist Lubabah al-Fadl argues ldquoAs an insan [human being]whohappenstobeawomanIhavearighttorejectthemanipulativeexegesesofoursharilsquoa thatthreatenmyexistenceinawaythat isnotconsistentwiththeGodlywayandtoapplymyownijtihadtorectifyer-roneoustendenciesbysomeshuyukh[pluralofshaykh]rdquo(Sadiki2004290)DespitetheproliferationofvoicesintentonclaimingforthemselvestheauthoritytodemarcatewhatisauthenticallyIslamicandun-Islamiconceandforallcontestationoveritsscopeandmeaningproceedsapacefacilitatedatleastinpartbywomenformerlyexcludedfromtheconver-sationAtthesametimeIslamistwomenrsquosagencyandclaimstoauthorityarefrequentlystillpredicatedonawillingnesstofollowfairlypatriarchalrulesaboutwherehowandwithwhomtheymaypracticetheirvocation(Hirschkind2003Sadiki2004283)

Islamism and Violence

IfgenderisfrequentlyanimplicitpreoccupationamongIslamistsjihadisarguably Islamistsrsquomost consistently explicit concern Jihad is derivedfromtheArabicverbthatmeanstostruggleortostriveyetitisaparticu-larkindofstruggle that isofconcern tomanyof thefigurescollectedheretheoftenviolentstruggleagainstapostatesandinfidelsbothathomeandabroadtowhicheveryindividualMuslimmustcontributeTheclaimthatfightingunbelieversisthepreeminentenactmentofindividualMus-limpiety seems to justify characterizationsof Islam ingeneral and Is-lamisminparticularassanctioningevenencouragingviolenceYetwhatIslamistsrepresentasjihadtout courtisahistoricallyspecificunderstand-ingderivedfromahighlyselectiveuseoftextsandprecedentsprominentamongthemaformerlyobscureclaimbytheinfluentialfourteenth-cen-tury jurist IbnTaymiyya thatMongol rulerswhohad contravened Is-lamiclawcouldbesubjecttoforcibleremovalFarfromadefinitiveex-pressionof Islamldquoproperlyunderstoodrdquo such Islamist argumentsnotonlymarkasignificantdeparturefrommuchofantecedentdoctrineandpractice but also diminish the importance of ongoing disagreementsamongMuslimsabouttheformandpurposesofjihad

TobeginwithMuslimscholarshavetendedtoconsiderjihadagainstforeignenemiesafard kifaya(collectiveobligation)thatisadutyagroupofpeoplewithinthecommunitymayperformonbehalfoftherestandonethatpresupposesalegitimateMuslimleadertodeclareorleadthechargeJuristshavedistinguishedthisfromthefard lsquoayn(individualduty)thatmustbefulfilledbyeverysingleMuslimincasesofdefensivejihad

41

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

thatiswhentheummaisunderattackManyIslamistsincludedheretakeamuchlessnuancedviewofjihadAsamodeofpoliticalactionQutbarguesjihadmustberegardedasaldquopermanentconditionnotanocca-sionalconcernrdquoonethatincurrentcircumstancesrequiresdeedsratherthanwordsstruggleratherthancontemplationrevolutionathomeaswellasresistanceabroad(Qutb199167ndash6882)lsquoAbdal-SalamFarajarguesalongsimilarlinesthatthenatureoftheattackonIslammakespolitical authorization by a caliph (ldquodeputyrdquo referring to a legitimatesuccessortotheProphetrsquosleadership)unnecessaryafterallldquoleadershipovertheMuslimsis(always)intheirownhandsifonlytheymakethismanifestIfthereissomethinglackingintheleadershipwellthereisnothingthatcannotbeacquiredrdquo(Jansen1986asec93)

SuchargumentsareadeliberaterejectionofearlyMuslimmodernistswhohademphasizedthelargelydefensivecharacterofjihadandsoughttoshowthatrelationsbetweenMuslimsandnon-MuslimswerenormallypeacefulratherthanantagonisticMahmudShaltut(d1963)therectorof al-Azhar from 1958 to 1963 had argued for example that theQurrsquoanicversesonfightingldquoprohibittheprovocationofhostilityandthisprohibitionisreinforcedbyGodrsquosrepugnancetoaggressionandbyhisdislikeofthosewhoprovokehostilityrdquo(Peters199674onShaltutseeZebiri1993)ConversionbyforceisanathematoIslamShaltutaversandfightingiscommandedonlyindefenseinresponsetoaggressionini-tiatedbyothersEvendefensivejihadmustaimatldquotheterminationoftheaggressionandtheestablishmentofreligiouslibertydevotedtoGodandfreefromanypressureorforcerdquo(Peters199675)

ManyIslamistsexplicitlydismisssuchargumentsasasymptomoffalseconsciousnessoneamongmanydestructiveeffectsofcolonialdomina-tionMawdudiargues for example thatwhile imperialists ravage theworld to satisfy their greed jihad alone ldquoconjures up the vision of amarching band of religious fanatics with savage beards and fiery eyesbrandishingdrawnswordsandattackingtheinfidelswherevertheymeetthemrdquoHavinginternalizedthis imageMuslimsrushtoapologizeandrenouncearmedstruggleInthiswayhelamentscolonialistsretaintheexclusiverighttoldquofightwitharmsandammunitionwhilewearecon-tented with our pen and our tonguerdquo (Mawdudi 1948 1ndash3) SayyidQutbforhispartagreedthatIslamdoesnotcountenancespreadingitsmessagebyforceandcoercionyethehadlittlepatiencewiththosewhosoughttopresentjihadaslegitimateonlyinself-defense

IfweinsistoncallingIslamicjihadadefensivemovementthenwemustchangethemeaningofthewordldquodefenserdquoandmeanbyitldquothedefenseofmanrdquoagainstallthoseforcesthatlimithisfreedomWhenwetakethisbroadmeaningofthewordldquodefenserdquoweunder-standthetruecharacterofIslaminthatitproclaimstheuniversalfreedomofeverypersonandcommunityfromservitudetoanyother

42

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

individualorsocietytheendofmanrsquosarroganceandselfishnesstheestablishmentofthesovereigntyofAllahandHisLordshipthrough-outtheworldandtheruleofthedivinesharilsquoainhumanaffairs(Qutb199050)

Qutbdoesnotnameanynamesincastigatingtheldquowriterswithdefeatistandapologeticmentalities[who]writeaboutlsquojihadinIslamrsquoandtrytoremovethislsquoblotrsquofromIslamrdquo(Qutb199046)buthecouldverywellhavehadhisdistinguishedfellowEgyptianMahmudShaltutinmind

These arguments about jihad may be said to constitute a commongrammarandframeworkofanalysisformanyIslamistsalthoughseveralthinkers in this volume carefully calibrate such claims to suit variouspurposesanddifferentpublicspheresInhisjustificationfortheassassi-nationofEgyptianpresidentAnwaral-SadatforexamplelsquoAbdal-SalamFarajdepictsthestruggletoreclaimthemoralfoundationsoftheEgyp-tianstateasafightagainstjahiliyyafromwithinarguingthatthejihadagainstacorruptnationalistregimeathomemusttakeprecedenceoverfightingenemieselsewhereTheCharterofHamas(seechapter15)how-everinsiststhatallMuslimsrecognizetheprimacyofthejihadforJeru-salemweldingIslamistrhetorictothatofnationalistresistanceinanef-fortbothtofightIsraelioccupationandtocompeteforadherentswiththePalestinianLiberationOrganization(PLO)IncontrasttobothFarajandHamasBinLadenembracesaglobaljihadthatessentiallycollapsesdistinctionsbetweennationalandinternationaloffensiveanddefensivefightingenemiesathomeandthosefromafar

Yet despite such differences these arguments tend to presume thatviolent jihad is a necessary response to the pervasive power of thosewithdemonstratedhostilitytoMuslimliveslandspietiesandsensibili-tiesaformofretaliationwhoseurgencyandlegitimacyderivefromtheviolencemdashpsychologicalandeconomicaswellasphysicalmdashoftheinitialassaultThisviewofjihadsubsumesindividualsintoarchetypesofldquoin-fidelsrdquoandldquobelieversrdquoandinsodoingvitiatesmoreconventionaldis-tinctionsbetweenforexamplesoldierandcivilianorcollectiveandin-dividual responsibility It is far from inevitable that thosewhoharborsuchviewswillautomaticallyactuponthemyetthecarnagewroughtbytheattacksontheWorldTradeCenterandthePentagonin2001aBalinightclub in 2002 Madrid commuter trains in 2004 and throughoutIraqonadailybasissuggestjusthowlethalsuchclaimscanbegiventheright circumstances The fact that such violence does not discriminateamongvictimsonlyfurtherfuelsrhetoriccharacterizingIslamistsasirra-tional fanatics ldquoin love with deathrdquo terrorists animated by a religioncharacterizedbyapropensityforviolenceandauthoritarianism27

27AnxietiesabouttheparticularsusceptibilityofMuslimstoirrationalityinsularityandfanaticismhavealonganddistinguishedpedigreeinEuro-AmericanhistoryandpoliticalthoughtSeeforexampleRenan18833

43

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

AsinsomanyothermattershoweverIslamistsarehardlyofonemindonthesubjectofjihadindeedthereareIslamistswhoexplicitlyrejectthereductionof struggle toviolenceAcase inpoint isNadiaYassine(20032005c)whoinsiststhatjihadisthededicatedstruggleagainstisshytikbar(arrogance)particularlyinitscommonformasthelustforpoweranddominationAsjihadagainstistikbarisbothafinalgoalandapre-scriptionforactionYassinesuggestsitisantitheticaltoviolentpracticesthataimatdominationTheprimaryinstrumentsofjihadarenotbombsbutwords particularly thosedeployed in the art of persuasion (Fara-marzi2005NYassine2006a)WhenIslamistssuchaslsquoAbdal-SalamFarajandlsquoUmarlsquoAbdal-RahmanseektolegitimizeviolentrevolutionbyrecoursetoIslamictextsshearguestheycontravenethetruemeaningofjihadtoservetheirownarrogantendsBythesametokenBinLadenrsquosdecisiontoldquofightevilwithevilandbarbaritywithbarbarityrdquonotonlyviolatesspecificIslamicprohibitionsagainstharmingcivilianswomenandchildrenbutalsobetraystheethicalimperativetoembodythemes-sageofamercifulGodwhocautionsbelieversthat(Q8822)ldquoYouhavenopoweroverthemrdquo(NYassine2005cDaily Excelsior2002)

SuchpersistentdisagreementsamongMuslimspastandpresentsug-gest that Islam isnomore inherently violent andbloody-minded thanitmdashorChristianityor Judaism for thatmattermdashis inherentlypeacefulIslamists often claim to speak for an unchanging authentic Islam thatexistsoutsideoftimeandspaceyetthepoliticalpurchaseoftheirper-spective derives from the ways it assembles disparate yet recognizablecontemporaryexperiencesofsufferingfrustrationandlossintoanex-planationthatresonateswithMuslimswholiveincommunitiescultur-allylinguisticallyandgeographicallydistantfromoneanotherTheex-tenttowhichIslamistargumentsresonatebroadlyacrossMuslimsocie-tiesthusdependsuponasetofexperiencesandphenomenathatmarkthisparticularmomentinhistoryincludingthewaysinwhichcontempo-raryglobalinequalitiescompoundalegacyofhistoricalasymmetriestocontinuallyreproduceasenseofMuslimpowerlessnessmdashbothrealandimaginedmdashrelativetotheWestcontinuingEuro-Americanpoliticalandfinancialsupportofcorruptautocratsmanyofwhompresideoverna-tion-statesbrutallystitchedtogetherbyWesternfiat thepersistenceofauthoritarian regimes eager to control domestic unrest by catalyzingldquoMuslimragerdquotowardexternaltargetsthesenseofemasculationpro-ducedbydecadesofpoliticalrepressionandeconomicfrustrationandthecontinualflowofimagesofbloodiedMuslimbodiesdeliveredbyaburgeoningarrayofvideosatelliteandelectronicmedia

It is notable that the understanding of jihad many Islamists proffermirrorstheverystate-sanctionedviolenceagainstwhichtheyhavestrug-gledforalmostacenturyAlongwiththousandsofMuslimscaughtinthemachineryoftwentieth-centurystateviolenceprominentIslamistsfromQutbtoGhazalitoAymanal-Zawahirimdashal-Qalsquoidarsquossecondincommandmdash

44

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

arewellknowntohavebeenradicalizedbyextendedandoftenbrutaltermsofincarcerationinEgyptSyriaIraqJordanIsraelAlgeriaandelsewhere(onal-ZawahiriandprisoncfKepelandMilelli2008152ndash54)ItisthusfarfromsurprisingthatIslamistsforgedbyinterrogationtortureinprisoncampswouldconcludethatthepreeminentenactmentofMuslimpietyisviolentstruggleldquoPrisonrdquoasPalestinianKhaledAbuHilalhassaidldquoismyuniversityrdquo(Erlanger2007)anargumentmadeingreaterdetailinadifferenttimeandplacebyRussianwriterandrevolu-tionaryMaximGorky(1868ndash1936)

Apeoplebroughtupinaschoolthatremindsoneofthetormentsofhellonasmallscaleapeopleaccustomedtotheclenched-fistprisonandthewhipwillnotbeblestwithatenderheartApeoplethatthepoliceagentshaveriddenoverwillbecapableintheirturnofwalk-ingoverthebodiesofothersInacountrywhereunresthasreignedsolongit isdifficultforthepeopletorealizefromonedaytothenextthepowerofrightOnecannotdemandfromamanwhohasneverknownjusticethatheshouldbejust(Gorky1920)

InthiscontextasTimothyMitchell(1990195ndash96199207ndash8)suggestsIslamistviewsoftheworldcanbecharacterizedasbothamodeofresis-tancetostatemechanismsofcoercionandanexpressionofthemSuchisthedynamic evident inGhazalirsquosmemoirs for examplewhen shede-scribeshowtheldquodarknessofprisonsthebladesoftortureandthevi-ciousbeatingsonly increasetheenduranceandresolveofthefaithfulrdquo(Ghazali19786)

There is no doubt a great deal of pragmatism at work in IslamistargumentsaboutviolenceAsQutb(19916447ndash48)drylynotesthepathtofreedommustoccasionallybehewnbywayoftheswordbecausetyrants are not reasoned out of power and ldquojahiliyya is not lsquoabstracttheoryrsquo[it]consciouslyorunconsciouslystrivestopreserveitsownexistence to defend its essence to annihilate dangerous elementswhichthreatenitsverybeingrdquoYetitisalsothecasethatformanyoftheseIslamistsjihadisbothameansandanendanefforttoeradicatethoseobstacles torestoringa justcommunityonearththatsimultane-ouslybringshumanaction intoaccordwithGodrsquosplansandpurposes(Haddad198321)While theQurrsquoan (2256) states thatldquothere isnocompulsioninreligionrdquoIslamistscontendthatonlyinastateinwhichIslamiclawreignssupremearehumanbeingsfreefromenslavementtooneanotherrsquosruleandallareequalbyvirtueoftheircommonsubmissiontoGodAsQutb(1991107ndash8)argues

WhenthehighestauthorityinsocietyisGodalonemdashexpressedintheruleofdivinelawmdashonlythenishumanitytrulyandcompletelyliber-atedfromslaverytomenOnlythisisldquohumancivilizationrdquobecausetheessentialfoundationofhumancivilizationisthetrueandcom-

45

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

pletefreedomofhumanityandtheabsolutedignityofeveryindivid-ualinsocietyThereisnotruefreedomanddignityforhumanityortheindividualinasocietywheresomepeoplearelordswholegislateandothersareslaveswhoobey

From this perspective the realization of justice liberty equality andchoiceitselfnecessitatestheforcibleremovaloftheconstraintsimposedbyjahiliyyaalongwiththosewhoaidandabetitno matter the costAsMawdudi(1954160ndash61)writes

[W]hyisitthatinreligionsuchimportanceisgiventojihadthattheQurrsquoanpronouncesthejudgmentofhypocrisyuponthosewhoshirkandevadeitJihadisbutanothernamefortheattempttoerectthesystemoftruthandtheQurrsquoandeclaresjihadtobeatouchstoneonthesamefootingwithamanrsquosfaithInotherwordshewhohasfaithinhisheartwillneitherbecontentwiththedominationofthesystemofevilnorwillhegrudgetheexpenditureoflifeandwealthinthestruggleforerectingthesystemoftruthIfoneshowsweaknessinthismatterhisfaithitselfisdoubtfulWhatcananythingelsebesidethenprofithimThemanwhoprofesses faith in this religioncannotfulfillhisdutyonlybytryingasfaraspossibletopatternhislifeonIslamThenatureofhisfaithitselfrequiresthatheshouldconcentrateallhiseffortuponwrestingleadershipfromunbelievingandcorruptmentoentrustittotherighteousanduponerectingthesystemoftruththathasbeenordainedfortheconductoftheworldaccordingtothewillofGodBecausethisendisunattainablewith-out thehighestdegreeofcollectiveeffort theremustexistarigh-teouscommunitycommittedtotheprincipleoftruthanddevotedtothesolepurposeintheworldoferectingmaintainingandproperlyrealizingthesystemoftruth

ThefactthatsomeIslamistthinkerssanctifyviolentstruggleinsuchtermsdoesnotmeanofcoursethatallthosewhoadvocateorengageinjihadendorseviolence28NordoesitimplythatthosewhoclaimtokillforIslamareentirelywithoutulteriormotivesthosemanipulativepur-poses andpsychologicalmotivations that even themost rarified scrip-turalargumentscanexpressorserveWhattheprecedinganalysisdoessuggesthoweveristhatthereductionofthisviewofjihadtoirrationalbloodlusttheself-interestedgrabfortemporalpoweroradoorthroughwhichtopassintothehereaftermissesacrucialdimensionofitssignifi-canceandappealfortruebelieversjihadisnolessthananenactmentof

28EvenashespokeofaneweraofjahiliyyaandofjihadMawdudihimselfstoppedwellshortof recommendingor condoning the actual resort to violence in themannermanyotherIslamistsdidAsNasr(199670)observesMawdudirsquosorganizationtheJamalsquoat-iIs-lamildquohasavoidedviolentsocialchangeandhasinsteadviewedthepathtotheIslamicstateaslyingwithintheexistingsociopoliticalorderrdquoAlsoseethechapters5and3onQutbandMawdudiinthisvolume

46

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

adivineimperativetoremakethefoundationsofcollectivelifeInthisre-spectIslamistviewsofjihadcanbeseenaspartofalong-standingasso-ciationbetweenviolenceandpoliticalfoundingsuponwhichnoparticu-larcultureorhistoricalepochhasamonopolyThisassociationandtheldquolegacyofviolencerdquoitbequeathstofuturegenerationsarenolessappar-entinthoseradicalrevolutionsofrenewalthatmovebywayoftheswordfromthemarginstothecenterthanthosepoliticalfoundingsthatclaimtocreatesomethingoutofnothing(Connolly1995251)Ineithercasethetollofsuchbrutalitycanbeimmeasurableforinadditiontothevic-timswhosufferdirectlytheldquopracticeofviolencelikeallactionchangestheworldbutthemostprobablechangeistoamoreviolentworldrdquo(Ar-endt1972177)

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Page 22: Chapter 1 INTRODUCTION - assets.press.princeton.eduassets.press.princeton.edu/chapters/s9067.pdf · Chapter 1 INTRODUCTION This volume is intended as a broad introduction to the evolution

22

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INTRODUCTION

lsquoAzizBinBaz(d1999)laterthegrandmuftiofSaudiArabiamdashtookoverthesacredprecinctsoftheKalsquobainMeccainashort-livedbutextremelyembarrassingchallenge toSaudi royalauthority (cfHegghammerandLacroix2007)In1990KingFahdrsquosdecisiontoinviteAmericantroopstodefendthekingdomagainstthethreatofanIraqiinvasioncreatedwide-spreadresentmentamongSaudis theeffectsofwhichcontinue to thisdayThestationingofnon-MuslimmilitarypersonnelinIslamrsquosholiestlandwasdeemedbythekingrsquoscriticstobescandalousandevensacrile-giousAnumberofprominentSaudiSalafispubliclycriticizedthekingrsquosdecisiononthisoccasioncallinguponhimaswellasonBinBazandoth-ersatthehelmoftheSaudireligiousestablishmenttoreorienttheSaudipolitytowarditstruereligiousfoundationsManyofthesedissidentsmdashwhowerealsojoinedbyldquosecularrdquoSaudicriticsoftheroyalfamilymdashwereandhaveremainedrestrainedintheircriticismevenastheycalledforstricterconformitytoIslamicnormsasthepanaceaforallills(cfFandy1999)OthershoweverhavedenouncedtheroyalfamilyanditsWesternalliesinnouncertaintermsBinLadenisonlythemostnotoriousofthosewhobrokewiththeroyalfamilyinthewakeofKingFahdrsquosdecisiontoinviteWesterntroopsin1990andwhocalledfortheoverthrowoftheroyal familyand for jihadagainstWesternpowers Such strident callshavebeencontinuedbyotherSalafisbothbeforeandaftertheterroristattacksofSeptember112001aswellasintheaftermathoftheUS-ledinvasionofIraq(al-Rasheed2007)

ItshouldbeclearinlightoftheforegoingthatanyunderstandingofthedifferencesbetweenIslamistsandtheSalafismustrestontakingac-countofthediversityamongtheSalafisSalafiswhooftenrejectmuchoftheIslamicscholarlytraditioninfavorofadirectrecoursetothefoun-dationaltextsarenotnecessarilyrenderedldquoIslamistrdquosimplybyvirtueofthisstanceForasnotedmanyoftheseSalafiscontinuetoprofessareso-lutelyquietiststancewhichinthecaseoftheSaudiSalafismeansaf-firmingallegiancetotheSaudiroyalfamilyThispositionisrepresentedforinstancebyBinBaztheerstwhilegrandmuftiaswellasbyotherleading members of the Saudi religious establishment A pro-regimestanceoroneindifferenttopoliticsisnolessldquopoliticalrdquoofcoursethana position of strident hostility to the established order at home andabroadForourpurposeshoweveritisonlywhentheSalafisrejecttheexistingdispensationandbeginstrivingmdashthoughnotnecessarilythroughmilitantmeansmdashforanewreligio-politicalorderthattheycanbesaidtojointheranksoftheIslamists

ItisworthnotingfinallythatSalafipositionsamongSaudisandelse-wherearemarkednotonlybydiversitybutalsobyconsiderablefluidity(al-Rasheed 2007) The same activist or intellectual might at varioustimesmoveamongavarietyofseeminglyincompatiblepositionsmdashap-pearingtobemoreldquomoderaterdquoonsomeissuesthanonothersForallhiscriticismofradicalIslamistsQaradawiforinstancehashimselfwrittenin justificationofsuicidebombingsbyPalestiniansagainst Israelis (see

23

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

chapter 9 on Qaradawi) And Saudi Salafis like Safar al-Hawali andSalmanal-lsquoAwdamdashwhocame toprominence in the early1990smdashhavealternatedbetweencriticismoftheSaudipoliciesanddenunciationsofradicalSalaficallstojihadagainsttheSaudiregime(seeal-Rasheed200759ndash101onal-HawalialsoseeReichmuth2006)Theirshiftingviewsreflect changes in their relations with the Saudi regime but they alsopointtothebroadspectrumofpositionswhichSalafishavetakenatdif-ferenttimesindifferentcontextsandbeforedifferentaudiencesThusevenasal-Hawaliandal-lsquoAwdahavecondemnedterroristactsdirectedagainstSaudiArabiaandadvisedSaudisnottofightAmericantroopsinpostndashSaddamHusseinIraqtheyhavecalledupontheIraqisthemselvestoresistAmericantroopsandhavecharacterizedthateffortasaldquodefen-sivejihadrdquo(al-Rasheed200794ndash95)

Sufi s and Islamists

ItseemsmuchsimpleronthefaceofittodistinguishbetweenIslamistsandSufisThecharacteristicSuficonvictionthattherearelevelsofmean-ingintheQurrsquoanthatgobeyondtheliteralandtheobviousandthataselectfewmdashtheldquofriendsofGodrdquomdashareendowedwiththeuniqueabilityto discern them is anathema to all those who insist that God intendsHisteachingstobeequallyintelligibletoallDespitetheirtendencytoviewthemselvesasbearersof true Islam Islamists typicallyregard theSufi idea that somepeoplehaveaprivileged relationshipwithGodassuspectthebasisnotonlyforsanctioninginterpretationsofIslamthatlackwarrantintheplainteachingsofGodandtheProphetbutalsoforpracticallyldquoworshipingrdquothesefriendsofGodIslamists(andmodernists)havefrequentlyalsobeencriticalofthewaySufidevotionalismcanyieldaturningawayfromtheworldratherthananefforttochangeitaswellasapreoccupationwithpersonalspiritualtransformationattheexpenseofconcernsforthewelfareofthecommunityatlarge SufipracticesandtheteachingsoftheSufimastershavevariedenor-mouslythroughoutthehistoryofIslamyetIslamistcritiquesofSufismareseldomattentivetoitsnuancesortothecomplexwaysithasrelatedtootherfacetsofIslamNorhaveIslamiststakenmuchaccountofthefactthatmanyleadingfiguresofearliertimeswerebesidesmuchelseSufisaswellThisistrueevenofIbnTaymiyya(d1328)whoseprestigeinIslamistandSalaficirclesismatchedbyfewothersandwhowasinhisdayamemberoftheQadiriSufiorder(Makdisi1974)EvenifonearguesmdashasanIslamistmightbeinclinedtomdashthatldquogoodrdquoSufismisnoth-ingbutproperIslamitselftheveryfactthatsuchfigureshadaSufiiden-tityatallnecessarilycomplicateswhatissupposedtobethepristinesim-plicityofafaithsharedequallybyallbelievers

Complicatingthingsstillfurtheristhevarietyofwaysinwhichsomeleading Islamists relate to Sufism Ayatollah Khomeini was a lifelongstudentofIslamicmysticismandtheinfluenceofthemedievalSpanish

24

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INTRODUCTION

Sufi Ibn lsquoArabi loomed especially large in his thought To Khomeinimysticismmdashoften referred to as lsquoirfan (gnosis) especially when inter-twinedwithIslamicphilosophyandtheology(Knysh1992632)mdashwascrucialtoaproperunderstandingofGodrsquosrelationshipwiththeworldandwiththehumanbeingItwasalsoessentialforonersquosethicalforma-tionforamasteryovertheselfandultimatelyforrealizinginoneselftheattributesofwhat Ibn lsquoArabihadcalledldquotheperfectmanrdquo (cfKnysh1992 635 also Mottahedeh 1985 180ndash85) Some of the austerity ofKhomeinirsquospersonallifeprobablyalsoderivedfromSufiasceticismAndthoughheanchoredhisconceptionofIslamicgovernmentinanexposi-tionofShilsquoijuridicalthoughtratherthaninIslamicmysticismthesortofreligiousauthorityhecametoenjoyonthebasisofhisreformulationofShilsquoipoliticaltheologyseemstoechomysticalideasoftheperfectmanwho embodies and upholds the moral order as the microcosm of theuniverse

UnlikeKhomeiniQutbwasnotaSufiandhegivesnoindicationofsharinganyofKhomeinirsquosenthusiasmforthegreatSufithinkersofear-liertimesEvensoechoesofamysticrsquosdirectencounterwiththefoun-tainheadoftruthandknowledgearehardtomissinQutbrsquoswritingses-peciallyinhiscommentaryontheQurrsquoan(cfCarreacute200395ndash97)TheveryfirstsentenceofhiscommentarymdashldquolifeintheshadeoftheQurrsquoanisablessingunknowntoanyonewhohasnrsquottasteditrdquomdashevokesthefa-miliarSufiideathatincontrovertibleknowledgeofRealityisultimatelyacquired only through direct personal experience (dhawq that is theldquotasterdquooftheTruth)ThegreatmedievalSufial-Ghazali(d1111)hadauthoredafamousautobiographicalaccountofhowitwasonlythroughthe immediacyofhispersonalmysticalexperience thathewasable toovercomehisdebilitatingepistemologicaldoubtsandreassurehimselfofthenecessarytruths(Watt199857)QutbdoesnotmentionGhazaliinthiscontextbutitisdifficultnottobestruckbythemysticalresonanceofsomeofhislanguageHereisoneexamplewhichoccursinhiscom-mentaryonsura(chapter)53oftheQurrsquoan16

16TheearlyversesinthissuraoftheQurrsquoanhavebeenunderstoodbyMuslimexegetesasreferringtotheProphetrsquosrevelatoryexperienceaswellastohisldquonightjourneyrdquoandhisascensiontoheavenormilsquoraj inthecourseofonenighthewastransportedfirstfromMeccatoJerusalemandthentothepresenceofGodbeforebeingreturnedtoMecca

UnrelatedtothenightjourneybutrelatedtohisrevelatoryexperiencestheexegeticalsignificanceofthisQurrsquoanicsuraalsoliesinitsconnectionwiththeso-calledSatanicVersesAccordingtocertainexegeticalreportsMuhammadwasinthecourseofreceivingarevela-tionwhenSataninterpolatedsomeversesintoitmdashversespraisingthreegoddessesreveredbythepolytheistsofMeccaItwasnotuntilsometimelaterthatMuhammadrealizedhiserrorwhereupontheversesinterpolatedbySatanwereremovedTheepisodeoftheldquoSa-tanicVersesrdquohasbeenacontroversialoneinIslamichistorylongbeforeSalmanRushdiersquosnovelofthatnameandKhomeinirsquosjuridicalruling(fatwa)callingforRushdiersquosdeathMostMuslimscholarshavefoundittooshockingtobelievethattheProphetcouldhavemadesuchagrievouserrorandhavedeniedthatanysuch incidentever tookplaceYetsome

25

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INTRODUCTION

IwaschattingoneeveningwithsomecompanionswhentoourearscamethesoundofsomeonerecitingtheQurrsquoannearbyrecitingtheSuraoftheStar[al-Najm]andweinterruptedourconversationtolistentotheNobleQurrsquoanLittlebylittlemyheartenteredintowhatwasbeing recited into theheartofMuhammadashe jour-neyedtotheHeavenlyHostIwaswithhimashesawGabrielintheangelicforminwhichGodhadcreatedhimIwaswithhiminhis loftyandfree-flying journey to theLoteTreeof theBoundaryandtheGardenoftheRefugeIwaswithhimtotheextentthatmyimaginationcouldformavisionofitandtotheextentthatmyfeelings couldbear itThen came the final cry andmywholebeingshookatthefearfulreproachldquoDoyoumarvelatthisdiscourseanddoyoulaughandnotweepandmakemerryrdquo[Q5359ndash61]WhenIheardldquoBowdownbeforeGodandserveHimrdquo[Q5362]thetremblinginmyhearthadbecomeaphysicalandvisibletremblingthroughoutmybodythatIcouldnotresistMybodykeptshakingandIcouldnotcontrolitNorcouldIholdbackthetearsthatwerepouringforthhowevermuchItried(QutbZilalvol7part2774ndash75quotedfromCarreacute2003333ndash34withminorchanges)

TheQurrsquoanrsquosprofoundimpactontheaestheticsensibilitiesofitslisten-ersisafamiliarmotifindiscussionsofitsliteraryqualities(cfGrahamandKermani2006)AssomeonewhoseearlywritingswereconcernedwithArabicliterarycriticismandspecificallywiththeliteraryexcellenceoftheIslamicscripture(Qutb1949b)QutbwasespeciallyreceptivetothisaspectoftheQurrsquoanThesenseofbeingtransportedbacktothetimeoftheProphetandtowitnessingtheProphetrsquosascension(milsquoraj)tothepresence of Godmdashwhich is how the passage being commented on byQutbherehascommonlybeeninterpretedbytheexegetesmdashcanlikewisebeseenasanillustrationoftheoverpoweringimpactthewordsoftheQurrsquoancanhaveonthebelieverQutbrsquosaccountofconversingwithGodthrough the Qurrsquoan (cited earlier) is again something he may havewantedtoseeallbelieversdoYetallbelieverscanscarcelydosoany-morethanallaspirantsevenontheSufipathcanexperiencethetransfor-mativemysticalldquostatesrdquothatGodbestowsonHisspecialfriends(awlshyiya)IrrespectiveofwhetherhesawitinquitethiswayQutbrsquosassertionthatheisabletoenterldquointotheheartofMuhammadrdquoandtoseeGabrielasMuhammad sawhimsurelygiveshimaperspective thatothers en-counteringthewordofGoddonothave

ThepointisnotofcoursethatQutbwaseverrecognizedbyhisfol-lowersasaSufimasterbutthatsomeofthehermeneuticalauthorityheclaimshasadistinctiveSufiringtoitMorebroadlythesortofunques-

leadingscholarsofearlyandmedievalIslammdashincludingIbnTaymiyyamdashacceptedthehisto-ricityofthisincidentSeeSAhmed1998

26

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INTRODUCTION

tioningreligio-politicalauthorityIslamistleadershaveoftenenjoyedovertheirfollowersisnotunlikethatoftheSufimasteroverhisfollowersBe-ginningwithHasanal-BannathefounderoftheMuslimBrotherhoodandoncehimselfamemberofaSufiordertheleaderofthisorganizationis formally referred to as themurshid (guide)ormore specificallyalshymurshid alshylsquoam (thegeneralguide[RMitchell1993165])whichisafamiliartermforthemasterinSuficontextsForhispartAbdessalamYassine the founder and leader of lsquoAdl warsquol-Ihsan Party of Morocco(oftenreferredtoastheJusticeandSpiritualityAssociationorJSA)haslike Khomeini gone well beyond simply echoing Sufi conceptions ofauthorityinhisowndiscoursesHetoowasonceamemberofaMoroc-canSufiorderandhehascontinuedtodrawonSufithemesinhiswrit-ingsTheverynameofYassinersquospoliticalorganizationevokesacentralSufiideanamelyihsanThisisaQurrsquoanicterm(cfQ756)thattrans-latedliterallymeansldquotodogoodrdquothoughSufishaveunderstoodittomeanmuchmore thanthatFollowingawell-knownstatementattrib-uted to theProphetMuhammad theyhaveoften interpreted ihsan tomeangoingbeyondtheexternalsofIslamicritualpracticestoldquoworshipGodasifyouseeHimrdquo(Schimmel197529)thatiscultivatingasenseof personal communion and intimacy with God Even as Yassine hassoughttodistancehimselffromwhathedeemstobetheexcessesofSu-fismthereislittledoubtthathispoliticalappealowesmuchtocarefullycalibratedeffortstocombinedistinctiveSufiideaswithhisownbrandofIslamism(cfLauziegravere2005seealsochapter12onNadiaYassineinthisvolume)

FinallyMawdudirsquosJamalsquoat-iIslamimdashoneoftheearliestIslamistorga-nizations in the Sunni worldmdashillustrates both the Islamistsrsquo complexrelationshipwith Sufismand their pragmatic recognitionof its appealinmanyMuslimsocietiesMawdudihadoncebeenaharshcriticofSu-fismblamingitformanyillsafflictingMuslimsocietiesYettheJama-lsquoat-iIslamigraduallycametosoftenitsstanceonSufipracticesconsider-ablynodoubtintheinterestofbroadeningsomeofitssupportbaseinPakistanwheresaintsandSufishrinesareanimportantpartofthereli-giousandpoliticallandscapeAlreadyinMawdudirsquoslifetimeMianTufaylMuhammadhissuccessorastheheadoftheJamalsquoat-iIslamihadtakentheextraordinaryinitiativeoftranslatinganearlySuficlassictheKashf alshymahjub into Urdu The author of this work Shaykh lsquoAli Hujwiri(d1072)isburiedinLahoreinPakistanandhismuch-frequentedshrineishometoprecisely thesortofdevotionalpractices that Islamistsandmodernist reformers letaloneSalafishaveoften frownedupon (Nasr1996124)

ThesediverseexamplesarenotintendedtoobscuretherealdifferencesbetweenthegeneralityofIslamistsandmostSufisTheirsignificanceliesratherinillustratingthedifficultyofdistinguishingbetweenIslamismandotherreligiousintellectualandpoliticaltrendsintermsofneatcharac-

27

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INTRODUCTION

terizationsofgrandtranslocalgeneralizationsAstheforegoingsuggeststhesameistrueandmoresowhenitcomestocharacterizingIslamistsinrelationtothelsquoulamatheMuslimmodernistsandtheSalafisIndeedasLorenLybargerhasarguedwithreferencetothoseusuallycharacter-izedasldquosecularnationalistrdquoorldquoIslamistrdquoPalestiniansintheWestBankandGazadifferenceswithintheranksofyoungsecularnationalistsandIslamistscansometimesalsoshadeintosignificantsimilaritiesbetweenthesesupposedlyrivalorientations(Lybarger2007)ManyIslamistshavesoughttodistancethemselvesfromwhattheyseeastherigidityandau-thoritarianismofotherIslamistsandtoarguenotjustfortheimplemen-tationofthesharilsquoabutalsofordemocracyandpluralismConverselynot a few of the younger secular nationalists have ldquoadopted IslamisttheodiciesthatexplainedthefailuretoovercomeIsraelastheresultoffallingawayfrompietytheirconclusionsmirroredIslamistonestootheroadbackfromthebrinkhadtotraceitscoursethrougharenewedcom-mitmenttoIslambutnotnecessarilyinthemannerthattheIslamistmove-mentsmighthaveintendedrdquo(Lybarger2007237ndash38quotationat238)

Yet ifneatcategoriesremainelusiveacombinationoftheIslamistsrsquoself-consciouslypoliticalgoalstheirmultifacetedifnotalwaysexplicitpoliticalcritiquesofmanypastandpresentwaysofunderstandingandlivingIslamandanunshakeableconfidenceintheirownabilitytodis-cern Godrsquos will from the foundational texts do often provide enoughgrounds tobroadlydistinguish themfromotheractivists intellectualsand orientations in the Muslim public sphere What this combinationamountstovariesfromonesocialpoliticalreligiousandculturalcon-texttoanotherandsothereforedothewaysinwhichIslamistsrelatetooneanotherorcompeteandoverlapwithothergroupsandorientations

The Politics of Islamism

FromAeneasrsquosmythicalfoundingofRometothedeathandresurrectionofJesusChristtoMuhammadrsquosmigrationtoMedinafoundationalnar-rativesareascommontocollectivelifeasthemovementsthatperiodi-callyarisetorevivethemandclaimantstothemantleoflegitimacytheyconferSounderstoodIslamistsrsquopoliticalaspirationstorestorefounda-tionslocatedinamythicalpastarefarfromuniqueNorareIslamistsaloneintheirconvictionthatscripturalauthorityisguaranteedbyitsdi-vineauthormdashforinthatallMuslimsagreeRatherthechaptersinthisvolumesuggest thatwhatmakes Islamistpoliticsdistinctive (ifnotsui generis)istheclaimtorecuperateanldquoauthenticIslamrdquocomprisedofself-evidenttruthspurgedofalienandcorruptinginfluencesalongwithaninsistenceonremakingthefoundationsofthestateinitsimageGiventhelimitsofhumanunderstandingrelativetoGodrsquosknowledgeIslamistssimultaneouslydepictsuchfidelitytotheunadulteratedwordofAllahas

28

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INTRODUCTION

theultimateexpressionofdeferencetodivineomniscienceandportrayhumilityasaconstitutivefeatureofthehumanconditionAspirationstofullyknowandmasterthenaturalandsocialworldsthusentailnotonlyahumanhubrisdeaftotheQurrsquoanicadmonitionthatldquoAllahknowsbutandyoudonotknowrdquo(Q366)butalsoatransgressionagainstadi-vinely-ordainedontologicalorder

ItisnotablehoweverthattheIslamistemphasisonthelimitsofhumanknowledgerequireshumilityonlyinrelationtoAllahitrarelyyieldshu-milityinregardtotheirownclaimstospeakinHisnameortowardotherhumanbeingswhodissentfromthepremiseofdivineomnipotenceandIslamistaccountsofwhat it requiresThis suggests thatwhile IslamistchallengestostatepowerareobviouslypoliticaltheIslamistclaimtoau-thenticityisalsopolitical inthecoercivepoweritroutinelyenactsandjustifiesmostnotablybywayofthesilencesitimposesandthedebatesitforeclosesAzizal-Azmehpointsoutthatldquothenotionofauthenticityisnotsomuchadeterminateconceptasitisanodeofassociationsandin-terpellationsatropebymeansofwhichthehistoricalworldisreducedtoaparticularorderandatokenwhichmarksoffsocialandpoliticalgroupsandforgesandreconstituteshistoricalidentitiesrdquo(al-Azmeh199341)WhetherintheserviceofArabnationalismChristianfundamental-ismEuropeanromanticismorMuslimmodernismtheclaimofauthen-ticityisanactofpowerthatfunctionsnotjusttoreflecttheworldbuttoconstructitbydeterminingwhoisincludedandexcludedwhomayandmaynotspeakauthoritativelywhatistheproperrealmofdebateandwhatisbeyondcontestation

ItiscertainlythecasethatasingleldquoIslamrdquocapturesandorganizestheperspectivesofmillionswhoself-identifyasMuslim(amongotherthings)yetwhattravelsunderitsrubricisinescapablydiversemultiethnicanddefined asmuchbydisagreement as consensus Just as theTorah andBible lend themselves toat times radicallydivergent interpretationsofwhatitmeanstobeJewishorChristiantheQurrsquoanandhaditharecom-plexandsusceptibletomanydifferentandattimescontradictoryenact-mentsSounderstoodIslamislessafixedessencethanalivingtraditionthatcaptureswhatisimaginedascontinuousandunitaryindialecticalrelationshiptothoseconcretearticulationsandpracticesbywhichitistransformedandadaptedindifferentcontextsforpluralpurposesItispreciselythisunderstandingofreligionthatisanathematoIslamistswhoseek tofix theparametersof Islamicauthenticityonceandforallandtherebyarrogateforthemselvestherighttodeterminewhoqualifiesasagood Muslim to discredit those lsquoulama unable or unwilling to purgeIslamofpurportedimpietiestodeclarenominallyMuslimrulersapos-tatesunfittogovernandtocharacterizeallwhodisagreeascorrupthe-reticalguiltyofunbelieforvictimsoffalseconsciousness

Thesegeneralpoliticaltendencieshowevermustbecarefullysituatedwithinadialecticoftheglobalandthevernacularunderstoodtoreflect

29

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INTRODUCTION

thewaysinwhichunifyingmacrohistoricaldynamicsinformandareinturntransformedbydiversecontingentandfluidlocalcircumstancesInaworldstampedbyWesterndominanceandtheconsolidationofpostco-lonial authoritarian regimes Islamists confront a common set of con-straintsandchallengesInasmuchassuchconstraintsandchallengeshavemade Islamist thinkers (often reluctant) participants in conversationsacrossbothcultureandhistorytheireffortstoremakethefoundationsofcollectiveliferevealasharedinterpretiveframeworkandcommonreli-gio-political grammar At the same time this frame and grammar arecontinuallybeingreworkedinrelationtothedistinctpublicspheresinwhichIslamistsoperateandtowhichtheycarefullycalibratetheirpoliti-calcommitments

Attention to this complex dynamic suggests that the Islamist move-mentcannotsimplybecharacterizedasviolentantidemocraticandop-pressiveofwomenlabelsinvokedsofrequentlyinscholarlyandpopularliterature on the subject that they have become virtually synonymouswithIslamistpoliticsSuchcharacterizationsdocapturecrucialdimen-sionsofIslamistpoliticsyettheyalsosidesteptheparadoxesitsvarie-gatedandoftencontradictoryexpressionspresentInsteadwearguethatIslamistpoliticscanbeproductivelyreadin terms ofandagainst the grain ofsuchbroadcategorizationsasantidemocraticantiwomanorviolentmdashthat is as commitments that at different moments in various localesbothencourageandconstrainbroad-basedpoliticalparticipationdisruptandratifyhierarchicalgendernormsresistandreproducestate-sanctionedbrutalityThepointofreadingIslamistpoliticsinthiswayisnottosug-gestthatIslamistsaresecretlydemocraticfeministandopposedtovio-lenceRatherthepointistodrawattentiontothecomplexityandcon-tradictionserasedbyeasygeneralizationsontheonehandandtheoftenunacknowledgedfluidityandculturaladaptabilityofotherwisefamiliarpoliticalcategoriesontheother

Islamism and Democracy

DespiteimportantdifferencesamongIslamistthinkerstheyhaveincom-monatendencytoviewhumansovereigntyastransgressiveofdivinelawandsharetheaspirationtoestablishsharilsquoaastheprimaryorsolesourceofauthorityAsisoftennotedsuchpremisesandaspirationsrunafoulofassumptionsaboutpopularruleattheheartofdemocracynamelythathumanbeingshavetherighttolegislaterulesforcollectivebehaviorandarecapableofthewisdomrequiredtodevisejustlawsInrecentyearspolicymakersandcommentatorshaveevincedaparticularpreoccupa-tionwiththewaysinwhichIslamistnotionsofdivineauthoritythrottlethespiritandpracticeofpopularsovereigntySomehaveevengonesofarastocharacterizeIslamistsasldquoIslamo-fascistsrdquoanimatedbyhatredoftheldquodemocratic Westrdquo psychologically unable to contend with the fluidity

30

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INTRODUCTION

andindeterminacythatmarkpopularruleandeagertoconvertelectionsintoaldquoone-manone-voteone-timerdquomechanismforestablishinganIs-lamicstate(Murdock2002MRubin2005Kramer1993)

SuchviewsareechoedbythoseIslamistskeentoportraydemocracynotonlyasantitheticaltothesupremacyofdivinelawbutasaTrojanhorseforWesternimperialismFormanyIslamistsincludingseveralinthis volumedemocracy is justone symptomofametastasizingmoralandspiritualbankruptcywherebymoraltransgressionsaretransfiguredintonaturalurgescrassself-interestbecomesthebedrockofcollectivelifeandthedivineplanfortheuniverseandallthingsinitisreducedtoa system of physical causality just waiting to be mastered by way ofhumaningenuity(REuben2007)Qutbcallsthisdiseasedviewoftheworldjahiliyyaanditsignalsnotonlyhumanarrogancebutatransgres-sionagainstdivineauthoritythescopeofwhichencompassesbothpub-licandprivatedomainsofhumanaffairsaswellasbothvisibleandun-seendimensionsoftheuniverseFormanyIslamistssuchtransgressionisattherootofmuchofwhatpassesforMuslimruleinthecontemporaryworldmdashnationalistdemocraticandmonarchicalalikeSucharroganceisalsosaidtobethepatternunderlyingalonghistoryofunrelievedWest-ernaggressionagainstIslaminwhichtheChristianCrusadesEuropeancolonialismIsraelitreatmentofPalestiniansethniccleansinginBosniaGermananti-TurkishviolencetheAmericaninvasionofIraqandDutchcartoonsofMuhammadarebutafewexamples

YetthereisarangeofviewsamongIslamistsaboutboththesubstanceofdemocracyanditscompatibilitywiththereligio-politicalrenewaltheyadvocateAccordingtoQaradawiforexampleldquotheessenceofdemoc-racyisthatpeoplechoosewhorulesoverthemandmanagestheiraf-fairsthatnorulerorregimetheydislikeisforceduponthemthattheyhavetherighttocalltherulertoaccountifheerrsandtoremovehimfromofficeincaseofmisconductandthatpeoplearenotforcedineco-nomicsocialculturalorpoliticaldirectionsthattheyneitherrecognizenor acceptrdquo (Qaradawi1997132 also chapter9 in this volume)TohimthereisnoheavierburdenoppressingMuslimsinthecontemporaryworld thandespotism indeed it is throughdespoticgovernments thatMuslimshavebeenforcedtosubmittootherillsincludingtheneglectofthesharilsquoaandthecoerciveimpositionofsecularismandwesternizationDemocracy then recommends itself to Qaradawi as the most effectiveavailableantidotetodespotismandtheafflictionsofwhichitservesasavehicle

WheremanyamongtheIslamistsandthelsquoulamahaveseenconsider-able tensionbetween IslamanddemocracyQaradawiprofesses to seenoneAswesuggestedearlierbyfarthemostcommonoftheIslamistreservationsaboutademocraticsystemrelatestothesovereigntyofthepeoplewhichistakentocontravenetheideathatGodaloneissovereignQaradawi however is unperturbedby such concernsThe rule of the

31

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INTRODUCTION

peopleoughttobeseenhearguesnotinoppositiontotheruleofGodbutratherinoppositiontotheruleofthedespotMorefundamentallyQaradawirsquos view of democracy does not necessarily require that thepeopleshouldbeabletooverturndivinelyinstitutednormsRatherhisassumptionisthatpeopleexercisetheirsovereigntywithinconstitutionalboundsandMuslimslivinginapredominantlyMuslimdemocraticpol-itywouldlikewisenotwishtotransgresstheparametersoflegitimatehumanactionlaiddownintheIslamicfoundationaltexts(seeQaradawichapter9inthisvolumeandcfFeldman2007)

NadiaYassineofMoroccorsquosJusticeandSpiritualityAssociationisan-othercaseinpointWhilecriticalofthedemocraticgesturesembracedbyamonarchythatshedepictsasallergictogenuinelypopularsovereigntyYassineinsiststhatthemodelofMuslimruleadumbratedintheummafoundedbytheProphetMuhammadandinparticulartheConstitutionofMedina17isnothingshortofdemocratic(NYassine2005d2005e)UnliketheMuslimdynastiesthatarosetousurpitYassinecontendsthiscommunity was participatory egalitarian committed to freedom andexpressiveofGodrsquosmercyMostimportantitwasgovernedalwaysbytheQurrsquoanicprincipleofshura (consultation)bywhichYassinemeansaphilosophy of power that places sovereignty in the community ratherthaninanyindividuallinksvirtuetodeliberationratherthanobedienceandexhortsbelieverstocontinuallyadaptQurrsquoanicprinciplesthroughijtihad rather than adhere reflexively to precedent (N Yassine 2006a182ndash862005d)ManyscholarsandjournalistsremainskepticaloftheJSArsquosasyetuntestedcommitment toproceduraldemocracyandworrythatNadiaandher fatherAbdessalamultimatelyseektoestablishanIslamic state inhospitable to tolerance pluralism and civil liberties(Maghraoui2001Brandon2007Whitlock2006)YetothersarguethattheJSAisagenuinelypopulistorganizationthatrepresentstheunrepre-sentedtendstothewelfareofthedispossessedandbothexpressesandcontributestoanincreasinglyvibrantcivilsocietyinMorocco(Cavatorta2006Entelis2002)

QaradawirsquosandYassinersquosargumentstogethersuggestthatdemocracycanandhasservedaseitheracosmeticcoverfordespotismoranauthen-ticallyIslamiccheckuponcorruptandarbitraryruleAtissueinIslamistargumentsforandagainstdemocracythenarenotonlywhatcountsasldquoauthenticIslamrdquoandtheintentionsofthosewhoclaimtoknowitbutalsothecontentandcharacterofdemocracyitselfParadoxicallybothIslamistsopposedtodemocracyandthosewhotakeIslamismasinher-entlyantidemocraticregardthisasasimplematterwithanobviousan-swerdemocracyisanexpressionofandevensynonymouswithliberal-ismcapitalismandtheWestYetdemocracyisbothmorecapaciousand

17TheConstitutionofMedinawasanagreementtheProphethadenteredintowiththelocalcommunitiesincludingJewishtribesuponhisemigrationfromMeccatoMedina

32

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INTRODUCTION

moredistinctthanthispresumptionsuggestsTheworditselfofcoursederivesfromtheancientGreekdemokratiawhichmeansrule(kratos)ofthepeople(demos)andmanyderivetheequationofdemocracyandtheWestfromthisassociationwithclassicalGreeceYetancientGreekphi-losopherssuchasPlatosawindemocracythespecterofmobrulepartic-ularly vulnerable to demagoguery and despotism (a suspicion notablyechoedbyAmerican founder JamesMadison)Contrary to thedemo-cratic idealof inclusivenessmoreover citizenship inGreekdemocracyexcludedasubstantialpartofthepopulationincludingwomenslavesandforeignersFinallytheextenttowhichtheancientGreeksmayevenbecalledWesternisamatterofgreatdisputeparticularlyastheldquoWestrdquoisacategoryofrelativelyrecentprovenancethroughwhichhistoryandgeographyhavebeenretroactivelyorganized18DespitedepictionsoftheHellenicworldasWesternancientGreeksdidnotinfactviewthem-selvesintheseterms19

TheequationofdemocracywiththeWestalsopresupposestheexis-tenceofacoherentldquoWesterncivilizationrdquowitheitherculturallyhomoge-neousrootsorclearlydelineatedhistoricalandcontemporarybounda-riesorbothYetwhatiscalledtheWestisanamalgamationofmultipletraditionsincludingtheGreekRomanJudaicChristianandIslamicmdashtraditionsthatarethemselvespolyvalentratherthanhomogeneousmdashandistodaycharacterizedbyporousbordershybridsubculturesandmyriaddebtstodiversecivilizationspastandpresent20AsageographicmarkeritisvirtuallyimpossibletopinpointexactlywheretheWestbeginsandendsandthisisespeciallysonowthatpeoplesinformationandmate-rial goods crisscross cultural andnational borders atwill creating allkindsoftransnationalsubnationalandmultipleidentitiesthatshiftandreconstitutethemselvesinunpredictablewaysEventhosevaluesidenti-fiedasWesternoftenappearelsewhereinotherguisesIndeedscholarssuggestthatavarietyoftheldquostandardsexportedbytheWestanditscul-turalindustriesthemselvesturnouttobeofculturallymixedcharacterifweexaminetheirculturallineagesrdquo(Pieterse199553)

Manyalsoarguethatdemocracyisnotonlydistinctfrombutinten-sionwithboththetheoryandpracticeofpoliticsinldquoWesternrdquosocieties

18MichaelGillespie(19997ndash10)arguesthattherereadingofhistorygeographyandculturethroughtheprismofthissenseofldquotheWestrdquobegannoearlierthanthenineteenthcenturyTheideaofatimelessandbrightlinebetweenWestandEastisalsochallengedbyJeremyBrottonrsquosstudy(19989096ndash97)ofthediplomaticandintellectualexchangesbe-tweenEuropeandtheOttomanEmpireintheearlymodernperiodBrottonshowsnotonlytheextentandamityofsuchexchangesbutapersistentuncertaintyaboutwherepreciselyEuropeldquoendedrdquoandAsialdquobeganrdquo

19AncientGreeksunderstoodthemselvesasgeographicallywestofthebarbariansbutnotWesterninthecontemporarysensethatisasbothaculturalandhistoricalcategory

20StevenRuncimanrsquoswork(19543480)ontheCrusadesforexampledemonstratesaldquolongsequenceofinteractionandfusionbetweenOrientandOccidentoutofwhichourcivilizationhasgrownrdquo

33

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

many of which are more accurately classified as liberal and capitalist(Wood1994Wolin2001BallandDagger1999)Whileitisnowcom-monplacetospeakofldquoliberaldemocracyrdquoinasinglebreathliberalismanddemocracyareconceptsandpracticeswithverydifferenthistoriesandpresuppositionsUnlikedemocracyforexampleliberalismemergedfromthecrucibleofChristianreligiouswarsandintandemwiththeas-cendanceofamiddleclassthatpresagedtheendofEuropeanfeudalismTheliberalnation-statecanthusbeviewedasbothanexpressionandaconsolidationofcapitalismontheonehandandtheprincipleofasepa-rationbetweenchurchandstateontheotherBycontrastthereisnoth-ingaboutdemocracyeitherasasystemofgovernanceoracultureofpar-ticipationthatisinherentlysecularIndeedAlexisdeTocquevillefamouslyinsistedthatAmericandemocracycannotandshouldnotbesecularasreligionhelpsshiftattentionawayfromimmediatematerialpreoccupa-tionstolargerconcernsofcommunitycooperationandmoralityInfactmanydemocratictheoristsarguethatgenuinelyinclusivepopularsover-eignty is antithetical to the sharp inequalities of wealth and politicalpowerthatcapitalismoftenproducesandlegitimates

SuchongoingdefinitionalandsubstantivedebatessuggestthatthereismuchmoreatstakeindemocraticpoliticsthanprocedurespertainingtogovernmentauthorityandorderandpointtoawidespreadifelusiveunderstandingofdemocracynotjustasasetofinstitutionsbutasTocque-villesuggestsawayoflifeSeveralpoliticaltheoristshavecharacterizedthiselusiveunderstandingintermsofaldquodemocraticethosrdquoBythistheymeanbothanidealandanargumentforacultureofparticipationactivepowersharingmutualaccountabilityinclusivenessanddeliberationinwhichcitizensmayroutinelyandsafelychallengenotonlyspecificpoli-ciesandpolitical institutionsbutalso thevalues thatgoverncollectivelifeprinciplesofinclusionandexclusionandthepremisesofauthorityitself(Connolly1995JPEuben2003Sadiki2004)AdemocraticethosismuchmoredifficulttomeasureorquantifythanforexampleSamuelHuntingtonrsquosparsimoniousdefinitionofdemocracyasapolityinwhichtherehavebeentwoconsecutivepeacefulchangesofgovernmentbywayof freeand fairelections (Huntington1991)21Yetademocraticethosmakesitpossibletobothrecognizeanddisaggregatethepreconditionsaspirations mechanisms and institutions bundled into ldquodemocracyrdquotherebybringingintofocusforexamplethefrequentlyantidemocratic

21Manypoliticalscientistsprefertodefinedemocracyintermsofproceduresdesignedtorealizepopularruleincludingfreecompetitiveandfairelectionsalongwithstateprotec-tionofcertainrightsandlibertiesSuchaformalminimalistdefinitionhastheadvantageofdetachingdemocracyfromquestionsoforiginsandofferingastandardtowhichallgov-ernmentsmaybeheldregardlessofcultureandplaceAsKeithTopper(2005205ndash7)ar-gueshoweveritalsotendstosidestepknottyquestionsaboutthesubstanceofrepresenta-tion power responsiveness and accountability that are arguably central to democraticpolitics

34

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

casttoelectionsimposedbyelitesorforeignpowersthefeltimpotenceofmanycitizensinestablisheddemocraciesandthosehighlyparticipa-torycivilsocietiesthatflourishevenundermonarchicortheocraticrule

Forourpurposes inparticularademocraticethosmakesvisible theparadoxofanIslamistmovementthatseekstomobilizeordinaryMus-limsagainstcoercivepowerbutinthenameofareligio-politicalorderlargelyimmunizedfromchallengeQutbisanaptillustrationhereashistendencytogroundhisownspecialauthorityandinsightintheunsulliedwisdomofordinarybelieversmakesitpossibletoreadhisworkaseitherabriefagainstdemocracy(amongotherthings)oranenactmentofitIn-asmuchasdemocracyasaformofgovernanceisidentifiedwithpopularsovereigntyQutbrsquosbasicpremisethat thefoundationof legitimateau-thoritymustbedivineratherthanhumansuggeststhatheisunambigu-ouslyantidemocraticMoreoverQutbrsquoseffortstopluralizereligiousandpolitical authority express not a confidence in common wisdom butratheradesiretoclaimforhimselfthestatureofareligiousexpertwhodespitehislackofIslamicacademiccredentialscanclearlyseewhatoth-erscannotQutbcharacterizestherealIslamasself-evidentbuthealsoassumesthatonlyasmallvanguardofbelieversbesideshimselfwillhavetheabilitytorecognizeitandactdecisivelytoremaketheworldinitsimageSounderstoodthesignofldquochosennessrdquoisunyieldingcommitmenttoestablishingareligio-politicalorderthatsimultaneouslypresumesthesupremacyofthefewcapableoftrueknowledgeandpromisesaworldinwhichdissentitselfwillbecomebothunnecessaryandillegitimate

Yetifdemocracyrefersnotonlytoasystemofgovernanceorsetofprocedurestorealizepopularsovereigntybutalsotopracticesthatdis-ruptthoseforceswhichconcentratepowerandestablishpoliticalexclu-sionthecharacterizationofQutbrsquosworkassimplyantidemocraticmissesa crucial dimensionof its significance and appealAs the sacred textscontaintherulesandregulationsmeanttogovernbothpublicandpri-vateaffairsQutbrsquosinsistencethatordinaryuntrainedMuslimsmusten-gagethemdirectlyisinmanywaysademocratizationofaccesstoau-thoritySuchaccesscandisruptdeeplyentrenchedpatternsofpowerandpowerlessness particularlywhen conjoined to Islamist arguments thatarbitrarypowerisun-Islamicthatreligiousknowledgedependsoncom-mitmentratherthantrainingorexpertise thatMuslimshavetherightandobligationtodeterminewhenrulersareillegitimateandthatthosewhopreferordertojusticesecuritytofreedomandmoneytopietyhaveforfeitedanyclaimtoauthority

ThisaspectofIslamismhasfrequentlybeencomparedtotheProtestantReformationandmorespecificallytoCalvinistsrsquoattemptstotransferldquore-ligiousauthorityawayfromofficiallysanctionedindividualswhointer-prettextstoordinarycitizensrdquo(EGoldberg19913alsocfLoimeier2005)Suchaparallelhassparkedagreatdealofscholarlyspeculation

35

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

regardingapossibleldquoIslamicReformationrdquo22andarangeofargumentsaboutwhetherandhowIslamismmightfacilitatethedemocratizationofMuslim societies much as the Protestant Reformation is said to haveheralded the emergence of European ldquoliberal democracyrdquo While suchcomparisonsareevocativeafullerunderstandingof IslamismrequiresfirstsituatingitinrelationtoahistoricalshiftinthenatureandlocusofreligiousauthorityinIslambeginninginthenineteenthcenturyAsschol-arsofMuslimsocietieshavepointedouttheimpactofmasseducationnewtechnologiesfordisseminatingknowledgeandinformationanddra-matically changed social economic and political contexts have madeavailabletoamateurswhathadpreviouslybeenthepurviewofreligiousexpertsAtthesametimeithasinauguratedafragmentationofauthor-itywithintheveryranksofthelsquoulamathatcontinuestothepresentday23

InthiscontexttheascendanceandinfluenceofautodidactssuchasQutbHasanal-BannalsquoAbdal-SalamFarajandBinLadensimultaneouslyex-pressandaccelerateanongoingrenegotiationofauthorityoverwhomayspeakforIslamandonwhatbasisthepathofwhichisstillunfoldingandtheoutcomeasyetuncertain

Islamism and Gender

One already apparent consequence of this ongoing renegotiation overwhomayspeakforIslamandonwhatbasisistheentryofwomenintothe interpretive fray This development is increasingly unsettling thoseunwrittengendernormsarguablyattheveryheartofIslamistthoughtdisruptingthestandardsofmasculinityandfemininitythatreflecthowparticularculturesorganizehumanbeingsrsquosocialandreproductiveactiv-itiesintorolesthatareinturnthoughttoexpresstheldquonaturerdquoofmenand women Such norms are frequently considered tangential to theknottyproblemsofdefiningIslamismandadumbratingitscentralideasyetarangeofscholarshiponculturespastandpresenthasshownthatgenderisconsistentlytheterrainoverwhichbattlesforpoliticalcontrolandculturalidentityarefoughtMorespecificallyresearchindisciplinessuchasanthropologyhistoryclassicsandpostcolonialstudieshasdem-onstratedthatculturesinwhichfemalebodiesandbehaviorareregardedas indicesofmoralpurity tend to symbolically transformwomen intoconduitsof cultural corruption in timesof internal crisis and externalthreat(Papenek1994Chatterjee1990Tavakoli-Targhi1991Just1989Cohen1991Welter1966Bloch1978)Thisisespeciallytrueofcontem-

22Foralatenineteenth-centuryassessmentoftheprospectsforaldquoMuhammadanRefor-mationrdquoseeBlunt1882132ndash73

23EickelmanandPiscatori199637ndash39131ndash35Zaman2006Suchfragmentationhasinmanywaysbeenacceleratedbytheexplosionofdigitalcultureswhichpromoteamongotherthingsaldquoformofempoweredamateurismrdquo(Mirzoeff20026)

36

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

poraryreligio-politicalmovementswhosememberstendtoldquoidealizepa-triarchalstructuresofauthorityandmoralityrdquoendorsegenderdualismasgod-givenornaturalandcondemnvigorouslyrecentchangesingen-derrelationsasasymptomandsymbolofsecularistmoralbankruptcy(Riesebrodt1993Moghadam1992Hawley1994)

SeveralchaptersinthisvolumeilluminateIslamistgendernormsbyre-vealing thecharacterandcontentof Islamistconcernsabout theplaceandpurityofMuslimwomenmdashpreoccupationsFatimaMernissi(199199)hasgonesofarastocharacterizeasanobsessionDespiteimportantdifferences among Islamists thinkers many endorse gender norms inwhichthefairlyconventionalinsistencethatfemalenatureisdefinedinand through reproduction undergirds an understanding of women assymbolsofmoralvirtueandvesselsofculturalpurityThisviewsustainstheclaimthatmenandwomenareequalinreligiousbeliefbutperformfundamentallydifferentandcomplementaryfunctionsinsocietyWhilemenarenaturallymadetoruleinboththepublicandprivatedomainawomanbelongsinthedomesticrealmwhereherprimaryroleistobeawifeandmotheraswellastoinsuretheintegrityofthefamilythefirstschoolofmoraleducationAssuchfunctionsarerootedinaninescap-ablehumannaturefashionedbyGodawomanrsquosinabilityorunwilling-nesstoperformherdutiessignalsadisobediencetothedivinewillandpresages the corruption of the Muslim family from within From thisvantagepointtheWesterninsistenceonfullequalitybetweenthesexesisdoubly pernicious it at once liberates women from basic moral con-straintsandenslavesthemtomutuallyreinforcingsexualandcapitalistexploitationAsMurtazaMutahhari(1998xxxi)arguescapitalismmakesuseofwomentomarket itsgoodsldquoby trading inhonourandrespectthrough[their]powertoenticerdquotherebyldquotransform[ing]manintoaninvoluntaryagentofconsumptionrdquoInasmuchaswomenareresponsiblefor producing the next generation of Muslim men destined to restoreIslamtoitsformergloryitisnotonlythevirtueofwomenortheinteg-rityofthefamilythathangsinthebalancebutthefutureofIslamiccivili-zationitself

Zaynab al-Ghazali andMutahharimake several of these argumentsexplicitlyandindetail(seechapters10and11)butinmuchofIslamistrhetoricthenatureandsignificanceofwomenareestablishedindirectlyandsymbolicallyandthroughthreerecurrentimagesinparticularThefirstisofwomenassilentsymbolsofculturalmoralandsexualvulnera-bilityvoicelessfiguresinneedofmasculineprotectionorwhenitistoolatedefiledbodiesthatmutelydemandvengeanceSoforexamplelsquoAb-dallahlsquoAzzam(oneofBinLadenrsquosmentorsseechapter18)graphicallydetailstheagonizinghumiliationofyoungmenunabletoactwhentheAfghanwoman isldquocryingout forhelpher childrenarebeing slaugh-tered her women are being raped the innocent are killed and theircorpsesscatteredrdquo(lsquoAzzam1987a)Inthesecondimagewomenfunction

37

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

muchlikeachorusthatspeaksinpermittedcadencestoratifymasculineendeavorsSuchisthecaseforexampleinBinLadenrsquos1996ldquoDeclara-tionofWaragainsttheAmericansOccupyingtheLandoftheTwoHolyPlacesrdquo(seechapter18)wherethewomenexhortmentojihadinthefollowing way ldquoPrepare yourself like a struggler the matter is biggerthanwordsAreyougoingtoleaveusforthewolvesofKufr[unbe-lief]eatingourwingsWherearethefreemendefendingfreewomenbyarmsDeath isbetter than life inhumiliation Some scandals andshameswillneverbeotherwiseeradicatedrdquo24InthethirdimagewomenarecreaturesnotofthisworldbutofanothervirginalrewardsforthecourageousmartyrintheafterlifeThisisevidentinthefinalinstructionsforthe911hijackersforexamplewhereMuslimldquobrothersrdquoareurgedto purify their carnal impulses sharpen their knives for the dhabh (slaughter)andheedthecallofthehur lsquoayn (theblack-eyedones)await-ingtheminParadise(seechapter19)

Such rhetoric primarily registers women as an extensionmirror ormeasure of masculinity and together with explicit Islamist argumentsabouthumannatureandthefamilyarticulatesIslamistgendernormsinwhichmenandwomeneachhaveaproperlocationandpurposeinadi-vinely ordained social hierarchy Deviance from this gendered scriptthussignalsdisruptionofamuchbroaderreligio-politicalorderitbothpresumes and seeks to bring into existence The disruption caused byforeign aggression in particular exacerbates the tendency to translateconflict into an assault on Muslim masculinity and to conceptualizewomenaspotentialvehiclesforWesterncorruptioninneedofguidingand guarding Women such as Zaynab al-Ghazali and Nadia Yassinewho seek a prominent place and voice within the Islamist movementhavehadlittlechoicebuttocontendwiththisgenderedscriptDoingsohasentailedamongotherthingsnavigatingcarefullybetweenIslamistcharacterizations of womenrsquos visibility and agency as symptomatic ofthe new jahiliyya on the one hand and essentializing arguments thatequateIslamwithveilingfemalegenitalmutilationandhonorkillingsontheother

AsthechaptersonGhazaliandYassinesuggestIslamistwomenhavenegotiatedbetweensuchconstraintsandpressuresandtheirownambi-tionsindifferentwaysApioneeringdalsquoiya(onewhoinvitesMuslimstogreater piety)Ghazalirsquos own life reveals a fierce resistance to conven-tionalnormsofdomesticityevenasmuchofher(earlier)workappearsto embrace an Islamist gender ideology that defines women as wivesmothers andldquobuilders ofmenrdquo (al-Hashimi 1990 118)By contrastYassineisawifeandmotherwhoembracesanldquoIslamicfeminismrdquothatrequiresldquoreappropriatingtheinstrumentsofclassicaltheologyrdquoanden-

24TheIslamistjournalSawt alshyJihadhasgonesofarastofeatureldquowomenrsquosvoicesrdquointheformofrolemodelsnamedforexampleumm alshyshahid(motherofthemartyr)al-thoughitisunclearthattheseldquovoicesrdquoareactuallywomenrsquos(SUsher2004)

38

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

gaging the textsdirectly through ijtihad (NYassine2003) In this re-spect Yassine must be understood as part of a broader effort amongMuslimwomenwithdifferentpoliticalcommitmentstosimultaneouslyadvocateandenacttheirrighttorecuperatetheldquooriginalintentrdquooftheIslamictextsIfwomenandmendoinfacthavedistinctperspectivesontheworldYassinesuggestswomenhaveaspecialobligationtoexcavatewhattheyseeasthegenderparityoftheQurrsquoanburiedbeneaththoseldquomachointerpretationsrdquoofIslamuponwhichmenhavebuilttheirprivi-legeandpower(Khalaf2006)25

ManyAnglo-AmericanandEuropean feministsworry that Islamistsseekonly to secureor restorepatriarchalpowerConverselymany Is-lamist women view feminism as a term and a movement inescapablyWesterninoriginfreightedwiththelegacyofcolonialismanduneasilyimplicatedinculturalimperialismThisapplieseventoYassinewhoisunwillingtoadoptwithoutqualificationalabelsheassociateswithagen-dasopposedtoherowntheWesttheMoroccanstateMaghribi(North-westAfrican)elitesYetfeminismitselfisahighlycontestedtermwithin theso-calledWestitisthebearerofmultiplemeaningssomeofwhichareevenopposedandischaracterizedbydeepdisagreementsaboutwhowomenarewhatwomenneedwhoisauthorizedtoworkonwomenrsquosbehalf andbywhatmeans Inasmuch as these various feminismsmayshareonlyastatedconcernforwomenrsquoswelfarethereisnothinginco-herentinmodifyingldquofeminismrdquowithldquoIslamicrdquoldquoMuslimrdquoorevenldquoIs-lamistrdquounlessone iscommitted toarguing thatfirst Islam isanun-changingessencebeyondhistorypoliticsandculturesecondthereisaneutralobjectivevantagefromwhichtoidentifythisessenceonceandforallandfinallytheIslamicessencesoidentifiedisfundamentallyin-compatiblewitheffortstoimprovetheconditionsandqualityofwomenrsquoslivesBythesametokenIslamistwomenwhorejectthetermfeminismcanbe(althoughnotalwaysare)deeplycommittedtoimprovingwom-enrsquoswelfareaswellasactivelyresistanttoeffortsthatreduceortrans-formthemintosilentaccessoriesofmalepower

YassineandGhazalidifferaboutwhatwomenareandshouldbeyetbroadlyspeakingbothmaybeconsideredpartofarecenttrendtowardthe feminizationofdalsquowa Dalsquowa literallymeanscallappealor sum-monsbutthetermhascometosignifyavarietyofpracticesandargu-mentsmeanttoexhortinviteandguideMuslimstowhatisregardedasproperconductandmoraldevotionWomenrsquosparticipationindalsquowais

25WomenrsquosparticipationintheldquoproductionofofficialIslamicknowledgerdquohasalonghistoryalthoughtheyhaveoftendonesoinrelativeobscurityandwithoutthebenefitofeducation in the Islamicsciences thathas legitimateddirectengagementwith thesacredtexts (Cooke 2001 xiv Badran and Cooke 2004) Pioneering attempts to read genderequalityinIslamarealsonotconfinedtowritingbywomenasevincedbyQasimAminrsquosTahrir alshymarrsquoa [TheLiberationofWoman] (1899)andMumtaz lsquoAlirsquosHuquqshye niswan [TheRightsofWomen](1898)

39

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

notabrandnewphenomenonasisevidentinGhazalirsquosworkwiththeEgyptianSocietyofMuslimLadiesinthe1930sYetfromEgypttoPaki-stantoSaudiArabiatotheUnitedStatesthenumberoffemaledalsquoiyashasproliferatedexponentially inrecentyears(Cooke2001Mahmood2005Hirschkind2006)Thisreflectsinpartcurrentdoctrinalempha-sesondalsquowaasincumbentuponbothmenandwomenanddependentlessupontechnicalknowledgethanmoralvirtueandpracticalfamiliaritywiththeIslamictradition(Mahmood200565ndash66)It isalsoaconse-quenceofrecentpoliticalandsocioeconomictransformationsinMuslimsocietiesincludingtheexpansionofmasseducationthathasnotonlyin-creasedwomenrsquosliteracyandsocialmobilitybutalsomadeIslamictextsmoreaccessibletheproliferationoftechnologiesmdashfromthecassettetapetotheInternetmdashthatfacilitatethecirculationofreligiousknowledgeevenamongthosewhocannotreadortraveltheprecedentsetbythevigorousparticipationof IranianwomeninpostrevolutiondebatesaboutIslamandthemodeloflegalactivismevidentintheIslamistmovementrsquosownchallenge to the lsquoulamarsquos status as gatekeepers of religious knowledge(Singerman2005Mir-Hosseini1999)

If Ghazali and Yassine exemplify the feminization of dalsquowa amongelitesthemosquemovementinEgyptillustratesthegrowingparticipa-tionofwomenfromdiversesocialbackgroundsinreligiousclassesde-votedtostudyinganddebatingwhatIslamrequiresforawomantobeldquomorallyuprightrdquointhecontemporaryworld(Mahmood2005)Con-ceptualizingpiety in termsof adeepandholistic commitment to self-transformationparticipantsinthemosquemovementareconcernedlesswithmattersofsovereigntyandpoliticsconventionallyunderstoodandmorewiththeldquomoralcultivationrdquoofthosedailypracticesseenascrucialtobecomingclosertoGod(Mahmood2005)SomeIslamistshavecriti-cizedthis focusonpracticesofworshipasapoliticalandoverlypriva-tizedyetsuchcriticismmissestheforceofIslamistsrsquoowninsistenceondin(religion)asawayoflifeinwhichthedomainsofpublicandprivateare inextricably linked26AsSabaMahmood (2005193194) showsthesewomenrsquosintenseeffortsatldquoretrainingethicalsensibilitiesrdquohavealdquosociopoliticalforcerdquothatextendswellbeyondmattersofgovernancefacilitatingnolessthantheemergenceofaldquonewsocialandmoralorderrdquoEvidenceofitstransformativepowermaybefoundnotonlyinthesheernumbersandvarietyofwomenmdashwealthyandpoor literateand illiter-atemdashparticipatinginthemosquemovementbutalsointherhetoricalandpoliticaleffortsbythestateandsomeIslamiststocurtailcontrolordis-creditit(Mahmood200571194)

26ParticipantsinthemosquemovementinturnareoftencriticalofwhattheyseeasthereductionofIslamtotokensofculturalauthenticityorofitsinstrumentalizationbybothnationalistsandIslamiststheycharacterizeasmoreinterestedinpoliticalmaneuveringthanreligiouspiety

40

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

Understoodtoincludebothwrittenandembodiedpracticesthefemi-nizationof dalsquowa illustrates theways inwhichwomen fromdifferentperspectivesandsocialclassesareinsistingonengagingthesacredtextsdirectly for and with one another without the mediating authority ofmenwhohavetraditionallyheldthemonopolyonsuchactivitiesAsSu-danese Islamist Lubabah al-Fadl argues ldquoAs an insan [human being]whohappenstobeawomanIhavearighttorejectthemanipulativeexegesesofoursharilsquoa thatthreatenmyexistenceinawaythat isnotconsistentwiththeGodlywayandtoapplymyownijtihadtorectifyer-roneoustendenciesbysomeshuyukh[pluralofshaykh]rdquo(Sadiki2004290)DespitetheproliferationofvoicesintentonclaimingforthemselvestheauthoritytodemarcatewhatisauthenticallyIslamicandun-Islamiconceandforallcontestationoveritsscopeandmeaningproceedsapacefacilitatedatleastinpartbywomenformerlyexcludedfromtheconver-sationAtthesametimeIslamistwomenrsquosagencyandclaimstoauthorityarefrequentlystillpredicatedonawillingnesstofollowfairlypatriarchalrulesaboutwherehowandwithwhomtheymaypracticetheirvocation(Hirschkind2003Sadiki2004283)

Islamism and Violence

IfgenderisfrequentlyanimplicitpreoccupationamongIslamistsjihadisarguably Islamistsrsquomost consistently explicit concern Jihad is derivedfromtheArabicverbthatmeanstostruggleortostriveyetitisaparticu-larkindofstruggle that isofconcern tomanyof thefigurescollectedheretheoftenviolentstruggleagainstapostatesandinfidelsbothathomeandabroadtowhicheveryindividualMuslimmustcontributeTheclaimthatfightingunbelieversisthepreeminentenactmentofindividualMus-limpiety seems to justify characterizationsof Islam ingeneral and Is-lamisminparticularassanctioningevenencouragingviolenceYetwhatIslamistsrepresentasjihadtout courtisahistoricallyspecificunderstand-ingderivedfromahighlyselectiveuseoftextsandprecedentsprominentamongthemaformerlyobscureclaimbytheinfluentialfourteenth-cen-tury jurist IbnTaymiyya thatMongol rulerswhohad contravened Is-lamiclawcouldbesubjecttoforcibleremovalFarfromadefinitiveex-pressionof Islamldquoproperlyunderstoodrdquo such Islamist argumentsnotonlymarkasignificantdeparturefrommuchofantecedentdoctrineandpractice but also diminish the importance of ongoing disagreementsamongMuslimsabouttheformandpurposesofjihad

TobeginwithMuslimscholarshavetendedtoconsiderjihadagainstforeignenemiesafard kifaya(collectiveobligation)thatisadutyagroupofpeoplewithinthecommunitymayperformonbehalfoftherestandonethatpresupposesalegitimateMuslimleadertodeclareorleadthechargeJuristshavedistinguishedthisfromthefard lsquoayn(individualduty)thatmustbefulfilledbyeverysingleMuslimincasesofdefensivejihad

41

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

thatiswhentheummaisunderattackManyIslamistsincludedheretakeamuchlessnuancedviewofjihadAsamodeofpoliticalactionQutbarguesjihadmustberegardedasaldquopermanentconditionnotanocca-sionalconcernrdquoonethatincurrentcircumstancesrequiresdeedsratherthanwordsstruggleratherthancontemplationrevolutionathomeaswellasresistanceabroad(Qutb199167ndash6882)lsquoAbdal-SalamFarajarguesalongsimilarlinesthatthenatureoftheattackonIslammakespolitical authorization by a caliph (ldquodeputyrdquo referring to a legitimatesuccessortotheProphetrsquosleadership)unnecessaryafterallldquoleadershipovertheMuslimsis(always)intheirownhandsifonlytheymakethismanifestIfthereissomethinglackingintheleadershipwellthereisnothingthatcannotbeacquiredrdquo(Jansen1986asec93)

SuchargumentsareadeliberaterejectionofearlyMuslimmodernistswhohademphasizedthelargelydefensivecharacterofjihadandsoughttoshowthatrelationsbetweenMuslimsandnon-MuslimswerenormallypeacefulratherthanantagonisticMahmudShaltut(d1963)therectorof al-Azhar from 1958 to 1963 had argued for example that theQurrsquoanicversesonfightingldquoprohibittheprovocationofhostilityandthisprohibitionisreinforcedbyGodrsquosrepugnancetoaggressionandbyhisdislikeofthosewhoprovokehostilityrdquo(Peters199674onShaltutseeZebiri1993)ConversionbyforceisanathematoIslamShaltutaversandfightingiscommandedonlyindefenseinresponsetoaggressionini-tiatedbyothersEvendefensivejihadmustaimatldquotheterminationoftheaggressionandtheestablishmentofreligiouslibertydevotedtoGodandfreefromanypressureorforcerdquo(Peters199675)

ManyIslamistsexplicitlydismisssuchargumentsasasymptomoffalseconsciousnessoneamongmanydestructiveeffectsofcolonialdomina-tionMawdudiargues for example thatwhile imperialists ravage theworld to satisfy their greed jihad alone ldquoconjures up the vision of amarching band of religious fanatics with savage beards and fiery eyesbrandishingdrawnswordsandattackingtheinfidelswherevertheymeetthemrdquoHavinginternalizedthis imageMuslimsrushtoapologizeandrenouncearmedstruggleInthiswayhelamentscolonialistsretaintheexclusiverighttoldquofightwitharmsandammunitionwhilewearecon-tented with our pen and our tonguerdquo (Mawdudi 1948 1ndash3) SayyidQutbforhispartagreedthatIslamdoesnotcountenancespreadingitsmessagebyforceandcoercionyethehadlittlepatiencewiththosewhosoughttopresentjihadaslegitimateonlyinself-defense

IfweinsistoncallingIslamicjihadadefensivemovementthenwemustchangethemeaningofthewordldquodefenserdquoandmeanbyitldquothedefenseofmanrdquoagainstallthoseforcesthatlimithisfreedomWhenwetakethisbroadmeaningofthewordldquodefenserdquoweunder-standthetruecharacterofIslaminthatitproclaimstheuniversalfreedomofeverypersonandcommunityfromservitudetoanyother

42

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

individualorsocietytheendofmanrsquosarroganceandselfishnesstheestablishmentofthesovereigntyofAllahandHisLordshipthrough-outtheworldandtheruleofthedivinesharilsquoainhumanaffairs(Qutb199050)

Qutbdoesnotnameanynamesincastigatingtheldquowriterswithdefeatistandapologeticmentalities[who]writeaboutlsquojihadinIslamrsquoandtrytoremovethislsquoblotrsquofromIslamrdquo(Qutb199046)buthecouldverywellhavehadhisdistinguishedfellowEgyptianMahmudShaltutinmind

These arguments about jihad may be said to constitute a commongrammarandframeworkofanalysisformanyIslamistsalthoughseveralthinkers in this volume carefully calibrate such claims to suit variouspurposesanddifferentpublicspheresInhisjustificationfortheassassi-nationofEgyptianpresidentAnwaral-SadatforexamplelsquoAbdal-SalamFarajdepictsthestruggletoreclaimthemoralfoundationsoftheEgyp-tianstateasafightagainstjahiliyyafromwithinarguingthatthejihadagainstacorruptnationalistregimeathomemusttakeprecedenceoverfightingenemieselsewhereTheCharterofHamas(seechapter15)how-everinsiststhatallMuslimsrecognizetheprimacyofthejihadforJeru-salemweldingIslamistrhetorictothatofnationalistresistanceinanef-fortbothtofightIsraelioccupationandtocompeteforadherentswiththePalestinianLiberationOrganization(PLO)IncontrasttobothFarajandHamasBinLadenembracesaglobaljihadthatessentiallycollapsesdistinctionsbetweennationalandinternationaloffensiveanddefensivefightingenemiesathomeandthosefromafar

Yet despite such differences these arguments tend to presume thatviolent jihad is a necessary response to the pervasive power of thosewithdemonstratedhostilitytoMuslimliveslandspietiesandsensibili-tiesaformofretaliationwhoseurgencyandlegitimacyderivefromtheviolencemdashpsychologicalandeconomicaswellasphysicalmdashoftheinitialassaultThisviewofjihadsubsumesindividualsintoarchetypesofldquoin-fidelsrdquoandldquobelieversrdquoandinsodoingvitiatesmoreconventionaldis-tinctionsbetweenforexamplesoldierandcivilianorcollectiveandin-dividual responsibility It is far from inevitable that thosewhoharborsuchviewswillautomaticallyactuponthemyetthecarnagewroughtbytheattacksontheWorldTradeCenterandthePentagonin2001aBalinightclub in 2002 Madrid commuter trains in 2004 and throughoutIraqonadailybasissuggestjusthowlethalsuchclaimscanbegiventheright circumstances The fact that such violence does not discriminateamongvictimsonlyfurtherfuelsrhetoriccharacterizingIslamistsasirra-tional fanatics ldquoin love with deathrdquo terrorists animated by a religioncharacterizedbyapropensityforviolenceandauthoritarianism27

27AnxietiesabouttheparticularsusceptibilityofMuslimstoirrationalityinsularityandfanaticismhavealonganddistinguishedpedigreeinEuro-AmericanhistoryandpoliticalthoughtSeeforexampleRenan18833

43

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

AsinsomanyothermattershoweverIslamistsarehardlyofonemindonthesubjectofjihadindeedthereareIslamistswhoexplicitlyrejectthereductionof struggle toviolenceAcase inpoint isNadiaYassine(20032005c)whoinsiststhatjihadisthededicatedstruggleagainstisshytikbar(arrogance)particularlyinitscommonformasthelustforpoweranddominationAsjihadagainstistikbarisbothafinalgoalandapre-scriptionforactionYassinesuggestsitisantitheticaltoviolentpracticesthataimatdominationTheprimaryinstrumentsofjihadarenotbombsbutwords particularly thosedeployed in the art of persuasion (Fara-marzi2005NYassine2006a)WhenIslamistssuchaslsquoAbdal-SalamFarajandlsquoUmarlsquoAbdal-RahmanseektolegitimizeviolentrevolutionbyrecoursetoIslamictextsshearguestheycontravenethetruemeaningofjihadtoservetheirownarrogantendsBythesametokenBinLadenrsquosdecisiontoldquofightevilwithevilandbarbaritywithbarbarityrdquonotonlyviolatesspecificIslamicprohibitionsagainstharmingcivilianswomenandchildrenbutalsobetraystheethicalimperativetoembodythemes-sageofamercifulGodwhocautionsbelieversthat(Q8822)ldquoYouhavenopoweroverthemrdquo(NYassine2005cDaily Excelsior2002)

SuchpersistentdisagreementsamongMuslimspastandpresentsug-gest that Islam isnomore inherently violent andbloody-minded thanitmdashorChristianityor Judaism for thatmattermdashis inherentlypeacefulIslamists often claim to speak for an unchanging authentic Islam thatexistsoutsideoftimeandspaceyetthepoliticalpurchaseoftheirper-spective derives from the ways it assembles disparate yet recognizablecontemporaryexperiencesofsufferingfrustrationandlossintoanex-planationthatresonateswithMuslimswholiveincommunitiescultur-allylinguisticallyandgeographicallydistantfromoneanotherTheex-tenttowhichIslamistargumentsresonatebroadlyacrossMuslimsocie-tiesthusdependsuponasetofexperiencesandphenomenathatmarkthisparticularmomentinhistoryincludingthewaysinwhichcontempo-raryglobalinequalitiescompoundalegacyofhistoricalasymmetriestocontinuallyreproduceasenseofMuslimpowerlessnessmdashbothrealandimaginedmdashrelativetotheWestcontinuingEuro-Americanpoliticalandfinancialsupportofcorruptautocratsmanyofwhompresideoverna-tion-statesbrutallystitchedtogetherbyWesternfiat thepersistenceofauthoritarian regimes eager to control domestic unrest by catalyzingldquoMuslimragerdquotowardexternaltargetsthesenseofemasculationpro-ducedbydecadesofpoliticalrepressionandeconomicfrustrationandthecontinualflowofimagesofbloodiedMuslimbodiesdeliveredbyaburgeoningarrayofvideosatelliteandelectronicmedia

It is notable that the understanding of jihad many Islamists proffermirrorstheverystate-sanctionedviolenceagainstwhichtheyhavestrug-gledforalmostacenturyAlongwiththousandsofMuslimscaughtinthemachineryoftwentieth-centurystateviolenceprominentIslamistsfromQutbtoGhazalitoAymanal-Zawahirimdashal-Qalsquoidarsquossecondincommandmdash

44

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

arewellknowntohavebeenradicalizedbyextendedandoftenbrutaltermsofincarcerationinEgyptSyriaIraqJordanIsraelAlgeriaandelsewhere(onal-ZawahiriandprisoncfKepelandMilelli2008152ndash54)ItisthusfarfromsurprisingthatIslamistsforgedbyinterrogationtortureinprisoncampswouldconcludethatthepreeminentenactmentofMuslimpietyisviolentstruggleldquoPrisonrdquoasPalestinianKhaledAbuHilalhassaidldquoismyuniversityrdquo(Erlanger2007)anargumentmadeingreaterdetailinadifferenttimeandplacebyRussianwriterandrevolu-tionaryMaximGorky(1868ndash1936)

Apeoplebroughtupinaschoolthatremindsoneofthetormentsofhellonasmallscaleapeopleaccustomedtotheclenched-fistprisonandthewhipwillnotbeblestwithatenderheartApeoplethatthepoliceagentshaveriddenoverwillbecapableintheirturnofwalk-ingoverthebodiesofothersInacountrywhereunresthasreignedsolongit isdifficultforthepeopletorealizefromonedaytothenextthepowerofrightOnecannotdemandfromamanwhohasneverknownjusticethatheshouldbejust(Gorky1920)

InthiscontextasTimothyMitchell(1990195ndash96199207ndash8)suggestsIslamistviewsoftheworldcanbecharacterizedasbothamodeofresis-tancetostatemechanismsofcoercionandanexpressionofthemSuchisthedynamic evident inGhazalirsquosmemoirs for examplewhen shede-scribeshowtheldquodarknessofprisonsthebladesoftortureandthevi-ciousbeatingsonly increasetheenduranceandresolveofthefaithfulrdquo(Ghazali19786)

There is no doubt a great deal of pragmatism at work in IslamistargumentsaboutviolenceAsQutb(19916447ndash48)drylynotesthepathtofreedommustoccasionallybehewnbywayoftheswordbecausetyrants are not reasoned out of power and ldquojahiliyya is not lsquoabstracttheoryrsquo[it]consciouslyorunconsciouslystrivestopreserveitsownexistence to defend its essence to annihilate dangerous elementswhichthreatenitsverybeingrdquoYetitisalsothecasethatformanyoftheseIslamistsjihadisbothameansandanendanefforttoeradicatethoseobstacles torestoringa justcommunityonearththatsimultane-ouslybringshumanaction intoaccordwithGodrsquosplansandpurposes(Haddad198321)While theQurrsquoan (2256) states thatldquothere isnocompulsioninreligionrdquoIslamistscontendthatonlyinastateinwhichIslamiclawreignssupremearehumanbeingsfreefromenslavementtooneanotherrsquosruleandallareequalbyvirtueoftheircommonsubmissiontoGodAsQutb(1991107ndash8)argues

WhenthehighestauthorityinsocietyisGodalonemdashexpressedintheruleofdivinelawmdashonlythenishumanitytrulyandcompletelyliber-atedfromslaverytomenOnlythisisldquohumancivilizationrdquobecausetheessentialfoundationofhumancivilizationisthetrueandcom-

45

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

pletefreedomofhumanityandtheabsolutedignityofeveryindivid-ualinsocietyThereisnotruefreedomanddignityforhumanityortheindividualinasocietywheresomepeoplearelordswholegislateandothersareslaveswhoobey

From this perspective the realization of justice liberty equality andchoiceitselfnecessitatestheforcibleremovaloftheconstraintsimposedbyjahiliyyaalongwiththosewhoaidandabetitno matter the costAsMawdudi(1954160ndash61)writes

[W]hyisitthatinreligionsuchimportanceisgiventojihadthattheQurrsquoanpronouncesthejudgmentofhypocrisyuponthosewhoshirkandevadeitJihadisbutanothernamefortheattempttoerectthesystemoftruthandtheQurrsquoandeclaresjihadtobeatouchstoneonthesamefootingwithamanrsquosfaithInotherwordshewhohasfaithinhisheartwillneitherbecontentwiththedominationofthesystemofevilnorwillhegrudgetheexpenditureoflifeandwealthinthestruggleforerectingthesystemoftruthIfoneshowsweaknessinthismatterhisfaithitselfisdoubtfulWhatcananythingelsebesidethenprofithimThemanwhoprofesses faith in this religioncannotfulfillhisdutyonlybytryingasfaraspossibletopatternhislifeonIslamThenatureofhisfaithitselfrequiresthatheshouldconcentrateallhiseffortuponwrestingleadershipfromunbelievingandcorruptmentoentrustittotherighteousanduponerectingthesystemoftruththathasbeenordainedfortheconductoftheworldaccordingtothewillofGodBecausethisendisunattainablewith-out thehighestdegreeofcollectiveeffort theremustexistarigh-teouscommunitycommittedtotheprincipleoftruthanddevotedtothesolepurposeintheworldoferectingmaintainingandproperlyrealizingthesystemoftruth

ThefactthatsomeIslamistthinkerssanctifyviolentstruggleinsuchtermsdoesnotmeanofcoursethatallthosewhoadvocateorengageinjihadendorseviolence28NordoesitimplythatthosewhoclaimtokillforIslamareentirelywithoutulteriormotivesthosemanipulativepur-poses andpsychologicalmotivations that even themost rarified scrip-turalargumentscanexpressorserveWhattheprecedinganalysisdoessuggesthoweveristhatthereductionofthisviewofjihadtoirrationalbloodlusttheself-interestedgrabfortemporalpoweroradoorthroughwhichtopassintothehereaftermissesacrucialdimensionofitssignifi-canceandappealfortruebelieversjihadisnolessthananenactmentof

28EvenashespokeofaneweraofjahiliyyaandofjihadMawdudihimselfstoppedwellshortof recommendingor condoning the actual resort to violence in themannermanyotherIslamistsdidAsNasr(199670)observesMawdudirsquosorganizationtheJamalsquoat-iIs-lamildquohasavoidedviolentsocialchangeandhasinsteadviewedthepathtotheIslamicstateaslyingwithintheexistingsociopoliticalorderrdquoAlsoseethechapters5and3onQutbandMawdudiinthisvolume

46

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

adivineimperativetoremakethefoundationsofcollectivelifeInthisre-spectIslamistviewsofjihadcanbeseenaspartofalong-standingasso-ciationbetweenviolenceandpoliticalfoundingsuponwhichnoparticu-larcultureorhistoricalepochhasamonopolyThisassociationandtheldquolegacyofviolencerdquoitbequeathstofuturegenerationsarenolessappar-entinthoseradicalrevolutionsofrenewalthatmovebywayoftheswordfromthemarginstothecenterthanthosepoliticalfoundingsthatclaimtocreatesomethingoutofnothing(Connolly1995251)Ineithercasethetollofsuchbrutalitycanbeimmeasurableforinadditiontothevic-timswhosufferdirectlytheldquopracticeofviolencelikeallactionchangestheworldbutthemostprobablechangeistoamoreviolentworldrdquo(Ar-endt1972177)

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Page 23: Chapter 1 INTRODUCTION - assets.press.princeton.eduassets.press.princeton.edu/chapters/s9067.pdf · Chapter 1 INTRODUCTION This volume is intended as a broad introduction to the evolution

23

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

chapter 9 on Qaradawi) And Saudi Salafis like Safar al-Hawali andSalmanal-lsquoAwdamdashwhocame toprominence in the early1990smdashhavealternatedbetweencriticismoftheSaudipoliciesanddenunciationsofradicalSalaficallstojihadagainsttheSaudiregime(seeal-Rasheed200759ndash101onal-HawalialsoseeReichmuth2006)Theirshiftingviewsreflect changes in their relations with the Saudi regime but they alsopointtothebroadspectrumofpositionswhichSalafishavetakenatdif-ferenttimesindifferentcontextsandbeforedifferentaudiencesThusevenasal-Hawaliandal-lsquoAwdahavecondemnedterroristactsdirectedagainstSaudiArabiaandadvisedSaudisnottofightAmericantroopsinpostndashSaddamHusseinIraqtheyhavecalledupontheIraqisthemselvestoresistAmericantroopsandhavecharacterizedthateffortasaldquodefen-sivejihadrdquo(al-Rasheed200794ndash95)

Sufi s and Islamists

ItseemsmuchsimpleronthefaceofittodistinguishbetweenIslamistsandSufisThecharacteristicSuficonvictionthattherearelevelsofmean-ingintheQurrsquoanthatgobeyondtheliteralandtheobviousandthataselectfewmdashtheldquofriendsofGodrdquomdashareendowedwiththeuniqueabilityto discern them is anathema to all those who insist that God intendsHisteachingstobeequallyintelligibletoallDespitetheirtendencytoviewthemselvesasbearersof true Islam Islamists typicallyregard theSufi idea that somepeoplehaveaprivileged relationshipwithGodassuspectthebasisnotonlyforsanctioninginterpretationsofIslamthatlackwarrantintheplainteachingsofGodandtheProphetbutalsoforpracticallyldquoworshipingrdquothesefriendsofGodIslamists(andmodernists)havefrequentlyalsobeencriticalofthewaySufidevotionalismcanyieldaturningawayfromtheworldratherthananefforttochangeitaswellasapreoccupationwithpersonalspiritualtransformationattheexpenseofconcernsforthewelfareofthecommunityatlarge SufipracticesandtheteachingsoftheSufimastershavevariedenor-mouslythroughoutthehistoryofIslamyetIslamistcritiquesofSufismareseldomattentivetoitsnuancesortothecomplexwaysithasrelatedtootherfacetsofIslamNorhaveIslamiststakenmuchaccountofthefactthatmanyleadingfiguresofearliertimeswerebesidesmuchelseSufisaswellThisistrueevenofIbnTaymiyya(d1328)whoseprestigeinIslamistandSalaficirclesismatchedbyfewothersandwhowasinhisdayamemberoftheQadiriSufiorder(Makdisi1974)EvenifonearguesmdashasanIslamistmightbeinclinedtomdashthatldquogoodrdquoSufismisnoth-ingbutproperIslamitselftheveryfactthatsuchfigureshadaSufiiden-tityatallnecessarilycomplicateswhatissupposedtobethepristinesim-plicityofafaithsharedequallybyallbelievers

Complicatingthingsstillfurtheristhevarietyofwaysinwhichsomeleading Islamists relate to Sufism Ayatollah Khomeini was a lifelongstudentofIslamicmysticismandtheinfluenceofthemedievalSpanish

24

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INTRODUCTION

Sufi Ibn lsquoArabi loomed especially large in his thought To Khomeinimysticismmdashoften referred to as lsquoirfan (gnosis) especially when inter-twinedwithIslamicphilosophyandtheology(Knysh1992632)mdashwascrucialtoaproperunderstandingofGodrsquosrelationshipwiththeworldandwiththehumanbeingItwasalsoessentialforonersquosethicalforma-tionforamasteryovertheselfandultimatelyforrealizinginoneselftheattributesofwhat Ibn lsquoArabihadcalledldquotheperfectmanrdquo (cfKnysh1992 635 also Mottahedeh 1985 180ndash85) Some of the austerity ofKhomeinirsquospersonallifeprobablyalsoderivedfromSufiasceticismAndthoughheanchoredhisconceptionofIslamicgovernmentinanexposi-tionofShilsquoijuridicalthoughtratherthaninIslamicmysticismthesortofreligiousauthorityhecametoenjoyonthebasisofhisreformulationofShilsquoipoliticaltheologyseemstoechomysticalideasoftheperfectmanwho embodies and upholds the moral order as the microcosm of theuniverse

UnlikeKhomeiniQutbwasnotaSufiandhegivesnoindicationofsharinganyofKhomeinirsquosenthusiasmforthegreatSufithinkersofear-liertimesEvensoechoesofamysticrsquosdirectencounterwiththefoun-tainheadoftruthandknowledgearehardtomissinQutbrsquoswritingses-peciallyinhiscommentaryontheQurrsquoan(cfCarreacute200395ndash97)TheveryfirstsentenceofhiscommentarymdashldquolifeintheshadeoftheQurrsquoanisablessingunknowntoanyonewhohasnrsquottasteditrdquomdashevokesthefa-miliarSufiideathatincontrovertibleknowledgeofRealityisultimatelyacquired only through direct personal experience (dhawq that is theldquotasterdquooftheTruth)ThegreatmedievalSufial-Ghazali(d1111)hadauthoredafamousautobiographicalaccountofhowitwasonlythroughthe immediacyofhispersonalmysticalexperience thathewasable toovercomehisdebilitatingepistemologicaldoubtsandreassurehimselfofthenecessarytruths(Watt199857)QutbdoesnotmentionGhazaliinthiscontextbutitisdifficultnottobestruckbythemysticalresonanceofsomeofhislanguageHereisoneexamplewhichoccursinhiscom-mentaryonsura(chapter)53oftheQurrsquoan16

16TheearlyversesinthissuraoftheQurrsquoanhavebeenunderstoodbyMuslimexegetesasreferringtotheProphetrsquosrevelatoryexperienceaswellastohisldquonightjourneyrdquoandhisascensiontoheavenormilsquoraj inthecourseofonenighthewastransportedfirstfromMeccatoJerusalemandthentothepresenceofGodbeforebeingreturnedtoMecca

UnrelatedtothenightjourneybutrelatedtohisrevelatoryexperiencestheexegeticalsignificanceofthisQurrsquoanicsuraalsoliesinitsconnectionwiththeso-calledSatanicVersesAccordingtocertainexegeticalreportsMuhammadwasinthecourseofreceivingarevela-tionwhenSataninterpolatedsomeversesintoitmdashversespraisingthreegoddessesreveredbythepolytheistsofMeccaItwasnotuntilsometimelaterthatMuhammadrealizedhiserrorwhereupontheversesinterpolatedbySatanwereremovedTheepisodeoftheldquoSa-tanicVersesrdquohasbeenacontroversialoneinIslamichistorylongbeforeSalmanRushdiersquosnovelofthatnameandKhomeinirsquosjuridicalruling(fatwa)callingforRushdiersquosdeathMostMuslimscholarshavefoundittooshockingtobelievethattheProphetcouldhavemadesuchagrievouserrorandhavedeniedthatanysuch incidentever tookplaceYetsome

25

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INTRODUCTION

IwaschattingoneeveningwithsomecompanionswhentoourearscamethesoundofsomeonerecitingtheQurrsquoannearbyrecitingtheSuraoftheStar[al-Najm]andweinterruptedourconversationtolistentotheNobleQurrsquoanLittlebylittlemyheartenteredintowhatwasbeing recited into theheartofMuhammadashe jour-neyedtotheHeavenlyHostIwaswithhimashesawGabrielintheangelicforminwhichGodhadcreatedhimIwaswithhiminhis loftyandfree-flying journey to theLoteTreeof theBoundaryandtheGardenoftheRefugeIwaswithhimtotheextentthatmyimaginationcouldformavisionofitandtotheextentthatmyfeelings couldbear itThen came the final cry andmywholebeingshookatthefearfulreproachldquoDoyoumarvelatthisdiscourseanddoyoulaughandnotweepandmakemerryrdquo[Q5359ndash61]WhenIheardldquoBowdownbeforeGodandserveHimrdquo[Q5362]thetremblinginmyhearthadbecomeaphysicalandvisibletremblingthroughoutmybodythatIcouldnotresistMybodykeptshakingandIcouldnotcontrolitNorcouldIholdbackthetearsthatwerepouringforthhowevermuchItried(QutbZilalvol7part2774ndash75quotedfromCarreacute2003333ndash34withminorchanges)

TheQurrsquoanrsquosprofoundimpactontheaestheticsensibilitiesofitslisten-ersisafamiliarmotifindiscussionsofitsliteraryqualities(cfGrahamandKermani2006)AssomeonewhoseearlywritingswereconcernedwithArabicliterarycriticismandspecificallywiththeliteraryexcellenceoftheIslamicscripture(Qutb1949b)QutbwasespeciallyreceptivetothisaspectoftheQurrsquoanThesenseofbeingtransportedbacktothetimeoftheProphetandtowitnessingtheProphetrsquosascension(milsquoraj)tothepresence of Godmdashwhich is how the passage being commented on byQutbherehascommonlybeeninterpretedbytheexegetesmdashcanlikewisebeseenasanillustrationoftheoverpoweringimpactthewordsoftheQurrsquoancanhaveonthebelieverQutbrsquosaccountofconversingwithGodthrough the Qurrsquoan (cited earlier) is again something he may havewantedtoseeallbelieversdoYetallbelieverscanscarcelydosoany-morethanallaspirantsevenontheSufipathcanexperiencethetransfor-mativemysticalldquostatesrdquothatGodbestowsonHisspecialfriends(awlshyiya)IrrespectiveofwhetherhesawitinquitethiswayQutbrsquosassertionthatheisabletoenterldquointotheheartofMuhammadrdquoandtoseeGabrielasMuhammad sawhimsurelygiveshimaperspective thatothers en-counteringthewordofGoddonothave

ThepointisnotofcoursethatQutbwaseverrecognizedbyhisfol-lowersasaSufimasterbutthatsomeofthehermeneuticalauthorityheclaimshasadistinctiveSufiringtoitMorebroadlythesortofunques-

leadingscholarsofearlyandmedievalIslammdashincludingIbnTaymiyyamdashacceptedthehisto-ricityofthisincidentSeeSAhmed1998

26

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INTRODUCTION

tioningreligio-politicalauthorityIslamistleadershaveoftenenjoyedovertheirfollowersisnotunlikethatoftheSufimasteroverhisfollowersBe-ginningwithHasanal-BannathefounderoftheMuslimBrotherhoodandoncehimselfamemberofaSufiordertheleaderofthisorganizationis formally referred to as themurshid (guide)ormore specificallyalshymurshid alshylsquoam (thegeneralguide[RMitchell1993165])whichisafamiliartermforthemasterinSuficontextsForhispartAbdessalamYassine the founder and leader of lsquoAdl warsquol-Ihsan Party of Morocco(oftenreferredtoastheJusticeandSpiritualityAssociationorJSA)haslike Khomeini gone well beyond simply echoing Sufi conceptions ofauthorityinhisowndiscoursesHetoowasonceamemberofaMoroc-canSufiorderandhehascontinuedtodrawonSufithemesinhiswrit-ingsTheverynameofYassinersquospoliticalorganizationevokesacentralSufiideanamelyihsanThisisaQurrsquoanicterm(cfQ756)thattrans-latedliterallymeansldquotodogoodrdquothoughSufishaveunderstoodittomeanmuchmore thanthatFollowingawell-knownstatementattrib-uted to theProphetMuhammad theyhaveoften interpreted ihsan tomeangoingbeyondtheexternalsofIslamicritualpracticestoldquoworshipGodasifyouseeHimrdquo(Schimmel197529)thatiscultivatingasenseof personal communion and intimacy with God Even as Yassine hassoughttodistancehimselffromwhathedeemstobetheexcessesofSu-fismthereislittledoubtthathispoliticalappealowesmuchtocarefullycalibratedeffortstocombinedistinctiveSufiideaswithhisownbrandofIslamism(cfLauziegravere2005seealsochapter12onNadiaYassineinthisvolume)

FinallyMawdudirsquosJamalsquoat-iIslamimdashoneoftheearliestIslamistorga-nizations in the Sunni worldmdashillustrates both the Islamistsrsquo complexrelationshipwith Sufismand their pragmatic recognitionof its appealinmanyMuslimsocietiesMawdudihadoncebeenaharshcriticofSu-fismblamingitformanyillsafflictingMuslimsocietiesYettheJama-lsquoat-iIslamigraduallycametosoftenitsstanceonSufipracticesconsider-ablynodoubtintheinterestofbroadeningsomeofitssupportbaseinPakistanwheresaintsandSufishrinesareanimportantpartofthereli-giousandpoliticallandscapeAlreadyinMawdudirsquoslifetimeMianTufaylMuhammadhissuccessorastheheadoftheJamalsquoat-iIslamihadtakentheextraordinaryinitiativeoftranslatinganearlySuficlassictheKashf alshymahjub into Urdu The author of this work Shaykh lsquoAli Hujwiri(d1072)isburiedinLahoreinPakistanandhismuch-frequentedshrineishometoprecisely thesortofdevotionalpractices that Islamistsandmodernist reformers letaloneSalafishaveoften frownedupon (Nasr1996124)

ThesediverseexamplesarenotintendedtoobscuretherealdifferencesbetweenthegeneralityofIslamistsandmostSufisTheirsignificanceliesratherinillustratingthedifficultyofdistinguishingbetweenIslamismandotherreligiousintellectualandpoliticaltrendsintermsofneatcharac-

27

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INTRODUCTION

terizationsofgrandtranslocalgeneralizationsAstheforegoingsuggeststhesameistrueandmoresowhenitcomestocharacterizingIslamistsinrelationtothelsquoulamatheMuslimmodernistsandtheSalafisIndeedasLorenLybargerhasarguedwithreferencetothoseusuallycharacter-izedasldquosecularnationalistrdquoorldquoIslamistrdquoPalestiniansintheWestBankandGazadifferenceswithintheranksofyoungsecularnationalistsandIslamistscansometimesalsoshadeintosignificantsimilaritiesbetweenthesesupposedlyrivalorientations(Lybarger2007)ManyIslamistshavesoughttodistancethemselvesfromwhattheyseeastherigidityandau-thoritarianismofotherIslamistsandtoarguenotjustfortheimplemen-tationofthesharilsquoabutalsofordemocracyandpluralismConverselynot a few of the younger secular nationalists have ldquoadopted IslamisttheodiciesthatexplainedthefailuretoovercomeIsraelastheresultoffallingawayfrompietytheirconclusionsmirroredIslamistonestootheroadbackfromthebrinkhadtotraceitscoursethrougharenewedcom-mitmenttoIslambutnotnecessarilyinthemannerthattheIslamistmove-mentsmighthaveintendedrdquo(Lybarger2007237ndash38quotationat238)

Yet ifneatcategoriesremainelusiveacombinationoftheIslamistsrsquoself-consciouslypoliticalgoalstheirmultifacetedifnotalwaysexplicitpoliticalcritiquesofmanypastandpresentwaysofunderstandingandlivingIslamandanunshakeableconfidenceintheirownabilitytodis-cern Godrsquos will from the foundational texts do often provide enoughgrounds tobroadlydistinguish themfromotheractivists intellectualsand orientations in the Muslim public sphere What this combinationamountstovariesfromonesocialpoliticalreligiousandculturalcon-texttoanotherandsothereforedothewaysinwhichIslamistsrelatetooneanotherorcompeteandoverlapwithothergroupsandorientations

The Politics of Islamism

FromAeneasrsquosmythicalfoundingofRometothedeathandresurrectionofJesusChristtoMuhammadrsquosmigrationtoMedinafoundationalnar-rativesareascommontocollectivelifeasthemovementsthatperiodi-callyarisetorevivethemandclaimantstothemantleoflegitimacytheyconferSounderstoodIslamistsrsquopoliticalaspirationstorestorefounda-tionslocatedinamythicalpastarefarfromuniqueNorareIslamistsaloneintheirconvictionthatscripturalauthorityisguaranteedbyitsdi-vineauthormdashforinthatallMuslimsagreeRatherthechaptersinthisvolumesuggest thatwhatmakes Islamistpoliticsdistinctive (ifnotsui generis)istheclaimtorecuperateanldquoauthenticIslamrdquocomprisedofself-evidenttruthspurgedofalienandcorruptinginfluencesalongwithaninsistenceonremakingthefoundationsofthestateinitsimageGiventhelimitsofhumanunderstandingrelativetoGodrsquosknowledgeIslamistssimultaneouslydepictsuchfidelitytotheunadulteratedwordofAllahas

28

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INTRODUCTION

theultimateexpressionofdeferencetodivineomniscienceandportrayhumilityasaconstitutivefeatureofthehumanconditionAspirationstofullyknowandmasterthenaturalandsocialworldsthusentailnotonlyahumanhubrisdeaftotheQurrsquoanicadmonitionthatldquoAllahknowsbutandyoudonotknowrdquo(Q366)butalsoatransgressionagainstadi-vinely-ordainedontologicalorder

ItisnotablehoweverthattheIslamistemphasisonthelimitsofhumanknowledgerequireshumilityonlyinrelationtoAllahitrarelyyieldshu-milityinregardtotheirownclaimstospeakinHisnameortowardotherhumanbeingswhodissentfromthepremiseofdivineomnipotenceandIslamistaccountsofwhat it requiresThis suggests thatwhile IslamistchallengestostatepowerareobviouslypoliticaltheIslamistclaimtoau-thenticityisalsopolitical inthecoercivepoweritroutinelyenactsandjustifiesmostnotablybywayofthesilencesitimposesandthedebatesitforeclosesAzizal-Azmehpointsoutthatldquothenotionofauthenticityisnotsomuchadeterminateconceptasitisanodeofassociationsandin-terpellationsatropebymeansofwhichthehistoricalworldisreducedtoaparticularorderandatokenwhichmarksoffsocialandpoliticalgroupsandforgesandreconstituteshistoricalidentitiesrdquo(al-Azmeh199341)WhetherintheserviceofArabnationalismChristianfundamental-ismEuropeanromanticismorMuslimmodernismtheclaimofauthen-ticityisanactofpowerthatfunctionsnotjusttoreflecttheworldbuttoconstructitbydeterminingwhoisincludedandexcludedwhomayandmaynotspeakauthoritativelywhatistheproperrealmofdebateandwhatisbeyondcontestation

ItiscertainlythecasethatasingleldquoIslamrdquocapturesandorganizestheperspectivesofmillionswhoself-identifyasMuslim(amongotherthings)yetwhattravelsunderitsrubricisinescapablydiversemultiethnicanddefined asmuchbydisagreement as consensus Just as theTorah andBible lend themselves toat times radicallydivergent interpretationsofwhatitmeanstobeJewishorChristiantheQurrsquoanandhaditharecom-plexandsusceptibletomanydifferentandattimescontradictoryenact-mentsSounderstoodIslamislessafixedessencethanalivingtraditionthatcaptureswhatisimaginedascontinuousandunitaryindialecticalrelationshiptothoseconcretearticulationsandpracticesbywhichitistransformedandadaptedindifferentcontextsforpluralpurposesItispreciselythisunderstandingofreligionthatisanathematoIslamistswhoseek tofix theparametersof Islamicauthenticityonceandforallandtherebyarrogateforthemselvestherighttodeterminewhoqualifiesasagood Muslim to discredit those lsquoulama unable or unwilling to purgeIslamofpurportedimpietiestodeclarenominallyMuslimrulersapos-tatesunfittogovernandtocharacterizeallwhodisagreeascorrupthe-reticalguiltyofunbelieforvictimsoffalseconsciousness

Thesegeneralpoliticaltendencieshowevermustbecarefullysituatedwithinadialecticoftheglobalandthevernacularunderstoodtoreflect

29

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INTRODUCTION

thewaysinwhichunifyingmacrohistoricaldynamicsinformandareinturntransformedbydiversecontingentandfluidlocalcircumstancesInaworldstampedbyWesterndominanceandtheconsolidationofpostco-lonial authoritarian regimes Islamists confront a common set of con-straintsandchallengesInasmuchassuchconstraintsandchallengeshavemade Islamist thinkers (often reluctant) participants in conversationsacrossbothcultureandhistorytheireffortstoremakethefoundationsofcollectiveliferevealasharedinterpretiveframeworkandcommonreli-gio-political grammar At the same time this frame and grammar arecontinuallybeingreworkedinrelationtothedistinctpublicspheresinwhichIslamistsoperateandtowhichtheycarefullycalibratetheirpoliti-calcommitments

Attention to this complex dynamic suggests that the Islamist move-mentcannotsimplybecharacterizedasviolentantidemocraticandop-pressiveofwomenlabelsinvokedsofrequentlyinscholarlyandpopularliterature on the subject that they have become virtually synonymouswithIslamistpoliticsSuchcharacterizationsdocapturecrucialdimen-sionsofIslamistpoliticsyettheyalsosidesteptheparadoxesitsvarie-gatedandoftencontradictoryexpressionspresentInsteadwearguethatIslamistpoliticscanbeproductivelyreadin terms ofandagainst the grain ofsuchbroadcategorizationsasantidemocraticantiwomanorviolentmdashthat is as commitments that at different moments in various localesbothencourageandconstrainbroad-basedpoliticalparticipationdisruptandratifyhierarchicalgendernormsresistandreproducestate-sanctionedbrutalityThepointofreadingIslamistpoliticsinthiswayisnottosug-gestthatIslamistsaresecretlydemocraticfeministandopposedtovio-lenceRatherthepointistodrawattentiontothecomplexityandcon-tradictionserasedbyeasygeneralizationsontheonehandandtheoftenunacknowledgedfluidityandculturaladaptabilityofotherwisefamiliarpoliticalcategoriesontheother

Islamism and Democracy

DespiteimportantdifferencesamongIslamistthinkerstheyhaveincom-monatendencytoviewhumansovereigntyastransgressiveofdivinelawandsharetheaspirationtoestablishsharilsquoaastheprimaryorsolesourceofauthorityAsisoftennotedsuchpremisesandaspirationsrunafoulofassumptionsaboutpopularruleattheheartofdemocracynamelythathumanbeingshavetherighttolegislaterulesforcollectivebehaviorandarecapableofthewisdomrequiredtodevisejustlawsInrecentyearspolicymakersandcommentatorshaveevincedaparticularpreoccupa-tionwiththewaysinwhichIslamistnotionsofdivineauthoritythrottlethespiritandpracticeofpopularsovereigntySomehaveevengonesofarastocharacterizeIslamistsasldquoIslamo-fascistsrdquoanimatedbyhatredoftheldquodemocratic Westrdquo psychologically unable to contend with the fluidity

30

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INTRODUCTION

andindeterminacythatmarkpopularruleandeagertoconvertelectionsintoaldquoone-manone-voteone-timerdquomechanismforestablishinganIs-lamicstate(Murdock2002MRubin2005Kramer1993)

SuchviewsareechoedbythoseIslamistskeentoportraydemocracynotonlyasantitheticaltothesupremacyofdivinelawbutasaTrojanhorseforWesternimperialismFormanyIslamistsincludingseveralinthis volumedemocracy is justone symptomofametastasizingmoralandspiritualbankruptcywherebymoraltransgressionsaretransfiguredintonaturalurgescrassself-interestbecomesthebedrockofcollectivelifeandthedivineplanfortheuniverseandallthingsinitisreducedtoa system of physical causality just waiting to be mastered by way ofhumaningenuity(REuben2007)Qutbcallsthisdiseasedviewoftheworldjahiliyyaanditsignalsnotonlyhumanarrogancebutatransgres-sionagainstdivineauthoritythescopeofwhichencompassesbothpub-licandprivatedomainsofhumanaffairsaswellasbothvisibleandun-seendimensionsoftheuniverseFormanyIslamistssuchtransgressionisattherootofmuchofwhatpassesforMuslimruleinthecontemporaryworldmdashnationalistdemocraticandmonarchicalalikeSucharroganceisalsosaidtobethepatternunderlyingalonghistoryofunrelievedWest-ernaggressionagainstIslaminwhichtheChristianCrusadesEuropeancolonialismIsraelitreatmentofPalestiniansethniccleansinginBosniaGermananti-TurkishviolencetheAmericaninvasionofIraqandDutchcartoonsofMuhammadarebutafewexamples

YetthereisarangeofviewsamongIslamistsaboutboththesubstanceofdemocracyanditscompatibilitywiththereligio-politicalrenewaltheyadvocateAccordingtoQaradawiforexampleldquotheessenceofdemoc-racyisthatpeoplechoosewhorulesoverthemandmanagestheiraf-fairsthatnorulerorregimetheydislikeisforceduponthemthattheyhavetherighttocalltherulertoaccountifheerrsandtoremovehimfromofficeincaseofmisconductandthatpeoplearenotforcedineco-nomicsocialculturalorpoliticaldirectionsthattheyneitherrecognizenor acceptrdquo (Qaradawi1997132 also chapter9 in this volume)TohimthereisnoheavierburdenoppressingMuslimsinthecontemporaryworld thandespotism indeed it is throughdespoticgovernments thatMuslimshavebeenforcedtosubmittootherillsincludingtheneglectofthesharilsquoaandthecoerciveimpositionofsecularismandwesternizationDemocracy then recommends itself to Qaradawi as the most effectiveavailableantidotetodespotismandtheafflictionsofwhichitservesasavehicle

WheremanyamongtheIslamistsandthelsquoulamahaveseenconsider-able tensionbetween IslamanddemocracyQaradawiprofesses to seenoneAswesuggestedearlierbyfarthemostcommonoftheIslamistreservationsaboutademocraticsystemrelatestothesovereigntyofthepeoplewhichistakentocontravenetheideathatGodaloneissovereignQaradawi however is unperturbedby such concernsThe rule of the

31

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INTRODUCTION

peopleoughttobeseenhearguesnotinoppositiontotheruleofGodbutratherinoppositiontotheruleofthedespotMorefundamentallyQaradawirsquos view of democracy does not necessarily require that thepeopleshouldbeabletooverturndivinelyinstitutednormsRatherhisassumptionisthatpeopleexercisetheirsovereigntywithinconstitutionalboundsandMuslimslivinginapredominantlyMuslimdemocraticpol-itywouldlikewisenotwishtotransgresstheparametersoflegitimatehumanactionlaiddownintheIslamicfoundationaltexts(seeQaradawichapter9inthisvolumeandcfFeldman2007)

NadiaYassineofMoroccorsquosJusticeandSpiritualityAssociationisan-othercaseinpointWhilecriticalofthedemocraticgesturesembracedbyamonarchythatshedepictsasallergictogenuinelypopularsovereigntyYassineinsiststhatthemodelofMuslimruleadumbratedintheummafoundedbytheProphetMuhammadandinparticulartheConstitutionofMedina17isnothingshortofdemocratic(NYassine2005d2005e)UnliketheMuslimdynastiesthatarosetousurpitYassinecontendsthiscommunity was participatory egalitarian committed to freedom andexpressiveofGodrsquosmercyMostimportantitwasgovernedalwaysbytheQurrsquoanicprincipleofshura (consultation)bywhichYassinemeansaphilosophy of power that places sovereignty in the community ratherthaninanyindividuallinksvirtuetodeliberationratherthanobedienceandexhortsbelieverstocontinuallyadaptQurrsquoanicprinciplesthroughijtihad rather than adhere reflexively to precedent (N Yassine 2006a182ndash862005d)ManyscholarsandjournalistsremainskepticaloftheJSArsquosasyetuntestedcommitment toproceduraldemocracyandworrythatNadiaandher fatherAbdessalamultimatelyseektoestablishanIslamic state inhospitable to tolerance pluralism and civil liberties(Maghraoui2001Brandon2007Whitlock2006)YetothersarguethattheJSAisagenuinelypopulistorganizationthatrepresentstheunrepre-sentedtendstothewelfareofthedispossessedandbothexpressesandcontributestoanincreasinglyvibrantcivilsocietyinMorocco(Cavatorta2006Entelis2002)

QaradawirsquosandYassinersquosargumentstogethersuggestthatdemocracycanandhasservedaseitheracosmeticcoverfordespotismoranauthen-ticallyIslamiccheckuponcorruptandarbitraryruleAtissueinIslamistargumentsforandagainstdemocracythenarenotonlywhatcountsasldquoauthenticIslamrdquoandtheintentionsofthosewhoclaimtoknowitbutalsothecontentandcharacterofdemocracyitselfParadoxicallybothIslamistsopposedtodemocracyandthosewhotakeIslamismasinher-entlyantidemocraticregardthisasasimplematterwithanobviousan-swerdemocracyisanexpressionofandevensynonymouswithliberal-ismcapitalismandtheWestYetdemocracyisbothmorecapaciousand

17TheConstitutionofMedinawasanagreementtheProphethadenteredintowiththelocalcommunitiesincludingJewishtribesuponhisemigrationfromMeccatoMedina

32

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INTRODUCTION

moredistinctthanthispresumptionsuggestsTheworditselfofcoursederivesfromtheancientGreekdemokratiawhichmeansrule(kratos)ofthepeople(demos)andmanyderivetheequationofdemocracyandtheWestfromthisassociationwithclassicalGreeceYetancientGreekphi-losopherssuchasPlatosawindemocracythespecterofmobrulepartic-ularly vulnerable to demagoguery and despotism (a suspicion notablyechoedbyAmerican founder JamesMadison)Contrary to thedemo-cratic idealof inclusivenessmoreover citizenship inGreekdemocracyexcludedasubstantialpartofthepopulationincludingwomenslavesandforeignersFinallytheextenttowhichtheancientGreeksmayevenbecalledWesternisamatterofgreatdisputeparticularlyastheldquoWestrdquoisacategoryofrelativelyrecentprovenancethroughwhichhistoryandgeographyhavebeenretroactivelyorganized18DespitedepictionsoftheHellenicworldasWesternancientGreeksdidnotinfactviewthem-selvesintheseterms19

TheequationofdemocracywiththeWestalsopresupposestheexis-tenceofacoherentldquoWesterncivilizationrdquowitheitherculturallyhomoge-neousrootsorclearlydelineatedhistoricalandcontemporarybounda-riesorbothYetwhatiscalledtheWestisanamalgamationofmultipletraditionsincludingtheGreekRomanJudaicChristianandIslamicmdashtraditionsthatarethemselvespolyvalentratherthanhomogeneousmdashandistodaycharacterizedbyporousbordershybridsubculturesandmyriaddebtstodiversecivilizationspastandpresent20AsageographicmarkeritisvirtuallyimpossibletopinpointexactlywheretheWestbeginsandendsandthisisespeciallysonowthatpeoplesinformationandmate-rial goods crisscross cultural andnational borders atwill creating allkindsoftransnationalsubnationalandmultipleidentitiesthatshiftandreconstitutethemselvesinunpredictablewaysEventhosevaluesidenti-fiedasWesternoftenappearelsewhereinotherguisesIndeedscholarssuggestthatavarietyoftheldquostandardsexportedbytheWestanditscul-turalindustriesthemselvesturnouttobeofculturallymixedcharacterifweexaminetheirculturallineagesrdquo(Pieterse199553)

Manyalsoarguethatdemocracyisnotonlydistinctfrombutinten-sionwithboththetheoryandpracticeofpoliticsinldquoWesternrdquosocieties

18MichaelGillespie(19997ndash10)arguesthattherereadingofhistorygeographyandculturethroughtheprismofthissenseofldquotheWestrdquobegannoearlierthanthenineteenthcenturyTheideaofatimelessandbrightlinebetweenWestandEastisalsochallengedbyJeremyBrottonrsquosstudy(19989096ndash97)ofthediplomaticandintellectualexchangesbe-tweenEuropeandtheOttomanEmpireintheearlymodernperiodBrottonshowsnotonlytheextentandamityofsuchexchangesbutapersistentuncertaintyaboutwherepreciselyEuropeldquoendedrdquoandAsialdquobeganrdquo

19AncientGreeksunderstoodthemselvesasgeographicallywestofthebarbariansbutnotWesterninthecontemporarysensethatisasbothaculturalandhistoricalcategory

20StevenRuncimanrsquoswork(19543480)ontheCrusadesforexampledemonstratesaldquolongsequenceofinteractionandfusionbetweenOrientandOccidentoutofwhichourcivilizationhasgrownrdquo

33

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

many of which are more accurately classified as liberal and capitalist(Wood1994Wolin2001BallandDagger1999)Whileitisnowcom-monplacetospeakofldquoliberaldemocracyrdquoinasinglebreathliberalismanddemocracyareconceptsandpracticeswithverydifferenthistoriesandpresuppositionsUnlikedemocracyforexampleliberalismemergedfromthecrucibleofChristianreligiouswarsandintandemwiththeas-cendanceofamiddleclassthatpresagedtheendofEuropeanfeudalismTheliberalnation-statecanthusbeviewedasbothanexpressionandaconsolidationofcapitalismontheonehandandtheprincipleofasepa-rationbetweenchurchandstateontheotherBycontrastthereisnoth-ingaboutdemocracyeitherasasystemofgovernanceoracultureofpar-ticipationthatisinherentlysecularIndeedAlexisdeTocquevillefamouslyinsistedthatAmericandemocracycannotandshouldnotbesecularasreligionhelpsshiftattentionawayfromimmediatematerialpreoccupa-tionstolargerconcernsofcommunitycooperationandmoralityInfactmanydemocratictheoristsarguethatgenuinelyinclusivepopularsover-eignty is antithetical to the sharp inequalities of wealth and politicalpowerthatcapitalismoftenproducesandlegitimates

SuchongoingdefinitionalandsubstantivedebatessuggestthatthereismuchmoreatstakeindemocraticpoliticsthanprocedurespertainingtogovernmentauthorityandorderandpointtoawidespreadifelusiveunderstandingofdemocracynotjustasasetofinstitutionsbutasTocque-villesuggestsawayoflifeSeveralpoliticaltheoristshavecharacterizedthiselusiveunderstandingintermsofaldquodemocraticethosrdquoBythistheymeanbothanidealandanargumentforacultureofparticipationactivepowersharingmutualaccountabilityinclusivenessanddeliberationinwhichcitizensmayroutinelyandsafelychallengenotonlyspecificpoli-ciesandpolitical institutionsbutalso thevalues thatgoverncollectivelifeprinciplesofinclusionandexclusionandthepremisesofauthorityitself(Connolly1995JPEuben2003Sadiki2004)AdemocraticethosismuchmoredifficulttomeasureorquantifythanforexampleSamuelHuntingtonrsquosparsimoniousdefinitionofdemocracyasapolityinwhichtherehavebeentwoconsecutivepeacefulchangesofgovernmentbywayof freeand fairelections (Huntington1991)21Yetademocraticethosmakesitpossibletobothrecognizeanddisaggregatethepreconditionsaspirations mechanisms and institutions bundled into ldquodemocracyrdquotherebybringingintofocusforexamplethefrequentlyantidemocratic

21Manypoliticalscientistsprefertodefinedemocracyintermsofproceduresdesignedtorealizepopularruleincludingfreecompetitiveandfairelectionsalongwithstateprotec-tionofcertainrightsandlibertiesSuchaformalminimalistdefinitionhastheadvantageofdetachingdemocracyfromquestionsoforiginsandofferingastandardtowhichallgov-ernmentsmaybeheldregardlessofcultureandplaceAsKeithTopper(2005205ndash7)ar-gueshoweveritalsotendstosidestepknottyquestionsaboutthesubstanceofrepresenta-tion power responsiveness and accountability that are arguably central to democraticpolitics

34

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

casttoelectionsimposedbyelitesorforeignpowersthefeltimpotenceofmanycitizensinestablisheddemocraciesandthosehighlyparticipa-torycivilsocietiesthatflourishevenundermonarchicortheocraticrule

Forourpurposes inparticularademocraticethosmakesvisible theparadoxofanIslamistmovementthatseekstomobilizeordinaryMus-limsagainstcoercivepowerbutinthenameofareligio-politicalorderlargelyimmunizedfromchallengeQutbisanaptillustrationhereashistendencytogroundhisownspecialauthorityandinsightintheunsulliedwisdomofordinarybelieversmakesitpossibletoreadhisworkaseitherabriefagainstdemocracy(amongotherthings)oranenactmentofitIn-asmuchasdemocracyasaformofgovernanceisidentifiedwithpopularsovereigntyQutbrsquosbasicpremisethat thefoundationof legitimateau-thoritymustbedivineratherthanhumansuggeststhatheisunambigu-ouslyantidemocraticMoreoverQutbrsquoseffortstopluralizereligiousandpolitical authority express not a confidence in common wisdom butratheradesiretoclaimforhimselfthestatureofareligiousexpertwhodespitehislackofIslamicacademiccredentialscanclearlyseewhatoth-erscannotQutbcharacterizestherealIslamasself-evidentbuthealsoassumesthatonlyasmallvanguardofbelieversbesideshimselfwillhavetheabilitytorecognizeitandactdecisivelytoremaketheworldinitsimageSounderstoodthesignofldquochosennessrdquoisunyieldingcommitmenttoestablishingareligio-politicalorderthatsimultaneouslypresumesthesupremacyofthefewcapableoftrueknowledgeandpromisesaworldinwhichdissentitselfwillbecomebothunnecessaryandillegitimate

Yetifdemocracyrefersnotonlytoasystemofgovernanceorsetofprocedurestorealizepopularsovereigntybutalsotopracticesthatdis-ruptthoseforceswhichconcentratepowerandestablishpoliticalexclu-sionthecharacterizationofQutbrsquosworkassimplyantidemocraticmissesa crucial dimensionof its significance and appealAs the sacred textscontaintherulesandregulationsmeanttogovernbothpublicandpri-vateaffairsQutbrsquosinsistencethatordinaryuntrainedMuslimsmusten-gagethemdirectlyisinmanywaysademocratizationofaccesstoau-thoritySuchaccesscandisruptdeeplyentrenchedpatternsofpowerandpowerlessness particularlywhen conjoined to Islamist arguments thatarbitrarypowerisun-Islamicthatreligiousknowledgedependsoncom-mitmentratherthantrainingorexpertise thatMuslimshavetherightandobligationtodeterminewhenrulersareillegitimateandthatthosewhopreferordertojusticesecuritytofreedomandmoneytopietyhaveforfeitedanyclaimtoauthority

ThisaspectofIslamismhasfrequentlybeencomparedtotheProtestantReformationandmorespecificallytoCalvinistsrsquoattemptstotransferldquore-ligiousauthorityawayfromofficiallysanctionedindividualswhointer-prettextstoordinarycitizensrdquo(EGoldberg19913alsocfLoimeier2005)Suchaparallelhassparkedagreatdealofscholarlyspeculation

35

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

regardingapossibleldquoIslamicReformationrdquo22andarangeofargumentsaboutwhetherandhowIslamismmightfacilitatethedemocratizationofMuslim societies much as the Protestant Reformation is said to haveheralded the emergence of European ldquoliberal democracyrdquo While suchcomparisonsareevocativeafullerunderstandingof IslamismrequiresfirstsituatingitinrelationtoahistoricalshiftinthenatureandlocusofreligiousauthorityinIslambeginninginthenineteenthcenturyAsschol-arsofMuslimsocietieshavepointedouttheimpactofmasseducationnewtechnologiesfordisseminatingknowledgeandinformationanddra-matically changed social economic and political contexts have madeavailabletoamateurswhathadpreviouslybeenthepurviewofreligiousexpertsAtthesametimeithasinauguratedafragmentationofauthor-itywithintheveryranksofthelsquoulamathatcontinuestothepresentday23

InthiscontexttheascendanceandinfluenceofautodidactssuchasQutbHasanal-BannalsquoAbdal-SalamFarajandBinLadensimultaneouslyex-pressandaccelerateanongoingrenegotiationofauthorityoverwhomayspeakforIslamandonwhatbasisthepathofwhichisstillunfoldingandtheoutcomeasyetuncertain

Islamism and Gender

One already apparent consequence of this ongoing renegotiation overwhomayspeakforIslamandonwhatbasisistheentryofwomenintothe interpretive fray This development is increasingly unsettling thoseunwrittengendernormsarguablyattheveryheartofIslamistthoughtdisruptingthestandardsofmasculinityandfemininitythatreflecthowparticularculturesorganizehumanbeingsrsquosocialandreproductiveactiv-itiesintorolesthatareinturnthoughttoexpresstheldquonaturerdquoofmenand women Such norms are frequently considered tangential to theknottyproblemsofdefiningIslamismandadumbratingitscentralideasyetarangeofscholarshiponculturespastandpresenthasshownthatgenderisconsistentlytheterrainoverwhichbattlesforpoliticalcontrolandculturalidentityarefoughtMorespecificallyresearchindisciplinessuchasanthropologyhistoryclassicsandpostcolonialstudieshasdem-onstratedthatculturesinwhichfemalebodiesandbehaviorareregardedas indicesofmoralpurity tend to symbolically transformwomen intoconduitsof cultural corruption in timesof internal crisis and externalthreat(Papenek1994Chatterjee1990Tavakoli-Targhi1991Just1989Cohen1991Welter1966Bloch1978)Thisisespeciallytrueofcontem-

22Foralatenineteenth-centuryassessmentoftheprospectsforaldquoMuhammadanRefor-mationrdquoseeBlunt1882132ndash73

23EickelmanandPiscatori199637ndash39131ndash35Zaman2006Suchfragmentationhasinmanywaysbeenacceleratedbytheexplosionofdigitalcultureswhichpromoteamongotherthingsaldquoformofempoweredamateurismrdquo(Mirzoeff20026)

36

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

poraryreligio-politicalmovementswhosememberstendtoldquoidealizepa-triarchalstructuresofauthorityandmoralityrdquoendorsegenderdualismasgod-givenornaturalandcondemnvigorouslyrecentchangesingen-derrelationsasasymptomandsymbolofsecularistmoralbankruptcy(Riesebrodt1993Moghadam1992Hawley1994)

SeveralchaptersinthisvolumeilluminateIslamistgendernormsbyre-vealing thecharacterandcontentof Islamistconcernsabout theplaceandpurityofMuslimwomenmdashpreoccupationsFatimaMernissi(199199)hasgonesofarastocharacterizeasanobsessionDespiteimportantdifferences among Islamists thinkers many endorse gender norms inwhichthefairlyconventionalinsistencethatfemalenatureisdefinedinand through reproduction undergirds an understanding of women assymbolsofmoralvirtueandvesselsofculturalpurityThisviewsustainstheclaimthatmenandwomenareequalinreligiousbeliefbutperformfundamentallydifferentandcomplementaryfunctionsinsocietyWhilemenarenaturallymadetoruleinboththepublicandprivatedomainawomanbelongsinthedomesticrealmwhereherprimaryroleistobeawifeandmotheraswellastoinsuretheintegrityofthefamilythefirstschoolofmoraleducationAssuchfunctionsarerootedinaninescap-ablehumannaturefashionedbyGodawomanrsquosinabilityorunwilling-nesstoperformherdutiessignalsadisobediencetothedivinewillandpresages the corruption of the Muslim family from within From thisvantagepointtheWesterninsistenceonfullequalitybetweenthesexesisdoubly pernicious it at once liberates women from basic moral con-straintsandenslavesthemtomutuallyreinforcingsexualandcapitalistexploitationAsMurtazaMutahhari(1998xxxi)arguescapitalismmakesuseofwomentomarket itsgoodsldquoby trading inhonourandrespectthrough[their]powertoenticerdquotherebyldquotransform[ing]manintoaninvoluntaryagentofconsumptionrdquoInasmuchaswomenareresponsiblefor producing the next generation of Muslim men destined to restoreIslamtoitsformergloryitisnotonlythevirtueofwomenortheinteg-rityofthefamilythathangsinthebalancebutthefutureofIslamiccivili-zationitself

Zaynab al-Ghazali andMutahharimake several of these argumentsexplicitlyandindetail(seechapters10and11)butinmuchofIslamistrhetoricthenatureandsignificanceofwomenareestablishedindirectlyandsymbolicallyandthroughthreerecurrentimagesinparticularThefirstisofwomenassilentsymbolsofculturalmoralandsexualvulnera-bilityvoicelessfiguresinneedofmasculineprotectionorwhenitistoolatedefiledbodiesthatmutelydemandvengeanceSoforexamplelsquoAb-dallahlsquoAzzam(oneofBinLadenrsquosmentorsseechapter18)graphicallydetailstheagonizinghumiliationofyoungmenunabletoactwhentheAfghanwoman isldquocryingout forhelpher childrenarebeing slaugh-tered her women are being raped the innocent are killed and theircorpsesscatteredrdquo(lsquoAzzam1987a)Inthesecondimagewomenfunction

37

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

muchlikeachorusthatspeaksinpermittedcadencestoratifymasculineendeavorsSuchisthecaseforexampleinBinLadenrsquos1996ldquoDeclara-tionofWaragainsttheAmericansOccupyingtheLandoftheTwoHolyPlacesrdquo(seechapter18)wherethewomenexhortmentojihadinthefollowing way ldquoPrepare yourself like a struggler the matter is biggerthanwordsAreyougoingtoleaveusforthewolvesofKufr[unbe-lief]eatingourwingsWherearethefreemendefendingfreewomenbyarmsDeath isbetter than life inhumiliation Some scandals andshameswillneverbeotherwiseeradicatedrdquo24InthethirdimagewomenarecreaturesnotofthisworldbutofanothervirginalrewardsforthecourageousmartyrintheafterlifeThisisevidentinthefinalinstructionsforthe911hijackersforexamplewhereMuslimldquobrothersrdquoareurgedto purify their carnal impulses sharpen their knives for the dhabh (slaughter)andheedthecallofthehur lsquoayn (theblack-eyedones)await-ingtheminParadise(seechapter19)

Such rhetoric primarily registers women as an extensionmirror ormeasure of masculinity and together with explicit Islamist argumentsabouthumannatureandthefamilyarticulatesIslamistgendernormsinwhichmenandwomeneachhaveaproperlocationandpurposeinadi-vinely ordained social hierarchy Deviance from this gendered scriptthussignalsdisruptionofamuchbroaderreligio-politicalorderitbothpresumes and seeks to bring into existence The disruption caused byforeign aggression in particular exacerbates the tendency to translateconflict into an assault on Muslim masculinity and to conceptualizewomenaspotentialvehiclesforWesterncorruptioninneedofguidingand guarding Women such as Zaynab al-Ghazali and Nadia Yassinewho seek a prominent place and voice within the Islamist movementhavehadlittlechoicebuttocontendwiththisgenderedscriptDoingsohasentailedamongotherthingsnavigatingcarefullybetweenIslamistcharacterizations of womenrsquos visibility and agency as symptomatic ofthe new jahiliyya on the one hand and essentializing arguments thatequateIslamwithveilingfemalegenitalmutilationandhonorkillingsontheother

AsthechaptersonGhazaliandYassinesuggestIslamistwomenhavenegotiatedbetweensuchconstraintsandpressuresandtheirownambi-tionsindifferentwaysApioneeringdalsquoiya(onewhoinvitesMuslimstogreater piety)Ghazalirsquos own life reveals a fierce resistance to conven-tionalnormsofdomesticityevenasmuchofher(earlier)workappearsto embrace an Islamist gender ideology that defines women as wivesmothers andldquobuilders ofmenrdquo (al-Hashimi 1990 118)By contrastYassineisawifeandmotherwhoembracesanldquoIslamicfeminismrdquothatrequiresldquoreappropriatingtheinstrumentsofclassicaltheologyrdquoanden-

24TheIslamistjournalSawt alshyJihadhasgonesofarastofeatureldquowomenrsquosvoicesrdquointheformofrolemodelsnamedforexampleumm alshyshahid(motherofthemartyr)al-thoughitisunclearthattheseldquovoicesrdquoareactuallywomenrsquos(SUsher2004)

38

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

gaging the textsdirectly through ijtihad (NYassine2003) In this re-spect Yassine must be understood as part of a broader effort amongMuslimwomenwithdifferentpoliticalcommitmentstosimultaneouslyadvocateandenacttheirrighttorecuperatetheldquooriginalintentrdquooftheIslamictextsIfwomenandmendoinfacthavedistinctperspectivesontheworldYassinesuggestswomenhaveaspecialobligationtoexcavatewhattheyseeasthegenderparityoftheQurrsquoanburiedbeneaththoseldquomachointerpretationsrdquoofIslamuponwhichmenhavebuilttheirprivi-legeandpower(Khalaf2006)25

ManyAnglo-AmericanandEuropean feministsworry that Islamistsseekonly to secureor restorepatriarchalpowerConverselymany Is-lamist women view feminism as a term and a movement inescapablyWesterninoriginfreightedwiththelegacyofcolonialismanduneasilyimplicatedinculturalimperialismThisapplieseventoYassinewhoisunwillingtoadoptwithoutqualificationalabelsheassociateswithagen-dasopposedtoherowntheWesttheMoroccanstateMaghribi(North-westAfrican)elitesYetfeminismitselfisahighlycontestedtermwithin theso-calledWestitisthebearerofmultiplemeaningssomeofwhichareevenopposedandischaracterizedbydeepdisagreementsaboutwhowomenarewhatwomenneedwhoisauthorizedtoworkonwomenrsquosbehalf andbywhatmeans Inasmuch as these various feminismsmayshareonlyastatedconcernforwomenrsquoswelfarethereisnothinginco-herentinmodifyingldquofeminismrdquowithldquoIslamicrdquoldquoMuslimrdquoorevenldquoIs-lamistrdquounlessone iscommitted toarguing thatfirst Islam isanun-changingessencebeyondhistorypoliticsandculturesecondthereisaneutralobjectivevantagefromwhichtoidentifythisessenceonceandforallandfinallytheIslamicessencesoidentifiedisfundamentallyin-compatiblewitheffortstoimprovetheconditionsandqualityofwomenrsquoslivesBythesametokenIslamistwomenwhorejectthetermfeminismcanbe(althoughnotalwaysare)deeplycommittedtoimprovingwom-enrsquoswelfareaswellasactivelyresistanttoeffortsthatreduceortrans-formthemintosilentaccessoriesofmalepower

YassineandGhazalidifferaboutwhatwomenareandshouldbeyetbroadlyspeakingbothmaybeconsideredpartofarecenttrendtowardthe feminizationofdalsquowa Dalsquowa literallymeanscallappealor sum-monsbutthetermhascometosignifyavarietyofpracticesandargu-mentsmeanttoexhortinviteandguideMuslimstowhatisregardedasproperconductandmoraldevotionWomenrsquosparticipationindalsquowais

25WomenrsquosparticipationintheldquoproductionofofficialIslamicknowledgerdquohasalonghistoryalthoughtheyhaveoftendonesoinrelativeobscurityandwithoutthebenefitofeducation in the Islamicsciences thathas legitimateddirectengagementwith thesacredtexts (Cooke 2001 xiv Badran and Cooke 2004) Pioneering attempts to read genderequalityinIslamarealsonotconfinedtowritingbywomenasevincedbyQasimAminrsquosTahrir alshymarrsquoa [TheLiberationofWoman] (1899)andMumtaz lsquoAlirsquosHuquqshye niswan [TheRightsofWomen](1898)

39

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

notabrandnewphenomenonasisevidentinGhazalirsquosworkwiththeEgyptianSocietyofMuslimLadiesinthe1930sYetfromEgypttoPaki-stantoSaudiArabiatotheUnitedStatesthenumberoffemaledalsquoiyashasproliferatedexponentially inrecentyears(Cooke2001Mahmood2005Hirschkind2006)Thisreflectsinpartcurrentdoctrinalempha-sesondalsquowaasincumbentuponbothmenandwomenanddependentlessupontechnicalknowledgethanmoralvirtueandpracticalfamiliaritywiththeIslamictradition(Mahmood200565ndash66)It isalsoaconse-quenceofrecentpoliticalandsocioeconomictransformationsinMuslimsocietiesincludingtheexpansionofmasseducationthathasnotonlyin-creasedwomenrsquosliteracyandsocialmobilitybutalsomadeIslamictextsmoreaccessibletheproliferationoftechnologiesmdashfromthecassettetapetotheInternetmdashthatfacilitatethecirculationofreligiousknowledgeevenamongthosewhocannotreadortraveltheprecedentsetbythevigorousparticipationof IranianwomeninpostrevolutiondebatesaboutIslamandthemodeloflegalactivismevidentintheIslamistmovementrsquosownchallenge to the lsquoulamarsquos status as gatekeepers of religious knowledge(Singerman2005Mir-Hosseini1999)

If Ghazali and Yassine exemplify the feminization of dalsquowa amongelitesthemosquemovementinEgyptillustratesthegrowingparticipa-tionofwomenfromdiversesocialbackgroundsinreligiousclassesde-votedtostudyinganddebatingwhatIslamrequiresforawomantobeldquomorallyuprightrdquointhecontemporaryworld(Mahmood2005)Con-ceptualizingpiety in termsof adeepandholistic commitment to self-transformationparticipantsinthemosquemovementareconcernedlesswithmattersofsovereigntyandpoliticsconventionallyunderstoodandmorewiththeldquomoralcultivationrdquoofthosedailypracticesseenascrucialtobecomingclosertoGod(Mahmood2005)SomeIslamistshavecriti-cizedthis focusonpracticesofworshipasapoliticalandoverlypriva-tizedyetsuchcriticismmissestheforceofIslamistsrsquoowninsistenceondin(religion)asawayoflifeinwhichthedomainsofpublicandprivateare inextricably linked26AsSabaMahmood (2005193194) showsthesewomenrsquosintenseeffortsatldquoretrainingethicalsensibilitiesrdquohavealdquosociopoliticalforcerdquothatextendswellbeyondmattersofgovernancefacilitatingnolessthantheemergenceofaldquonewsocialandmoralorderrdquoEvidenceofitstransformativepowermaybefoundnotonlyinthesheernumbersandvarietyofwomenmdashwealthyandpoor literateand illiter-atemdashparticipatinginthemosquemovementbutalsointherhetoricalandpoliticaleffortsbythestateandsomeIslamiststocurtailcontrolordis-creditit(Mahmood200571194)

26ParticipantsinthemosquemovementinturnareoftencriticalofwhattheyseeasthereductionofIslamtotokensofculturalauthenticityorofitsinstrumentalizationbybothnationalistsandIslamiststheycharacterizeasmoreinterestedinpoliticalmaneuveringthanreligiouspiety

40

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

Understoodtoincludebothwrittenandembodiedpracticesthefemi-nizationof dalsquowa illustrates theways inwhichwomen fromdifferentperspectivesandsocialclassesareinsistingonengagingthesacredtextsdirectly for and with one another without the mediating authority ofmenwhohavetraditionallyheldthemonopolyonsuchactivitiesAsSu-danese Islamist Lubabah al-Fadl argues ldquoAs an insan [human being]whohappenstobeawomanIhavearighttorejectthemanipulativeexegesesofoursharilsquoa thatthreatenmyexistenceinawaythat isnotconsistentwiththeGodlywayandtoapplymyownijtihadtorectifyer-roneoustendenciesbysomeshuyukh[pluralofshaykh]rdquo(Sadiki2004290)DespitetheproliferationofvoicesintentonclaimingforthemselvestheauthoritytodemarcatewhatisauthenticallyIslamicandun-Islamiconceandforallcontestationoveritsscopeandmeaningproceedsapacefacilitatedatleastinpartbywomenformerlyexcludedfromtheconver-sationAtthesametimeIslamistwomenrsquosagencyandclaimstoauthorityarefrequentlystillpredicatedonawillingnesstofollowfairlypatriarchalrulesaboutwherehowandwithwhomtheymaypracticetheirvocation(Hirschkind2003Sadiki2004283)

Islamism and Violence

IfgenderisfrequentlyanimplicitpreoccupationamongIslamistsjihadisarguably Islamistsrsquomost consistently explicit concern Jihad is derivedfromtheArabicverbthatmeanstostruggleortostriveyetitisaparticu-larkindofstruggle that isofconcern tomanyof thefigurescollectedheretheoftenviolentstruggleagainstapostatesandinfidelsbothathomeandabroadtowhicheveryindividualMuslimmustcontributeTheclaimthatfightingunbelieversisthepreeminentenactmentofindividualMus-limpiety seems to justify characterizationsof Islam ingeneral and Is-lamisminparticularassanctioningevenencouragingviolenceYetwhatIslamistsrepresentasjihadtout courtisahistoricallyspecificunderstand-ingderivedfromahighlyselectiveuseoftextsandprecedentsprominentamongthemaformerlyobscureclaimbytheinfluentialfourteenth-cen-tury jurist IbnTaymiyya thatMongol rulerswhohad contravened Is-lamiclawcouldbesubjecttoforcibleremovalFarfromadefinitiveex-pressionof Islamldquoproperlyunderstoodrdquo such Islamist argumentsnotonlymarkasignificantdeparturefrommuchofantecedentdoctrineandpractice but also diminish the importance of ongoing disagreementsamongMuslimsabouttheformandpurposesofjihad

TobeginwithMuslimscholarshavetendedtoconsiderjihadagainstforeignenemiesafard kifaya(collectiveobligation)thatisadutyagroupofpeoplewithinthecommunitymayperformonbehalfoftherestandonethatpresupposesalegitimateMuslimleadertodeclareorleadthechargeJuristshavedistinguishedthisfromthefard lsquoayn(individualduty)thatmustbefulfilledbyeverysingleMuslimincasesofdefensivejihad

41

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

thatiswhentheummaisunderattackManyIslamistsincludedheretakeamuchlessnuancedviewofjihadAsamodeofpoliticalactionQutbarguesjihadmustberegardedasaldquopermanentconditionnotanocca-sionalconcernrdquoonethatincurrentcircumstancesrequiresdeedsratherthanwordsstruggleratherthancontemplationrevolutionathomeaswellasresistanceabroad(Qutb199167ndash6882)lsquoAbdal-SalamFarajarguesalongsimilarlinesthatthenatureoftheattackonIslammakespolitical authorization by a caliph (ldquodeputyrdquo referring to a legitimatesuccessortotheProphetrsquosleadership)unnecessaryafterallldquoleadershipovertheMuslimsis(always)intheirownhandsifonlytheymakethismanifestIfthereissomethinglackingintheleadershipwellthereisnothingthatcannotbeacquiredrdquo(Jansen1986asec93)

SuchargumentsareadeliberaterejectionofearlyMuslimmodernistswhohademphasizedthelargelydefensivecharacterofjihadandsoughttoshowthatrelationsbetweenMuslimsandnon-MuslimswerenormallypeacefulratherthanantagonisticMahmudShaltut(d1963)therectorof al-Azhar from 1958 to 1963 had argued for example that theQurrsquoanicversesonfightingldquoprohibittheprovocationofhostilityandthisprohibitionisreinforcedbyGodrsquosrepugnancetoaggressionandbyhisdislikeofthosewhoprovokehostilityrdquo(Peters199674onShaltutseeZebiri1993)ConversionbyforceisanathematoIslamShaltutaversandfightingiscommandedonlyindefenseinresponsetoaggressionini-tiatedbyothersEvendefensivejihadmustaimatldquotheterminationoftheaggressionandtheestablishmentofreligiouslibertydevotedtoGodandfreefromanypressureorforcerdquo(Peters199675)

ManyIslamistsexplicitlydismisssuchargumentsasasymptomoffalseconsciousnessoneamongmanydestructiveeffectsofcolonialdomina-tionMawdudiargues for example thatwhile imperialists ravage theworld to satisfy their greed jihad alone ldquoconjures up the vision of amarching band of religious fanatics with savage beards and fiery eyesbrandishingdrawnswordsandattackingtheinfidelswherevertheymeetthemrdquoHavinginternalizedthis imageMuslimsrushtoapologizeandrenouncearmedstruggleInthiswayhelamentscolonialistsretaintheexclusiverighttoldquofightwitharmsandammunitionwhilewearecon-tented with our pen and our tonguerdquo (Mawdudi 1948 1ndash3) SayyidQutbforhispartagreedthatIslamdoesnotcountenancespreadingitsmessagebyforceandcoercionyethehadlittlepatiencewiththosewhosoughttopresentjihadaslegitimateonlyinself-defense

IfweinsistoncallingIslamicjihadadefensivemovementthenwemustchangethemeaningofthewordldquodefenserdquoandmeanbyitldquothedefenseofmanrdquoagainstallthoseforcesthatlimithisfreedomWhenwetakethisbroadmeaningofthewordldquodefenserdquoweunder-standthetruecharacterofIslaminthatitproclaimstheuniversalfreedomofeverypersonandcommunityfromservitudetoanyother

42

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

individualorsocietytheendofmanrsquosarroganceandselfishnesstheestablishmentofthesovereigntyofAllahandHisLordshipthrough-outtheworldandtheruleofthedivinesharilsquoainhumanaffairs(Qutb199050)

Qutbdoesnotnameanynamesincastigatingtheldquowriterswithdefeatistandapologeticmentalities[who]writeaboutlsquojihadinIslamrsquoandtrytoremovethislsquoblotrsquofromIslamrdquo(Qutb199046)buthecouldverywellhavehadhisdistinguishedfellowEgyptianMahmudShaltutinmind

These arguments about jihad may be said to constitute a commongrammarandframeworkofanalysisformanyIslamistsalthoughseveralthinkers in this volume carefully calibrate such claims to suit variouspurposesanddifferentpublicspheresInhisjustificationfortheassassi-nationofEgyptianpresidentAnwaral-SadatforexamplelsquoAbdal-SalamFarajdepictsthestruggletoreclaimthemoralfoundationsoftheEgyp-tianstateasafightagainstjahiliyyafromwithinarguingthatthejihadagainstacorruptnationalistregimeathomemusttakeprecedenceoverfightingenemieselsewhereTheCharterofHamas(seechapter15)how-everinsiststhatallMuslimsrecognizetheprimacyofthejihadforJeru-salemweldingIslamistrhetorictothatofnationalistresistanceinanef-fortbothtofightIsraelioccupationandtocompeteforadherentswiththePalestinianLiberationOrganization(PLO)IncontrasttobothFarajandHamasBinLadenembracesaglobaljihadthatessentiallycollapsesdistinctionsbetweennationalandinternationaloffensiveanddefensivefightingenemiesathomeandthosefromafar

Yet despite such differences these arguments tend to presume thatviolent jihad is a necessary response to the pervasive power of thosewithdemonstratedhostilitytoMuslimliveslandspietiesandsensibili-tiesaformofretaliationwhoseurgencyandlegitimacyderivefromtheviolencemdashpsychologicalandeconomicaswellasphysicalmdashoftheinitialassaultThisviewofjihadsubsumesindividualsintoarchetypesofldquoin-fidelsrdquoandldquobelieversrdquoandinsodoingvitiatesmoreconventionaldis-tinctionsbetweenforexamplesoldierandcivilianorcollectiveandin-dividual responsibility It is far from inevitable that thosewhoharborsuchviewswillautomaticallyactuponthemyetthecarnagewroughtbytheattacksontheWorldTradeCenterandthePentagonin2001aBalinightclub in 2002 Madrid commuter trains in 2004 and throughoutIraqonadailybasissuggestjusthowlethalsuchclaimscanbegiventheright circumstances The fact that such violence does not discriminateamongvictimsonlyfurtherfuelsrhetoriccharacterizingIslamistsasirra-tional fanatics ldquoin love with deathrdquo terrorists animated by a religioncharacterizedbyapropensityforviolenceandauthoritarianism27

27AnxietiesabouttheparticularsusceptibilityofMuslimstoirrationalityinsularityandfanaticismhavealonganddistinguishedpedigreeinEuro-AmericanhistoryandpoliticalthoughtSeeforexampleRenan18833

43

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

AsinsomanyothermattershoweverIslamistsarehardlyofonemindonthesubjectofjihadindeedthereareIslamistswhoexplicitlyrejectthereductionof struggle toviolenceAcase inpoint isNadiaYassine(20032005c)whoinsiststhatjihadisthededicatedstruggleagainstisshytikbar(arrogance)particularlyinitscommonformasthelustforpoweranddominationAsjihadagainstistikbarisbothafinalgoalandapre-scriptionforactionYassinesuggestsitisantitheticaltoviolentpracticesthataimatdominationTheprimaryinstrumentsofjihadarenotbombsbutwords particularly thosedeployed in the art of persuasion (Fara-marzi2005NYassine2006a)WhenIslamistssuchaslsquoAbdal-SalamFarajandlsquoUmarlsquoAbdal-RahmanseektolegitimizeviolentrevolutionbyrecoursetoIslamictextsshearguestheycontravenethetruemeaningofjihadtoservetheirownarrogantendsBythesametokenBinLadenrsquosdecisiontoldquofightevilwithevilandbarbaritywithbarbarityrdquonotonlyviolatesspecificIslamicprohibitionsagainstharmingcivilianswomenandchildrenbutalsobetraystheethicalimperativetoembodythemes-sageofamercifulGodwhocautionsbelieversthat(Q8822)ldquoYouhavenopoweroverthemrdquo(NYassine2005cDaily Excelsior2002)

SuchpersistentdisagreementsamongMuslimspastandpresentsug-gest that Islam isnomore inherently violent andbloody-minded thanitmdashorChristianityor Judaism for thatmattermdashis inherentlypeacefulIslamists often claim to speak for an unchanging authentic Islam thatexistsoutsideoftimeandspaceyetthepoliticalpurchaseoftheirper-spective derives from the ways it assembles disparate yet recognizablecontemporaryexperiencesofsufferingfrustrationandlossintoanex-planationthatresonateswithMuslimswholiveincommunitiescultur-allylinguisticallyandgeographicallydistantfromoneanotherTheex-tenttowhichIslamistargumentsresonatebroadlyacrossMuslimsocie-tiesthusdependsuponasetofexperiencesandphenomenathatmarkthisparticularmomentinhistoryincludingthewaysinwhichcontempo-raryglobalinequalitiescompoundalegacyofhistoricalasymmetriestocontinuallyreproduceasenseofMuslimpowerlessnessmdashbothrealandimaginedmdashrelativetotheWestcontinuingEuro-Americanpoliticalandfinancialsupportofcorruptautocratsmanyofwhompresideoverna-tion-statesbrutallystitchedtogetherbyWesternfiat thepersistenceofauthoritarian regimes eager to control domestic unrest by catalyzingldquoMuslimragerdquotowardexternaltargetsthesenseofemasculationpro-ducedbydecadesofpoliticalrepressionandeconomicfrustrationandthecontinualflowofimagesofbloodiedMuslimbodiesdeliveredbyaburgeoningarrayofvideosatelliteandelectronicmedia

It is notable that the understanding of jihad many Islamists proffermirrorstheverystate-sanctionedviolenceagainstwhichtheyhavestrug-gledforalmostacenturyAlongwiththousandsofMuslimscaughtinthemachineryoftwentieth-centurystateviolenceprominentIslamistsfromQutbtoGhazalitoAymanal-Zawahirimdashal-Qalsquoidarsquossecondincommandmdash

44

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

arewellknowntohavebeenradicalizedbyextendedandoftenbrutaltermsofincarcerationinEgyptSyriaIraqJordanIsraelAlgeriaandelsewhere(onal-ZawahiriandprisoncfKepelandMilelli2008152ndash54)ItisthusfarfromsurprisingthatIslamistsforgedbyinterrogationtortureinprisoncampswouldconcludethatthepreeminentenactmentofMuslimpietyisviolentstruggleldquoPrisonrdquoasPalestinianKhaledAbuHilalhassaidldquoismyuniversityrdquo(Erlanger2007)anargumentmadeingreaterdetailinadifferenttimeandplacebyRussianwriterandrevolu-tionaryMaximGorky(1868ndash1936)

Apeoplebroughtupinaschoolthatremindsoneofthetormentsofhellonasmallscaleapeopleaccustomedtotheclenched-fistprisonandthewhipwillnotbeblestwithatenderheartApeoplethatthepoliceagentshaveriddenoverwillbecapableintheirturnofwalk-ingoverthebodiesofothersInacountrywhereunresthasreignedsolongit isdifficultforthepeopletorealizefromonedaytothenextthepowerofrightOnecannotdemandfromamanwhohasneverknownjusticethatheshouldbejust(Gorky1920)

InthiscontextasTimothyMitchell(1990195ndash96199207ndash8)suggestsIslamistviewsoftheworldcanbecharacterizedasbothamodeofresis-tancetostatemechanismsofcoercionandanexpressionofthemSuchisthedynamic evident inGhazalirsquosmemoirs for examplewhen shede-scribeshowtheldquodarknessofprisonsthebladesoftortureandthevi-ciousbeatingsonly increasetheenduranceandresolveofthefaithfulrdquo(Ghazali19786)

There is no doubt a great deal of pragmatism at work in IslamistargumentsaboutviolenceAsQutb(19916447ndash48)drylynotesthepathtofreedommustoccasionallybehewnbywayoftheswordbecausetyrants are not reasoned out of power and ldquojahiliyya is not lsquoabstracttheoryrsquo[it]consciouslyorunconsciouslystrivestopreserveitsownexistence to defend its essence to annihilate dangerous elementswhichthreatenitsverybeingrdquoYetitisalsothecasethatformanyoftheseIslamistsjihadisbothameansandanendanefforttoeradicatethoseobstacles torestoringa justcommunityonearththatsimultane-ouslybringshumanaction intoaccordwithGodrsquosplansandpurposes(Haddad198321)While theQurrsquoan (2256) states thatldquothere isnocompulsioninreligionrdquoIslamistscontendthatonlyinastateinwhichIslamiclawreignssupremearehumanbeingsfreefromenslavementtooneanotherrsquosruleandallareequalbyvirtueoftheircommonsubmissiontoGodAsQutb(1991107ndash8)argues

WhenthehighestauthorityinsocietyisGodalonemdashexpressedintheruleofdivinelawmdashonlythenishumanitytrulyandcompletelyliber-atedfromslaverytomenOnlythisisldquohumancivilizationrdquobecausetheessentialfoundationofhumancivilizationisthetrueandcom-

45

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

pletefreedomofhumanityandtheabsolutedignityofeveryindivid-ualinsocietyThereisnotruefreedomanddignityforhumanityortheindividualinasocietywheresomepeoplearelordswholegislateandothersareslaveswhoobey

From this perspective the realization of justice liberty equality andchoiceitselfnecessitatestheforcibleremovaloftheconstraintsimposedbyjahiliyyaalongwiththosewhoaidandabetitno matter the costAsMawdudi(1954160ndash61)writes

[W]hyisitthatinreligionsuchimportanceisgiventojihadthattheQurrsquoanpronouncesthejudgmentofhypocrisyuponthosewhoshirkandevadeitJihadisbutanothernamefortheattempttoerectthesystemoftruthandtheQurrsquoandeclaresjihadtobeatouchstoneonthesamefootingwithamanrsquosfaithInotherwordshewhohasfaithinhisheartwillneitherbecontentwiththedominationofthesystemofevilnorwillhegrudgetheexpenditureoflifeandwealthinthestruggleforerectingthesystemoftruthIfoneshowsweaknessinthismatterhisfaithitselfisdoubtfulWhatcananythingelsebesidethenprofithimThemanwhoprofesses faith in this religioncannotfulfillhisdutyonlybytryingasfaraspossibletopatternhislifeonIslamThenatureofhisfaithitselfrequiresthatheshouldconcentrateallhiseffortuponwrestingleadershipfromunbelievingandcorruptmentoentrustittotherighteousanduponerectingthesystemoftruththathasbeenordainedfortheconductoftheworldaccordingtothewillofGodBecausethisendisunattainablewith-out thehighestdegreeofcollectiveeffort theremustexistarigh-teouscommunitycommittedtotheprincipleoftruthanddevotedtothesolepurposeintheworldoferectingmaintainingandproperlyrealizingthesystemoftruth

ThefactthatsomeIslamistthinkerssanctifyviolentstruggleinsuchtermsdoesnotmeanofcoursethatallthosewhoadvocateorengageinjihadendorseviolence28NordoesitimplythatthosewhoclaimtokillforIslamareentirelywithoutulteriormotivesthosemanipulativepur-poses andpsychologicalmotivations that even themost rarified scrip-turalargumentscanexpressorserveWhattheprecedinganalysisdoessuggesthoweveristhatthereductionofthisviewofjihadtoirrationalbloodlusttheself-interestedgrabfortemporalpoweroradoorthroughwhichtopassintothehereaftermissesacrucialdimensionofitssignifi-canceandappealfortruebelieversjihadisnolessthananenactmentof

28EvenashespokeofaneweraofjahiliyyaandofjihadMawdudihimselfstoppedwellshortof recommendingor condoning the actual resort to violence in themannermanyotherIslamistsdidAsNasr(199670)observesMawdudirsquosorganizationtheJamalsquoat-iIs-lamildquohasavoidedviolentsocialchangeandhasinsteadviewedthepathtotheIslamicstateaslyingwithintheexistingsociopoliticalorderrdquoAlsoseethechapters5and3onQutbandMawdudiinthisvolume

46

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

adivineimperativetoremakethefoundationsofcollectivelifeInthisre-spectIslamistviewsofjihadcanbeseenaspartofalong-standingasso-ciationbetweenviolenceandpoliticalfoundingsuponwhichnoparticu-larcultureorhistoricalepochhasamonopolyThisassociationandtheldquolegacyofviolencerdquoitbequeathstofuturegenerationsarenolessappar-entinthoseradicalrevolutionsofrenewalthatmovebywayoftheswordfromthemarginstothecenterthanthosepoliticalfoundingsthatclaimtocreatesomethingoutofnothing(Connolly1995251)Ineithercasethetollofsuchbrutalitycanbeimmeasurableforinadditiontothevic-timswhosufferdirectlytheldquopracticeofviolencelikeallactionchangestheworldbutthemostprobablechangeistoamoreviolentworldrdquo(Ar-endt1972177)

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Page 24: Chapter 1 INTRODUCTION - assets.press.princeton.eduassets.press.princeton.edu/chapters/s9067.pdf · Chapter 1 INTRODUCTION This volume is intended as a broad introduction to the evolution

24

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

Sufi Ibn lsquoArabi loomed especially large in his thought To Khomeinimysticismmdashoften referred to as lsquoirfan (gnosis) especially when inter-twinedwithIslamicphilosophyandtheology(Knysh1992632)mdashwascrucialtoaproperunderstandingofGodrsquosrelationshipwiththeworldandwiththehumanbeingItwasalsoessentialforonersquosethicalforma-tionforamasteryovertheselfandultimatelyforrealizinginoneselftheattributesofwhat Ibn lsquoArabihadcalledldquotheperfectmanrdquo (cfKnysh1992 635 also Mottahedeh 1985 180ndash85) Some of the austerity ofKhomeinirsquospersonallifeprobablyalsoderivedfromSufiasceticismAndthoughheanchoredhisconceptionofIslamicgovernmentinanexposi-tionofShilsquoijuridicalthoughtratherthaninIslamicmysticismthesortofreligiousauthorityhecametoenjoyonthebasisofhisreformulationofShilsquoipoliticaltheologyseemstoechomysticalideasoftheperfectmanwho embodies and upholds the moral order as the microcosm of theuniverse

UnlikeKhomeiniQutbwasnotaSufiandhegivesnoindicationofsharinganyofKhomeinirsquosenthusiasmforthegreatSufithinkersofear-liertimesEvensoechoesofamysticrsquosdirectencounterwiththefoun-tainheadoftruthandknowledgearehardtomissinQutbrsquoswritingses-peciallyinhiscommentaryontheQurrsquoan(cfCarreacute200395ndash97)TheveryfirstsentenceofhiscommentarymdashldquolifeintheshadeoftheQurrsquoanisablessingunknowntoanyonewhohasnrsquottasteditrdquomdashevokesthefa-miliarSufiideathatincontrovertibleknowledgeofRealityisultimatelyacquired only through direct personal experience (dhawq that is theldquotasterdquooftheTruth)ThegreatmedievalSufial-Ghazali(d1111)hadauthoredafamousautobiographicalaccountofhowitwasonlythroughthe immediacyofhispersonalmysticalexperience thathewasable toovercomehisdebilitatingepistemologicaldoubtsandreassurehimselfofthenecessarytruths(Watt199857)QutbdoesnotmentionGhazaliinthiscontextbutitisdifficultnottobestruckbythemysticalresonanceofsomeofhislanguageHereisoneexamplewhichoccursinhiscom-mentaryonsura(chapter)53oftheQurrsquoan16

16TheearlyversesinthissuraoftheQurrsquoanhavebeenunderstoodbyMuslimexegetesasreferringtotheProphetrsquosrevelatoryexperienceaswellastohisldquonightjourneyrdquoandhisascensiontoheavenormilsquoraj inthecourseofonenighthewastransportedfirstfromMeccatoJerusalemandthentothepresenceofGodbeforebeingreturnedtoMecca

UnrelatedtothenightjourneybutrelatedtohisrevelatoryexperiencestheexegeticalsignificanceofthisQurrsquoanicsuraalsoliesinitsconnectionwiththeso-calledSatanicVersesAccordingtocertainexegeticalreportsMuhammadwasinthecourseofreceivingarevela-tionwhenSataninterpolatedsomeversesintoitmdashversespraisingthreegoddessesreveredbythepolytheistsofMeccaItwasnotuntilsometimelaterthatMuhammadrealizedhiserrorwhereupontheversesinterpolatedbySatanwereremovedTheepisodeoftheldquoSa-tanicVersesrdquohasbeenacontroversialoneinIslamichistorylongbeforeSalmanRushdiersquosnovelofthatnameandKhomeinirsquosjuridicalruling(fatwa)callingforRushdiersquosdeathMostMuslimscholarshavefoundittooshockingtobelievethattheProphetcouldhavemadesuchagrievouserrorandhavedeniedthatanysuch incidentever tookplaceYetsome

25

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INTRODUCTION

IwaschattingoneeveningwithsomecompanionswhentoourearscamethesoundofsomeonerecitingtheQurrsquoannearbyrecitingtheSuraoftheStar[al-Najm]andweinterruptedourconversationtolistentotheNobleQurrsquoanLittlebylittlemyheartenteredintowhatwasbeing recited into theheartofMuhammadashe jour-neyedtotheHeavenlyHostIwaswithhimashesawGabrielintheangelicforminwhichGodhadcreatedhimIwaswithhiminhis loftyandfree-flying journey to theLoteTreeof theBoundaryandtheGardenoftheRefugeIwaswithhimtotheextentthatmyimaginationcouldformavisionofitandtotheextentthatmyfeelings couldbear itThen came the final cry andmywholebeingshookatthefearfulreproachldquoDoyoumarvelatthisdiscourseanddoyoulaughandnotweepandmakemerryrdquo[Q5359ndash61]WhenIheardldquoBowdownbeforeGodandserveHimrdquo[Q5362]thetremblinginmyhearthadbecomeaphysicalandvisibletremblingthroughoutmybodythatIcouldnotresistMybodykeptshakingandIcouldnotcontrolitNorcouldIholdbackthetearsthatwerepouringforthhowevermuchItried(QutbZilalvol7part2774ndash75quotedfromCarreacute2003333ndash34withminorchanges)

TheQurrsquoanrsquosprofoundimpactontheaestheticsensibilitiesofitslisten-ersisafamiliarmotifindiscussionsofitsliteraryqualities(cfGrahamandKermani2006)AssomeonewhoseearlywritingswereconcernedwithArabicliterarycriticismandspecificallywiththeliteraryexcellenceoftheIslamicscripture(Qutb1949b)QutbwasespeciallyreceptivetothisaspectoftheQurrsquoanThesenseofbeingtransportedbacktothetimeoftheProphetandtowitnessingtheProphetrsquosascension(milsquoraj)tothepresence of Godmdashwhich is how the passage being commented on byQutbherehascommonlybeeninterpretedbytheexegetesmdashcanlikewisebeseenasanillustrationoftheoverpoweringimpactthewordsoftheQurrsquoancanhaveonthebelieverQutbrsquosaccountofconversingwithGodthrough the Qurrsquoan (cited earlier) is again something he may havewantedtoseeallbelieversdoYetallbelieverscanscarcelydosoany-morethanallaspirantsevenontheSufipathcanexperiencethetransfor-mativemysticalldquostatesrdquothatGodbestowsonHisspecialfriends(awlshyiya)IrrespectiveofwhetherhesawitinquitethiswayQutbrsquosassertionthatheisabletoenterldquointotheheartofMuhammadrdquoandtoseeGabrielasMuhammad sawhimsurelygiveshimaperspective thatothers en-counteringthewordofGoddonothave

ThepointisnotofcoursethatQutbwaseverrecognizedbyhisfol-lowersasaSufimasterbutthatsomeofthehermeneuticalauthorityheclaimshasadistinctiveSufiringtoitMorebroadlythesortofunques-

leadingscholarsofearlyandmedievalIslammdashincludingIbnTaymiyyamdashacceptedthehisto-ricityofthisincidentSeeSAhmed1998

26

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INTRODUCTION

tioningreligio-politicalauthorityIslamistleadershaveoftenenjoyedovertheirfollowersisnotunlikethatoftheSufimasteroverhisfollowersBe-ginningwithHasanal-BannathefounderoftheMuslimBrotherhoodandoncehimselfamemberofaSufiordertheleaderofthisorganizationis formally referred to as themurshid (guide)ormore specificallyalshymurshid alshylsquoam (thegeneralguide[RMitchell1993165])whichisafamiliartermforthemasterinSuficontextsForhispartAbdessalamYassine the founder and leader of lsquoAdl warsquol-Ihsan Party of Morocco(oftenreferredtoastheJusticeandSpiritualityAssociationorJSA)haslike Khomeini gone well beyond simply echoing Sufi conceptions ofauthorityinhisowndiscoursesHetoowasonceamemberofaMoroc-canSufiorderandhehascontinuedtodrawonSufithemesinhiswrit-ingsTheverynameofYassinersquospoliticalorganizationevokesacentralSufiideanamelyihsanThisisaQurrsquoanicterm(cfQ756)thattrans-latedliterallymeansldquotodogoodrdquothoughSufishaveunderstoodittomeanmuchmore thanthatFollowingawell-knownstatementattrib-uted to theProphetMuhammad theyhaveoften interpreted ihsan tomeangoingbeyondtheexternalsofIslamicritualpracticestoldquoworshipGodasifyouseeHimrdquo(Schimmel197529)thatiscultivatingasenseof personal communion and intimacy with God Even as Yassine hassoughttodistancehimselffromwhathedeemstobetheexcessesofSu-fismthereislittledoubtthathispoliticalappealowesmuchtocarefullycalibratedeffortstocombinedistinctiveSufiideaswithhisownbrandofIslamism(cfLauziegravere2005seealsochapter12onNadiaYassineinthisvolume)

FinallyMawdudirsquosJamalsquoat-iIslamimdashoneoftheearliestIslamistorga-nizations in the Sunni worldmdashillustrates both the Islamistsrsquo complexrelationshipwith Sufismand their pragmatic recognitionof its appealinmanyMuslimsocietiesMawdudihadoncebeenaharshcriticofSu-fismblamingitformanyillsafflictingMuslimsocietiesYettheJama-lsquoat-iIslamigraduallycametosoftenitsstanceonSufipracticesconsider-ablynodoubtintheinterestofbroadeningsomeofitssupportbaseinPakistanwheresaintsandSufishrinesareanimportantpartofthereli-giousandpoliticallandscapeAlreadyinMawdudirsquoslifetimeMianTufaylMuhammadhissuccessorastheheadoftheJamalsquoat-iIslamihadtakentheextraordinaryinitiativeoftranslatinganearlySuficlassictheKashf alshymahjub into Urdu The author of this work Shaykh lsquoAli Hujwiri(d1072)isburiedinLahoreinPakistanandhismuch-frequentedshrineishometoprecisely thesortofdevotionalpractices that Islamistsandmodernist reformers letaloneSalafishaveoften frownedupon (Nasr1996124)

ThesediverseexamplesarenotintendedtoobscuretherealdifferencesbetweenthegeneralityofIslamistsandmostSufisTheirsignificanceliesratherinillustratingthedifficultyofdistinguishingbetweenIslamismandotherreligiousintellectualandpoliticaltrendsintermsofneatcharac-

27

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INTRODUCTION

terizationsofgrandtranslocalgeneralizationsAstheforegoingsuggeststhesameistrueandmoresowhenitcomestocharacterizingIslamistsinrelationtothelsquoulamatheMuslimmodernistsandtheSalafisIndeedasLorenLybargerhasarguedwithreferencetothoseusuallycharacter-izedasldquosecularnationalistrdquoorldquoIslamistrdquoPalestiniansintheWestBankandGazadifferenceswithintheranksofyoungsecularnationalistsandIslamistscansometimesalsoshadeintosignificantsimilaritiesbetweenthesesupposedlyrivalorientations(Lybarger2007)ManyIslamistshavesoughttodistancethemselvesfromwhattheyseeastherigidityandau-thoritarianismofotherIslamistsandtoarguenotjustfortheimplemen-tationofthesharilsquoabutalsofordemocracyandpluralismConverselynot a few of the younger secular nationalists have ldquoadopted IslamisttheodiciesthatexplainedthefailuretoovercomeIsraelastheresultoffallingawayfrompietytheirconclusionsmirroredIslamistonestootheroadbackfromthebrinkhadtotraceitscoursethrougharenewedcom-mitmenttoIslambutnotnecessarilyinthemannerthattheIslamistmove-mentsmighthaveintendedrdquo(Lybarger2007237ndash38quotationat238)

Yet ifneatcategoriesremainelusiveacombinationoftheIslamistsrsquoself-consciouslypoliticalgoalstheirmultifacetedifnotalwaysexplicitpoliticalcritiquesofmanypastandpresentwaysofunderstandingandlivingIslamandanunshakeableconfidenceintheirownabilitytodis-cern Godrsquos will from the foundational texts do often provide enoughgrounds tobroadlydistinguish themfromotheractivists intellectualsand orientations in the Muslim public sphere What this combinationamountstovariesfromonesocialpoliticalreligiousandculturalcon-texttoanotherandsothereforedothewaysinwhichIslamistsrelatetooneanotherorcompeteandoverlapwithothergroupsandorientations

The Politics of Islamism

FromAeneasrsquosmythicalfoundingofRometothedeathandresurrectionofJesusChristtoMuhammadrsquosmigrationtoMedinafoundationalnar-rativesareascommontocollectivelifeasthemovementsthatperiodi-callyarisetorevivethemandclaimantstothemantleoflegitimacytheyconferSounderstoodIslamistsrsquopoliticalaspirationstorestorefounda-tionslocatedinamythicalpastarefarfromuniqueNorareIslamistsaloneintheirconvictionthatscripturalauthorityisguaranteedbyitsdi-vineauthormdashforinthatallMuslimsagreeRatherthechaptersinthisvolumesuggest thatwhatmakes Islamistpoliticsdistinctive (ifnotsui generis)istheclaimtorecuperateanldquoauthenticIslamrdquocomprisedofself-evidenttruthspurgedofalienandcorruptinginfluencesalongwithaninsistenceonremakingthefoundationsofthestateinitsimageGiventhelimitsofhumanunderstandingrelativetoGodrsquosknowledgeIslamistssimultaneouslydepictsuchfidelitytotheunadulteratedwordofAllahas

28

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INTRODUCTION

theultimateexpressionofdeferencetodivineomniscienceandportrayhumilityasaconstitutivefeatureofthehumanconditionAspirationstofullyknowandmasterthenaturalandsocialworldsthusentailnotonlyahumanhubrisdeaftotheQurrsquoanicadmonitionthatldquoAllahknowsbutandyoudonotknowrdquo(Q366)butalsoatransgressionagainstadi-vinely-ordainedontologicalorder

ItisnotablehoweverthattheIslamistemphasisonthelimitsofhumanknowledgerequireshumilityonlyinrelationtoAllahitrarelyyieldshu-milityinregardtotheirownclaimstospeakinHisnameortowardotherhumanbeingswhodissentfromthepremiseofdivineomnipotenceandIslamistaccountsofwhat it requiresThis suggests thatwhile IslamistchallengestostatepowerareobviouslypoliticaltheIslamistclaimtoau-thenticityisalsopolitical inthecoercivepoweritroutinelyenactsandjustifiesmostnotablybywayofthesilencesitimposesandthedebatesitforeclosesAzizal-Azmehpointsoutthatldquothenotionofauthenticityisnotsomuchadeterminateconceptasitisanodeofassociationsandin-terpellationsatropebymeansofwhichthehistoricalworldisreducedtoaparticularorderandatokenwhichmarksoffsocialandpoliticalgroupsandforgesandreconstituteshistoricalidentitiesrdquo(al-Azmeh199341)WhetherintheserviceofArabnationalismChristianfundamental-ismEuropeanromanticismorMuslimmodernismtheclaimofauthen-ticityisanactofpowerthatfunctionsnotjusttoreflecttheworldbuttoconstructitbydeterminingwhoisincludedandexcludedwhomayandmaynotspeakauthoritativelywhatistheproperrealmofdebateandwhatisbeyondcontestation

ItiscertainlythecasethatasingleldquoIslamrdquocapturesandorganizestheperspectivesofmillionswhoself-identifyasMuslim(amongotherthings)yetwhattravelsunderitsrubricisinescapablydiversemultiethnicanddefined asmuchbydisagreement as consensus Just as theTorah andBible lend themselves toat times radicallydivergent interpretationsofwhatitmeanstobeJewishorChristiantheQurrsquoanandhaditharecom-plexandsusceptibletomanydifferentandattimescontradictoryenact-mentsSounderstoodIslamislessafixedessencethanalivingtraditionthatcaptureswhatisimaginedascontinuousandunitaryindialecticalrelationshiptothoseconcretearticulationsandpracticesbywhichitistransformedandadaptedindifferentcontextsforpluralpurposesItispreciselythisunderstandingofreligionthatisanathematoIslamistswhoseek tofix theparametersof Islamicauthenticityonceandforallandtherebyarrogateforthemselvestherighttodeterminewhoqualifiesasagood Muslim to discredit those lsquoulama unable or unwilling to purgeIslamofpurportedimpietiestodeclarenominallyMuslimrulersapos-tatesunfittogovernandtocharacterizeallwhodisagreeascorrupthe-reticalguiltyofunbelieforvictimsoffalseconsciousness

Thesegeneralpoliticaltendencieshowevermustbecarefullysituatedwithinadialecticoftheglobalandthevernacularunderstoodtoreflect

29

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INTRODUCTION

thewaysinwhichunifyingmacrohistoricaldynamicsinformandareinturntransformedbydiversecontingentandfluidlocalcircumstancesInaworldstampedbyWesterndominanceandtheconsolidationofpostco-lonial authoritarian regimes Islamists confront a common set of con-straintsandchallengesInasmuchassuchconstraintsandchallengeshavemade Islamist thinkers (often reluctant) participants in conversationsacrossbothcultureandhistorytheireffortstoremakethefoundationsofcollectiveliferevealasharedinterpretiveframeworkandcommonreli-gio-political grammar At the same time this frame and grammar arecontinuallybeingreworkedinrelationtothedistinctpublicspheresinwhichIslamistsoperateandtowhichtheycarefullycalibratetheirpoliti-calcommitments

Attention to this complex dynamic suggests that the Islamist move-mentcannotsimplybecharacterizedasviolentantidemocraticandop-pressiveofwomenlabelsinvokedsofrequentlyinscholarlyandpopularliterature on the subject that they have become virtually synonymouswithIslamistpoliticsSuchcharacterizationsdocapturecrucialdimen-sionsofIslamistpoliticsyettheyalsosidesteptheparadoxesitsvarie-gatedandoftencontradictoryexpressionspresentInsteadwearguethatIslamistpoliticscanbeproductivelyreadin terms ofandagainst the grain ofsuchbroadcategorizationsasantidemocraticantiwomanorviolentmdashthat is as commitments that at different moments in various localesbothencourageandconstrainbroad-basedpoliticalparticipationdisruptandratifyhierarchicalgendernormsresistandreproducestate-sanctionedbrutalityThepointofreadingIslamistpoliticsinthiswayisnottosug-gestthatIslamistsaresecretlydemocraticfeministandopposedtovio-lenceRatherthepointistodrawattentiontothecomplexityandcon-tradictionserasedbyeasygeneralizationsontheonehandandtheoftenunacknowledgedfluidityandculturaladaptabilityofotherwisefamiliarpoliticalcategoriesontheother

Islamism and Democracy

DespiteimportantdifferencesamongIslamistthinkerstheyhaveincom-monatendencytoviewhumansovereigntyastransgressiveofdivinelawandsharetheaspirationtoestablishsharilsquoaastheprimaryorsolesourceofauthorityAsisoftennotedsuchpremisesandaspirationsrunafoulofassumptionsaboutpopularruleattheheartofdemocracynamelythathumanbeingshavetherighttolegislaterulesforcollectivebehaviorandarecapableofthewisdomrequiredtodevisejustlawsInrecentyearspolicymakersandcommentatorshaveevincedaparticularpreoccupa-tionwiththewaysinwhichIslamistnotionsofdivineauthoritythrottlethespiritandpracticeofpopularsovereigntySomehaveevengonesofarastocharacterizeIslamistsasldquoIslamo-fascistsrdquoanimatedbyhatredoftheldquodemocratic Westrdquo psychologically unable to contend with the fluidity

30

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INTRODUCTION

andindeterminacythatmarkpopularruleandeagertoconvertelectionsintoaldquoone-manone-voteone-timerdquomechanismforestablishinganIs-lamicstate(Murdock2002MRubin2005Kramer1993)

SuchviewsareechoedbythoseIslamistskeentoportraydemocracynotonlyasantitheticaltothesupremacyofdivinelawbutasaTrojanhorseforWesternimperialismFormanyIslamistsincludingseveralinthis volumedemocracy is justone symptomofametastasizingmoralandspiritualbankruptcywherebymoraltransgressionsaretransfiguredintonaturalurgescrassself-interestbecomesthebedrockofcollectivelifeandthedivineplanfortheuniverseandallthingsinitisreducedtoa system of physical causality just waiting to be mastered by way ofhumaningenuity(REuben2007)Qutbcallsthisdiseasedviewoftheworldjahiliyyaanditsignalsnotonlyhumanarrogancebutatransgres-sionagainstdivineauthoritythescopeofwhichencompassesbothpub-licandprivatedomainsofhumanaffairsaswellasbothvisibleandun-seendimensionsoftheuniverseFormanyIslamistssuchtransgressionisattherootofmuchofwhatpassesforMuslimruleinthecontemporaryworldmdashnationalistdemocraticandmonarchicalalikeSucharroganceisalsosaidtobethepatternunderlyingalonghistoryofunrelievedWest-ernaggressionagainstIslaminwhichtheChristianCrusadesEuropeancolonialismIsraelitreatmentofPalestiniansethniccleansinginBosniaGermananti-TurkishviolencetheAmericaninvasionofIraqandDutchcartoonsofMuhammadarebutafewexamples

YetthereisarangeofviewsamongIslamistsaboutboththesubstanceofdemocracyanditscompatibilitywiththereligio-politicalrenewaltheyadvocateAccordingtoQaradawiforexampleldquotheessenceofdemoc-racyisthatpeoplechoosewhorulesoverthemandmanagestheiraf-fairsthatnorulerorregimetheydislikeisforceduponthemthattheyhavetherighttocalltherulertoaccountifheerrsandtoremovehimfromofficeincaseofmisconductandthatpeoplearenotforcedineco-nomicsocialculturalorpoliticaldirectionsthattheyneitherrecognizenor acceptrdquo (Qaradawi1997132 also chapter9 in this volume)TohimthereisnoheavierburdenoppressingMuslimsinthecontemporaryworld thandespotism indeed it is throughdespoticgovernments thatMuslimshavebeenforcedtosubmittootherillsincludingtheneglectofthesharilsquoaandthecoerciveimpositionofsecularismandwesternizationDemocracy then recommends itself to Qaradawi as the most effectiveavailableantidotetodespotismandtheafflictionsofwhichitservesasavehicle

WheremanyamongtheIslamistsandthelsquoulamahaveseenconsider-able tensionbetween IslamanddemocracyQaradawiprofesses to seenoneAswesuggestedearlierbyfarthemostcommonoftheIslamistreservationsaboutademocraticsystemrelatestothesovereigntyofthepeoplewhichistakentocontravenetheideathatGodaloneissovereignQaradawi however is unperturbedby such concernsThe rule of the

31

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INTRODUCTION

peopleoughttobeseenhearguesnotinoppositiontotheruleofGodbutratherinoppositiontotheruleofthedespotMorefundamentallyQaradawirsquos view of democracy does not necessarily require that thepeopleshouldbeabletooverturndivinelyinstitutednormsRatherhisassumptionisthatpeopleexercisetheirsovereigntywithinconstitutionalboundsandMuslimslivinginapredominantlyMuslimdemocraticpol-itywouldlikewisenotwishtotransgresstheparametersoflegitimatehumanactionlaiddownintheIslamicfoundationaltexts(seeQaradawichapter9inthisvolumeandcfFeldman2007)

NadiaYassineofMoroccorsquosJusticeandSpiritualityAssociationisan-othercaseinpointWhilecriticalofthedemocraticgesturesembracedbyamonarchythatshedepictsasallergictogenuinelypopularsovereigntyYassineinsiststhatthemodelofMuslimruleadumbratedintheummafoundedbytheProphetMuhammadandinparticulartheConstitutionofMedina17isnothingshortofdemocratic(NYassine2005d2005e)UnliketheMuslimdynastiesthatarosetousurpitYassinecontendsthiscommunity was participatory egalitarian committed to freedom andexpressiveofGodrsquosmercyMostimportantitwasgovernedalwaysbytheQurrsquoanicprincipleofshura (consultation)bywhichYassinemeansaphilosophy of power that places sovereignty in the community ratherthaninanyindividuallinksvirtuetodeliberationratherthanobedienceandexhortsbelieverstocontinuallyadaptQurrsquoanicprinciplesthroughijtihad rather than adhere reflexively to precedent (N Yassine 2006a182ndash862005d)ManyscholarsandjournalistsremainskepticaloftheJSArsquosasyetuntestedcommitment toproceduraldemocracyandworrythatNadiaandher fatherAbdessalamultimatelyseektoestablishanIslamic state inhospitable to tolerance pluralism and civil liberties(Maghraoui2001Brandon2007Whitlock2006)YetothersarguethattheJSAisagenuinelypopulistorganizationthatrepresentstheunrepre-sentedtendstothewelfareofthedispossessedandbothexpressesandcontributestoanincreasinglyvibrantcivilsocietyinMorocco(Cavatorta2006Entelis2002)

QaradawirsquosandYassinersquosargumentstogethersuggestthatdemocracycanandhasservedaseitheracosmeticcoverfordespotismoranauthen-ticallyIslamiccheckuponcorruptandarbitraryruleAtissueinIslamistargumentsforandagainstdemocracythenarenotonlywhatcountsasldquoauthenticIslamrdquoandtheintentionsofthosewhoclaimtoknowitbutalsothecontentandcharacterofdemocracyitselfParadoxicallybothIslamistsopposedtodemocracyandthosewhotakeIslamismasinher-entlyantidemocraticregardthisasasimplematterwithanobviousan-swerdemocracyisanexpressionofandevensynonymouswithliberal-ismcapitalismandtheWestYetdemocracyisbothmorecapaciousand

17TheConstitutionofMedinawasanagreementtheProphethadenteredintowiththelocalcommunitiesincludingJewishtribesuponhisemigrationfromMeccatoMedina

32

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INTRODUCTION

moredistinctthanthispresumptionsuggestsTheworditselfofcoursederivesfromtheancientGreekdemokratiawhichmeansrule(kratos)ofthepeople(demos)andmanyderivetheequationofdemocracyandtheWestfromthisassociationwithclassicalGreeceYetancientGreekphi-losopherssuchasPlatosawindemocracythespecterofmobrulepartic-ularly vulnerable to demagoguery and despotism (a suspicion notablyechoedbyAmerican founder JamesMadison)Contrary to thedemo-cratic idealof inclusivenessmoreover citizenship inGreekdemocracyexcludedasubstantialpartofthepopulationincludingwomenslavesandforeignersFinallytheextenttowhichtheancientGreeksmayevenbecalledWesternisamatterofgreatdisputeparticularlyastheldquoWestrdquoisacategoryofrelativelyrecentprovenancethroughwhichhistoryandgeographyhavebeenretroactivelyorganized18DespitedepictionsoftheHellenicworldasWesternancientGreeksdidnotinfactviewthem-selvesintheseterms19

TheequationofdemocracywiththeWestalsopresupposestheexis-tenceofacoherentldquoWesterncivilizationrdquowitheitherculturallyhomoge-neousrootsorclearlydelineatedhistoricalandcontemporarybounda-riesorbothYetwhatiscalledtheWestisanamalgamationofmultipletraditionsincludingtheGreekRomanJudaicChristianandIslamicmdashtraditionsthatarethemselvespolyvalentratherthanhomogeneousmdashandistodaycharacterizedbyporousbordershybridsubculturesandmyriaddebtstodiversecivilizationspastandpresent20AsageographicmarkeritisvirtuallyimpossibletopinpointexactlywheretheWestbeginsandendsandthisisespeciallysonowthatpeoplesinformationandmate-rial goods crisscross cultural andnational borders atwill creating allkindsoftransnationalsubnationalandmultipleidentitiesthatshiftandreconstitutethemselvesinunpredictablewaysEventhosevaluesidenti-fiedasWesternoftenappearelsewhereinotherguisesIndeedscholarssuggestthatavarietyoftheldquostandardsexportedbytheWestanditscul-turalindustriesthemselvesturnouttobeofculturallymixedcharacterifweexaminetheirculturallineagesrdquo(Pieterse199553)

Manyalsoarguethatdemocracyisnotonlydistinctfrombutinten-sionwithboththetheoryandpracticeofpoliticsinldquoWesternrdquosocieties

18MichaelGillespie(19997ndash10)arguesthattherereadingofhistorygeographyandculturethroughtheprismofthissenseofldquotheWestrdquobegannoearlierthanthenineteenthcenturyTheideaofatimelessandbrightlinebetweenWestandEastisalsochallengedbyJeremyBrottonrsquosstudy(19989096ndash97)ofthediplomaticandintellectualexchangesbe-tweenEuropeandtheOttomanEmpireintheearlymodernperiodBrottonshowsnotonlytheextentandamityofsuchexchangesbutapersistentuncertaintyaboutwherepreciselyEuropeldquoendedrdquoandAsialdquobeganrdquo

19AncientGreeksunderstoodthemselvesasgeographicallywestofthebarbariansbutnotWesterninthecontemporarysensethatisasbothaculturalandhistoricalcategory

20StevenRuncimanrsquoswork(19543480)ontheCrusadesforexampledemonstratesaldquolongsequenceofinteractionandfusionbetweenOrientandOccidentoutofwhichourcivilizationhasgrownrdquo

33

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INTRODUCTION

many of which are more accurately classified as liberal and capitalist(Wood1994Wolin2001BallandDagger1999)Whileitisnowcom-monplacetospeakofldquoliberaldemocracyrdquoinasinglebreathliberalismanddemocracyareconceptsandpracticeswithverydifferenthistoriesandpresuppositionsUnlikedemocracyforexampleliberalismemergedfromthecrucibleofChristianreligiouswarsandintandemwiththeas-cendanceofamiddleclassthatpresagedtheendofEuropeanfeudalismTheliberalnation-statecanthusbeviewedasbothanexpressionandaconsolidationofcapitalismontheonehandandtheprincipleofasepa-rationbetweenchurchandstateontheotherBycontrastthereisnoth-ingaboutdemocracyeitherasasystemofgovernanceoracultureofpar-ticipationthatisinherentlysecularIndeedAlexisdeTocquevillefamouslyinsistedthatAmericandemocracycannotandshouldnotbesecularasreligionhelpsshiftattentionawayfromimmediatematerialpreoccupa-tionstolargerconcernsofcommunitycooperationandmoralityInfactmanydemocratictheoristsarguethatgenuinelyinclusivepopularsover-eignty is antithetical to the sharp inequalities of wealth and politicalpowerthatcapitalismoftenproducesandlegitimates

SuchongoingdefinitionalandsubstantivedebatessuggestthatthereismuchmoreatstakeindemocraticpoliticsthanprocedurespertainingtogovernmentauthorityandorderandpointtoawidespreadifelusiveunderstandingofdemocracynotjustasasetofinstitutionsbutasTocque-villesuggestsawayoflifeSeveralpoliticaltheoristshavecharacterizedthiselusiveunderstandingintermsofaldquodemocraticethosrdquoBythistheymeanbothanidealandanargumentforacultureofparticipationactivepowersharingmutualaccountabilityinclusivenessanddeliberationinwhichcitizensmayroutinelyandsafelychallengenotonlyspecificpoli-ciesandpolitical institutionsbutalso thevalues thatgoverncollectivelifeprinciplesofinclusionandexclusionandthepremisesofauthorityitself(Connolly1995JPEuben2003Sadiki2004)AdemocraticethosismuchmoredifficulttomeasureorquantifythanforexampleSamuelHuntingtonrsquosparsimoniousdefinitionofdemocracyasapolityinwhichtherehavebeentwoconsecutivepeacefulchangesofgovernmentbywayof freeand fairelections (Huntington1991)21Yetademocraticethosmakesitpossibletobothrecognizeanddisaggregatethepreconditionsaspirations mechanisms and institutions bundled into ldquodemocracyrdquotherebybringingintofocusforexamplethefrequentlyantidemocratic

21Manypoliticalscientistsprefertodefinedemocracyintermsofproceduresdesignedtorealizepopularruleincludingfreecompetitiveandfairelectionsalongwithstateprotec-tionofcertainrightsandlibertiesSuchaformalminimalistdefinitionhastheadvantageofdetachingdemocracyfromquestionsoforiginsandofferingastandardtowhichallgov-ernmentsmaybeheldregardlessofcultureandplaceAsKeithTopper(2005205ndash7)ar-gueshoweveritalsotendstosidestepknottyquestionsaboutthesubstanceofrepresenta-tion power responsiveness and accountability that are arguably central to democraticpolitics

34

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INTRODUCTION

casttoelectionsimposedbyelitesorforeignpowersthefeltimpotenceofmanycitizensinestablisheddemocraciesandthosehighlyparticipa-torycivilsocietiesthatflourishevenundermonarchicortheocraticrule

Forourpurposes inparticularademocraticethosmakesvisible theparadoxofanIslamistmovementthatseekstomobilizeordinaryMus-limsagainstcoercivepowerbutinthenameofareligio-politicalorderlargelyimmunizedfromchallengeQutbisanaptillustrationhereashistendencytogroundhisownspecialauthorityandinsightintheunsulliedwisdomofordinarybelieversmakesitpossibletoreadhisworkaseitherabriefagainstdemocracy(amongotherthings)oranenactmentofitIn-asmuchasdemocracyasaformofgovernanceisidentifiedwithpopularsovereigntyQutbrsquosbasicpremisethat thefoundationof legitimateau-thoritymustbedivineratherthanhumansuggeststhatheisunambigu-ouslyantidemocraticMoreoverQutbrsquoseffortstopluralizereligiousandpolitical authority express not a confidence in common wisdom butratheradesiretoclaimforhimselfthestatureofareligiousexpertwhodespitehislackofIslamicacademiccredentialscanclearlyseewhatoth-erscannotQutbcharacterizestherealIslamasself-evidentbuthealsoassumesthatonlyasmallvanguardofbelieversbesideshimselfwillhavetheabilitytorecognizeitandactdecisivelytoremaketheworldinitsimageSounderstoodthesignofldquochosennessrdquoisunyieldingcommitmenttoestablishingareligio-politicalorderthatsimultaneouslypresumesthesupremacyofthefewcapableoftrueknowledgeandpromisesaworldinwhichdissentitselfwillbecomebothunnecessaryandillegitimate

Yetifdemocracyrefersnotonlytoasystemofgovernanceorsetofprocedurestorealizepopularsovereigntybutalsotopracticesthatdis-ruptthoseforceswhichconcentratepowerandestablishpoliticalexclu-sionthecharacterizationofQutbrsquosworkassimplyantidemocraticmissesa crucial dimensionof its significance and appealAs the sacred textscontaintherulesandregulationsmeanttogovernbothpublicandpri-vateaffairsQutbrsquosinsistencethatordinaryuntrainedMuslimsmusten-gagethemdirectlyisinmanywaysademocratizationofaccesstoau-thoritySuchaccesscandisruptdeeplyentrenchedpatternsofpowerandpowerlessness particularlywhen conjoined to Islamist arguments thatarbitrarypowerisun-Islamicthatreligiousknowledgedependsoncom-mitmentratherthantrainingorexpertise thatMuslimshavetherightandobligationtodeterminewhenrulersareillegitimateandthatthosewhopreferordertojusticesecuritytofreedomandmoneytopietyhaveforfeitedanyclaimtoauthority

ThisaspectofIslamismhasfrequentlybeencomparedtotheProtestantReformationandmorespecificallytoCalvinistsrsquoattemptstotransferldquore-ligiousauthorityawayfromofficiallysanctionedindividualswhointer-prettextstoordinarycitizensrdquo(EGoldberg19913alsocfLoimeier2005)Suchaparallelhassparkedagreatdealofscholarlyspeculation

35

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

regardingapossibleldquoIslamicReformationrdquo22andarangeofargumentsaboutwhetherandhowIslamismmightfacilitatethedemocratizationofMuslim societies much as the Protestant Reformation is said to haveheralded the emergence of European ldquoliberal democracyrdquo While suchcomparisonsareevocativeafullerunderstandingof IslamismrequiresfirstsituatingitinrelationtoahistoricalshiftinthenatureandlocusofreligiousauthorityinIslambeginninginthenineteenthcenturyAsschol-arsofMuslimsocietieshavepointedouttheimpactofmasseducationnewtechnologiesfordisseminatingknowledgeandinformationanddra-matically changed social economic and political contexts have madeavailabletoamateurswhathadpreviouslybeenthepurviewofreligiousexpertsAtthesametimeithasinauguratedafragmentationofauthor-itywithintheveryranksofthelsquoulamathatcontinuestothepresentday23

InthiscontexttheascendanceandinfluenceofautodidactssuchasQutbHasanal-BannalsquoAbdal-SalamFarajandBinLadensimultaneouslyex-pressandaccelerateanongoingrenegotiationofauthorityoverwhomayspeakforIslamandonwhatbasisthepathofwhichisstillunfoldingandtheoutcomeasyetuncertain

Islamism and Gender

One already apparent consequence of this ongoing renegotiation overwhomayspeakforIslamandonwhatbasisistheentryofwomenintothe interpretive fray This development is increasingly unsettling thoseunwrittengendernormsarguablyattheveryheartofIslamistthoughtdisruptingthestandardsofmasculinityandfemininitythatreflecthowparticularculturesorganizehumanbeingsrsquosocialandreproductiveactiv-itiesintorolesthatareinturnthoughttoexpresstheldquonaturerdquoofmenand women Such norms are frequently considered tangential to theknottyproblemsofdefiningIslamismandadumbratingitscentralideasyetarangeofscholarshiponculturespastandpresenthasshownthatgenderisconsistentlytheterrainoverwhichbattlesforpoliticalcontrolandculturalidentityarefoughtMorespecificallyresearchindisciplinessuchasanthropologyhistoryclassicsandpostcolonialstudieshasdem-onstratedthatculturesinwhichfemalebodiesandbehaviorareregardedas indicesofmoralpurity tend to symbolically transformwomen intoconduitsof cultural corruption in timesof internal crisis and externalthreat(Papenek1994Chatterjee1990Tavakoli-Targhi1991Just1989Cohen1991Welter1966Bloch1978)Thisisespeciallytrueofcontem-

22Foralatenineteenth-centuryassessmentoftheprospectsforaldquoMuhammadanRefor-mationrdquoseeBlunt1882132ndash73

23EickelmanandPiscatori199637ndash39131ndash35Zaman2006Suchfragmentationhasinmanywaysbeenacceleratedbytheexplosionofdigitalcultureswhichpromoteamongotherthingsaldquoformofempoweredamateurismrdquo(Mirzoeff20026)

36

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

poraryreligio-politicalmovementswhosememberstendtoldquoidealizepa-triarchalstructuresofauthorityandmoralityrdquoendorsegenderdualismasgod-givenornaturalandcondemnvigorouslyrecentchangesingen-derrelationsasasymptomandsymbolofsecularistmoralbankruptcy(Riesebrodt1993Moghadam1992Hawley1994)

SeveralchaptersinthisvolumeilluminateIslamistgendernormsbyre-vealing thecharacterandcontentof Islamistconcernsabout theplaceandpurityofMuslimwomenmdashpreoccupationsFatimaMernissi(199199)hasgonesofarastocharacterizeasanobsessionDespiteimportantdifferences among Islamists thinkers many endorse gender norms inwhichthefairlyconventionalinsistencethatfemalenatureisdefinedinand through reproduction undergirds an understanding of women assymbolsofmoralvirtueandvesselsofculturalpurityThisviewsustainstheclaimthatmenandwomenareequalinreligiousbeliefbutperformfundamentallydifferentandcomplementaryfunctionsinsocietyWhilemenarenaturallymadetoruleinboththepublicandprivatedomainawomanbelongsinthedomesticrealmwhereherprimaryroleistobeawifeandmotheraswellastoinsuretheintegrityofthefamilythefirstschoolofmoraleducationAssuchfunctionsarerootedinaninescap-ablehumannaturefashionedbyGodawomanrsquosinabilityorunwilling-nesstoperformherdutiessignalsadisobediencetothedivinewillandpresages the corruption of the Muslim family from within From thisvantagepointtheWesterninsistenceonfullequalitybetweenthesexesisdoubly pernicious it at once liberates women from basic moral con-straintsandenslavesthemtomutuallyreinforcingsexualandcapitalistexploitationAsMurtazaMutahhari(1998xxxi)arguescapitalismmakesuseofwomentomarket itsgoodsldquoby trading inhonourandrespectthrough[their]powertoenticerdquotherebyldquotransform[ing]manintoaninvoluntaryagentofconsumptionrdquoInasmuchaswomenareresponsiblefor producing the next generation of Muslim men destined to restoreIslamtoitsformergloryitisnotonlythevirtueofwomenortheinteg-rityofthefamilythathangsinthebalancebutthefutureofIslamiccivili-zationitself

Zaynab al-Ghazali andMutahharimake several of these argumentsexplicitlyandindetail(seechapters10and11)butinmuchofIslamistrhetoricthenatureandsignificanceofwomenareestablishedindirectlyandsymbolicallyandthroughthreerecurrentimagesinparticularThefirstisofwomenassilentsymbolsofculturalmoralandsexualvulnera-bilityvoicelessfiguresinneedofmasculineprotectionorwhenitistoolatedefiledbodiesthatmutelydemandvengeanceSoforexamplelsquoAb-dallahlsquoAzzam(oneofBinLadenrsquosmentorsseechapter18)graphicallydetailstheagonizinghumiliationofyoungmenunabletoactwhentheAfghanwoman isldquocryingout forhelpher childrenarebeing slaugh-tered her women are being raped the innocent are killed and theircorpsesscatteredrdquo(lsquoAzzam1987a)Inthesecondimagewomenfunction

37

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

muchlikeachorusthatspeaksinpermittedcadencestoratifymasculineendeavorsSuchisthecaseforexampleinBinLadenrsquos1996ldquoDeclara-tionofWaragainsttheAmericansOccupyingtheLandoftheTwoHolyPlacesrdquo(seechapter18)wherethewomenexhortmentojihadinthefollowing way ldquoPrepare yourself like a struggler the matter is biggerthanwordsAreyougoingtoleaveusforthewolvesofKufr[unbe-lief]eatingourwingsWherearethefreemendefendingfreewomenbyarmsDeath isbetter than life inhumiliation Some scandals andshameswillneverbeotherwiseeradicatedrdquo24InthethirdimagewomenarecreaturesnotofthisworldbutofanothervirginalrewardsforthecourageousmartyrintheafterlifeThisisevidentinthefinalinstructionsforthe911hijackersforexamplewhereMuslimldquobrothersrdquoareurgedto purify their carnal impulses sharpen their knives for the dhabh (slaughter)andheedthecallofthehur lsquoayn (theblack-eyedones)await-ingtheminParadise(seechapter19)

Such rhetoric primarily registers women as an extensionmirror ormeasure of masculinity and together with explicit Islamist argumentsabouthumannatureandthefamilyarticulatesIslamistgendernormsinwhichmenandwomeneachhaveaproperlocationandpurposeinadi-vinely ordained social hierarchy Deviance from this gendered scriptthussignalsdisruptionofamuchbroaderreligio-politicalorderitbothpresumes and seeks to bring into existence The disruption caused byforeign aggression in particular exacerbates the tendency to translateconflict into an assault on Muslim masculinity and to conceptualizewomenaspotentialvehiclesforWesterncorruptioninneedofguidingand guarding Women such as Zaynab al-Ghazali and Nadia Yassinewho seek a prominent place and voice within the Islamist movementhavehadlittlechoicebuttocontendwiththisgenderedscriptDoingsohasentailedamongotherthingsnavigatingcarefullybetweenIslamistcharacterizations of womenrsquos visibility and agency as symptomatic ofthe new jahiliyya on the one hand and essentializing arguments thatequateIslamwithveilingfemalegenitalmutilationandhonorkillingsontheother

AsthechaptersonGhazaliandYassinesuggestIslamistwomenhavenegotiatedbetweensuchconstraintsandpressuresandtheirownambi-tionsindifferentwaysApioneeringdalsquoiya(onewhoinvitesMuslimstogreater piety)Ghazalirsquos own life reveals a fierce resistance to conven-tionalnormsofdomesticityevenasmuchofher(earlier)workappearsto embrace an Islamist gender ideology that defines women as wivesmothers andldquobuilders ofmenrdquo (al-Hashimi 1990 118)By contrastYassineisawifeandmotherwhoembracesanldquoIslamicfeminismrdquothatrequiresldquoreappropriatingtheinstrumentsofclassicaltheologyrdquoanden-

24TheIslamistjournalSawt alshyJihadhasgonesofarastofeatureldquowomenrsquosvoicesrdquointheformofrolemodelsnamedforexampleumm alshyshahid(motherofthemartyr)al-thoughitisunclearthattheseldquovoicesrdquoareactuallywomenrsquos(SUsher2004)

38

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INTRODUCTION

gaging the textsdirectly through ijtihad (NYassine2003) In this re-spect Yassine must be understood as part of a broader effort amongMuslimwomenwithdifferentpoliticalcommitmentstosimultaneouslyadvocateandenacttheirrighttorecuperatetheldquooriginalintentrdquooftheIslamictextsIfwomenandmendoinfacthavedistinctperspectivesontheworldYassinesuggestswomenhaveaspecialobligationtoexcavatewhattheyseeasthegenderparityoftheQurrsquoanburiedbeneaththoseldquomachointerpretationsrdquoofIslamuponwhichmenhavebuilttheirprivi-legeandpower(Khalaf2006)25

ManyAnglo-AmericanandEuropean feministsworry that Islamistsseekonly to secureor restorepatriarchalpowerConverselymany Is-lamist women view feminism as a term and a movement inescapablyWesterninoriginfreightedwiththelegacyofcolonialismanduneasilyimplicatedinculturalimperialismThisapplieseventoYassinewhoisunwillingtoadoptwithoutqualificationalabelsheassociateswithagen-dasopposedtoherowntheWesttheMoroccanstateMaghribi(North-westAfrican)elitesYetfeminismitselfisahighlycontestedtermwithin theso-calledWestitisthebearerofmultiplemeaningssomeofwhichareevenopposedandischaracterizedbydeepdisagreementsaboutwhowomenarewhatwomenneedwhoisauthorizedtoworkonwomenrsquosbehalf andbywhatmeans Inasmuch as these various feminismsmayshareonlyastatedconcernforwomenrsquoswelfarethereisnothinginco-herentinmodifyingldquofeminismrdquowithldquoIslamicrdquoldquoMuslimrdquoorevenldquoIs-lamistrdquounlessone iscommitted toarguing thatfirst Islam isanun-changingessencebeyondhistorypoliticsandculturesecondthereisaneutralobjectivevantagefromwhichtoidentifythisessenceonceandforallandfinallytheIslamicessencesoidentifiedisfundamentallyin-compatiblewitheffortstoimprovetheconditionsandqualityofwomenrsquoslivesBythesametokenIslamistwomenwhorejectthetermfeminismcanbe(althoughnotalwaysare)deeplycommittedtoimprovingwom-enrsquoswelfareaswellasactivelyresistanttoeffortsthatreduceortrans-formthemintosilentaccessoriesofmalepower

YassineandGhazalidifferaboutwhatwomenareandshouldbeyetbroadlyspeakingbothmaybeconsideredpartofarecenttrendtowardthe feminizationofdalsquowa Dalsquowa literallymeanscallappealor sum-monsbutthetermhascometosignifyavarietyofpracticesandargu-mentsmeanttoexhortinviteandguideMuslimstowhatisregardedasproperconductandmoraldevotionWomenrsquosparticipationindalsquowais

25WomenrsquosparticipationintheldquoproductionofofficialIslamicknowledgerdquohasalonghistoryalthoughtheyhaveoftendonesoinrelativeobscurityandwithoutthebenefitofeducation in the Islamicsciences thathas legitimateddirectengagementwith thesacredtexts (Cooke 2001 xiv Badran and Cooke 2004) Pioneering attempts to read genderequalityinIslamarealsonotconfinedtowritingbywomenasevincedbyQasimAminrsquosTahrir alshymarrsquoa [TheLiberationofWoman] (1899)andMumtaz lsquoAlirsquosHuquqshye niswan [TheRightsofWomen](1898)

39

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

notabrandnewphenomenonasisevidentinGhazalirsquosworkwiththeEgyptianSocietyofMuslimLadiesinthe1930sYetfromEgypttoPaki-stantoSaudiArabiatotheUnitedStatesthenumberoffemaledalsquoiyashasproliferatedexponentially inrecentyears(Cooke2001Mahmood2005Hirschkind2006)Thisreflectsinpartcurrentdoctrinalempha-sesondalsquowaasincumbentuponbothmenandwomenanddependentlessupontechnicalknowledgethanmoralvirtueandpracticalfamiliaritywiththeIslamictradition(Mahmood200565ndash66)It isalsoaconse-quenceofrecentpoliticalandsocioeconomictransformationsinMuslimsocietiesincludingtheexpansionofmasseducationthathasnotonlyin-creasedwomenrsquosliteracyandsocialmobilitybutalsomadeIslamictextsmoreaccessibletheproliferationoftechnologiesmdashfromthecassettetapetotheInternetmdashthatfacilitatethecirculationofreligiousknowledgeevenamongthosewhocannotreadortraveltheprecedentsetbythevigorousparticipationof IranianwomeninpostrevolutiondebatesaboutIslamandthemodeloflegalactivismevidentintheIslamistmovementrsquosownchallenge to the lsquoulamarsquos status as gatekeepers of religious knowledge(Singerman2005Mir-Hosseini1999)

If Ghazali and Yassine exemplify the feminization of dalsquowa amongelitesthemosquemovementinEgyptillustratesthegrowingparticipa-tionofwomenfromdiversesocialbackgroundsinreligiousclassesde-votedtostudyinganddebatingwhatIslamrequiresforawomantobeldquomorallyuprightrdquointhecontemporaryworld(Mahmood2005)Con-ceptualizingpiety in termsof adeepandholistic commitment to self-transformationparticipantsinthemosquemovementareconcernedlesswithmattersofsovereigntyandpoliticsconventionallyunderstoodandmorewiththeldquomoralcultivationrdquoofthosedailypracticesseenascrucialtobecomingclosertoGod(Mahmood2005)SomeIslamistshavecriti-cizedthis focusonpracticesofworshipasapoliticalandoverlypriva-tizedyetsuchcriticismmissestheforceofIslamistsrsquoowninsistenceondin(religion)asawayoflifeinwhichthedomainsofpublicandprivateare inextricably linked26AsSabaMahmood (2005193194) showsthesewomenrsquosintenseeffortsatldquoretrainingethicalsensibilitiesrdquohavealdquosociopoliticalforcerdquothatextendswellbeyondmattersofgovernancefacilitatingnolessthantheemergenceofaldquonewsocialandmoralorderrdquoEvidenceofitstransformativepowermaybefoundnotonlyinthesheernumbersandvarietyofwomenmdashwealthyandpoor literateand illiter-atemdashparticipatinginthemosquemovementbutalsointherhetoricalandpoliticaleffortsbythestateandsomeIslamiststocurtailcontrolordis-creditit(Mahmood200571194)

26ParticipantsinthemosquemovementinturnareoftencriticalofwhattheyseeasthereductionofIslamtotokensofculturalauthenticityorofitsinstrumentalizationbybothnationalistsandIslamiststheycharacterizeasmoreinterestedinpoliticalmaneuveringthanreligiouspiety

40

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

Understoodtoincludebothwrittenandembodiedpracticesthefemi-nizationof dalsquowa illustrates theways inwhichwomen fromdifferentperspectivesandsocialclassesareinsistingonengagingthesacredtextsdirectly for and with one another without the mediating authority ofmenwhohavetraditionallyheldthemonopolyonsuchactivitiesAsSu-danese Islamist Lubabah al-Fadl argues ldquoAs an insan [human being]whohappenstobeawomanIhavearighttorejectthemanipulativeexegesesofoursharilsquoa thatthreatenmyexistenceinawaythat isnotconsistentwiththeGodlywayandtoapplymyownijtihadtorectifyer-roneoustendenciesbysomeshuyukh[pluralofshaykh]rdquo(Sadiki2004290)DespitetheproliferationofvoicesintentonclaimingforthemselvestheauthoritytodemarcatewhatisauthenticallyIslamicandun-Islamiconceandforallcontestationoveritsscopeandmeaningproceedsapacefacilitatedatleastinpartbywomenformerlyexcludedfromtheconver-sationAtthesametimeIslamistwomenrsquosagencyandclaimstoauthorityarefrequentlystillpredicatedonawillingnesstofollowfairlypatriarchalrulesaboutwherehowandwithwhomtheymaypracticetheirvocation(Hirschkind2003Sadiki2004283)

Islamism and Violence

IfgenderisfrequentlyanimplicitpreoccupationamongIslamistsjihadisarguably Islamistsrsquomost consistently explicit concern Jihad is derivedfromtheArabicverbthatmeanstostruggleortostriveyetitisaparticu-larkindofstruggle that isofconcern tomanyof thefigurescollectedheretheoftenviolentstruggleagainstapostatesandinfidelsbothathomeandabroadtowhicheveryindividualMuslimmustcontributeTheclaimthatfightingunbelieversisthepreeminentenactmentofindividualMus-limpiety seems to justify characterizationsof Islam ingeneral and Is-lamisminparticularassanctioningevenencouragingviolenceYetwhatIslamistsrepresentasjihadtout courtisahistoricallyspecificunderstand-ingderivedfromahighlyselectiveuseoftextsandprecedentsprominentamongthemaformerlyobscureclaimbytheinfluentialfourteenth-cen-tury jurist IbnTaymiyya thatMongol rulerswhohad contravened Is-lamiclawcouldbesubjecttoforcibleremovalFarfromadefinitiveex-pressionof Islamldquoproperlyunderstoodrdquo such Islamist argumentsnotonlymarkasignificantdeparturefrommuchofantecedentdoctrineandpractice but also diminish the importance of ongoing disagreementsamongMuslimsabouttheformandpurposesofjihad

TobeginwithMuslimscholarshavetendedtoconsiderjihadagainstforeignenemiesafard kifaya(collectiveobligation)thatisadutyagroupofpeoplewithinthecommunitymayperformonbehalfoftherestandonethatpresupposesalegitimateMuslimleadertodeclareorleadthechargeJuristshavedistinguishedthisfromthefard lsquoayn(individualduty)thatmustbefulfilledbyeverysingleMuslimincasesofdefensivejihad

41

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

thatiswhentheummaisunderattackManyIslamistsincludedheretakeamuchlessnuancedviewofjihadAsamodeofpoliticalactionQutbarguesjihadmustberegardedasaldquopermanentconditionnotanocca-sionalconcernrdquoonethatincurrentcircumstancesrequiresdeedsratherthanwordsstruggleratherthancontemplationrevolutionathomeaswellasresistanceabroad(Qutb199167ndash6882)lsquoAbdal-SalamFarajarguesalongsimilarlinesthatthenatureoftheattackonIslammakespolitical authorization by a caliph (ldquodeputyrdquo referring to a legitimatesuccessortotheProphetrsquosleadership)unnecessaryafterallldquoleadershipovertheMuslimsis(always)intheirownhandsifonlytheymakethismanifestIfthereissomethinglackingintheleadershipwellthereisnothingthatcannotbeacquiredrdquo(Jansen1986asec93)

SuchargumentsareadeliberaterejectionofearlyMuslimmodernistswhohademphasizedthelargelydefensivecharacterofjihadandsoughttoshowthatrelationsbetweenMuslimsandnon-MuslimswerenormallypeacefulratherthanantagonisticMahmudShaltut(d1963)therectorof al-Azhar from 1958 to 1963 had argued for example that theQurrsquoanicversesonfightingldquoprohibittheprovocationofhostilityandthisprohibitionisreinforcedbyGodrsquosrepugnancetoaggressionandbyhisdislikeofthosewhoprovokehostilityrdquo(Peters199674onShaltutseeZebiri1993)ConversionbyforceisanathematoIslamShaltutaversandfightingiscommandedonlyindefenseinresponsetoaggressionini-tiatedbyothersEvendefensivejihadmustaimatldquotheterminationoftheaggressionandtheestablishmentofreligiouslibertydevotedtoGodandfreefromanypressureorforcerdquo(Peters199675)

ManyIslamistsexplicitlydismisssuchargumentsasasymptomoffalseconsciousnessoneamongmanydestructiveeffectsofcolonialdomina-tionMawdudiargues for example thatwhile imperialists ravage theworld to satisfy their greed jihad alone ldquoconjures up the vision of amarching band of religious fanatics with savage beards and fiery eyesbrandishingdrawnswordsandattackingtheinfidelswherevertheymeetthemrdquoHavinginternalizedthis imageMuslimsrushtoapologizeandrenouncearmedstruggleInthiswayhelamentscolonialistsretaintheexclusiverighttoldquofightwitharmsandammunitionwhilewearecon-tented with our pen and our tonguerdquo (Mawdudi 1948 1ndash3) SayyidQutbforhispartagreedthatIslamdoesnotcountenancespreadingitsmessagebyforceandcoercionyethehadlittlepatiencewiththosewhosoughttopresentjihadaslegitimateonlyinself-defense

IfweinsistoncallingIslamicjihadadefensivemovementthenwemustchangethemeaningofthewordldquodefenserdquoandmeanbyitldquothedefenseofmanrdquoagainstallthoseforcesthatlimithisfreedomWhenwetakethisbroadmeaningofthewordldquodefenserdquoweunder-standthetruecharacterofIslaminthatitproclaimstheuniversalfreedomofeverypersonandcommunityfromservitudetoanyother

42

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

individualorsocietytheendofmanrsquosarroganceandselfishnesstheestablishmentofthesovereigntyofAllahandHisLordshipthrough-outtheworldandtheruleofthedivinesharilsquoainhumanaffairs(Qutb199050)

Qutbdoesnotnameanynamesincastigatingtheldquowriterswithdefeatistandapologeticmentalities[who]writeaboutlsquojihadinIslamrsquoandtrytoremovethislsquoblotrsquofromIslamrdquo(Qutb199046)buthecouldverywellhavehadhisdistinguishedfellowEgyptianMahmudShaltutinmind

These arguments about jihad may be said to constitute a commongrammarandframeworkofanalysisformanyIslamistsalthoughseveralthinkers in this volume carefully calibrate such claims to suit variouspurposesanddifferentpublicspheresInhisjustificationfortheassassi-nationofEgyptianpresidentAnwaral-SadatforexamplelsquoAbdal-SalamFarajdepictsthestruggletoreclaimthemoralfoundationsoftheEgyp-tianstateasafightagainstjahiliyyafromwithinarguingthatthejihadagainstacorruptnationalistregimeathomemusttakeprecedenceoverfightingenemieselsewhereTheCharterofHamas(seechapter15)how-everinsiststhatallMuslimsrecognizetheprimacyofthejihadforJeru-salemweldingIslamistrhetorictothatofnationalistresistanceinanef-fortbothtofightIsraelioccupationandtocompeteforadherentswiththePalestinianLiberationOrganization(PLO)IncontrasttobothFarajandHamasBinLadenembracesaglobaljihadthatessentiallycollapsesdistinctionsbetweennationalandinternationaloffensiveanddefensivefightingenemiesathomeandthosefromafar

Yet despite such differences these arguments tend to presume thatviolent jihad is a necessary response to the pervasive power of thosewithdemonstratedhostilitytoMuslimliveslandspietiesandsensibili-tiesaformofretaliationwhoseurgencyandlegitimacyderivefromtheviolencemdashpsychologicalandeconomicaswellasphysicalmdashoftheinitialassaultThisviewofjihadsubsumesindividualsintoarchetypesofldquoin-fidelsrdquoandldquobelieversrdquoandinsodoingvitiatesmoreconventionaldis-tinctionsbetweenforexamplesoldierandcivilianorcollectiveandin-dividual responsibility It is far from inevitable that thosewhoharborsuchviewswillautomaticallyactuponthemyetthecarnagewroughtbytheattacksontheWorldTradeCenterandthePentagonin2001aBalinightclub in 2002 Madrid commuter trains in 2004 and throughoutIraqonadailybasissuggestjusthowlethalsuchclaimscanbegiventheright circumstances The fact that such violence does not discriminateamongvictimsonlyfurtherfuelsrhetoriccharacterizingIslamistsasirra-tional fanatics ldquoin love with deathrdquo terrorists animated by a religioncharacterizedbyapropensityforviolenceandauthoritarianism27

27AnxietiesabouttheparticularsusceptibilityofMuslimstoirrationalityinsularityandfanaticismhavealonganddistinguishedpedigreeinEuro-AmericanhistoryandpoliticalthoughtSeeforexampleRenan18833

43

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

AsinsomanyothermattershoweverIslamistsarehardlyofonemindonthesubjectofjihadindeedthereareIslamistswhoexplicitlyrejectthereductionof struggle toviolenceAcase inpoint isNadiaYassine(20032005c)whoinsiststhatjihadisthededicatedstruggleagainstisshytikbar(arrogance)particularlyinitscommonformasthelustforpoweranddominationAsjihadagainstistikbarisbothafinalgoalandapre-scriptionforactionYassinesuggestsitisantitheticaltoviolentpracticesthataimatdominationTheprimaryinstrumentsofjihadarenotbombsbutwords particularly thosedeployed in the art of persuasion (Fara-marzi2005NYassine2006a)WhenIslamistssuchaslsquoAbdal-SalamFarajandlsquoUmarlsquoAbdal-RahmanseektolegitimizeviolentrevolutionbyrecoursetoIslamictextsshearguestheycontravenethetruemeaningofjihadtoservetheirownarrogantendsBythesametokenBinLadenrsquosdecisiontoldquofightevilwithevilandbarbaritywithbarbarityrdquonotonlyviolatesspecificIslamicprohibitionsagainstharmingcivilianswomenandchildrenbutalsobetraystheethicalimperativetoembodythemes-sageofamercifulGodwhocautionsbelieversthat(Q8822)ldquoYouhavenopoweroverthemrdquo(NYassine2005cDaily Excelsior2002)

SuchpersistentdisagreementsamongMuslimspastandpresentsug-gest that Islam isnomore inherently violent andbloody-minded thanitmdashorChristianityor Judaism for thatmattermdashis inherentlypeacefulIslamists often claim to speak for an unchanging authentic Islam thatexistsoutsideoftimeandspaceyetthepoliticalpurchaseoftheirper-spective derives from the ways it assembles disparate yet recognizablecontemporaryexperiencesofsufferingfrustrationandlossintoanex-planationthatresonateswithMuslimswholiveincommunitiescultur-allylinguisticallyandgeographicallydistantfromoneanotherTheex-tenttowhichIslamistargumentsresonatebroadlyacrossMuslimsocie-tiesthusdependsuponasetofexperiencesandphenomenathatmarkthisparticularmomentinhistoryincludingthewaysinwhichcontempo-raryglobalinequalitiescompoundalegacyofhistoricalasymmetriestocontinuallyreproduceasenseofMuslimpowerlessnessmdashbothrealandimaginedmdashrelativetotheWestcontinuingEuro-Americanpoliticalandfinancialsupportofcorruptautocratsmanyofwhompresideoverna-tion-statesbrutallystitchedtogetherbyWesternfiat thepersistenceofauthoritarian regimes eager to control domestic unrest by catalyzingldquoMuslimragerdquotowardexternaltargetsthesenseofemasculationpro-ducedbydecadesofpoliticalrepressionandeconomicfrustrationandthecontinualflowofimagesofbloodiedMuslimbodiesdeliveredbyaburgeoningarrayofvideosatelliteandelectronicmedia

It is notable that the understanding of jihad many Islamists proffermirrorstheverystate-sanctionedviolenceagainstwhichtheyhavestrug-gledforalmostacenturyAlongwiththousandsofMuslimscaughtinthemachineryoftwentieth-centurystateviolenceprominentIslamistsfromQutbtoGhazalitoAymanal-Zawahirimdashal-Qalsquoidarsquossecondincommandmdash

44

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

arewellknowntohavebeenradicalizedbyextendedandoftenbrutaltermsofincarcerationinEgyptSyriaIraqJordanIsraelAlgeriaandelsewhere(onal-ZawahiriandprisoncfKepelandMilelli2008152ndash54)ItisthusfarfromsurprisingthatIslamistsforgedbyinterrogationtortureinprisoncampswouldconcludethatthepreeminentenactmentofMuslimpietyisviolentstruggleldquoPrisonrdquoasPalestinianKhaledAbuHilalhassaidldquoismyuniversityrdquo(Erlanger2007)anargumentmadeingreaterdetailinadifferenttimeandplacebyRussianwriterandrevolu-tionaryMaximGorky(1868ndash1936)

Apeoplebroughtupinaschoolthatremindsoneofthetormentsofhellonasmallscaleapeopleaccustomedtotheclenched-fistprisonandthewhipwillnotbeblestwithatenderheartApeoplethatthepoliceagentshaveriddenoverwillbecapableintheirturnofwalk-ingoverthebodiesofothersInacountrywhereunresthasreignedsolongit isdifficultforthepeopletorealizefromonedaytothenextthepowerofrightOnecannotdemandfromamanwhohasneverknownjusticethatheshouldbejust(Gorky1920)

InthiscontextasTimothyMitchell(1990195ndash96199207ndash8)suggestsIslamistviewsoftheworldcanbecharacterizedasbothamodeofresis-tancetostatemechanismsofcoercionandanexpressionofthemSuchisthedynamic evident inGhazalirsquosmemoirs for examplewhen shede-scribeshowtheldquodarknessofprisonsthebladesoftortureandthevi-ciousbeatingsonly increasetheenduranceandresolveofthefaithfulrdquo(Ghazali19786)

There is no doubt a great deal of pragmatism at work in IslamistargumentsaboutviolenceAsQutb(19916447ndash48)drylynotesthepathtofreedommustoccasionallybehewnbywayoftheswordbecausetyrants are not reasoned out of power and ldquojahiliyya is not lsquoabstracttheoryrsquo[it]consciouslyorunconsciouslystrivestopreserveitsownexistence to defend its essence to annihilate dangerous elementswhichthreatenitsverybeingrdquoYetitisalsothecasethatformanyoftheseIslamistsjihadisbothameansandanendanefforttoeradicatethoseobstacles torestoringa justcommunityonearththatsimultane-ouslybringshumanaction intoaccordwithGodrsquosplansandpurposes(Haddad198321)While theQurrsquoan (2256) states thatldquothere isnocompulsioninreligionrdquoIslamistscontendthatonlyinastateinwhichIslamiclawreignssupremearehumanbeingsfreefromenslavementtooneanotherrsquosruleandallareequalbyvirtueoftheircommonsubmissiontoGodAsQutb(1991107ndash8)argues

WhenthehighestauthorityinsocietyisGodalonemdashexpressedintheruleofdivinelawmdashonlythenishumanitytrulyandcompletelyliber-atedfromslaverytomenOnlythisisldquohumancivilizationrdquobecausetheessentialfoundationofhumancivilizationisthetrueandcom-

45

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

pletefreedomofhumanityandtheabsolutedignityofeveryindivid-ualinsocietyThereisnotruefreedomanddignityforhumanityortheindividualinasocietywheresomepeoplearelordswholegislateandothersareslaveswhoobey

From this perspective the realization of justice liberty equality andchoiceitselfnecessitatestheforcibleremovaloftheconstraintsimposedbyjahiliyyaalongwiththosewhoaidandabetitno matter the costAsMawdudi(1954160ndash61)writes

[W]hyisitthatinreligionsuchimportanceisgiventojihadthattheQurrsquoanpronouncesthejudgmentofhypocrisyuponthosewhoshirkandevadeitJihadisbutanothernamefortheattempttoerectthesystemoftruthandtheQurrsquoandeclaresjihadtobeatouchstoneonthesamefootingwithamanrsquosfaithInotherwordshewhohasfaithinhisheartwillneitherbecontentwiththedominationofthesystemofevilnorwillhegrudgetheexpenditureoflifeandwealthinthestruggleforerectingthesystemoftruthIfoneshowsweaknessinthismatterhisfaithitselfisdoubtfulWhatcananythingelsebesidethenprofithimThemanwhoprofesses faith in this religioncannotfulfillhisdutyonlybytryingasfaraspossibletopatternhislifeonIslamThenatureofhisfaithitselfrequiresthatheshouldconcentrateallhiseffortuponwrestingleadershipfromunbelievingandcorruptmentoentrustittotherighteousanduponerectingthesystemoftruththathasbeenordainedfortheconductoftheworldaccordingtothewillofGodBecausethisendisunattainablewith-out thehighestdegreeofcollectiveeffort theremustexistarigh-teouscommunitycommittedtotheprincipleoftruthanddevotedtothesolepurposeintheworldoferectingmaintainingandproperlyrealizingthesystemoftruth

ThefactthatsomeIslamistthinkerssanctifyviolentstruggleinsuchtermsdoesnotmeanofcoursethatallthosewhoadvocateorengageinjihadendorseviolence28NordoesitimplythatthosewhoclaimtokillforIslamareentirelywithoutulteriormotivesthosemanipulativepur-poses andpsychologicalmotivations that even themost rarified scrip-turalargumentscanexpressorserveWhattheprecedinganalysisdoessuggesthoweveristhatthereductionofthisviewofjihadtoirrationalbloodlusttheself-interestedgrabfortemporalpoweroradoorthroughwhichtopassintothehereaftermissesacrucialdimensionofitssignifi-canceandappealfortruebelieversjihadisnolessthananenactmentof

28EvenashespokeofaneweraofjahiliyyaandofjihadMawdudihimselfstoppedwellshortof recommendingor condoning the actual resort to violence in themannermanyotherIslamistsdidAsNasr(199670)observesMawdudirsquosorganizationtheJamalsquoat-iIs-lamildquohasavoidedviolentsocialchangeandhasinsteadviewedthepathtotheIslamicstateaslyingwithintheexistingsociopoliticalorderrdquoAlsoseethechapters5and3onQutbandMawdudiinthisvolume

46

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INTRODUCTION

adivineimperativetoremakethefoundationsofcollectivelifeInthisre-spectIslamistviewsofjihadcanbeseenaspartofalong-standingasso-ciationbetweenviolenceandpoliticalfoundingsuponwhichnoparticu-larcultureorhistoricalepochhasamonopolyThisassociationandtheldquolegacyofviolencerdquoitbequeathstofuturegenerationsarenolessappar-entinthoseradicalrevolutionsofrenewalthatmovebywayoftheswordfromthemarginstothecenterthanthosepoliticalfoundingsthatclaimtocreatesomethingoutofnothing(Connolly1995251)Ineithercasethetollofsuchbrutalitycanbeimmeasurableforinadditiontothevic-timswhosufferdirectlytheldquopracticeofviolencelikeallactionchangestheworldbutthemostprobablechangeistoamoreviolentworldrdquo(Ar-endt1972177)

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Page 25: Chapter 1 INTRODUCTION - assets.press.princeton.eduassets.press.princeton.edu/chapters/s9067.pdf · Chapter 1 INTRODUCTION This volume is intended as a broad introduction to the evolution

25

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

IwaschattingoneeveningwithsomecompanionswhentoourearscamethesoundofsomeonerecitingtheQurrsquoannearbyrecitingtheSuraoftheStar[al-Najm]andweinterruptedourconversationtolistentotheNobleQurrsquoanLittlebylittlemyheartenteredintowhatwasbeing recited into theheartofMuhammadashe jour-neyedtotheHeavenlyHostIwaswithhimashesawGabrielintheangelicforminwhichGodhadcreatedhimIwaswithhiminhis loftyandfree-flying journey to theLoteTreeof theBoundaryandtheGardenoftheRefugeIwaswithhimtotheextentthatmyimaginationcouldformavisionofitandtotheextentthatmyfeelings couldbear itThen came the final cry andmywholebeingshookatthefearfulreproachldquoDoyoumarvelatthisdiscourseanddoyoulaughandnotweepandmakemerryrdquo[Q5359ndash61]WhenIheardldquoBowdownbeforeGodandserveHimrdquo[Q5362]thetremblinginmyhearthadbecomeaphysicalandvisibletremblingthroughoutmybodythatIcouldnotresistMybodykeptshakingandIcouldnotcontrolitNorcouldIholdbackthetearsthatwerepouringforthhowevermuchItried(QutbZilalvol7part2774ndash75quotedfromCarreacute2003333ndash34withminorchanges)

TheQurrsquoanrsquosprofoundimpactontheaestheticsensibilitiesofitslisten-ersisafamiliarmotifindiscussionsofitsliteraryqualities(cfGrahamandKermani2006)AssomeonewhoseearlywritingswereconcernedwithArabicliterarycriticismandspecificallywiththeliteraryexcellenceoftheIslamicscripture(Qutb1949b)QutbwasespeciallyreceptivetothisaspectoftheQurrsquoanThesenseofbeingtransportedbacktothetimeoftheProphetandtowitnessingtheProphetrsquosascension(milsquoraj)tothepresence of Godmdashwhich is how the passage being commented on byQutbherehascommonlybeeninterpretedbytheexegetesmdashcanlikewisebeseenasanillustrationoftheoverpoweringimpactthewordsoftheQurrsquoancanhaveonthebelieverQutbrsquosaccountofconversingwithGodthrough the Qurrsquoan (cited earlier) is again something he may havewantedtoseeallbelieversdoYetallbelieverscanscarcelydosoany-morethanallaspirantsevenontheSufipathcanexperiencethetransfor-mativemysticalldquostatesrdquothatGodbestowsonHisspecialfriends(awlshyiya)IrrespectiveofwhetherhesawitinquitethiswayQutbrsquosassertionthatheisabletoenterldquointotheheartofMuhammadrdquoandtoseeGabrielasMuhammad sawhimsurelygiveshimaperspective thatothers en-counteringthewordofGoddonothave

ThepointisnotofcoursethatQutbwaseverrecognizedbyhisfol-lowersasaSufimasterbutthatsomeofthehermeneuticalauthorityheclaimshasadistinctiveSufiringtoitMorebroadlythesortofunques-

leadingscholarsofearlyandmedievalIslammdashincludingIbnTaymiyyamdashacceptedthehisto-ricityofthisincidentSeeSAhmed1998

26

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

tioningreligio-politicalauthorityIslamistleadershaveoftenenjoyedovertheirfollowersisnotunlikethatoftheSufimasteroverhisfollowersBe-ginningwithHasanal-BannathefounderoftheMuslimBrotherhoodandoncehimselfamemberofaSufiordertheleaderofthisorganizationis formally referred to as themurshid (guide)ormore specificallyalshymurshid alshylsquoam (thegeneralguide[RMitchell1993165])whichisafamiliartermforthemasterinSuficontextsForhispartAbdessalamYassine the founder and leader of lsquoAdl warsquol-Ihsan Party of Morocco(oftenreferredtoastheJusticeandSpiritualityAssociationorJSA)haslike Khomeini gone well beyond simply echoing Sufi conceptions ofauthorityinhisowndiscoursesHetoowasonceamemberofaMoroc-canSufiorderandhehascontinuedtodrawonSufithemesinhiswrit-ingsTheverynameofYassinersquospoliticalorganizationevokesacentralSufiideanamelyihsanThisisaQurrsquoanicterm(cfQ756)thattrans-latedliterallymeansldquotodogoodrdquothoughSufishaveunderstoodittomeanmuchmore thanthatFollowingawell-knownstatementattrib-uted to theProphetMuhammad theyhaveoften interpreted ihsan tomeangoingbeyondtheexternalsofIslamicritualpracticestoldquoworshipGodasifyouseeHimrdquo(Schimmel197529)thatiscultivatingasenseof personal communion and intimacy with God Even as Yassine hassoughttodistancehimselffromwhathedeemstobetheexcessesofSu-fismthereislittledoubtthathispoliticalappealowesmuchtocarefullycalibratedeffortstocombinedistinctiveSufiideaswithhisownbrandofIslamism(cfLauziegravere2005seealsochapter12onNadiaYassineinthisvolume)

FinallyMawdudirsquosJamalsquoat-iIslamimdashoneoftheearliestIslamistorga-nizations in the Sunni worldmdashillustrates both the Islamistsrsquo complexrelationshipwith Sufismand their pragmatic recognitionof its appealinmanyMuslimsocietiesMawdudihadoncebeenaharshcriticofSu-fismblamingitformanyillsafflictingMuslimsocietiesYettheJama-lsquoat-iIslamigraduallycametosoftenitsstanceonSufipracticesconsider-ablynodoubtintheinterestofbroadeningsomeofitssupportbaseinPakistanwheresaintsandSufishrinesareanimportantpartofthereli-giousandpoliticallandscapeAlreadyinMawdudirsquoslifetimeMianTufaylMuhammadhissuccessorastheheadoftheJamalsquoat-iIslamihadtakentheextraordinaryinitiativeoftranslatinganearlySuficlassictheKashf alshymahjub into Urdu The author of this work Shaykh lsquoAli Hujwiri(d1072)isburiedinLahoreinPakistanandhismuch-frequentedshrineishometoprecisely thesortofdevotionalpractices that Islamistsandmodernist reformers letaloneSalafishaveoften frownedupon (Nasr1996124)

ThesediverseexamplesarenotintendedtoobscuretherealdifferencesbetweenthegeneralityofIslamistsandmostSufisTheirsignificanceliesratherinillustratingthedifficultyofdistinguishingbetweenIslamismandotherreligiousintellectualandpoliticaltrendsintermsofneatcharac-

27

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INTRODUCTION

terizationsofgrandtranslocalgeneralizationsAstheforegoingsuggeststhesameistrueandmoresowhenitcomestocharacterizingIslamistsinrelationtothelsquoulamatheMuslimmodernistsandtheSalafisIndeedasLorenLybargerhasarguedwithreferencetothoseusuallycharacter-izedasldquosecularnationalistrdquoorldquoIslamistrdquoPalestiniansintheWestBankandGazadifferenceswithintheranksofyoungsecularnationalistsandIslamistscansometimesalsoshadeintosignificantsimilaritiesbetweenthesesupposedlyrivalorientations(Lybarger2007)ManyIslamistshavesoughttodistancethemselvesfromwhattheyseeastherigidityandau-thoritarianismofotherIslamistsandtoarguenotjustfortheimplemen-tationofthesharilsquoabutalsofordemocracyandpluralismConverselynot a few of the younger secular nationalists have ldquoadopted IslamisttheodiciesthatexplainedthefailuretoovercomeIsraelastheresultoffallingawayfrompietytheirconclusionsmirroredIslamistonestootheroadbackfromthebrinkhadtotraceitscoursethrougharenewedcom-mitmenttoIslambutnotnecessarilyinthemannerthattheIslamistmove-mentsmighthaveintendedrdquo(Lybarger2007237ndash38quotationat238)

Yet ifneatcategoriesremainelusiveacombinationoftheIslamistsrsquoself-consciouslypoliticalgoalstheirmultifacetedifnotalwaysexplicitpoliticalcritiquesofmanypastandpresentwaysofunderstandingandlivingIslamandanunshakeableconfidenceintheirownabilitytodis-cern Godrsquos will from the foundational texts do often provide enoughgrounds tobroadlydistinguish themfromotheractivists intellectualsand orientations in the Muslim public sphere What this combinationamountstovariesfromonesocialpoliticalreligiousandculturalcon-texttoanotherandsothereforedothewaysinwhichIslamistsrelatetooneanotherorcompeteandoverlapwithothergroupsandorientations

The Politics of Islamism

FromAeneasrsquosmythicalfoundingofRometothedeathandresurrectionofJesusChristtoMuhammadrsquosmigrationtoMedinafoundationalnar-rativesareascommontocollectivelifeasthemovementsthatperiodi-callyarisetorevivethemandclaimantstothemantleoflegitimacytheyconferSounderstoodIslamistsrsquopoliticalaspirationstorestorefounda-tionslocatedinamythicalpastarefarfromuniqueNorareIslamistsaloneintheirconvictionthatscripturalauthorityisguaranteedbyitsdi-vineauthormdashforinthatallMuslimsagreeRatherthechaptersinthisvolumesuggest thatwhatmakes Islamistpoliticsdistinctive (ifnotsui generis)istheclaimtorecuperateanldquoauthenticIslamrdquocomprisedofself-evidenttruthspurgedofalienandcorruptinginfluencesalongwithaninsistenceonremakingthefoundationsofthestateinitsimageGiventhelimitsofhumanunderstandingrelativetoGodrsquosknowledgeIslamistssimultaneouslydepictsuchfidelitytotheunadulteratedwordofAllahas

28

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INTRODUCTION

theultimateexpressionofdeferencetodivineomniscienceandportrayhumilityasaconstitutivefeatureofthehumanconditionAspirationstofullyknowandmasterthenaturalandsocialworldsthusentailnotonlyahumanhubrisdeaftotheQurrsquoanicadmonitionthatldquoAllahknowsbutandyoudonotknowrdquo(Q366)butalsoatransgressionagainstadi-vinely-ordainedontologicalorder

ItisnotablehoweverthattheIslamistemphasisonthelimitsofhumanknowledgerequireshumilityonlyinrelationtoAllahitrarelyyieldshu-milityinregardtotheirownclaimstospeakinHisnameortowardotherhumanbeingswhodissentfromthepremiseofdivineomnipotenceandIslamistaccountsofwhat it requiresThis suggests thatwhile IslamistchallengestostatepowerareobviouslypoliticaltheIslamistclaimtoau-thenticityisalsopolitical inthecoercivepoweritroutinelyenactsandjustifiesmostnotablybywayofthesilencesitimposesandthedebatesitforeclosesAzizal-Azmehpointsoutthatldquothenotionofauthenticityisnotsomuchadeterminateconceptasitisanodeofassociationsandin-terpellationsatropebymeansofwhichthehistoricalworldisreducedtoaparticularorderandatokenwhichmarksoffsocialandpoliticalgroupsandforgesandreconstituteshistoricalidentitiesrdquo(al-Azmeh199341)WhetherintheserviceofArabnationalismChristianfundamental-ismEuropeanromanticismorMuslimmodernismtheclaimofauthen-ticityisanactofpowerthatfunctionsnotjusttoreflecttheworldbuttoconstructitbydeterminingwhoisincludedandexcludedwhomayandmaynotspeakauthoritativelywhatistheproperrealmofdebateandwhatisbeyondcontestation

ItiscertainlythecasethatasingleldquoIslamrdquocapturesandorganizestheperspectivesofmillionswhoself-identifyasMuslim(amongotherthings)yetwhattravelsunderitsrubricisinescapablydiversemultiethnicanddefined asmuchbydisagreement as consensus Just as theTorah andBible lend themselves toat times radicallydivergent interpretationsofwhatitmeanstobeJewishorChristiantheQurrsquoanandhaditharecom-plexandsusceptibletomanydifferentandattimescontradictoryenact-mentsSounderstoodIslamislessafixedessencethanalivingtraditionthatcaptureswhatisimaginedascontinuousandunitaryindialecticalrelationshiptothoseconcretearticulationsandpracticesbywhichitistransformedandadaptedindifferentcontextsforpluralpurposesItispreciselythisunderstandingofreligionthatisanathematoIslamistswhoseek tofix theparametersof Islamicauthenticityonceandforallandtherebyarrogateforthemselvestherighttodeterminewhoqualifiesasagood Muslim to discredit those lsquoulama unable or unwilling to purgeIslamofpurportedimpietiestodeclarenominallyMuslimrulersapos-tatesunfittogovernandtocharacterizeallwhodisagreeascorrupthe-reticalguiltyofunbelieforvictimsoffalseconsciousness

Thesegeneralpoliticaltendencieshowevermustbecarefullysituatedwithinadialecticoftheglobalandthevernacularunderstoodtoreflect

29

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INTRODUCTION

thewaysinwhichunifyingmacrohistoricaldynamicsinformandareinturntransformedbydiversecontingentandfluidlocalcircumstancesInaworldstampedbyWesterndominanceandtheconsolidationofpostco-lonial authoritarian regimes Islamists confront a common set of con-straintsandchallengesInasmuchassuchconstraintsandchallengeshavemade Islamist thinkers (often reluctant) participants in conversationsacrossbothcultureandhistorytheireffortstoremakethefoundationsofcollectiveliferevealasharedinterpretiveframeworkandcommonreli-gio-political grammar At the same time this frame and grammar arecontinuallybeingreworkedinrelationtothedistinctpublicspheresinwhichIslamistsoperateandtowhichtheycarefullycalibratetheirpoliti-calcommitments

Attention to this complex dynamic suggests that the Islamist move-mentcannotsimplybecharacterizedasviolentantidemocraticandop-pressiveofwomenlabelsinvokedsofrequentlyinscholarlyandpopularliterature on the subject that they have become virtually synonymouswithIslamistpoliticsSuchcharacterizationsdocapturecrucialdimen-sionsofIslamistpoliticsyettheyalsosidesteptheparadoxesitsvarie-gatedandoftencontradictoryexpressionspresentInsteadwearguethatIslamistpoliticscanbeproductivelyreadin terms ofandagainst the grain ofsuchbroadcategorizationsasantidemocraticantiwomanorviolentmdashthat is as commitments that at different moments in various localesbothencourageandconstrainbroad-basedpoliticalparticipationdisruptandratifyhierarchicalgendernormsresistandreproducestate-sanctionedbrutalityThepointofreadingIslamistpoliticsinthiswayisnottosug-gestthatIslamistsaresecretlydemocraticfeministandopposedtovio-lenceRatherthepointistodrawattentiontothecomplexityandcon-tradictionserasedbyeasygeneralizationsontheonehandandtheoftenunacknowledgedfluidityandculturaladaptabilityofotherwisefamiliarpoliticalcategoriesontheother

Islamism and Democracy

DespiteimportantdifferencesamongIslamistthinkerstheyhaveincom-monatendencytoviewhumansovereigntyastransgressiveofdivinelawandsharetheaspirationtoestablishsharilsquoaastheprimaryorsolesourceofauthorityAsisoftennotedsuchpremisesandaspirationsrunafoulofassumptionsaboutpopularruleattheheartofdemocracynamelythathumanbeingshavetherighttolegislaterulesforcollectivebehaviorandarecapableofthewisdomrequiredtodevisejustlawsInrecentyearspolicymakersandcommentatorshaveevincedaparticularpreoccupa-tionwiththewaysinwhichIslamistnotionsofdivineauthoritythrottlethespiritandpracticeofpopularsovereigntySomehaveevengonesofarastocharacterizeIslamistsasldquoIslamo-fascistsrdquoanimatedbyhatredoftheldquodemocratic Westrdquo psychologically unable to contend with the fluidity

30

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INTRODUCTION

andindeterminacythatmarkpopularruleandeagertoconvertelectionsintoaldquoone-manone-voteone-timerdquomechanismforestablishinganIs-lamicstate(Murdock2002MRubin2005Kramer1993)

SuchviewsareechoedbythoseIslamistskeentoportraydemocracynotonlyasantitheticaltothesupremacyofdivinelawbutasaTrojanhorseforWesternimperialismFormanyIslamistsincludingseveralinthis volumedemocracy is justone symptomofametastasizingmoralandspiritualbankruptcywherebymoraltransgressionsaretransfiguredintonaturalurgescrassself-interestbecomesthebedrockofcollectivelifeandthedivineplanfortheuniverseandallthingsinitisreducedtoa system of physical causality just waiting to be mastered by way ofhumaningenuity(REuben2007)Qutbcallsthisdiseasedviewoftheworldjahiliyyaanditsignalsnotonlyhumanarrogancebutatransgres-sionagainstdivineauthoritythescopeofwhichencompassesbothpub-licandprivatedomainsofhumanaffairsaswellasbothvisibleandun-seendimensionsoftheuniverseFormanyIslamistssuchtransgressionisattherootofmuchofwhatpassesforMuslimruleinthecontemporaryworldmdashnationalistdemocraticandmonarchicalalikeSucharroganceisalsosaidtobethepatternunderlyingalonghistoryofunrelievedWest-ernaggressionagainstIslaminwhichtheChristianCrusadesEuropeancolonialismIsraelitreatmentofPalestiniansethniccleansinginBosniaGermananti-TurkishviolencetheAmericaninvasionofIraqandDutchcartoonsofMuhammadarebutafewexamples

YetthereisarangeofviewsamongIslamistsaboutboththesubstanceofdemocracyanditscompatibilitywiththereligio-politicalrenewaltheyadvocateAccordingtoQaradawiforexampleldquotheessenceofdemoc-racyisthatpeoplechoosewhorulesoverthemandmanagestheiraf-fairsthatnorulerorregimetheydislikeisforceduponthemthattheyhavetherighttocalltherulertoaccountifheerrsandtoremovehimfromofficeincaseofmisconductandthatpeoplearenotforcedineco-nomicsocialculturalorpoliticaldirectionsthattheyneitherrecognizenor acceptrdquo (Qaradawi1997132 also chapter9 in this volume)TohimthereisnoheavierburdenoppressingMuslimsinthecontemporaryworld thandespotism indeed it is throughdespoticgovernments thatMuslimshavebeenforcedtosubmittootherillsincludingtheneglectofthesharilsquoaandthecoerciveimpositionofsecularismandwesternizationDemocracy then recommends itself to Qaradawi as the most effectiveavailableantidotetodespotismandtheafflictionsofwhichitservesasavehicle

WheremanyamongtheIslamistsandthelsquoulamahaveseenconsider-able tensionbetween IslamanddemocracyQaradawiprofesses to seenoneAswesuggestedearlierbyfarthemostcommonoftheIslamistreservationsaboutademocraticsystemrelatestothesovereigntyofthepeoplewhichistakentocontravenetheideathatGodaloneissovereignQaradawi however is unperturbedby such concernsThe rule of the

31

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INTRODUCTION

peopleoughttobeseenhearguesnotinoppositiontotheruleofGodbutratherinoppositiontotheruleofthedespotMorefundamentallyQaradawirsquos view of democracy does not necessarily require that thepeopleshouldbeabletooverturndivinelyinstitutednormsRatherhisassumptionisthatpeopleexercisetheirsovereigntywithinconstitutionalboundsandMuslimslivinginapredominantlyMuslimdemocraticpol-itywouldlikewisenotwishtotransgresstheparametersoflegitimatehumanactionlaiddownintheIslamicfoundationaltexts(seeQaradawichapter9inthisvolumeandcfFeldman2007)

NadiaYassineofMoroccorsquosJusticeandSpiritualityAssociationisan-othercaseinpointWhilecriticalofthedemocraticgesturesembracedbyamonarchythatshedepictsasallergictogenuinelypopularsovereigntyYassineinsiststhatthemodelofMuslimruleadumbratedintheummafoundedbytheProphetMuhammadandinparticulartheConstitutionofMedina17isnothingshortofdemocratic(NYassine2005d2005e)UnliketheMuslimdynastiesthatarosetousurpitYassinecontendsthiscommunity was participatory egalitarian committed to freedom andexpressiveofGodrsquosmercyMostimportantitwasgovernedalwaysbytheQurrsquoanicprincipleofshura (consultation)bywhichYassinemeansaphilosophy of power that places sovereignty in the community ratherthaninanyindividuallinksvirtuetodeliberationratherthanobedienceandexhortsbelieverstocontinuallyadaptQurrsquoanicprinciplesthroughijtihad rather than adhere reflexively to precedent (N Yassine 2006a182ndash862005d)ManyscholarsandjournalistsremainskepticaloftheJSArsquosasyetuntestedcommitment toproceduraldemocracyandworrythatNadiaandher fatherAbdessalamultimatelyseektoestablishanIslamic state inhospitable to tolerance pluralism and civil liberties(Maghraoui2001Brandon2007Whitlock2006)YetothersarguethattheJSAisagenuinelypopulistorganizationthatrepresentstheunrepre-sentedtendstothewelfareofthedispossessedandbothexpressesandcontributestoanincreasinglyvibrantcivilsocietyinMorocco(Cavatorta2006Entelis2002)

QaradawirsquosandYassinersquosargumentstogethersuggestthatdemocracycanandhasservedaseitheracosmeticcoverfordespotismoranauthen-ticallyIslamiccheckuponcorruptandarbitraryruleAtissueinIslamistargumentsforandagainstdemocracythenarenotonlywhatcountsasldquoauthenticIslamrdquoandtheintentionsofthosewhoclaimtoknowitbutalsothecontentandcharacterofdemocracyitselfParadoxicallybothIslamistsopposedtodemocracyandthosewhotakeIslamismasinher-entlyantidemocraticregardthisasasimplematterwithanobviousan-swerdemocracyisanexpressionofandevensynonymouswithliberal-ismcapitalismandtheWestYetdemocracyisbothmorecapaciousand

17TheConstitutionofMedinawasanagreementtheProphethadenteredintowiththelocalcommunitiesincludingJewishtribesuponhisemigrationfromMeccatoMedina

32

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INTRODUCTION

moredistinctthanthispresumptionsuggestsTheworditselfofcoursederivesfromtheancientGreekdemokratiawhichmeansrule(kratos)ofthepeople(demos)andmanyderivetheequationofdemocracyandtheWestfromthisassociationwithclassicalGreeceYetancientGreekphi-losopherssuchasPlatosawindemocracythespecterofmobrulepartic-ularly vulnerable to demagoguery and despotism (a suspicion notablyechoedbyAmerican founder JamesMadison)Contrary to thedemo-cratic idealof inclusivenessmoreover citizenship inGreekdemocracyexcludedasubstantialpartofthepopulationincludingwomenslavesandforeignersFinallytheextenttowhichtheancientGreeksmayevenbecalledWesternisamatterofgreatdisputeparticularlyastheldquoWestrdquoisacategoryofrelativelyrecentprovenancethroughwhichhistoryandgeographyhavebeenretroactivelyorganized18DespitedepictionsoftheHellenicworldasWesternancientGreeksdidnotinfactviewthem-selvesintheseterms19

TheequationofdemocracywiththeWestalsopresupposestheexis-tenceofacoherentldquoWesterncivilizationrdquowitheitherculturallyhomoge-neousrootsorclearlydelineatedhistoricalandcontemporarybounda-riesorbothYetwhatiscalledtheWestisanamalgamationofmultipletraditionsincludingtheGreekRomanJudaicChristianandIslamicmdashtraditionsthatarethemselvespolyvalentratherthanhomogeneousmdashandistodaycharacterizedbyporousbordershybridsubculturesandmyriaddebtstodiversecivilizationspastandpresent20AsageographicmarkeritisvirtuallyimpossibletopinpointexactlywheretheWestbeginsandendsandthisisespeciallysonowthatpeoplesinformationandmate-rial goods crisscross cultural andnational borders atwill creating allkindsoftransnationalsubnationalandmultipleidentitiesthatshiftandreconstitutethemselvesinunpredictablewaysEventhosevaluesidenti-fiedasWesternoftenappearelsewhereinotherguisesIndeedscholarssuggestthatavarietyoftheldquostandardsexportedbytheWestanditscul-turalindustriesthemselvesturnouttobeofculturallymixedcharacterifweexaminetheirculturallineagesrdquo(Pieterse199553)

Manyalsoarguethatdemocracyisnotonlydistinctfrombutinten-sionwithboththetheoryandpracticeofpoliticsinldquoWesternrdquosocieties

18MichaelGillespie(19997ndash10)arguesthattherereadingofhistorygeographyandculturethroughtheprismofthissenseofldquotheWestrdquobegannoearlierthanthenineteenthcenturyTheideaofatimelessandbrightlinebetweenWestandEastisalsochallengedbyJeremyBrottonrsquosstudy(19989096ndash97)ofthediplomaticandintellectualexchangesbe-tweenEuropeandtheOttomanEmpireintheearlymodernperiodBrottonshowsnotonlytheextentandamityofsuchexchangesbutapersistentuncertaintyaboutwherepreciselyEuropeldquoendedrdquoandAsialdquobeganrdquo

19AncientGreeksunderstoodthemselvesasgeographicallywestofthebarbariansbutnotWesterninthecontemporarysensethatisasbothaculturalandhistoricalcategory

20StevenRuncimanrsquoswork(19543480)ontheCrusadesforexampledemonstratesaldquolongsequenceofinteractionandfusionbetweenOrientandOccidentoutofwhichourcivilizationhasgrownrdquo

33

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INTRODUCTION

many of which are more accurately classified as liberal and capitalist(Wood1994Wolin2001BallandDagger1999)Whileitisnowcom-monplacetospeakofldquoliberaldemocracyrdquoinasinglebreathliberalismanddemocracyareconceptsandpracticeswithverydifferenthistoriesandpresuppositionsUnlikedemocracyforexampleliberalismemergedfromthecrucibleofChristianreligiouswarsandintandemwiththeas-cendanceofamiddleclassthatpresagedtheendofEuropeanfeudalismTheliberalnation-statecanthusbeviewedasbothanexpressionandaconsolidationofcapitalismontheonehandandtheprincipleofasepa-rationbetweenchurchandstateontheotherBycontrastthereisnoth-ingaboutdemocracyeitherasasystemofgovernanceoracultureofpar-ticipationthatisinherentlysecularIndeedAlexisdeTocquevillefamouslyinsistedthatAmericandemocracycannotandshouldnotbesecularasreligionhelpsshiftattentionawayfromimmediatematerialpreoccupa-tionstolargerconcernsofcommunitycooperationandmoralityInfactmanydemocratictheoristsarguethatgenuinelyinclusivepopularsover-eignty is antithetical to the sharp inequalities of wealth and politicalpowerthatcapitalismoftenproducesandlegitimates

SuchongoingdefinitionalandsubstantivedebatessuggestthatthereismuchmoreatstakeindemocraticpoliticsthanprocedurespertainingtogovernmentauthorityandorderandpointtoawidespreadifelusiveunderstandingofdemocracynotjustasasetofinstitutionsbutasTocque-villesuggestsawayoflifeSeveralpoliticaltheoristshavecharacterizedthiselusiveunderstandingintermsofaldquodemocraticethosrdquoBythistheymeanbothanidealandanargumentforacultureofparticipationactivepowersharingmutualaccountabilityinclusivenessanddeliberationinwhichcitizensmayroutinelyandsafelychallengenotonlyspecificpoli-ciesandpolitical institutionsbutalso thevalues thatgoverncollectivelifeprinciplesofinclusionandexclusionandthepremisesofauthorityitself(Connolly1995JPEuben2003Sadiki2004)AdemocraticethosismuchmoredifficulttomeasureorquantifythanforexampleSamuelHuntingtonrsquosparsimoniousdefinitionofdemocracyasapolityinwhichtherehavebeentwoconsecutivepeacefulchangesofgovernmentbywayof freeand fairelections (Huntington1991)21Yetademocraticethosmakesitpossibletobothrecognizeanddisaggregatethepreconditionsaspirations mechanisms and institutions bundled into ldquodemocracyrdquotherebybringingintofocusforexamplethefrequentlyantidemocratic

21Manypoliticalscientistsprefertodefinedemocracyintermsofproceduresdesignedtorealizepopularruleincludingfreecompetitiveandfairelectionsalongwithstateprotec-tionofcertainrightsandlibertiesSuchaformalminimalistdefinitionhastheadvantageofdetachingdemocracyfromquestionsoforiginsandofferingastandardtowhichallgov-ernmentsmaybeheldregardlessofcultureandplaceAsKeithTopper(2005205ndash7)ar-gueshoweveritalsotendstosidestepknottyquestionsaboutthesubstanceofrepresenta-tion power responsiveness and accountability that are arguably central to democraticpolitics

34

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

casttoelectionsimposedbyelitesorforeignpowersthefeltimpotenceofmanycitizensinestablisheddemocraciesandthosehighlyparticipa-torycivilsocietiesthatflourishevenundermonarchicortheocraticrule

Forourpurposes inparticularademocraticethosmakesvisible theparadoxofanIslamistmovementthatseekstomobilizeordinaryMus-limsagainstcoercivepowerbutinthenameofareligio-politicalorderlargelyimmunizedfromchallengeQutbisanaptillustrationhereashistendencytogroundhisownspecialauthorityandinsightintheunsulliedwisdomofordinarybelieversmakesitpossibletoreadhisworkaseitherabriefagainstdemocracy(amongotherthings)oranenactmentofitIn-asmuchasdemocracyasaformofgovernanceisidentifiedwithpopularsovereigntyQutbrsquosbasicpremisethat thefoundationof legitimateau-thoritymustbedivineratherthanhumansuggeststhatheisunambigu-ouslyantidemocraticMoreoverQutbrsquoseffortstopluralizereligiousandpolitical authority express not a confidence in common wisdom butratheradesiretoclaimforhimselfthestatureofareligiousexpertwhodespitehislackofIslamicacademiccredentialscanclearlyseewhatoth-erscannotQutbcharacterizestherealIslamasself-evidentbuthealsoassumesthatonlyasmallvanguardofbelieversbesideshimselfwillhavetheabilitytorecognizeitandactdecisivelytoremaketheworldinitsimageSounderstoodthesignofldquochosennessrdquoisunyieldingcommitmenttoestablishingareligio-politicalorderthatsimultaneouslypresumesthesupremacyofthefewcapableoftrueknowledgeandpromisesaworldinwhichdissentitselfwillbecomebothunnecessaryandillegitimate

Yetifdemocracyrefersnotonlytoasystemofgovernanceorsetofprocedurestorealizepopularsovereigntybutalsotopracticesthatdis-ruptthoseforceswhichconcentratepowerandestablishpoliticalexclu-sionthecharacterizationofQutbrsquosworkassimplyantidemocraticmissesa crucial dimensionof its significance and appealAs the sacred textscontaintherulesandregulationsmeanttogovernbothpublicandpri-vateaffairsQutbrsquosinsistencethatordinaryuntrainedMuslimsmusten-gagethemdirectlyisinmanywaysademocratizationofaccesstoau-thoritySuchaccesscandisruptdeeplyentrenchedpatternsofpowerandpowerlessness particularlywhen conjoined to Islamist arguments thatarbitrarypowerisun-Islamicthatreligiousknowledgedependsoncom-mitmentratherthantrainingorexpertise thatMuslimshavetherightandobligationtodeterminewhenrulersareillegitimateandthatthosewhopreferordertojusticesecuritytofreedomandmoneytopietyhaveforfeitedanyclaimtoauthority

ThisaspectofIslamismhasfrequentlybeencomparedtotheProtestantReformationandmorespecificallytoCalvinistsrsquoattemptstotransferldquore-ligiousauthorityawayfromofficiallysanctionedindividualswhointer-prettextstoordinarycitizensrdquo(EGoldberg19913alsocfLoimeier2005)Suchaparallelhassparkedagreatdealofscholarlyspeculation

35

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INTRODUCTION

regardingapossibleldquoIslamicReformationrdquo22andarangeofargumentsaboutwhetherandhowIslamismmightfacilitatethedemocratizationofMuslim societies much as the Protestant Reformation is said to haveheralded the emergence of European ldquoliberal democracyrdquo While suchcomparisonsareevocativeafullerunderstandingof IslamismrequiresfirstsituatingitinrelationtoahistoricalshiftinthenatureandlocusofreligiousauthorityinIslambeginninginthenineteenthcenturyAsschol-arsofMuslimsocietieshavepointedouttheimpactofmasseducationnewtechnologiesfordisseminatingknowledgeandinformationanddra-matically changed social economic and political contexts have madeavailabletoamateurswhathadpreviouslybeenthepurviewofreligiousexpertsAtthesametimeithasinauguratedafragmentationofauthor-itywithintheveryranksofthelsquoulamathatcontinuestothepresentday23

InthiscontexttheascendanceandinfluenceofautodidactssuchasQutbHasanal-BannalsquoAbdal-SalamFarajandBinLadensimultaneouslyex-pressandaccelerateanongoingrenegotiationofauthorityoverwhomayspeakforIslamandonwhatbasisthepathofwhichisstillunfoldingandtheoutcomeasyetuncertain

Islamism and Gender

One already apparent consequence of this ongoing renegotiation overwhomayspeakforIslamandonwhatbasisistheentryofwomenintothe interpretive fray This development is increasingly unsettling thoseunwrittengendernormsarguablyattheveryheartofIslamistthoughtdisruptingthestandardsofmasculinityandfemininitythatreflecthowparticularculturesorganizehumanbeingsrsquosocialandreproductiveactiv-itiesintorolesthatareinturnthoughttoexpresstheldquonaturerdquoofmenand women Such norms are frequently considered tangential to theknottyproblemsofdefiningIslamismandadumbratingitscentralideasyetarangeofscholarshiponculturespastandpresenthasshownthatgenderisconsistentlytheterrainoverwhichbattlesforpoliticalcontrolandculturalidentityarefoughtMorespecificallyresearchindisciplinessuchasanthropologyhistoryclassicsandpostcolonialstudieshasdem-onstratedthatculturesinwhichfemalebodiesandbehaviorareregardedas indicesofmoralpurity tend to symbolically transformwomen intoconduitsof cultural corruption in timesof internal crisis and externalthreat(Papenek1994Chatterjee1990Tavakoli-Targhi1991Just1989Cohen1991Welter1966Bloch1978)Thisisespeciallytrueofcontem-

22Foralatenineteenth-centuryassessmentoftheprospectsforaldquoMuhammadanRefor-mationrdquoseeBlunt1882132ndash73

23EickelmanandPiscatori199637ndash39131ndash35Zaman2006Suchfragmentationhasinmanywaysbeenacceleratedbytheexplosionofdigitalcultureswhichpromoteamongotherthingsaldquoformofempoweredamateurismrdquo(Mirzoeff20026)

36

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INTRODUCTION

poraryreligio-politicalmovementswhosememberstendtoldquoidealizepa-triarchalstructuresofauthorityandmoralityrdquoendorsegenderdualismasgod-givenornaturalandcondemnvigorouslyrecentchangesingen-derrelationsasasymptomandsymbolofsecularistmoralbankruptcy(Riesebrodt1993Moghadam1992Hawley1994)

SeveralchaptersinthisvolumeilluminateIslamistgendernormsbyre-vealing thecharacterandcontentof Islamistconcernsabout theplaceandpurityofMuslimwomenmdashpreoccupationsFatimaMernissi(199199)hasgonesofarastocharacterizeasanobsessionDespiteimportantdifferences among Islamists thinkers many endorse gender norms inwhichthefairlyconventionalinsistencethatfemalenatureisdefinedinand through reproduction undergirds an understanding of women assymbolsofmoralvirtueandvesselsofculturalpurityThisviewsustainstheclaimthatmenandwomenareequalinreligiousbeliefbutperformfundamentallydifferentandcomplementaryfunctionsinsocietyWhilemenarenaturallymadetoruleinboththepublicandprivatedomainawomanbelongsinthedomesticrealmwhereherprimaryroleistobeawifeandmotheraswellastoinsuretheintegrityofthefamilythefirstschoolofmoraleducationAssuchfunctionsarerootedinaninescap-ablehumannaturefashionedbyGodawomanrsquosinabilityorunwilling-nesstoperformherdutiessignalsadisobediencetothedivinewillandpresages the corruption of the Muslim family from within From thisvantagepointtheWesterninsistenceonfullequalitybetweenthesexesisdoubly pernicious it at once liberates women from basic moral con-straintsandenslavesthemtomutuallyreinforcingsexualandcapitalistexploitationAsMurtazaMutahhari(1998xxxi)arguescapitalismmakesuseofwomentomarket itsgoodsldquoby trading inhonourandrespectthrough[their]powertoenticerdquotherebyldquotransform[ing]manintoaninvoluntaryagentofconsumptionrdquoInasmuchaswomenareresponsiblefor producing the next generation of Muslim men destined to restoreIslamtoitsformergloryitisnotonlythevirtueofwomenortheinteg-rityofthefamilythathangsinthebalancebutthefutureofIslamiccivili-zationitself

Zaynab al-Ghazali andMutahharimake several of these argumentsexplicitlyandindetail(seechapters10and11)butinmuchofIslamistrhetoricthenatureandsignificanceofwomenareestablishedindirectlyandsymbolicallyandthroughthreerecurrentimagesinparticularThefirstisofwomenassilentsymbolsofculturalmoralandsexualvulnera-bilityvoicelessfiguresinneedofmasculineprotectionorwhenitistoolatedefiledbodiesthatmutelydemandvengeanceSoforexamplelsquoAb-dallahlsquoAzzam(oneofBinLadenrsquosmentorsseechapter18)graphicallydetailstheagonizinghumiliationofyoungmenunabletoactwhentheAfghanwoman isldquocryingout forhelpher childrenarebeing slaugh-tered her women are being raped the innocent are killed and theircorpsesscatteredrdquo(lsquoAzzam1987a)Inthesecondimagewomenfunction

37

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INTRODUCTION

muchlikeachorusthatspeaksinpermittedcadencestoratifymasculineendeavorsSuchisthecaseforexampleinBinLadenrsquos1996ldquoDeclara-tionofWaragainsttheAmericansOccupyingtheLandoftheTwoHolyPlacesrdquo(seechapter18)wherethewomenexhortmentojihadinthefollowing way ldquoPrepare yourself like a struggler the matter is biggerthanwordsAreyougoingtoleaveusforthewolvesofKufr[unbe-lief]eatingourwingsWherearethefreemendefendingfreewomenbyarmsDeath isbetter than life inhumiliation Some scandals andshameswillneverbeotherwiseeradicatedrdquo24InthethirdimagewomenarecreaturesnotofthisworldbutofanothervirginalrewardsforthecourageousmartyrintheafterlifeThisisevidentinthefinalinstructionsforthe911hijackersforexamplewhereMuslimldquobrothersrdquoareurgedto purify their carnal impulses sharpen their knives for the dhabh (slaughter)andheedthecallofthehur lsquoayn (theblack-eyedones)await-ingtheminParadise(seechapter19)

Such rhetoric primarily registers women as an extensionmirror ormeasure of masculinity and together with explicit Islamist argumentsabouthumannatureandthefamilyarticulatesIslamistgendernormsinwhichmenandwomeneachhaveaproperlocationandpurposeinadi-vinely ordained social hierarchy Deviance from this gendered scriptthussignalsdisruptionofamuchbroaderreligio-politicalorderitbothpresumes and seeks to bring into existence The disruption caused byforeign aggression in particular exacerbates the tendency to translateconflict into an assault on Muslim masculinity and to conceptualizewomenaspotentialvehiclesforWesterncorruptioninneedofguidingand guarding Women such as Zaynab al-Ghazali and Nadia Yassinewho seek a prominent place and voice within the Islamist movementhavehadlittlechoicebuttocontendwiththisgenderedscriptDoingsohasentailedamongotherthingsnavigatingcarefullybetweenIslamistcharacterizations of womenrsquos visibility and agency as symptomatic ofthe new jahiliyya on the one hand and essentializing arguments thatequateIslamwithveilingfemalegenitalmutilationandhonorkillingsontheother

AsthechaptersonGhazaliandYassinesuggestIslamistwomenhavenegotiatedbetweensuchconstraintsandpressuresandtheirownambi-tionsindifferentwaysApioneeringdalsquoiya(onewhoinvitesMuslimstogreater piety)Ghazalirsquos own life reveals a fierce resistance to conven-tionalnormsofdomesticityevenasmuchofher(earlier)workappearsto embrace an Islamist gender ideology that defines women as wivesmothers andldquobuilders ofmenrdquo (al-Hashimi 1990 118)By contrastYassineisawifeandmotherwhoembracesanldquoIslamicfeminismrdquothatrequiresldquoreappropriatingtheinstrumentsofclassicaltheologyrdquoanden-

24TheIslamistjournalSawt alshyJihadhasgonesofarastofeatureldquowomenrsquosvoicesrdquointheformofrolemodelsnamedforexampleumm alshyshahid(motherofthemartyr)al-thoughitisunclearthattheseldquovoicesrdquoareactuallywomenrsquos(SUsher2004)

38

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INTRODUCTION

gaging the textsdirectly through ijtihad (NYassine2003) In this re-spect Yassine must be understood as part of a broader effort amongMuslimwomenwithdifferentpoliticalcommitmentstosimultaneouslyadvocateandenacttheirrighttorecuperatetheldquooriginalintentrdquooftheIslamictextsIfwomenandmendoinfacthavedistinctperspectivesontheworldYassinesuggestswomenhaveaspecialobligationtoexcavatewhattheyseeasthegenderparityoftheQurrsquoanburiedbeneaththoseldquomachointerpretationsrdquoofIslamuponwhichmenhavebuilttheirprivi-legeandpower(Khalaf2006)25

ManyAnglo-AmericanandEuropean feministsworry that Islamistsseekonly to secureor restorepatriarchalpowerConverselymany Is-lamist women view feminism as a term and a movement inescapablyWesterninoriginfreightedwiththelegacyofcolonialismanduneasilyimplicatedinculturalimperialismThisapplieseventoYassinewhoisunwillingtoadoptwithoutqualificationalabelsheassociateswithagen-dasopposedtoherowntheWesttheMoroccanstateMaghribi(North-westAfrican)elitesYetfeminismitselfisahighlycontestedtermwithin theso-calledWestitisthebearerofmultiplemeaningssomeofwhichareevenopposedandischaracterizedbydeepdisagreementsaboutwhowomenarewhatwomenneedwhoisauthorizedtoworkonwomenrsquosbehalf andbywhatmeans Inasmuch as these various feminismsmayshareonlyastatedconcernforwomenrsquoswelfarethereisnothinginco-herentinmodifyingldquofeminismrdquowithldquoIslamicrdquoldquoMuslimrdquoorevenldquoIs-lamistrdquounlessone iscommitted toarguing thatfirst Islam isanun-changingessencebeyondhistorypoliticsandculturesecondthereisaneutralobjectivevantagefromwhichtoidentifythisessenceonceandforallandfinallytheIslamicessencesoidentifiedisfundamentallyin-compatiblewitheffortstoimprovetheconditionsandqualityofwomenrsquoslivesBythesametokenIslamistwomenwhorejectthetermfeminismcanbe(althoughnotalwaysare)deeplycommittedtoimprovingwom-enrsquoswelfareaswellasactivelyresistanttoeffortsthatreduceortrans-formthemintosilentaccessoriesofmalepower

YassineandGhazalidifferaboutwhatwomenareandshouldbeyetbroadlyspeakingbothmaybeconsideredpartofarecenttrendtowardthe feminizationofdalsquowa Dalsquowa literallymeanscallappealor sum-monsbutthetermhascometosignifyavarietyofpracticesandargu-mentsmeanttoexhortinviteandguideMuslimstowhatisregardedasproperconductandmoraldevotionWomenrsquosparticipationindalsquowais

25WomenrsquosparticipationintheldquoproductionofofficialIslamicknowledgerdquohasalonghistoryalthoughtheyhaveoftendonesoinrelativeobscurityandwithoutthebenefitofeducation in the Islamicsciences thathas legitimateddirectengagementwith thesacredtexts (Cooke 2001 xiv Badran and Cooke 2004) Pioneering attempts to read genderequalityinIslamarealsonotconfinedtowritingbywomenasevincedbyQasimAminrsquosTahrir alshymarrsquoa [TheLiberationofWoman] (1899)andMumtaz lsquoAlirsquosHuquqshye niswan [TheRightsofWomen](1898)

39

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

notabrandnewphenomenonasisevidentinGhazalirsquosworkwiththeEgyptianSocietyofMuslimLadiesinthe1930sYetfromEgypttoPaki-stantoSaudiArabiatotheUnitedStatesthenumberoffemaledalsquoiyashasproliferatedexponentially inrecentyears(Cooke2001Mahmood2005Hirschkind2006)Thisreflectsinpartcurrentdoctrinalempha-sesondalsquowaasincumbentuponbothmenandwomenanddependentlessupontechnicalknowledgethanmoralvirtueandpracticalfamiliaritywiththeIslamictradition(Mahmood200565ndash66)It isalsoaconse-quenceofrecentpoliticalandsocioeconomictransformationsinMuslimsocietiesincludingtheexpansionofmasseducationthathasnotonlyin-creasedwomenrsquosliteracyandsocialmobilitybutalsomadeIslamictextsmoreaccessibletheproliferationoftechnologiesmdashfromthecassettetapetotheInternetmdashthatfacilitatethecirculationofreligiousknowledgeevenamongthosewhocannotreadortraveltheprecedentsetbythevigorousparticipationof IranianwomeninpostrevolutiondebatesaboutIslamandthemodeloflegalactivismevidentintheIslamistmovementrsquosownchallenge to the lsquoulamarsquos status as gatekeepers of religious knowledge(Singerman2005Mir-Hosseini1999)

If Ghazali and Yassine exemplify the feminization of dalsquowa amongelitesthemosquemovementinEgyptillustratesthegrowingparticipa-tionofwomenfromdiversesocialbackgroundsinreligiousclassesde-votedtostudyinganddebatingwhatIslamrequiresforawomantobeldquomorallyuprightrdquointhecontemporaryworld(Mahmood2005)Con-ceptualizingpiety in termsof adeepandholistic commitment to self-transformationparticipantsinthemosquemovementareconcernedlesswithmattersofsovereigntyandpoliticsconventionallyunderstoodandmorewiththeldquomoralcultivationrdquoofthosedailypracticesseenascrucialtobecomingclosertoGod(Mahmood2005)SomeIslamistshavecriti-cizedthis focusonpracticesofworshipasapoliticalandoverlypriva-tizedyetsuchcriticismmissestheforceofIslamistsrsquoowninsistenceondin(religion)asawayoflifeinwhichthedomainsofpublicandprivateare inextricably linked26AsSabaMahmood (2005193194) showsthesewomenrsquosintenseeffortsatldquoretrainingethicalsensibilitiesrdquohavealdquosociopoliticalforcerdquothatextendswellbeyondmattersofgovernancefacilitatingnolessthantheemergenceofaldquonewsocialandmoralorderrdquoEvidenceofitstransformativepowermaybefoundnotonlyinthesheernumbersandvarietyofwomenmdashwealthyandpoor literateand illiter-atemdashparticipatinginthemosquemovementbutalsointherhetoricalandpoliticaleffortsbythestateandsomeIslamiststocurtailcontrolordis-creditit(Mahmood200571194)

26ParticipantsinthemosquemovementinturnareoftencriticalofwhattheyseeasthereductionofIslamtotokensofculturalauthenticityorofitsinstrumentalizationbybothnationalistsandIslamiststheycharacterizeasmoreinterestedinpoliticalmaneuveringthanreligiouspiety

40

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INTRODUCTION

Understoodtoincludebothwrittenandembodiedpracticesthefemi-nizationof dalsquowa illustrates theways inwhichwomen fromdifferentperspectivesandsocialclassesareinsistingonengagingthesacredtextsdirectly for and with one another without the mediating authority ofmenwhohavetraditionallyheldthemonopolyonsuchactivitiesAsSu-danese Islamist Lubabah al-Fadl argues ldquoAs an insan [human being]whohappenstobeawomanIhavearighttorejectthemanipulativeexegesesofoursharilsquoa thatthreatenmyexistenceinawaythat isnotconsistentwiththeGodlywayandtoapplymyownijtihadtorectifyer-roneoustendenciesbysomeshuyukh[pluralofshaykh]rdquo(Sadiki2004290)DespitetheproliferationofvoicesintentonclaimingforthemselvestheauthoritytodemarcatewhatisauthenticallyIslamicandun-Islamiconceandforallcontestationoveritsscopeandmeaningproceedsapacefacilitatedatleastinpartbywomenformerlyexcludedfromtheconver-sationAtthesametimeIslamistwomenrsquosagencyandclaimstoauthorityarefrequentlystillpredicatedonawillingnesstofollowfairlypatriarchalrulesaboutwherehowandwithwhomtheymaypracticetheirvocation(Hirschkind2003Sadiki2004283)

Islamism and Violence

IfgenderisfrequentlyanimplicitpreoccupationamongIslamistsjihadisarguably Islamistsrsquomost consistently explicit concern Jihad is derivedfromtheArabicverbthatmeanstostruggleortostriveyetitisaparticu-larkindofstruggle that isofconcern tomanyof thefigurescollectedheretheoftenviolentstruggleagainstapostatesandinfidelsbothathomeandabroadtowhicheveryindividualMuslimmustcontributeTheclaimthatfightingunbelieversisthepreeminentenactmentofindividualMus-limpiety seems to justify characterizationsof Islam ingeneral and Is-lamisminparticularassanctioningevenencouragingviolenceYetwhatIslamistsrepresentasjihadtout courtisahistoricallyspecificunderstand-ingderivedfromahighlyselectiveuseoftextsandprecedentsprominentamongthemaformerlyobscureclaimbytheinfluentialfourteenth-cen-tury jurist IbnTaymiyya thatMongol rulerswhohad contravened Is-lamiclawcouldbesubjecttoforcibleremovalFarfromadefinitiveex-pressionof Islamldquoproperlyunderstoodrdquo such Islamist argumentsnotonlymarkasignificantdeparturefrommuchofantecedentdoctrineandpractice but also diminish the importance of ongoing disagreementsamongMuslimsabouttheformandpurposesofjihad

TobeginwithMuslimscholarshavetendedtoconsiderjihadagainstforeignenemiesafard kifaya(collectiveobligation)thatisadutyagroupofpeoplewithinthecommunitymayperformonbehalfoftherestandonethatpresupposesalegitimateMuslimleadertodeclareorleadthechargeJuristshavedistinguishedthisfromthefard lsquoayn(individualduty)thatmustbefulfilledbyeverysingleMuslimincasesofdefensivejihad

41

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INTRODUCTION

thatiswhentheummaisunderattackManyIslamistsincludedheretakeamuchlessnuancedviewofjihadAsamodeofpoliticalactionQutbarguesjihadmustberegardedasaldquopermanentconditionnotanocca-sionalconcernrdquoonethatincurrentcircumstancesrequiresdeedsratherthanwordsstruggleratherthancontemplationrevolutionathomeaswellasresistanceabroad(Qutb199167ndash6882)lsquoAbdal-SalamFarajarguesalongsimilarlinesthatthenatureoftheattackonIslammakespolitical authorization by a caliph (ldquodeputyrdquo referring to a legitimatesuccessortotheProphetrsquosleadership)unnecessaryafterallldquoleadershipovertheMuslimsis(always)intheirownhandsifonlytheymakethismanifestIfthereissomethinglackingintheleadershipwellthereisnothingthatcannotbeacquiredrdquo(Jansen1986asec93)

SuchargumentsareadeliberaterejectionofearlyMuslimmodernistswhohademphasizedthelargelydefensivecharacterofjihadandsoughttoshowthatrelationsbetweenMuslimsandnon-MuslimswerenormallypeacefulratherthanantagonisticMahmudShaltut(d1963)therectorof al-Azhar from 1958 to 1963 had argued for example that theQurrsquoanicversesonfightingldquoprohibittheprovocationofhostilityandthisprohibitionisreinforcedbyGodrsquosrepugnancetoaggressionandbyhisdislikeofthosewhoprovokehostilityrdquo(Peters199674onShaltutseeZebiri1993)ConversionbyforceisanathematoIslamShaltutaversandfightingiscommandedonlyindefenseinresponsetoaggressionini-tiatedbyothersEvendefensivejihadmustaimatldquotheterminationoftheaggressionandtheestablishmentofreligiouslibertydevotedtoGodandfreefromanypressureorforcerdquo(Peters199675)

ManyIslamistsexplicitlydismisssuchargumentsasasymptomoffalseconsciousnessoneamongmanydestructiveeffectsofcolonialdomina-tionMawdudiargues for example thatwhile imperialists ravage theworld to satisfy their greed jihad alone ldquoconjures up the vision of amarching band of religious fanatics with savage beards and fiery eyesbrandishingdrawnswordsandattackingtheinfidelswherevertheymeetthemrdquoHavinginternalizedthis imageMuslimsrushtoapologizeandrenouncearmedstruggleInthiswayhelamentscolonialistsretaintheexclusiverighttoldquofightwitharmsandammunitionwhilewearecon-tented with our pen and our tonguerdquo (Mawdudi 1948 1ndash3) SayyidQutbforhispartagreedthatIslamdoesnotcountenancespreadingitsmessagebyforceandcoercionyethehadlittlepatiencewiththosewhosoughttopresentjihadaslegitimateonlyinself-defense

IfweinsistoncallingIslamicjihadadefensivemovementthenwemustchangethemeaningofthewordldquodefenserdquoandmeanbyitldquothedefenseofmanrdquoagainstallthoseforcesthatlimithisfreedomWhenwetakethisbroadmeaningofthewordldquodefenserdquoweunder-standthetruecharacterofIslaminthatitproclaimstheuniversalfreedomofeverypersonandcommunityfromservitudetoanyother

42

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

individualorsocietytheendofmanrsquosarroganceandselfishnesstheestablishmentofthesovereigntyofAllahandHisLordshipthrough-outtheworldandtheruleofthedivinesharilsquoainhumanaffairs(Qutb199050)

Qutbdoesnotnameanynamesincastigatingtheldquowriterswithdefeatistandapologeticmentalities[who]writeaboutlsquojihadinIslamrsquoandtrytoremovethislsquoblotrsquofromIslamrdquo(Qutb199046)buthecouldverywellhavehadhisdistinguishedfellowEgyptianMahmudShaltutinmind

These arguments about jihad may be said to constitute a commongrammarandframeworkofanalysisformanyIslamistsalthoughseveralthinkers in this volume carefully calibrate such claims to suit variouspurposesanddifferentpublicspheresInhisjustificationfortheassassi-nationofEgyptianpresidentAnwaral-SadatforexamplelsquoAbdal-SalamFarajdepictsthestruggletoreclaimthemoralfoundationsoftheEgyp-tianstateasafightagainstjahiliyyafromwithinarguingthatthejihadagainstacorruptnationalistregimeathomemusttakeprecedenceoverfightingenemieselsewhereTheCharterofHamas(seechapter15)how-everinsiststhatallMuslimsrecognizetheprimacyofthejihadforJeru-salemweldingIslamistrhetorictothatofnationalistresistanceinanef-fortbothtofightIsraelioccupationandtocompeteforadherentswiththePalestinianLiberationOrganization(PLO)IncontrasttobothFarajandHamasBinLadenembracesaglobaljihadthatessentiallycollapsesdistinctionsbetweennationalandinternationaloffensiveanddefensivefightingenemiesathomeandthosefromafar

Yet despite such differences these arguments tend to presume thatviolent jihad is a necessary response to the pervasive power of thosewithdemonstratedhostilitytoMuslimliveslandspietiesandsensibili-tiesaformofretaliationwhoseurgencyandlegitimacyderivefromtheviolencemdashpsychologicalandeconomicaswellasphysicalmdashoftheinitialassaultThisviewofjihadsubsumesindividualsintoarchetypesofldquoin-fidelsrdquoandldquobelieversrdquoandinsodoingvitiatesmoreconventionaldis-tinctionsbetweenforexamplesoldierandcivilianorcollectiveandin-dividual responsibility It is far from inevitable that thosewhoharborsuchviewswillautomaticallyactuponthemyetthecarnagewroughtbytheattacksontheWorldTradeCenterandthePentagonin2001aBalinightclub in 2002 Madrid commuter trains in 2004 and throughoutIraqonadailybasissuggestjusthowlethalsuchclaimscanbegiventheright circumstances The fact that such violence does not discriminateamongvictimsonlyfurtherfuelsrhetoriccharacterizingIslamistsasirra-tional fanatics ldquoin love with deathrdquo terrorists animated by a religioncharacterizedbyapropensityforviolenceandauthoritarianism27

27AnxietiesabouttheparticularsusceptibilityofMuslimstoirrationalityinsularityandfanaticismhavealonganddistinguishedpedigreeinEuro-AmericanhistoryandpoliticalthoughtSeeforexampleRenan18833

43

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

AsinsomanyothermattershoweverIslamistsarehardlyofonemindonthesubjectofjihadindeedthereareIslamistswhoexplicitlyrejectthereductionof struggle toviolenceAcase inpoint isNadiaYassine(20032005c)whoinsiststhatjihadisthededicatedstruggleagainstisshytikbar(arrogance)particularlyinitscommonformasthelustforpoweranddominationAsjihadagainstistikbarisbothafinalgoalandapre-scriptionforactionYassinesuggestsitisantitheticaltoviolentpracticesthataimatdominationTheprimaryinstrumentsofjihadarenotbombsbutwords particularly thosedeployed in the art of persuasion (Fara-marzi2005NYassine2006a)WhenIslamistssuchaslsquoAbdal-SalamFarajandlsquoUmarlsquoAbdal-RahmanseektolegitimizeviolentrevolutionbyrecoursetoIslamictextsshearguestheycontravenethetruemeaningofjihadtoservetheirownarrogantendsBythesametokenBinLadenrsquosdecisiontoldquofightevilwithevilandbarbaritywithbarbarityrdquonotonlyviolatesspecificIslamicprohibitionsagainstharmingcivilianswomenandchildrenbutalsobetraystheethicalimperativetoembodythemes-sageofamercifulGodwhocautionsbelieversthat(Q8822)ldquoYouhavenopoweroverthemrdquo(NYassine2005cDaily Excelsior2002)

SuchpersistentdisagreementsamongMuslimspastandpresentsug-gest that Islam isnomore inherently violent andbloody-minded thanitmdashorChristianityor Judaism for thatmattermdashis inherentlypeacefulIslamists often claim to speak for an unchanging authentic Islam thatexistsoutsideoftimeandspaceyetthepoliticalpurchaseoftheirper-spective derives from the ways it assembles disparate yet recognizablecontemporaryexperiencesofsufferingfrustrationandlossintoanex-planationthatresonateswithMuslimswholiveincommunitiescultur-allylinguisticallyandgeographicallydistantfromoneanotherTheex-tenttowhichIslamistargumentsresonatebroadlyacrossMuslimsocie-tiesthusdependsuponasetofexperiencesandphenomenathatmarkthisparticularmomentinhistoryincludingthewaysinwhichcontempo-raryglobalinequalitiescompoundalegacyofhistoricalasymmetriestocontinuallyreproduceasenseofMuslimpowerlessnessmdashbothrealandimaginedmdashrelativetotheWestcontinuingEuro-Americanpoliticalandfinancialsupportofcorruptautocratsmanyofwhompresideoverna-tion-statesbrutallystitchedtogetherbyWesternfiat thepersistenceofauthoritarian regimes eager to control domestic unrest by catalyzingldquoMuslimragerdquotowardexternaltargetsthesenseofemasculationpro-ducedbydecadesofpoliticalrepressionandeconomicfrustrationandthecontinualflowofimagesofbloodiedMuslimbodiesdeliveredbyaburgeoningarrayofvideosatelliteandelectronicmedia

It is notable that the understanding of jihad many Islamists proffermirrorstheverystate-sanctionedviolenceagainstwhichtheyhavestrug-gledforalmostacenturyAlongwiththousandsofMuslimscaughtinthemachineryoftwentieth-centurystateviolenceprominentIslamistsfromQutbtoGhazalitoAymanal-Zawahirimdashal-Qalsquoidarsquossecondincommandmdash

44

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

arewellknowntohavebeenradicalizedbyextendedandoftenbrutaltermsofincarcerationinEgyptSyriaIraqJordanIsraelAlgeriaandelsewhere(onal-ZawahiriandprisoncfKepelandMilelli2008152ndash54)ItisthusfarfromsurprisingthatIslamistsforgedbyinterrogationtortureinprisoncampswouldconcludethatthepreeminentenactmentofMuslimpietyisviolentstruggleldquoPrisonrdquoasPalestinianKhaledAbuHilalhassaidldquoismyuniversityrdquo(Erlanger2007)anargumentmadeingreaterdetailinadifferenttimeandplacebyRussianwriterandrevolu-tionaryMaximGorky(1868ndash1936)

Apeoplebroughtupinaschoolthatremindsoneofthetormentsofhellonasmallscaleapeopleaccustomedtotheclenched-fistprisonandthewhipwillnotbeblestwithatenderheartApeoplethatthepoliceagentshaveriddenoverwillbecapableintheirturnofwalk-ingoverthebodiesofothersInacountrywhereunresthasreignedsolongit isdifficultforthepeopletorealizefromonedaytothenextthepowerofrightOnecannotdemandfromamanwhohasneverknownjusticethatheshouldbejust(Gorky1920)

InthiscontextasTimothyMitchell(1990195ndash96199207ndash8)suggestsIslamistviewsoftheworldcanbecharacterizedasbothamodeofresis-tancetostatemechanismsofcoercionandanexpressionofthemSuchisthedynamic evident inGhazalirsquosmemoirs for examplewhen shede-scribeshowtheldquodarknessofprisonsthebladesoftortureandthevi-ciousbeatingsonly increasetheenduranceandresolveofthefaithfulrdquo(Ghazali19786)

There is no doubt a great deal of pragmatism at work in IslamistargumentsaboutviolenceAsQutb(19916447ndash48)drylynotesthepathtofreedommustoccasionallybehewnbywayoftheswordbecausetyrants are not reasoned out of power and ldquojahiliyya is not lsquoabstracttheoryrsquo[it]consciouslyorunconsciouslystrivestopreserveitsownexistence to defend its essence to annihilate dangerous elementswhichthreatenitsverybeingrdquoYetitisalsothecasethatformanyoftheseIslamistsjihadisbothameansandanendanefforttoeradicatethoseobstacles torestoringa justcommunityonearththatsimultane-ouslybringshumanaction intoaccordwithGodrsquosplansandpurposes(Haddad198321)While theQurrsquoan (2256) states thatldquothere isnocompulsioninreligionrdquoIslamistscontendthatonlyinastateinwhichIslamiclawreignssupremearehumanbeingsfreefromenslavementtooneanotherrsquosruleandallareequalbyvirtueoftheircommonsubmissiontoGodAsQutb(1991107ndash8)argues

WhenthehighestauthorityinsocietyisGodalonemdashexpressedintheruleofdivinelawmdashonlythenishumanitytrulyandcompletelyliber-atedfromslaverytomenOnlythisisldquohumancivilizationrdquobecausetheessentialfoundationofhumancivilizationisthetrueandcom-

45

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

pletefreedomofhumanityandtheabsolutedignityofeveryindivid-ualinsocietyThereisnotruefreedomanddignityforhumanityortheindividualinasocietywheresomepeoplearelordswholegislateandothersareslaveswhoobey

From this perspective the realization of justice liberty equality andchoiceitselfnecessitatestheforcibleremovaloftheconstraintsimposedbyjahiliyyaalongwiththosewhoaidandabetitno matter the costAsMawdudi(1954160ndash61)writes

[W]hyisitthatinreligionsuchimportanceisgiventojihadthattheQurrsquoanpronouncesthejudgmentofhypocrisyuponthosewhoshirkandevadeitJihadisbutanothernamefortheattempttoerectthesystemoftruthandtheQurrsquoandeclaresjihadtobeatouchstoneonthesamefootingwithamanrsquosfaithInotherwordshewhohasfaithinhisheartwillneitherbecontentwiththedominationofthesystemofevilnorwillhegrudgetheexpenditureoflifeandwealthinthestruggleforerectingthesystemoftruthIfoneshowsweaknessinthismatterhisfaithitselfisdoubtfulWhatcananythingelsebesidethenprofithimThemanwhoprofesses faith in this religioncannotfulfillhisdutyonlybytryingasfaraspossibletopatternhislifeonIslamThenatureofhisfaithitselfrequiresthatheshouldconcentrateallhiseffortuponwrestingleadershipfromunbelievingandcorruptmentoentrustittotherighteousanduponerectingthesystemoftruththathasbeenordainedfortheconductoftheworldaccordingtothewillofGodBecausethisendisunattainablewith-out thehighestdegreeofcollectiveeffort theremustexistarigh-teouscommunitycommittedtotheprincipleoftruthanddevotedtothesolepurposeintheworldoferectingmaintainingandproperlyrealizingthesystemoftruth

ThefactthatsomeIslamistthinkerssanctifyviolentstruggleinsuchtermsdoesnotmeanofcoursethatallthosewhoadvocateorengageinjihadendorseviolence28NordoesitimplythatthosewhoclaimtokillforIslamareentirelywithoutulteriormotivesthosemanipulativepur-poses andpsychologicalmotivations that even themost rarified scrip-turalargumentscanexpressorserveWhattheprecedinganalysisdoessuggesthoweveristhatthereductionofthisviewofjihadtoirrationalbloodlusttheself-interestedgrabfortemporalpoweroradoorthroughwhichtopassintothehereaftermissesacrucialdimensionofitssignifi-canceandappealfortruebelieversjihadisnolessthananenactmentof

28EvenashespokeofaneweraofjahiliyyaandofjihadMawdudihimselfstoppedwellshortof recommendingor condoning the actual resort to violence in themannermanyotherIslamistsdidAsNasr(199670)observesMawdudirsquosorganizationtheJamalsquoat-iIs-lamildquohasavoidedviolentsocialchangeandhasinsteadviewedthepathtotheIslamicstateaslyingwithintheexistingsociopoliticalorderrdquoAlsoseethechapters5and3onQutbandMawdudiinthisvolume

46

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

adivineimperativetoremakethefoundationsofcollectivelifeInthisre-spectIslamistviewsofjihadcanbeseenaspartofalong-standingasso-ciationbetweenviolenceandpoliticalfoundingsuponwhichnoparticu-larcultureorhistoricalepochhasamonopolyThisassociationandtheldquolegacyofviolencerdquoitbequeathstofuturegenerationsarenolessappar-entinthoseradicalrevolutionsofrenewalthatmovebywayoftheswordfromthemarginstothecenterthanthosepoliticalfoundingsthatclaimtocreatesomethingoutofnothing(Connolly1995251)Ineithercasethetollofsuchbrutalitycanbeimmeasurableforinadditiontothevic-timswhosufferdirectlytheldquopracticeofviolencelikeallactionchangestheworldbutthemostprobablechangeistoamoreviolentworldrdquo(Ar-endt1972177)

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Page 26: Chapter 1 INTRODUCTION - assets.press.princeton.eduassets.press.princeton.edu/chapters/s9067.pdf · Chapter 1 INTRODUCTION This volume is intended as a broad introduction to the evolution

26

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

tioningreligio-politicalauthorityIslamistleadershaveoftenenjoyedovertheirfollowersisnotunlikethatoftheSufimasteroverhisfollowersBe-ginningwithHasanal-BannathefounderoftheMuslimBrotherhoodandoncehimselfamemberofaSufiordertheleaderofthisorganizationis formally referred to as themurshid (guide)ormore specificallyalshymurshid alshylsquoam (thegeneralguide[RMitchell1993165])whichisafamiliartermforthemasterinSuficontextsForhispartAbdessalamYassine the founder and leader of lsquoAdl warsquol-Ihsan Party of Morocco(oftenreferredtoastheJusticeandSpiritualityAssociationorJSA)haslike Khomeini gone well beyond simply echoing Sufi conceptions ofauthorityinhisowndiscoursesHetoowasonceamemberofaMoroc-canSufiorderandhehascontinuedtodrawonSufithemesinhiswrit-ingsTheverynameofYassinersquospoliticalorganizationevokesacentralSufiideanamelyihsanThisisaQurrsquoanicterm(cfQ756)thattrans-latedliterallymeansldquotodogoodrdquothoughSufishaveunderstoodittomeanmuchmore thanthatFollowingawell-knownstatementattrib-uted to theProphetMuhammad theyhaveoften interpreted ihsan tomeangoingbeyondtheexternalsofIslamicritualpracticestoldquoworshipGodasifyouseeHimrdquo(Schimmel197529)thatiscultivatingasenseof personal communion and intimacy with God Even as Yassine hassoughttodistancehimselffromwhathedeemstobetheexcessesofSu-fismthereislittledoubtthathispoliticalappealowesmuchtocarefullycalibratedeffortstocombinedistinctiveSufiideaswithhisownbrandofIslamism(cfLauziegravere2005seealsochapter12onNadiaYassineinthisvolume)

FinallyMawdudirsquosJamalsquoat-iIslamimdashoneoftheearliestIslamistorga-nizations in the Sunni worldmdashillustrates both the Islamistsrsquo complexrelationshipwith Sufismand their pragmatic recognitionof its appealinmanyMuslimsocietiesMawdudihadoncebeenaharshcriticofSu-fismblamingitformanyillsafflictingMuslimsocietiesYettheJama-lsquoat-iIslamigraduallycametosoftenitsstanceonSufipracticesconsider-ablynodoubtintheinterestofbroadeningsomeofitssupportbaseinPakistanwheresaintsandSufishrinesareanimportantpartofthereli-giousandpoliticallandscapeAlreadyinMawdudirsquoslifetimeMianTufaylMuhammadhissuccessorastheheadoftheJamalsquoat-iIslamihadtakentheextraordinaryinitiativeoftranslatinganearlySuficlassictheKashf alshymahjub into Urdu The author of this work Shaykh lsquoAli Hujwiri(d1072)isburiedinLahoreinPakistanandhismuch-frequentedshrineishometoprecisely thesortofdevotionalpractices that Islamistsandmodernist reformers letaloneSalafishaveoften frownedupon (Nasr1996124)

ThesediverseexamplesarenotintendedtoobscuretherealdifferencesbetweenthegeneralityofIslamistsandmostSufisTheirsignificanceliesratherinillustratingthedifficultyofdistinguishingbetweenIslamismandotherreligiousintellectualandpoliticaltrendsintermsofneatcharac-

27

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

terizationsofgrandtranslocalgeneralizationsAstheforegoingsuggeststhesameistrueandmoresowhenitcomestocharacterizingIslamistsinrelationtothelsquoulamatheMuslimmodernistsandtheSalafisIndeedasLorenLybargerhasarguedwithreferencetothoseusuallycharacter-izedasldquosecularnationalistrdquoorldquoIslamistrdquoPalestiniansintheWestBankandGazadifferenceswithintheranksofyoungsecularnationalistsandIslamistscansometimesalsoshadeintosignificantsimilaritiesbetweenthesesupposedlyrivalorientations(Lybarger2007)ManyIslamistshavesoughttodistancethemselvesfromwhattheyseeastherigidityandau-thoritarianismofotherIslamistsandtoarguenotjustfortheimplemen-tationofthesharilsquoabutalsofordemocracyandpluralismConverselynot a few of the younger secular nationalists have ldquoadopted IslamisttheodiciesthatexplainedthefailuretoovercomeIsraelastheresultoffallingawayfrompietytheirconclusionsmirroredIslamistonestootheroadbackfromthebrinkhadtotraceitscoursethrougharenewedcom-mitmenttoIslambutnotnecessarilyinthemannerthattheIslamistmove-mentsmighthaveintendedrdquo(Lybarger2007237ndash38quotationat238)

Yet ifneatcategoriesremainelusiveacombinationoftheIslamistsrsquoself-consciouslypoliticalgoalstheirmultifacetedifnotalwaysexplicitpoliticalcritiquesofmanypastandpresentwaysofunderstandingandlivingIslamandanunshakeableconfidenceintheirownabilitytodis-cern Godrsquos will from the foundational texts do often provide enoughgrounds tobroadlydistinguish themfromotheractivists intellectualsand orientations in the Muslim public sphere What this combinationamountstovariesfromonesocialpoliticalreligiousandculturalcon-texttoanotherandsothereforedothewaysinwhichIslamistsrelatetooneanotherorcompeteandoverlapwithothergroupsandorientations

The Politics of Islamism

FromAeneasrsquosmythicalfoundingofRometothedeathandresurrectionofJesusChristtoMuhammadrsquosmigrationtoMedinafoundationalnar-rativesareascommontocollectivelifeasthemovementsthatperiodi-callyarisetorevivethemandclaimantstothemantleoflegitimacytheyconferSounderstoodIslamistsrsquopoliticalaspirationstorestorefounda-tionslocatedinamythicalpastarefarfromuniqueNorareIslamistsaloneintheirconvictionthatscripturalauthorityisguaranteedbyitsdi-vineauthormdashforinthatallMuslimsagreeRatherthechaptersinthisvolumesuggest thatwhatmakes Islamistpoliticsdistinctive (ifnotsui generis)istheclaimtorecuperateanldquoauthenticIslamrdquocomprisedofself-evidenttruthspurgedofalienandcorruptinginfluencesalongwithaninsistenceonremakingthefoundationsofthestateinitsimageGiventhelimitsofhumanunderstandingrelativetoGodrsquosknowledgeIslamistssimultaneouslydepictsuchfidelitytotheunadulteratedwordofAllahas

28

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

theultimateexpressionofdeferencetodivineomniscienceandportrayhumilityasaconstitutivefeatureofthehumanconditionAspirationstofullyknowandmasterthenaturalandsocialworldsthusentailnotonlyahumanhubrisdeaftotheQurrsquoanicadmonitionthatldquoAllahknowsbutandyoudonotknowrdquo(Q366)butalsoatransgressionagainstadi-vinely-ordainedontologicalorder

ItisnotablehoweverthattheIslamistemphasisonthelimitsofhumanknowledgerequireshumilityonlyinrelationtoAllahitrarelyyieldshu-milityinregardtotheirownclaimstospeakinHisnameortowardotherhumanbeingswhodissentfromthepremiseofdivineomnipotenceandIslamistaccountsofwhat it requiresThis suggests thatwhile IslamistchallengestostatepowerareobviouslypoliticaltheIslamistclaimtoau-thenticityisalsopolitical inthecoercivepoweritroutinelyenactsandjustifiesmostnotablybywayofthesilencesitimposesandthedebatesitforeclosesAzizal-Azmehpointsoutthatldquothenotionofauthenticityisnotsomuchadeterminateconceptasitisanodeofassociationsandin-terpellationsatropebymeansofwhichthehistoricalworldisreducedtoaparticularorderandatokenwhichmarksoffsocialandpoliticalgroupsandforgesandreconstituteshistoricalidentitiesrdquo(al-Azmeh199341)WhetherintheserviceofArabnationalismChristianfundamental-ismEuropeanromanticismorMuslimmodernismtheclaimofauthen-ticityisanactofpowerthatfunctionsnotjusttoreflecttheworldbuttoconstructitbydeterminingwhoisincludedandexcludedwhomayandmaynotspeakauthoritativelywhatistheproperrealmofdebateandwhatisbeyondcontestation

ItiscertainlythecasethatasingleldquoIslamrdquocapturesandorganizestheperspectivesofmillionswhoself-identifyasMuslim(amongotherthings)yetwhattravelsunderitsrubricisinescapablydiversemultiethnicanddefined asmuchbydisagreement as consensus Just as theTorah andBible lend themselves toat times radicallydivergent interpretationsofwhatitmeanstobeJewishorChristiantheQurrsquoanandhaditharecom-plexandsusceptibletomanydifferentandattimescontradictoryenact-mentsSounderstoodIslamislessafixedessencethanalivingtraditionthatcaptureswhatisimaginedascontinuousandunitaryindialecticalrelationshiptothoseconcretearticulationsandpracticesbywhichitistransformedandadaptedindifferentcontextsforpluralpurposesItispreciselythisunderstandingofreligionthatisanathematoIslamistswhoseek tofix theparametersof Islamicauthenticityonceandforallandtherebyarrogateforthemselvestherighttodeterminewhoqualifiesasagood Muslim to discredit those lsquoulama unable or unwilling to purgeIslamofpurportedimpietiestodeclarenominallyMuslimrulersapos-tatesunfittogovernandtocharacterizeallwhodisagreeascorrupthe-reticalguiltyofunbelieforvictimsoffalseconsciousness

Thesegeneralpoliticaltendencieshowevermustbecarefullysituatedwithinadialecticoftheglobalandthevernacularunderstoodtoreflect

29

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

thewaysinwhichunifyingmacrohistoricaldynamicsinformandareinturntransformedbydiversecontingentandfluidlocalcircumstancesInaworldstampedbyWesterndominanceandtheconsolidationofpostco-lonial authoritarian regimes Islamists confront a common set of con-straintsandchallengesInasmuchassuchconstraintsandchallengeshavemade Islamist thinkers (often reluctant) participants in conversationsacrossbothcultureandhistorytheireffortstoremakethefoundationsofcollectiveliferevealasharedinterpretiveframeworkandcommonreli-gio-political grammar At the same time this frame and grammar arecontinuallybeingreworkedinrelationtothedistinctpublicspheresinwhichIslamistsoperateandtowhichtheycarefullycalibratetheirpoliti-calcommitments

Attention to this complex dynamic suggests that the Islamist move-mentcannotsimplybecharacterizedasviolentantidemocraticandop-pressiveofwomenlabelsinvokedsofrequentlyinscholarlyandpopularliterature on the subject that they have become virtually synonymouswithIslamistpoliticsSuchcharacterizationsdocapturecrucialdimen-sionsofIslamistpoliticsyettheyalsosidesteptheparadoxesitsvarie-gatedandoftencontradictoryexpressionspresentInsteadwearguethatIslamistpoliticscanbeproductivelyreadin terms ofandagainst the grain ofsuchbroadcategorizationsasantidemocraticantiwomanorviolentmdashthat is as commitments that at different moments in various localesbothencourageandconstrainbroad-basedpoliticalparticipationdisruptandratifyhierarchicalgendernormsresistandreproducestate-sanctionedbrutalityThepointofreadingIslamistpoliticsinthiswayisnottosug-gestthatIslamistsaresecretlydemocraticfeministandopposedtovio-lenceRatherthepointistodrawattentiontothecomplexityandcon-tradictionserasedbyeasygeneralizationsontheonehandandtheoftenunacknowledgedfluidityandculturaladaptabilityofotherwisefamiliarpoliticalcategoriesontheother

Islamism and Democracy

DespiteimportantdifferencesamongIslamistthinkerstheyhaveincom-monatendencytoviewhumansovereigntyastransgressiveofdivinelawandsharetheaspirationtoestablishsharilsquoaastheprimaryorsolesourceofauthorityAsisoftennotedsuchpremisesandaspirationsrunafoulofassumptionsaboutpopularruleattheheartofdemocracynamelythathumanbeingshavetherighttolegislaterulesforcollectivebehaviorandarecapableofthewisdomrequiredtodevisejustlawsInrecentyearspolicymakersandcommentatorshaveevincedaparticularpreoccupa-tionwiththewaysinwhichIslamistnotionsofdivineauthoritythrottlethespiritandpracticeofpopularsovereigntySomehaveevengonesofarastocharacterizeIslamistsasldquoIslamo-fascistsrdquoanimatedbyhatredoftheldquodemocratic Westrdquo psychologically unable to contend with the fluidity

30

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INTRODUCTION

andindeterminacythatmarkpopularruleandeagertoconvertelectionsintoaldquoone-manone-voteone-timerdquomechanismforestablishinganIs-lamicstate(Murdock2002MRubin2005Kramer1993)

SuchviewsareechoedbythoseIslamistskeentoportraydemocracynotonlyasantitheticaltothesupremacyofdivinelawbutasaTrojanhorseforWesternimperialismFormanyIslamistsincludingseveralinthis volumedemocracy is justone symptomofametastasizingmoralandspiritualbankruptcywherebymoraltransgressionsaretransfiguredintonaturalurgescrassself-interestbecomesthebedrockofcollectivelifeandthedivineplanfortheuniverseandallthingsinitisreducedtoa system of physical causality just waiting to be mastered by way ofhumaningenuity(REuben2007)Qutbcallsthisdiseasedviewoftheworldjahiliyyaanditsignalsnotonlyhumanarrogancebutatransgres-sionagainstdivineauthoritythescopeofwhichencompassesbothpub-licandprivatedomainsofhumanaffairsaswellasbothvisibleandun-seendimensionsoftheuniverseFormanyIslamistssuchtransgressionisattherootofmuchofwhatpassesforMuslimruleinthecontemporaryworldmdashnationalistdemocraticandmonarchicalalikeSucharroganceisalsosaidtobethepatternunderlyingalonghistoryofunrelievedWest-ernaggressionagainstIslaminwhichtheChristianCrusadesEuropeancolonialismIsraelitreatmentofPalestiniansethniccleansinginBosniaGermananti-TurkishviolencetheAmericaninvasionofIraqandDutchcartoonsofMuhammadarebutafewexamples

YetthereisarangeofviewsamongIslamistsaboutboththesubstanceofdemocracyanditscompatibilitywiththereligio-politicalrenewaltheyadvocateAccordingtoQaradawiforexampleldquotheessenceofdemoc-racyisthatpeoplechoosewhorulesoverthemandmanagestheiraf-fairsthatnorulerorregimetheydislikeisforceduponthemthattheyhavetherighttocalltherulertoaccountifheerrsandtoremovehimfromofficeincaseofmisconductandthatpeoplearenotforcedineco-nomicsocialculturalorpoliticaldirectionsthattheyneitherrecognizenor acceptrdquo (Qaradawi1997132 also chapter9 in this volume)TohimthereisnoheavierburdenoppressingMuslimsinthecontemporaryworld thandespotism indeed it is throughdespoticgovernments thatMuslimshavebeenforcedtosubmittootherillsincludingtheneglectofthesharilsquoaandthecoerciveimpositionofsecularismandwesternizationDemocracy then recommends itself to Qaradawi as the most effectiveavailableantidotetodespotismandtheafflictionsofwhichitservesasavehicle

WheremanyamongtheIslamistsandthelsquoulamahaveseenconsider-able tensionbetween IslamanddemocracyQaradawiprofesses to seenoneAswesuggestedearlierbyfarthemostcommonoftheIslamistreservationsaboutademocraticsystemrelatestothesovereigntyofthepeoplewhichistakentocontravenetheideathatGodaloneissovereignQaradawi however is unperturbedby such concernsThe rule of the

31

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INTRODUCTION

peopleoughttobeseenhearguesnotinoppositiontotheruleofGodbutratherinoppositiontotheruleofthedespotMorefundamentallyQaradawirsquos view of democracy does not necessarily require that thepeopleshouldbeabletooverturndivinelyinstitutednormsRatherhisassumptionisthatpeopleexercisetheirsovereigntywithinconstitutionalboundsandMuslimslivinginapredominantlyMuslimdemocraticpol-itywouldlikewisenotwishtotransgresstheparametersoflegitimatehumanactionlaiddownintheIslamicfoundationaltexts(seeQaradawichapter9inthisvolumeandcfFeldman2007)

NadiaYassineofMoroccorsquosJusticeandSpiritualityAssociationisan-othercaseinpointWhilecriticalofthedemocraticgesturesembracedbyamonarchythatshedepictsasallergictogenuinelypopularsovereigntyYassineinsiststhatthemodelofMuslimruleadumbratedintheummafoundedbytheProphetMuhammadandinparticulartheConstitutionofMedina17isnothingshortofdemocratic(NYassine2005d2005e)UnliketheMuslimdynastiesthatarosetousurpitYassinecontendsthiscommunity was participatory egalitarian committed to freedom andexpressiveofGodrsquosmercyMostimportantitwasgovernedalwaysbytheQurrsquoanicprincipleofshura (consultation)bywhichYassinemeansaphilosophy of power that places sovereignty in the community ratherthaninanyindividuallinksvirtuetodeliberationratherthanobedienceandexhortsbelieverstocontinuallyadaptQurrsquoanicprinciplesthroughijtihad rather than adhere reflexively to precedent (N Yassine 2006a182ndash862005d)ManyscholarsandjournalistsremainskepticaloftheJSArsquosasyetuntestedcommitment toproceduraldemocracyandworrythatNadiaandher fatherAbdessalamultimatelyseektoestablishanIslamic state inhospitable to tolerance pluralism and civil liberties(Maghraoui2001Brandon2007Whitlock2006)YetothersarguethattheJSAisagenuinelypopulistorganizationthatrepresentstheunrepre-sentedtendstothewelfareofthedispossessedandbothexpressesandcontributestoanincreasinglyvibrantcivilsocietyinMorocco(Cavatorta2006Entelis2002)

QaradawirsquosandYassinersquosargumentstogethersuggestthatdemocracycanandhasservedaseitheracosmeticcoverfordespotismoranauthen-ticallyIslamiccheckuponcorruptandarbitraryruleAtissueinIslamistargumentsforandagainstdemocracythenarenotonlywhatcountsasldquoauthenticIslamrdquoandtheintentionsofthosewhoclaimtoknowitbutalsothecontentandcharacterofdemocracyitselfParadoxicallybothIslamistsopposedtodemocracyandthosewhotakeIslamismasinher-entlyantidemocraticregardthisasasimplematterwithanobviousan-swerdemocracyisanexpressionofandevensynonymouswithliberal-ismcapitalismandtheWestYetdemocracyisbothmorecapaciousand

17TheConstitutionofMedinawasanagreementtheProphethadenteredintowiththelocalcommunitiesincludingJewishtribesuponhisemigrationfromMeccatoMedina

32

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

moredistinctthanthispresumptionsuggestsTheworditselfofcoursederivesfromtheancientGreekdemokratiawhichmeansrule(kratos)ofthepeople(demos)andmanyderivetheequationofdemocracyandtheWestfromthisassociationwithclassicalGreeceYetancientGreekphi-losopherssuchasPlatosawindemocracythespecterofmobrulepartic-ularly vulnerable to demagoguery and despotism (a suspicion notablyechoedbyAmerican founder JamesMadison)Contrary to thedemo-cratic idealof inclusivenessmoreover citizenship inGreekdemocracyexcludedasubstantialpartofthepopulationincludingwomenslavesandforeignersFinallytheextenttowhichtheancientGreeksmayevenbecalledWesternisamatterofgreatdisputeparticularlyastheldquoWestrdquoisacategoryofrelativelyrecentprovenancethroughwhichhistoryandgeographyhavebeenretroactivelyorganized18DespitedepictionsoftheHellenicworldasWesternancientGreeksdidnotinfactviewthem-selvesintheseterms19

TheequationofdemocracywiththeWestalsopresupposestheexis-tenceofacoherentldquoWesterncivilizationrdquowitheitherculturallyhomoge-neousrootsorclearlydelineatedhistoricalandcontemporarybounda-riesorbothYetwhatiscalledtheWestisanamalgamationofmultipletraditionsincludingtheGreekRomanJudaicChristianandIslamicmdashtraditionsthatarethemselvespolyvalentratherthanhomogeneousmdashandistodaycharacterizedbyporousbordershybridsubculturesandmyriaddebtstodiversecivilizationspastandpresent20AsageographicmarkeritisvirtuallyimpossibletopinpointexactlywheretheWestbeginsandendsandthisisespeciallysonowthatpeoplesinformationandmate-rial goods crisscross cultural andnational borders atwill creating allkindsoftransnationalsubnationalandmultipleidentitiesthatshiftandreconstitutethemselvesinunpredictablewaysEventhosevaluesidenti-fiedasWesternoftenappearelsewhereinotherguisesIndeedscholarssuggestthatavarietyoftheldquostandardsexportedbytheWestanditscul-turalindustriesthemselvesturnouttobeofculturallymixedcharacterifweexaminetheirculturallineagesrdquo(Pieterse199553)

Manyalsoarguethatdemocracyisnotonlydistinctfrombutinten-sionwithboththetheoryandpracticeofpoliticsinldquoWesternrdquosocieties

18MichaelGillespie(19997ndash10)arguesthattherereadingofhistorygeographyandculturethroughtheprismofthissenseofldquotheWestrdquobegannoearlierthanthenineteenthcenturyTheideaofatimelessandbrightlinebetweenWestandEastisalsochallengedbyJeremyBrottonrsquosstudy(19989096ndash97)ofthediplomaticandintellectualexchangesbe-tweenEuropeandtheOttomanEmpireintheearlymodernperiodBrottonshowsnotonlytheextentandamityofsuchexchangesbutapersistentuncertaintyaboutwherepreciselyEuropeldquoendedrdquoandAsialdquobeganrdquo

19AncientGreeksunderstoodthemselvesasgeographicallywestofthebarbariansbutnotWesterninthecontemporarysensethatisasbothaculturalandhistoricalcategory

20StevenRuncimanrsquoswork(19543480)ontheCrusadesforexampledemonstratesaldquolongsequenceofinteractionandfusionbetweenOrientandOccidentoutofwhichourcivilizationhasgrownrdquo

33

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

many of which are more accurately classified as liberal and capitalist(Wood1994Wolin2001BallandDagger1999)Whileitisnowcom-monplacetospeakofldquoliberaldemocracyrdquoinasinglebreathliberalismanddemocracyareconceptsandpracticeswithverydifferenthistoriesandpresuppositionsUnlikedemocracyforexampleliberalismemergedfromthecrucibleofChristianreligiouswarsandintandemwiththeas-cendanceofamiddleclassthatpresagedtheendofEuropeanfeudalismTheliberalnation-statecanthusbeviewedasbothanexpressionandaconsolidationofcapitalismontheonehandandtheprincipleofasepa-rationbetweenchurchandstateontheotherBycontrastthereisnoth-ingaboutdemocracyeitherasasystemofgovernanceoracultureofpar-ticipationthatisinherentlysecularIndeedAlexisdeTocquevillefamouslyinsistedthatAmericandemocracycannotandshouldnotbesecularasreligionhelpsshiftattentionawayfromimmediatematerialpreoccupa-tionstolargerconcernsofcommunitycooperationandmoralityInfactmanydemocratictheoristsarguethatgenuinelyinclusivepopularsover-eignty is antithetical to the sharp inequalities of wealth and politicalpowerthatcapitalismoftenproducesandlegitimates

SuchongoingdefinitionalandsubstantivedebatessuggestthatthereismuchmoreatstakeindemocraticpoliticsthanprocedurespertainingtogovernmentauthorityandorderandpointtoawidespreadifelusiveunderstandingofdemocracynotjustasasetofinstitutionsbutasTocque-villesuggestsawayoflifeSeveralpoliticaltheoristshavecharacterizedthiselusiveunderstandingintermsofaldquodemocraticethosrdquoBythistheymeanbothanidealandanargumentforacultureofparticipationactivepowersharingmutualaccountabilityinclusivenessanddeliberationinwhichcitizensmayroutinelyandsafelychallengenotonlyspecificpoli-ciesandpolitical institutionsbutalso thevalues thatgoverncollectivelifeprinciplesofinclusionandexclusionandthepremisesofauthorityitself(Connolly1995JPEuben2003Sadiki2004)AdemocraticethosismuchmoredifficulttomeasureorquantifythanforexampleSamuelHuntingtonrsquosparsimoniousdefinitionofdemocracyasapolityinwhichtherehavebeentwoconsecutivepeacefulchangesofgovernmentbywayof freeand fairelections (Huntington1991)21Yetademocraticethosmakesitpossibletobothrecognizeanddisaggregatethepreconditionsaspirations mechanisms and institutions bundled into ldquodemocracyrdquotherebybringingintofocusforexamplethefrequentlyantidemocratic

21Manypoliticalscientistsprefertodefinedemocracyintermsofproceduresdesignedtorealizepopularruleincludingfreecompetitiveandfairelectionsalongwithstateprotec-tionofcertainrightsandlibertiesSuchaformalminimalistdefinitionhastheadvantageofdetachingdemocracyfromquestionsoforiginsandofferingastandardtowhichallgov-ernmentsmaybeheldregardlessofcultureandplaceAsKeithTopper(2005205ndash7)ar-gueshoweveritalsotendstosidestepknottyquestionsaboutthesubstanceofrepresenta-tion power responsiveness and accountability that are arguably central to democraticpolitics

34

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

casttoelectionsimposedbyelitesorforeignpowersthefeltimpotenceofmanycitizensinestablisheddemocraciesandthosehighlyparticipa-torycivilsocietiesthatflourishevenundermonarchicortheocraticrule

Forourpurposes inparticularademocraticethosmakesvisible theparadoxofanIslamistmovementthatseekstomobilizeordinaryMus-limsagainstcoercivepowerbutinthenameofareligio-politicalorderlargelyimmunizedfromchallengeQutbisanaptillustrationhereashistendencytogroundhisownspecialauthorityandinsightintheunsulliedwisdomofordinarybelieversmakesitpossibletoreadhisworkaseitherabriefagainstdemocracy(amongotherthings)oranenactmentofitIn-asmuchasdemocracyasaformofgovernanceisidentifiedwithpopularsovereigntyQutbrsquosbasicpremisethat thefoundationof legitimateau-thoritymustbedivineratherthanhumansuggeststhatheisunambigu-ouslyantidemocraticMoreoverQutbrsquoseffortstopluralizereligiousandpolitical authority express not a confidence in common wisdom butratheradesiretoclaimforhimselfthestatureofareligiousexpertwhodespitehislackofIslamicacademiccredentialscanclearlyseewhatoth-erscannotQutbcharacterizestherealIslamasself-evidentbuthealsoassumesthatonlyasmallvanguardofbelieversbesideshimselfwillhavetheabilitytorecognizeitandactdecisivelytoremaketheworldinitsimageSounderstoodthesignofldquochosennessrdquoisunyieldingcommitmenttoestablishingareligio-politicalorderthatsimultaneouslypresumesthesupremacyofthefewcapableoftrueknowledgeandpromisesaworldinwhichdissentitselfwillbecomebothunnecessaryandillegitimate

Yetifdemocracyrefersnotonlytoasystemofgovernanceorsetofprocedurestorealizepopularsovereigntybutalsotopracticesthatdis-ruptthoseforceswhichconcentratepowerandestablishpoliticalexclu-sionthecharacterizationofQutbrsquosworkassimplyantidemocraticmissesa crucial dimensionof its significance and appealAs the sacred textscontaintherulesandregulationsmeanttogovernbothpublicandpri-vateaffairsQutbrsquosinsistencethatordinaryuntrainedMuslimsmusten-gagethemdirectlyisinmanywaysademocratizationofaccesstoau-thoritySuchaccesscandisruptdeeplyentrenchedpatternsofpowerandpowerlessness particularlywhen conjoined to Islamist arguments thatarbitrarypowerisun-Islamicthatreligiousknowledgedependsoncom-mitmentratherthantrainingorexpertise thatMuslimshavetherightandobligationtodeterminewhenrulersareillegitimateandthatthosewhopreferordertojusticesecuritytofreedomandmoneytopietyhaveforfeitedanyclaimtoauthority

ThisaspectofIslamismhasfrequentlybeencomparedtotheProtestantReformationandmorespecificallytoCalvinistsrsquoattemptstotransferldquore-ligiousauthorityawayfromofficiallysanctionedindividualswhointer-prettextstoordinarycitizensrdquo(EGoldberg19913alsocfLoimeier2005)Suchaparallelhassparkedagreatdealofscholarlyspeculation

35

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

regardingapossibleldquoIslamicReformationrdquo22andarangeofargumentsaboutwhetherandhowIslamismmightfacilitatethedemocratizationofMuslim societies much as the Protestant Reformation is said to haveheralded the emergence of European ldquoliberal democracyrdquo While suchcomparisonsareevocativeafullerunderstandingof IslamismrequiresfirstsituatingitinrelationtoahistoricalshiftinthenatureandlocusofreligiousauthorityinIslambeginninginthenineteenthcenturyAsschol-arsofMuslimsocietieshavepointedouttheimpactofmasseducationnewtechnologiesfordisseminatingknowledgeandinformationanddra-matically changed social economic and political contexts have madeavailabletoamateurswhathadpreviouslybeenthepurviewofreligiousexpertsAtthesametimeithasinauguratedafragmentationofauthor-itywithintheveryranksofthelsquoulamathatcontinuestothepresentday23

InthiscontexttheascendanceandinfluenceofautodidactssuchasQutbHasanal-BannalsquoAbdal-SalamFarajandBinLadensimultaneouslyex-pressandaccelerateanongoingrenegotiationofauthorityoverwhomayspeakforIslamandonwhatbasisthepathofwhichisstillunfoldingandtheoutcomeasyetuncertain

Islamism and Gender

One already apparent consequence of this ongoing renegotiation overwhomayspeakforIslamandonwhatbasisistheentryofwomenintothe interpretive fray This development is increasingly unsettling thoseunwrittengendernormsarguablyattheveryheartofIslamistthoughtdisruptingthestandardsofmasculinityandfemininitythatreflecthowparticularculturesorganizehumanbeingsrsquosocialandreproductiveactiv-itiesintorolesthatareinturnthoughttoexpresstheldquonaturerdquoofmenand women Such norms are frequently considered tangential to theknottyproblemsofdefiningIslamismandadumbratingitscentralideasyetarangeofscholarshiponculturespastandpresenthasshownthatgenderisconsistentlytheterrainoverwhichbattlesforpoliticalcontrolandculturalidentityarefoughtMorespecificallyresearchindisciplinessuchasanthropologyhistoryclassicsandpostcolonialstudieshasdem-onstratedthatculturesinwhichfemalebodiesandbehaviorareregardedas indicesofmoralpurity tend to symbolically transformwomen intoconduitsof cultural corruption in timesof internal crisis and externalthreat(Papenek1994Chatterjee1990Tavakoli-Targhi1991Just1989Cohen1991Welter1966Bloch1978)Thisisespeciallytrueofcontem-

22Foralatenineteenth-centuryassessmentoftheprospectsforaldquoMuhammadanRefor-mationrdquoseeBlunt1882132ndash73

23EickelmanandPiscatori199637ndash39131ndash35Zaman2006Suchfragmentationhasinmanywaysbeenacceleratedbytheexplosionofdigitalcultureswhichpromoteamongotherthingsaldquoformofempoweredamateurismrdquo(Mirzoeff20026)

36

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

poraryreligio-politicalmovementswhosememberstendtoldquoidealizepa-triarchalstructuresofauthorityandmoralityrdquoendorsegenderdualismasgod-givenornaturalandcondemnvigorouslyrecentchangesingen-derrelationsasasymptomandsymbolofsecularistmoralbankruptcy(Riesebrodt1993Moghadam1992Hawley1994)

SeveralchaptersinthisvolumeilluminateIslamistgendernormsbyre-vealing thecharacterandcontentof Islamistconcernsabout theplaceandpurityofMuslimwomenmdashpreoccupationsFatimaMernissi(199199)hasgonesofarastocharacterizeasanobsessionDespiteimportantdifferences among Islamists thinkers many endorse gender norms inwhichthefairlyconventionalinsistencethatfemalenatureisdefinedinand through reproduction undergirds an understanding of women assymbolsofmoralvirtueandvesselsofculturalpurityThisviewsustainstheclaimthatmenandwomenareequalinreligiousbeliefbutperformfundamentallydifferentandcomplementaryfunctionsinsocietyWhilemenarenaturallymadetoruleinboththepublicandprivatedomainawomanbelongsinthedomesticrealmwhereherprimaryroleistobeawifeandmotheraswellastoinsuretheintegrityofthefamilythefirstschoolofmoraleducationAssuchfunctionsarerootedinaninescap-ablehumannaturefashionedbyGodawomanrsquosinabilityorunwilling-nesstoperformherdutiessignalsadisobediencetothedivinewillandpresages the corruption of the Muslim family from within From thisvantagepointtheWesterninsistenceonfullequalitybetweenthesexesisdoubly pernicious it at once liberates women from basic moral con-straintsandenslavesthemtomutuallyreinforcingsexualandcapitalistexploitationAsMurtazaMutahhari(1998xxxi)arguescapitalismmakesuseofwomentomarket itsgoodsldquoby trading inhonourandrespectthrough[their]powertoenticerdquotherebyldquotransform[ing]manintoaninvoluntaryagentofconsumptionrdquoInasmuchaswomenareresponsiblefor producing the next generation of Muslim men destined to restoreIslamtoitsformergloryitisnotonlythevirtueofwomenortheinteg-rityofthefamilythathangsinthebalancebutthefutureofIslamiccivili-zationitself

Zaynab al-Ghazali andMutahharimake several of these argumentsexplicitlyandindetail(seechapters10and11)butinmuchofIslamistrhetoricthenatureandsignificanceofwomenareestablishedindirectlyandsymbolicallyandthroughthreerecurrentimagesinparticularThefirstisofwomenassilentsymbolsofculturalmoralandsexualvulnera-bilityvoicelessfiguresinneedofmasculineprotectionorwhenitistoolatedefiledbodiesthatmutelydemandvengeanceSoforexamplelsquoAb-dallahlsquoAzzam(oneofBinLadenrsquosmentorsseechapter18)graphicallydetailstheagonizinghumiliationofyoungmenunabletoactwhentheAfghanwoman isldquocryingout forhelpher childrenarebeing slaugh-tered her women are being raped the innocent are killed and theircorpsesscatteredrdquo(lsquoAzzam1987a)Inthesecondimagewomenfunction

37

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

muchlikeachorusthatspeaksinpermittedcadencestoratifymasculineendeavorsSuchisthecaseforexampleinBinLadenrsquos1996ldquoDeclara-tionofWaragainsttheAmericansOccupyingtheLandoftheTwoHolyPlacesrdquo(seechapter18)wherethewomenexhortmentojihadinthefollowing way ldquoPrepare yourself like a struggler the matter is biggerthanwordsAreyougoingtoleaveusforthewolvesofKufr[unbe-lief]eatingourwingsWherearethefreemendefendingfreewomenbyarmsDeath isbetter than life inhumiliation Some scandals andshameswillneverbeotherwiseeradicatedrdquo24InthethirdimagewomenarecreaturesnotofthisworldbutofanothervirginalrewardsforthecourageousmartyrintheafterlifeThisisevidentinthefinalinstructionsforthe911hijackersforexamplewhereMuslimldquobrothersrdquoareurgedto purify their carnal impulses sharpen their knives for the dhabh (slaughter)andheedthecallofthehur lsquoayn (theblack-eyedones)await-ingtheminParadise(seechapter19)

Such rhetoric primarily registers women as an extensionmirror ormeasure of masculinity and together with explicit Islamist argumentsabouthumannatureandthefamilyarticulatesIslamistgendernormsinwhichmenandwomeneachhaveaproperlocationandpurposeinadi-vinely ordained social hierarchy Deviance from this gendered scriptthussignalsdisruptionofamuchbroaderreligio-politicalorderitbothpresumes and seeks to bring into existence The disruption caused byforeign aggression in particular exacerbates the tendency to translateconflict into an assault on Muslim masculinity and to conceptualizewomenaspotentialvehiclesforWesterncorruptioninneedofguidingand guarding Women such as Zaynab al-Ghazali and Nadia Yassinewho seek a prominent place and voice within the Islamist movementhavehadlittlechoicebuttocontendwiththisgenderedscriptDoingsohasentailedamongotherthingsnavigatingcarefullybetweenIslamistcharacterizations of womenrsquos visibility and agency as symptomatic ofthe new jahiliyya on the one hand and essentializing arguments thatequateIslamwithveilingfemalegenitalmutilationandhonorkillingsontheother

AsthechaptersonGhazaliandYassinesuggestIslamistwomenhavenegotiatedbetweensuchconstraintsandpressuresandtheirownambi-tionsindifferentwaysApioneeringdalsquoiya(onewhoinvitesMuslimstogreater piety)Ghazalirsquos own life reveals a fierce resistance to conven-tionalnormsofdomesticityevenasmuchofher(earlier)workappearsto embrace an Islamist gender ideology that defines women as wivesmothers andldquobuilders ofmenrdquo (al-Hashimi 1990 118)By contrastYassineisawifeandmotherwhoembracesanldquoIslamicfeminismrdquothatrequiresldquoreappropriatingtheinstrumentsofclassicaltheologyrdquoanden-

24TheIslamistjournalSawt alshyJihadhasgonesofarastofeatureldquowomenrsquosvoicesrdquointheformofrolemodelsnamedforexampleumm alshyshahid(motherofthemartyr)al-thoughitisunclearthattheseldquovoicesrdquoareactuallywomenrsquos(SUsher2004)

38

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INTRODUCTION

gaging the textsdirectly through ijtihad (NYassine2003) In this re-spect Yassine must be understood as part of a broader effort amongMuslimwomenwithdifferentpoliticalcommitmentstosimultaneouslyadvocateandenacttheirrighttorecuperatetheldquooriginalintentrdquooftheIslamictextsIfwomenandmendoinfacthavedistinctperspectivesontheworldYassinesuggestswomenhaveaspecialobligationtoexcavatewhattheyseeasthegenderparityoftheQurrsquoanburiedbeneaththoseldquomachointerpretationsrdquoofIslamuponwhichmenhavebuilttheirprivi-legeandpower(Khalaf2006)25

ManyAnglo-AmericanandEuropean feministsworry that Islamistsseekonly to secureor restorepatriarchalpowerConverselymany Is-lamist women view feminism as a term and a movement inescapablyWesterninoriginfreightedwiththelegacyofcolonialismanduneasilyimplicatedinculturalimperialismThisapplieseventoYassinewhoisunwillingtoadoptwithoutqualificationalabelsheassociateswithagen-dasopposedtoherowntheWesttheMoroccanstateMaghribi(North-westAfrican)elitesYetfeminismitselfisahighlycontestedtermwithin theso-calledWestitisthebearerofmultiplemeaningssomeofwhichareevenopposedandischaracterizedbydeepdisagreementsaboutwhowomenarewhatwomenneedwhoisauthorizedtoworkonwomenrsquosbehalf andbywhatmeans Inasmuch as these various feminismsmayshareonlyastatedconcernforwomenrsquoswelfarethereisnothinginco-herentinmodifyingldquofeminismrdquowithldquoIslamicrdquoldquoMuslimrdquoorevenldquoIs-lamistrdquounlessone iscommitted toarguing thatfirst Islam isanun-changingessencebeyondhistorypoliticsandculturesecondthereisaneutralobjectivevantagefromwhichtoidentifythisessenceonceandforallandfinallytheIslamicessencesoidentifiedisfundamentallyin-compatiblewitheffortstoimprovetheconditionsandqualityofwomenrsquoslivesBythesametokenIslamistwomenwhorejectthetermfeminismcanbe(althoughnotalwaysare)deeplycommittedtoimprovingwom-enrsquoswelfareaswellasactivelyresistanttoeffortsthatreduceortrans-formthemintosilentaccessoriesofmalepower

YassineandGhazalidifferaboutwhatwomenareandshouldbeyetbroadlyspeakingbothmaybeconsideredpartofarecenttrendtowardthe feminizationofdalsquowa Dalsquowa literallymeanscallappealor sum-monsbutthetermhascometosignifyavarietyofpracticesandargu-mentsmeanttoexhortinviteandguideMuslimstowhatisregardedasproperconductandmoraldevotionWomenrsquosparticipationindalsquowais

25WomenrsquosparticipationintheldquoproductionofofficialIslamicknowledgerdquohasalonghistoryalthoughtheyhaveoftendonesoinrelativeobscurityandwithoutthebenefitofeducation in the Islamicsciences thathas legitimateddirectengagementwith thesacredtexts (Cooke 2001 xiv Badran and Cooke 2004) Pioneering attempts to read genderequalityinIslamarealsonotconfinedtowritingbywomenasevincedbyQasimAminrsquosTahrir alshymarrsquoa [TheLiberationofWoman] (1899)andMumtaz lsquoAlirsquosHuquqshye niswan [TheRightsofWomen](1898)

39

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

notabrandnewphenomenonasisevidentinGhazalirsquosworkwiththeEgyptianSocietyofMuslimLadiesinthe1930sYetfromEgypttoPaki-stantoSaudiArabiatotheUnitedStatesthenumberoffemaledalsquoiyashasproliferatedexponentially inrecentyears(Cooke2001Mahmood2005Hirschkind2006)Thisreflectsinpartcurrentdoctrinalempha-sesondalsquowaasincumbentuponbothmenandwomenanddependentlessupontechnicalknowledgethanmoralvirtueandpracticalfamiliaritywiththeIslamictradition(Mahmood200565ndash66)It isalsoaconse-quenceofrecentpoliticalandsocioeconomictransformationsinMuslimsocietiesincludingtheexpansionofmasseducationthathasnotonlyin-creasedwomenrsquosliteracyandsocialmobilitybutalsomadeIslamictextsmoreaccessibletheproliferationoftechnologiesmdashfromthecassettetapetotheInternetmdashthatfacilitatethecirculationofreligiousknowledgeevenamongthosewhocannotreadortraveltheprecedentsetbythevigorousparticipationof IranianwomeninpostrevolutiondebatesaboutIslamandthemodeloflegalactivismevidentintheIslamistmovementrsquosownchallenge to the lsquoulamarsquos status as gatekeepers of religious knowledge(Singerman2005Mir-Hosseini1999)

If Ghazali and Yassine exemplify the feminization of dalsquowa amongelitesthemosquemovementinEgyptillustratesthegrowingparticipa-tionofwomenfromdiversesocialbackgroundsinreligiousclassesde-votedtostudyinganddebatingwhatIslamrequiresforawomantobeldquomorallyuprightrdquointhecontemporaryworld(Mahmood2005)Con-ceptualizingpiety in termsof adeepandholistic commitment to self-transformationparticipantsinthemosquemovementareconcernedlesswithmattersofsovereigntyandpoliticsconventionallyunderstoodandmorewiththeldquomoralcultivationrdquoofthosedailypracticesseenascrucialtobecomingclosertoGod(Mahmood2005)SomeIslamistshavecriti-cizedthis focusonpracticesofworshipasapoliticalandoverlypriva-tizedyetsuchcriticismmissestheforceofIslamistsrsquoowninsistenceondin(religion)asawayoflifeinwhichthedomainsofpublicandprivateare inextricably linked26AsSabaMahmood (2005193194) showsthesewomenrsquosintenseeffortsatldquoretrainingethicalsensibilitiesrdquohavealdquosociopoliticalforcerdquothatextendswellbeyondmattersofgovernancefacilitatingnolessthantheemergenceofaldquonewsocialandmoralorderrdquoEvidenceofitstransformativepowermaybefoundnotonlyinthesheernumbersandvarietyofwomenmdashwealthyandpoor literateand illiter-atemdashparticipatinginthemosquemovementbutalsointherhetoricalandpoliticaleffortsbythestateandsomeIslamiststocurtailcontrolordis-creditit(Mahmood200571194)

26ParticipantsinthemosquemovementinturnareoftencriticalofwhattheyseeasthereductionofIslamtotokensofculturalauthenticityorofitsinstrumentalizationbybothnationalistsandIslamiststheycharacterizeasmoreinterestedinpoliticalmaneuveringthanreligiouspiety

40

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

Understoodtoincludebothwrittenandembodiedpracticesthefemi-nizationof dalsquowa illustrates theways inwhichwomen fromdifferentperspectivesandsocialclassesareinsistingonengagingthesacredtextsdirectly for and with one another without the mediating authority ofmenwhohavetraditionallyheldthemonopolyonsuchactivitiesAsSu-danese Islamist Lubabah al-Fadl argues ldquoAs an insan [human being]whohappenstobeawomanIhavearighttorejectthemanipulativeexegesesofoursharilsquoa thatthreatenmyexistenceinawaythat isnotconsistentwiththeGodlywayandtoapplymyownijtihadtorectifyer-roneoustendenciesbysomeshuyukh[pluralofshaykh]rdquo(Sadiki2004290)DespitetheproliferationofvoicesintentonclaimingforthemselvestheauthoritytodemarcatewhatisauthenticallyIslamicandun-Islamiconceandforallcontestationoveritsscopeandmeaningproceedsapacefacilitatedatleastinpartbywomenformerlyexcludedfromtheconver-sationAtthesametimeIslamistwomenrsquosagencyandclaimstoauthorityarefrequentlystillpredicatedonawillingnesstofollowfairlypatriarchalrulesaboutwherehowandwithwhomtheymaypracticetheirvocation(Hirschkind2003Sadiki2004283)

Islamism and Violence

IfgenderisfrequentlyanimplicitpreoccupationamongIslamistsjihadisarguably Islamistsrsquomost consistently explicit concern Jihad is derivedfromtheArabicverbthatmeanstostruggleortostriveyetitisaparticu-larkindofstruggle that isofconcern tomanyof thefigurescollectedheretheoftenviolentstruggleagainstapostatesandinfidelsbothathomeandabroadtowhicheveryindividualMuslimmustcontributeTheclaimthatfightingunbelieversisthepreeminentenactmentofindividualMus-limpiety seems to justify characterizationsof Islam ingeneral and Is-lamisminparticularassanctioningevenencouragingviolenceYetwhatIslamistsrepresentasjihadtout courtisahistoricallyspecificunderstand-ingderivedfromahighlyselectiveuseoftextsandprecedentsprominentamongthemaformerlyobscureclaimbytheinfluentialfourteenth-cen-tury jurist IbnTaymiyya thatMongol rulerswhohad contravened Is-lamiclawcouldbesubjecttoforcibleremovalFarfromadefinitiveex-pressionof Islamldquoproperlyunderstoodrdquo such Islamist argumentsnotonlymarkasignificantdeparturefrommuchofantecedentdoctrineandpractice but also diminish the importance of ongoing disagreementsamongMuslimsabouttheformandpurposesofjihad

TobeginwithMuslimscholarshavetendedtoconsiderjihadagainstforeignenemiesafard kifaya(collectiveobligation)thatisadutyagroupofpeoplewithinthecommunitymayperformonbehalfoftherestandonethatpresupposesalegitimateMuslimleadertodeclareorleadthechargeJuristshavedistinguishedthisfromthefard lsquoayn(individualduty)thatmustbefulfilledbyeverysingleMuslimincasesofdefensivejihad

41

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

thatiswhentheummaisunderattackManyIslamistsincludedheretakeamuchlessnuancedviewofjihadAsamodeofpoliticalactionQutbarguesjihadmustberegardedasaldquopermanentconditionnotanocca-sionalconcernrdquoonethatincurrentcircumstancesrequiresdeedsratherthanwordsstruggleratherthancontemplationrevolutionathomeaswellasresistanceabroad(Qutb199167ndash6882)lsquoAbdal-SalamFarajarguesalongsimilarlinesthatthenatureoftheattackonIslammakespolitical authorization by a caliph (ldquodeputyrdquo referring to a legitimatesuccessortotheProphetrsquosleadership)unnecessaryafterallldquoleadershipovertheMuslimsis(always)intheirownhandsifonlytheymakethismanifestIfthereissomethinglackingintheleadershipwellthereisnothingthatcannotbeacquiredrdquo(Jansen1986asec93)

SuchargumentsareadeliberaterejectionofearlyMuslimmodernistswhohademphasizedthelargelydefensivecharacterofjihadandsoughttoshowthatrelationsbetweenMuslimsandnon-MuslimswerenormallypeacefulratherthanantagonisticMahmudShaltut(d1963)therectorof al-Azhar from 1958 to 1963 had argued for example that theQurrsquoanicversesonfightingldquoprohibittheprovocationofhostilityandthisprohibitionisreinforcedbyGodrsquosrepugnancetoaggressionandbyhisdislikeofthosewhoprovokehostilityrdquo(Peters199674onShaltutseeZebiri1993)ConversionbyforceisanathematoIslamShaltutaversandfightingiscommandedonlyindefenseinresponsetoaggressionini-tiatedbyothersEvendefensivejihadmustaimatldquotheterminationoftheaggressionandtheestablishmentofreligiouslibertydevotedtoGodandfreefromanypressureorforcerdquo(Peters199675)

ManyIslamistsexplicitlydismisssuchargumentsasasymptomoffalseconsciousnessoneamongmanydestructiveeffectsofcolonialdomina-tionMawdudiargues for example thatwhile imperialists ravage theworld to satisfy their greed jihad alone ldquoconjures up the vision of amarching band of religious fanatics with savage beards and fiery eyesbrandishingdrawnswordsandattackingtheinfidelswherevertheymeetthemrdquoHavinginternalizedthis imageMuslimsrushtoapologizeandrenouncearmedstruggleInthiswayhelamentscolonialistsretaintheexclusiverighttoldquofightwitharmsandammunitionwhilewearecon-tented with our pen and our tonguerdquo (Mawdudi 1948 1ndash3) SayyidQutbforhispartagreedthatIslamdoesnotcountenancespreadingitsmessagebyforceandcoercionyethehadlittlepatiencewiththosewhosoughttopresentjihadaslegitimateonlyinself-defense

IfweinsistoncallingIslamicjihadadefensivemovementthenwemustchangethemeaningofthewordldquodefenserdquoandmeanbyitldquothedefenseofmanrdquoagainstallthoseforcesthatlimithisfreedomWhenwetakethisbroadmeaningofthewordldquodefenserdquoweunder-standthetruecharacterofIslaminthatitproclaimstheuniversalfreedomofeverypersonandcommunityfromservitudetoanyother

42

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

individualorsocietytheendofmanrsquosarroganceandselfishnesstheestablishmentofthesovereigntyofAllahandHisLordshipthrough-outtheworldandtheruleofthedivinesharilsquoainhumanaffairs(Qutb199050)

Qutbdoesnotnameanynamesincastigatingtheldquowriterswithdefeatistandapologeticmentalities[who]writeaboutlsquojihadinIslamrsquoandtrytoremovethislsquoblotrsquofromIslamrdquo(Qutb199046)buthecouldverywellhavehadhisdistinguishedfellowEgyptianMahmudShaltutinmind

These arguments about jihad may be said to constitute a commongrammarandframeworkofanalysisformanyIslamistsalthoughseveralthinkers in this volume carefully calibrate such claims to suit variouspurposesanddifferentpublicspheresInhisjustificationfortheassassi-nationofEgyptianpresidentAnwaral-SadatforexamplelsquoAbdal-SalamFarajdepictsthestruggletoreclaimthemoralfoundationsoftheEgyp-tianstateasafightagainstjahiliyyafromwithinarguingthatthejihadagainstacorruptnationalistregimeathomemusttakeprecedenceoverfightingenemieselsewhereTheCharterofHamas(seechapter15)how-everinsiststhatallMuslimsrecognizetheprimacyofthejihadforJeru-salemweldingIslamistrhetorictothatofnationalistresistanceinanef-fortbothtofightIsraelioccupationandtocompeteforadherentswiththePalestinianLiberationOrganization(PLO)IncontrasttobothFarajandHamasBinLadenembracesaglobaljihadthatessentiallycollapsesdistinctionsbetweennationalandinternationaloffensiveanddefensivefightingenemiesathomeandthosefromafar

Yet despite such differences these arguments tend to presume thatviolent jihad is a necessary response to the pervasive power of thosewithdemonstratedhostilitytoMuslimliveslandspietiesandsensibili-tiesaformofretaliationwhoseurgencyandlegitimacyderivefromtheviolencemdashpsychologicalandeconomicaswellasphysicalmdashoftheinitialassaultThisviewofjihadsubsumesindividualsintoarchetypesofldquoin-fidelsrdquoandldquobelieversrdquoandinsodoingvitiatesmoreconventionaldis-tinctionsbetweenforexamplesoldierandcivilianorcollectiveandin-dividual responsibility It is far from inevitable that thosewhoharborsuchviewswillautomaticallyactuponthemyetthecarnagewroughtbytheattacksontheWorldTradeCenterandthePentagonin2001aBalinightclub in 2002 Madrid commuter trains in 2004 and throughoutIraqonadailybasissuggestjusthowlethalsuchclaimscanbegiventheright circumstances The fact that such violence does not discriminateamongvictimsonlyfurtherfuelsrhetoriccharacterizingIslamistsasirra-tional fanatics ldquoin love with deathrdquo terrorists animated by a religioncharacterizedbyapropensityforviolenceandauthoritarianism27

27AnxietiesabouttheparticularsusceptibilityofMuslimstoirrationalityinsularityandfanaticismhavealonganddistinguishedpedigreeinEuro-AmericanhistoryandpoliticalthoughtSeeforexampleRenan18833

43

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

AsinsomanyothermattershoweverIslamistsarehardlyofonemindonthesubjectofjihadindeedthereareIslamistswhoexplicitlyrejectthereductionof struggle toviolenceAcase inpoint isNadiaYassine(20032005c)whoinsiststhatjihadisthededicatedstruggleagainstisshytikbar(arrogance)particularlyinitscommonformasthelustforpoweranddominationAsjihadagainstistikbarisbothafinalgoalandapre-scriptionforactionYassinesuggestsitisantitheticaltoviolentpracticesthataimatdominationTheprimaryinstrumentsofjihadarenotbombsbutwords particularly thosedeployed in the art of persuasion (Fara-marzi2005NYassine2006a)WhenIslamistssuchaslsquoAbdal-SalamFarajandlsquoUmarlsquoAbdal-RahmanseektolegitimizeviolentrevolutionbyrecoursetoIslamictextsshearguestheycontravenethetruemeaningofjihadtoservetheirownarrogantendsBythesametokenBinLadenrsquosdecisiontoldquofightevilwithevilandbarbaritywithbarbarityrdquonotonlyviolatesspecificIslamicprohibitionsagainstharmingcivilianswomenandchildrenbutalsobetraystheethicalimperativetoembodythemes-sageofamercifulGodwhocautionsbelieversthat(Q8822)ldquoYouhavenopoweroverthemrdquo(NYassine2005cDaily Excelsior2002)

SuchpersistentdisagreementsamongMuslimspastandpresentsug-gest that Islam isnomore inherently violent andbloody-minded thanitmdashorChristianityor Judaism for thatmattermdashis inherentlypeacefulIslamists often claim to speak for an unchanging authentic Islam thatexistsoutsideoftimeandspaceyetthepoliticalpurchaseoftheirper-spective derives from the ways it assembles disparate yet recognizablecontemporaryexperiencesofsufferingfrustrationandlossintoanex-planationthatresonateswithMuslimswholiveincommunitiescultur-allylinguisticallyandgeographicallydistantfromoneanotherTheex-tenttowhichIslamistargumentsresonatebroadlyacrossMuslimsocie-tiesthusdependsuponasetofexperiencesandphenomenathatmarkthisparticularmomentinhistoryincludingthewaysinwhichcontempo-raryglobalinequalitiescompoundalegacyofhistoricalasymmetriestocontinuallyreproduceasenseofMuslimpowerlessnessmdashbothrealandimaginedmdashrelativetotheWestcontinuingEuro-Americanpoliticalandfinancialsupportofcorruptautocratsmanyofwhompresideoverna-tion-statesbrutallystitchedtogetherbyWesternfiat thepersistenceofauthoritarian regimes eager to control domestic unrest by catalyzingldquoMuslimragerdquotowardexternaltargetsthesenseofemasculationpro-ducedbydecadesofpoliticalrepressionandeconomicfrustrationandthecontinualflowofimagesofbloodiedMuslimbodiesdeliveredbyaburgeoningarrayofvideosatelliteandelectronicmedia

It is notable that the understanding of jihad many Islamists proffermirrorstheverystate-sanctionedviolenceagainstwhichtheyhavestrug-gledforalmostacenturyAlongwiththousandsofMuslimscaughtinthemachineryoftwentieth-centurystateviolenceprominentIslamistsfromQutbtoGhazalitoAymanal-Zawahirimdashal-Qalsquoidarsquossecondincommandmdash

44

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

arewellknowntohavebeenradicalizedbyextendedandoftenbrutaltermsofincarcerationinEgyptSyriaIraqJordanIsraelAlgeriaandelsewhere(onal-ZawahiriandprisoncfKepelandMilelli2008152ndash54)ItisthusfarfromsurprisingthatIslamistsforgedbyinterrogationtortureinprisoncampswouldconcludethatthepreeminentenactmentofMuslimpietyisviolentstruggleldquoPrisonrdquoasPalestinianKhaledAbuHilalhassaidldquoismyuniversityrdquo(Erlanger2007)anargumentmadeingreaterdetailinadifferenttimeandplacebyRussianwriterandrevolu-tionaryMaximGorky(1868ndash1936)

Apeoplebroughtupinaschoolthatremindsoneofthetormentsofhellonasmallscaleapeopleaccustomedtotheclenched-fistprisonandthewhipwillnotbeblestwithatenderheartApeoplethatthepoliceagentshaveriddenoverwillbecapableintheirturnofwalk-ingoverthebodiesofothersInacountrywhereunresthasreignedsolongit isdifficultforthepeopletorealizefromonedaytothenextthepowerofrightOnecannotdemandfromamanwhohasneverknownjusticethatheshouldbejust(Gorky1920)

InthiscontextasTimothyMitchell(1990195ndash96199207ndash8)suggestsIslamistviewsoftheworldcanbecharacterizedasbothamodeofresis-tancetostatemechanismsofcoercionandanexpressionofthemSuchisthedynamic evident inGhazalirsquosmemoirs for examplewhen shede-scribeshowtheldquodarknessofprisonsthebladesoftortureandthevi-ciousbeatingsonly increasetheenduranceandresolveofthefaithfulrdquo(Ghazali19786)

There is no doubt a great deal of pragmatism at work in IslamistargumentsaboutviolenceAsQutb(19916447ndash48)drylynotesthepathtofreedommustoccasionallybehewnbywayoftheswordbecausetyrants are not reasoned out of power and ldquojahiliyya is not lsquoabstracttheoryrsquo[it]consciouslyorunconsciouslystrivestopreserveitsownexistence to defend its essence to annihilate dangerous elementswhichthreatenitsverybeingrdquoYetitisalsothecasethatformanyoftheseIslamistsjihadisbothameansandanendanefforttoeradicatethoseobstacles torestoringa justcommunityonearththatsimultane-ouslybringshumanaction intoaccordwithGodrsquosplansandpurposes(Haddad198321)While theQurrsquoan (2256) states thatldquothere isnocompulsioninreligionrdquoIslamistscontendthatonlyinastateinwhichIslamiclawreignssupremearehumanbeingsfreefromenslavementtooneanotherrsquosruleandallareequalbyvirtueoftheircommonsubmissiontoGodAsQutb(1991107ndash8)argues

WhenthehighestauthorityinsocietyisGodalonemdashexpressedintheruleofdivinelawmdashonlythenishumanitytrulyandcompletelyliber-atedfromslaverytomenOnlythisisldquohumancivilizationrdquobecausetheessentialfoundationofhumancivilizationisthetrueandcom-

45

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

pletefreedomofhumanityandtheabsolutedignityofeveryindivid-ualinsocietyThereisnotruefreedomanddignityforhumanityortheindividualinasocietywheresomepeoplearelordswholegislateandothersareslaveswhoobey

From this perspective the realization of justice liberty equality andchoiceitselfnecessitatestheforcibleremovaloftheconstraintsimposedbyjahiliyyaalongwiththosewhoaidandabetitno matter the costAsMawdudi(1954160ndash61)writes

[W]hyisitthatinreligionsuchimportanceisgiventojihadthattheQurrsquoanpronouncesthejudgmentofhypocrisyuponthosewhoshirkandevadeitJihadisbutanothernamefortheattempttoerectthesystemoftruthandtheQurrsquoandeclaresjihadtobeatouchstoneonthesamefootingwithamanrsquosfaithInotherwordshewhohasfaithinhisheartwillneitherbecontentwiththedominationofthesystemofevilnorwillhegrudgetheexpenditureoflifeandwealthinthestruggleforerectingthesystemoftruthIfoneshowsweaknessinthismatterhisfaithitselfisdoubtfulWhatcananythingelsebesidethenprofithimThemanwhoprofesses faith in this religioncannotfulfillhisdutyonlybytryingasfaraspossibletopatternhislifeonIslamThenatureofhisfaithitselfrequiresthatheshouldconcentrateallhiseffortuponwrestingleadershipfromunbelievingandcorruptmentoentrustittotherighteousanduponerectingthesystemoftruththathasbeenordainedfortheconductoftheworldaccordingtothewillofGodBecausethisendisunattainablewith-out thehighestdegreeofcollectiveeffort theremustexistarigh-teouscommunitycommittedtotheprincipleoftruthanddevotedtothesolepurposeintheworldoferectingmaintainingandproperlyrealizingthesystemoftruth

ThefactthatsomeIslamistthinkerssanctifyviolentstruggleinsuchtermsdoesnotmeanofcoursethatallthosewhoadvocateorengageinjihadendorseviolence28NordoesitimplythatthosewhoclaimtokillforIslamareentirelywithoutulteriormotivesthosemanipulativepur-poses andpsychologicalmotivations that even themost rarified scrip-turalargumentscanexpressorserveWhattheprecedinganalysisdoessuggesthoweveristhatthereductionofthisviewofjihadtoirrationalbloodlusttheself-interestedgrabfortemporalpoweroradoorthroughwhichtopassintothehereaftermissesacrucialdimensionofitssignifi-canceandappealfortruebelieversjihadisnolessthananenactmentof

28EvenashespokeofaneweraofjahiliyyaandofjihadMawdudihimselfstoppedwellshortof recommendingor condoning the actual resort to violence in themannermanyotherIslamistsdidAsNasr(199670)observesMawdudirsquosorganizationtheJamalsquoat-iIs-lamildquohasavoidedviolentsocialchangeandhasinsteadviewedthepathtotheIslamicstateaslyingwithintheexistingsociopoliticalorderrdquoAlsoseethechapters5and3onQutbandMawdudiinthisvolume

46

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INTRODUCTION

adivineimperativetoremakethefoundationsofcollectivelifeInthisre-spectIslamistviewsofjihadcanbeseenaspartofalong-standingasso-ciationbetweenviolenceandpoliticalfoundingsuponwhichnoparticu-larcultureorhistoricalepochhasamonopolyThisassociationandtheldquolegacyofviolencerdquoitbequeathstofuturegenerationsarenolessappar-entinthoseradicalrevolutionsofrenewalthatmovebywayoftheswordfromthemarginstothecenterthanthosepoliticalfoundingsthatclaimtocreatesomethingoutofnothing(Connolly1995251)Ineithercasethetollofsuchbrutalitycanbeimmeasurableforinadditiontothevic-timswhosufferdirectlytheldquopracticeofviolencelikeallactionchangestheworldbutthemostprobablechangeistoamoreviolentworldrdquo(Ar-endt1972177)

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Page 27: Chapter 1 INTRODUCTION - assets.press.princeton.eduassets.press.princeton.edu/chapters/s9067.pdf · Chapter 1 INTRODUCTION This volume is intended as a broad introduction to the evolution

27

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INTRODUCTION

terizationsofgrandtranslocalgeneralizationsAstheforegoingsuggeststhesameistrueandmoresowhenitcomestocharacterizingIslamistsinrelationtothelsquoulamatheMuslimmodernistsandtheSalafisIndeedasLorenLybargerhasarguedwithreferencetothoseusuallycharacter-izedasldquosecularnationalistrdquoorldquoIslamistrdquoPalestiniansintheWestBankandGazadifferenceswithintheranksofyoungsecularnationalistsandIslamistscansometimesalsoshadeintosignificantsimilaritiesbetweenthesesupposedlyrivalorientations(Lybarger2007)ManyIslamistshavesoughttodistancethemselvesfromwhattheyseeastherigidityandau-thoritarianismofotherIslamistsandtoarguenotjustfortheimplemen-tationofthesharilsquoabutalsofordemocracyandpluralismConverselynot a few of the younger secular nationalists have ldquoadopted IslamisttheodiciesthatexplainedthefailuretoovercomeIsraelastheresultoffallingawayfrompietytheirconclusionsmirroredIslamistonestootheroadbackfromthebrinkhadtotraceitscoursethrougharenewedcom-mitmenttoIslambutnotnecessarilyinthemannerthattheIslamistmove-mentsmighthaveintendedrdquo(Lybarger2007237ndash38quotationat238)

Yet ifneatcategoriesremainelusiveacombinationoftheIslamistsrsquoself-consciouslypoliticalgoalstheirmultifacetedifnotalwaysexplicitpoliticalcritiquesofmanypastandpresentwaysofunderstandingandlivingIslamandanunshakeableconfidenceintheirownabilitytodis-cern Godrsquos will from the foundational texts do often provide enoughgrounds tobroadlydistinguish themfromotheractivists intellectualsand orientations in the Muslim public sphere What this combinationamountstovariesfromonesocialpoliticalreligiousandculturalcon-texttoanotherandsothereforedothewaysinwhichIslamistsrelatetooneanotherorcompeteandoverlapwithothergroupsandorientations

The Politics of Islamism

FromAeneasrsquosmythicalfoundingofRometothedeathandresurrectionofJesusChristtoMuhammadrsquosmigrationtoMedinafoundationalnar-rativesareascommontocollectivelifeasthemovementsthatperiodi-callyarisetorevivethemandclaimantstothemantleoflegitimacytheyconferSounderstoodIslamistsrsquopoliticalaspirationstorestorefounda-tionslocatedinamythicalpastarefarfromuniqueNorareIslamistsaloneintheirconvictionthatscripturalauthorityisguaranteedbyitsdi-vineauthormdashforinthatallMuslimsagreeRatherthechaptersinthisvolumesuggest thatwhatmakes Islamistpoliticsdistinctive (ifnotsui generis)istheclaimtorecuperateanldquoauthenticIslamrdquocomprisedofself-evidenttruthspurgedofalienandcorruptinginfluencesalongwithaninsistenceonremakingthefoundationsofthestateinitsimageGiventhelimitsofhumanunderstandingrelativetoGodrsquosknowledgeIslamistssimultaneouslydepictsuchfidelitytotheunadulteratedwordofAllahas

28

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

theultimateexpressionofdeferencetodivineomniscienceandportrayhumilityasaconstitutivefeatureofthehumanconditionAspirationstofullyknowandmasterthenaturalandsocialworldsthusentailnotonlyahumanhubrisdeaftotheQurrsquoanicadmonitionthatldquoAllahknowsbutandyoudonotknowrdquo(Q366)butalsoatransgressionagainstadi-vinely-ordainedontologicalorder

ItisnotablehoweverthattheIslamistemphasisonthelimitsofhumanknowledgerequireshumilityonlyinrelationtoAllahitrarelyyieldshu-milityinregardtotheirownclaimstospeakinHisnameortowardotherhumanbeingswhodissentfromthepremiseofdivineomnipotenceandIslamistaccountsofwhat it requiresThis suggests thatwhile IslamistchallengestostatepowerareobviouslypoliticaltheIslamistclaimtoau-thenticityisalsopolitical inthecoercivepoweritroutinelyenactsandjustifiesmostnotablybywayofthesilencesitimposesandthedebatesitforeclosesAzizal-Azmehpointsoutthatldquothenotionofauthenticityisnotsomuchadeterminateconceptasitisanodeofassociationsandin-terpellationsatropebymeansofwhichthehistoricalworldisreducedtoaparticularorderandatokenwhichmarksoffsocialandpoliticalgroupsandforgesandreconstituteshistoricalidentitiesrdquo(al-Azmeh199341)WhetherintheserviceofArabnationalismChristianfundamental-ismEuropeanromanticismorMuslimmodernismtheclaimofauthen-ticityisanactofpowerthatfunctionsnotjusttoreflecttheworldbuttoconstructitbydeterminingwhoisincludedandexcludedwhomayandmaynotspeakauthoritativelywhatistheproperrealmofdebateandwhatisbeyondcontestation

ItiscertainlythecasethatasingleldquoIslamrdquocapturesandorganizestheperspectivesofmillionswhoself-identifyasMuslim(amongotherthings)yetwhattravelsunderitsrubricisinescapablydiversemultiethnicanddefined asmuchbydisagreement as consensus Just as theTorah andBible lend themselves toat times radicallydivergent interpretationsofwhatitmeanstobeJewishorChristiantheQurrsquoanandhaditharecom-plexandsusceptibletomanydifferentandattimescontradictoryenact-mentsSounderstoodIslamislessafixedessencethanalivingtraditionthatcaptureswhatisimaginedascontinuousandunitaryindialecticalrelationshiptothoseconcretearticulationsandpracticesbywhichitistransformedandadaptedindifferentcontextsforpluralpurposesItispreciselythisunderstandingofreligionthatisanathematoIslamistswhoseek tofix theparametersof Islamicauthenticityonceandforallandtherebyarrogateforthemselvestherighttodeterminewhoqualifiesasagood Muslim to discredit those lsquoulama unable or unwilling to purgeIslamofpurportedimpietiestodeclarenominallyMuslimrulersapos-tatesunfittogovernandtocharacterizeallwhodisagreeascorrupthe-reticalguiltyofunbelieforvictimsoffalseconsciousness

Thesegeneralpoliticaltendencieshowevermustbecarefullysituatedwithinadialecticoftheglobalandthevernacularunderstoodtoreflect

29

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

thewaysinwhichunifyingmacrohistoricaldynamicsinformandareinturntransformedbydiversecontingentandfluidlocalcircumstancesInaworldstampedbyWesterndominanceandtheconsolidationofpostco-lonial authoritarian regimes Islamists confront a common set of con-straintsandchallengesInasmuchassuchconstraintsandchallengeshavemade Islamist thinkers (often reluctant) participants in conversationsacrossbothcultureandhistorytheireffortstoremakethefoundationsofcollectiveliferevealasharedinterpretiveframeworkandcommonreli-gio-political grammar At the same time this frame and grammar arecontinuallybeingreworkedinrelationtothedistinctpublicspheresinwhichIslamistsoperateandtowhichtheycarefullycalibratetheirpoliti-calcommitments

Attention to this complex dynamic suggests that the Islamist move-mentcannotsimplybecharacterizedasviolentantidemocraticandop-pressiveofwomenlabelsinvokedsofrequentlyinscholarlyandpopularliterature on the subject that they have become virtually synonymouswithIslamistpoliticsSuchcharacterizationsdocapturecrucialdimen-sionsofIslamistpoliticsyettheyalsosidesteptheparadoxesitsvarie-gatedandoftencontradictoryexpressionspresentInsteadwearguethatIslamistpoliticscanbeproductivelyreadin terms ofandagainst the grain ofsuchbroadcategorizationsasantidemocraticantiwomanorviolentmdashthat is as commitments that at different moments in various localesbothencourageandconstrainbroad-basedpoliticalparticipationdisruptandratifyhierarchicalgendernormsresistandreproducestate-sanctionedbrutalityThepointofreadingIslamistpoliticsinthiswayisnottosug-gestthatIslamistsaresecretlydemocraticfeministandopposedtovio-lenceRatherthepointistodrawattentiontothecomplexityandcon-tradictionserasedbyeasygeneralizationsontheonehandandtheoftenunacknowledgedfluidityandculturaladaptabilityofotherwisefamiliarpoliticalcategoriesontheother

Islamism and Democracy

DespiteimportantdifferencesamongIslamistthinkerstheyhaveincom-monatendencytoviewhumansovereigntyastransgressiveofdivinelawandsharetheaspirationtoestablishsharilsquoaastheprimaryorsolesourceofauthorityAsisoftennotedsuchpremisesandaspirationsrunafoulofassumptionsaboutpopularruleattheheartofdemocracynamelythathumanbeingshavetherighttolegislaterulesforcollectivebehaviorandarecapableofthewisdomrequiredtodevisejustlawsInrecentyearspolicymakersandcommentatorshaveevincedaparticularpreoccupa-tionwiththewaysinwhichIslamistnotionsofdivineauthoritythrottlethespiritandpracticeofpopularsovereigntySomehaveevengonesofarastocharacterizeIslamistsasldquoIslamo-fascistsrdquoanimatedbyhatredoftheldquodemocratic Westrdquo psychologically unable to contend with the fluidity

30

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INTRODUCTION

andindeterminacythatmarkpopularruleandeagertoconvertelectionsintoaldquoone-manone-voteone-timerdquomechanismforestablishinganIs-lamicstate(Murdock2002MRubin2005Kramer1993)

SuchviewsareechoedbythoseIslamistskeentoportraydemocracynotonlyasantitheticaltothesupremacyofdivinelawbutasaTrojanhorseforWesternimperialismFormanyIslamistsincludingseveralinthis volumedemocracy is justone symptomofametastasizingmoralandspiritualbankruptcywherebymoraltransgressionsaretransfiguredintonaturalurgescrassself-interestbecomesthebedrockofcollectivelifeandthedivineplanfortheuniverseandallthingsinitisreducedtoa system of physical causality just waiting to be mastered by way ofhumaningenuity(REuben2007)Qutbcallsthisdiseasedviewoftheworldjahiliyyaanditsignalsnotonlyhumanarrogancebutatransgres-sionagainstdivineauthoritythescopeofwhichencompassesbothpub-licandprivatedomainsofhumanaffairsaswellasbothvisibleandun-seendimensionsoftheuniverseFormanyIslamistssuchtransgressionisattherootofmuchofwhatpassesforMuslimruleinthecontemporaryworldmdashnationalistdemocraticandmonarchicalalikeSucharroganceisalsosaidtobethepatternunderlyingalonghistoryofunrelievedWest-ernaggressionagainstIslaminwhichtheChristianCrusadesEuropeancolonialismIsraelitreatmentofPalestiniansethniccleansinginBosniaGermananti-TurkishviolencetheAmericaninvasionofIraqandDutchcartoonsofMuhammadarebutafewexamples

YetthereisarangeofviewsamongIslamistsaboutboththesubstanceofdemocracyanditscompatibilitywiththereligio-politicalrenewaltheyadvocateAccordingtoQaradawiforexampleldquotheessenceofdemoc-racyisthatpeoplechoosewhorulesoverthemandmanagestheiraf-fairsthatnorulerorregimetheydislikeisforceduponthemthattheyhavetherighttocalltherulertoaccountifheerrsandtoremovehimfromofficeincaseofmisconductandthatpeoplearenotforcedineco-nomicsocialculturalorpoliticaldirectionsthattheyneitherrecognizenor acceptrdquo (Qaradawi1997132 also chapter9 in this volume)TohimthereisnoheavierburdenoppressingMuslimsinthecontemporaryworld thandespotism indeed it is throughdespoticgovernments thatMuslimshavebeenforcedtosubmittootherillsincludingtheneglectofthesharilsquoaandthecoerciveimpositionofsecularismandwesternizationDemocracy then recommends itself to Qaradawi as the most effectiveavailableantidotetodespotismandtheafflictionsofwhichitservesasavehicle

WheremanyamongtheIslamistsandthelsquoulamahaveseenconsider-able tensionbetween IslamanddemocracyQaradawiprofesses to seenoneAswesuggestedearlierbyfarthemostcommonoftheIslamistreservationsaboutademocraticsystemrelatestothesovereigntyofthepeoplewhichistakentocontravenetheideathatGodaloneissovereignQaradawi however is unperturbedby such concernsThe rule of the

31

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

peopleoughttobeseenhearguesnotinoppositiontotheruleofGodbutratherinoppositiontotheruleofthedespotMorefundamentallyQaradawirsquos view of democracy does not necessarily require that thepeopleshouldbeabletooverturndivinelyinstitutednormsRatherhisassumptionisthatpeopleexercisetheirsovereigntywithinconstitutionalboundsandMuslimslivinginapredominantlyMuslimdemocraticpol-itywouldlikewisenotwishtotransgresstheparametersoflegitimatehumanactionlaiddownintheIslamicfoundationaltexts(seeQaradawichapter9inthisvolumeandcfFeldman2007)

NadiaYassineofMoroccorsquosJusticeandSpiritualityAssociationisan-othercaseinpointWhilecriticalofthedemocraticgesturesembracedbyamonarchythatshedepictsasallergictogenuinelypopularsovereigntyYassineinsiststhatthemodelofMuslimruleadumbratedintheummafoundedbytheProphetMuhammadandinparticulartheConstitutionofMedina17isnothingshortofdemocratic(NYassine2005d2005e)UnliketheMuslimdynastiesthatarosetousurpitYassinecontendsthiscommunity was participatory egalitarian committed to freedom andexpressiveofGodrsquosmercyMostimportantitwasgovernedalwaysbytheQurrsquoanicprincipleofshura (consultation)bywhichYassinemeansaphilosophy of power that places sovereignty in the community ratherthaninanyindividuallinksvirtuetodeliberationratherthanobedienceandexhortsbelieverstocontinuallyadaptQurrsquoanicprinciplesthroughijtihad rather than adhere reflexively to precedent (N Yassine 2006a182ndash862005d)ManyscholarsandjournalistsremainskepticaloftheJSArsquosasyetuntestedcommitment toproceduraldemocracyandworrythatNadiaandher fatherAbdessalamultimatelyseektoestablishanIslamic state inhospitable to tolerance pluralism and civil liberties(Maghraoui2001Brandon2007Whitlock2006)YetothersarguethattheJSAisagenuinelypopulistorganizationthatrepresentstheunrepre-sentedtendstothewelfareofthedispossessedandbothexpressesandcontributestoanincreasinglyvibrantcivilsocietyinMorocco(Cavatorta2006Entelis2002)

QaradawirsquosandYassinersquosargumentstogethersuggestthatdemocracycanandhasservedaseitheracosmeticcoverfordespotismoranauthen-ticallyIslamiccheckuponcorruptandarbitraryruleAtissueinIslamistargumentsforandagainstdemocracythenarenotonlywhatcountsasldquoauthenticIslamrdquoandtheintentionsofthosewhoclaimtoknowitbutalsothecontentandcharacterofdemocracyitselfParadoxicallybothIslamistsopposedtodemocracyandthosewhotakeIslamismasinher-entlyantidemocraticregardthisasasimplematterwithanobviousan-swerdemocracyisanexpressionofandevensynonymouswithliberal-ismcapitalismandtheWestYetdemocracyisbothmorecapaciousand

17TheConstitutionofMedinawasanagreementtheProphethadenteredintowiththelocalcommunitiesincludingJewishtribesuponhisemigrationfromMeccatoMedina

32

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INTRODUCTION

moredistinctthanthispresumptionsuggestsTheworditselfofcoursederivesfromtheancientGreekdemokratiawhichmeansrule(kratos)ofthepeople(demos)andmanyderivetheequationofdemocracyandtheWestfromthisassociationwithclassicalGreeceYetancientGreekphi-losopherssuchasPlatosawindemocracythespecterofmobrulepartic-ularly vulnerable to demagoguery and despotism (a suspicion notablyechoedbyAmerican founder JamesMadison)Contrary to thedemo-cratic idealof inclusivenessmoreover citizenship inGreekdemocracyexcludedasubstantialpartofthepopulationincludingwomenslavesandforeignersFinallytheextenttowhichtheancientGreeksmayevenbecalledWesternisamatterofgreatdisputeparticularlyastheldquoWestrdquoisacategoryofrelativelyrecentprovenancethroughwhichhistoryandgeographyhavebeenretroactivelyorganized18DespitedepictionsoftheHellenicworldasWesternancientGreeksdidnotinfactviewthem-selvesintheseterms19

TheequationofdemocracywiththeWestalsopresupposestheexis-tenceofacoherentldquoWesterncivilizationrdquowitheitherculturallyhomoge-neousrootsorclearlydelineatedhistoricalandcontemporarybounda-riesorbothYetwhatiscalledtheWestisanamalgamationofmultipletraditionsincludingtheGreekRomanJudaicChristianandIslamicmdashtraditionsthatarethemselvespolyvalentratherthanhomogeneousmdashandistodaycharacterizedbyporousbordershybridsubculturesandmyriaddebtstodiversecivilizationspastandpresent20AsageographicmarkeritisvirtuallyimpossibletopinpointexactlywheretheWestbeginsandendsandthisisespeciallysonowthatpeoplesinformationandmate-rial goods crisscross cultural andnational borders atwill creating allkindsoftransnationalsubnationalandmultipleidentitiesthatshiftandreconstitutethemselvesinunpredictablewaysEventhosevaluesidenti-fiedasWesternoftenappearelsewhereinotherguisesIndeedscholarssuggestthatavarietyoftheldquostandardsexportedbytheWestanditscul-turalindustriesthemselvesturnouttobeofculturallymixedcharacterifweexaminetheirculturallineagesrdquo(Pieterse199553)

Manyalsoarguethatdemocracyisnotonlydistinctfrombutinten-sionwithboththetheoryandpracticeofpoliticsinldquoWesternrdquosocieties

18MichaelGillespie(19997ndash10)arguesthattherereadingofhistorygeographyandculturethroughtheprismofthissenseofldquotheWestrdquobegannoearlierthanthenineteenthcenturyTheideaofatimelessandbrightlinebetweenWestandEastisalsochallengedbyJeremyBrottonrsquosstudy(19989096ndash97)ofthediplomaticandintellectualexchangesbe-tweenEuropeandtheOttomanEmpireintheearlymodernperiodBrottonshowsnotonlytheextentandamityofsuchexchangesbutapersistentuncertaintyaboutwherepreciselyEuropeldquoendedrdquoandAsialdquobeganrdquo

19AncientGreeksunderstoodthemselvesasgeographicallywestofthebarbariansbutnotWesterninthecontemporarysensethatisasbothaculturalandhistoricalcategory

20StevenRuncimanrsquoswork(19543480)ontheCrusadesforexampledemonstratesaldquolongsequenceofinteractionandfusionbetweenOrientandOccidentoutofwhichourcivilizationhasgrownrdquo

33

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

many of which are more accurately classified as liberal and capitalist(Wood1994Wolin2001BallandDagger1999)Whileitisnowcom-monplacetospeakofldquoliberaldemocracyrdquoinasinglebreathliberalismanddemocracyareconceptsandpracticeswithverydifferenthistoriesandpresuppositionsUnlikedemocracyforexampleliberalismemergedfromthecrucibleofChristianreligiouswarsandintandemwiththeas-cendanceofamiddleclassthatpresagedtheendofEuropeanfeudalismTheliberalnation-statecanthusbeviewedasbothanexpressionandaconsolidationofcapitalismontheonehandandtheprincipleofasepa-rationbetweenchurchandstateontheotherBycontrastthereisnoth-ingaboutdemocracyeitherasasystemofgovernanceoracultureofpar-ticipationthatisinherentlysecularIndeedAlexisdeTocquevillefamouslyinsistedthatAmericandemocracycannotandshouldnotbesecularasreligionhelpsshiftattentionawayfromimmediatematerialpreoccupa-tionstolargerconcernsofcommunitycooperationandmoralityInfactmanydemocratictheoristsarguethatgenuinelyinclusivepopularsover-eignty is antithetical to the sharp inequalities of wealth and politicalpowerthatcapitalismoftenproducesandlegitimates

SuchongoingdefinitionalandsubstantivedebatessuggestthatthereismuchmoreatstakeindemocraticpoliticsthanprocedurespertainingtogovernmentauthorityandorderandpointtoawidespreadifelusiveunderstandingofdemocracynotjustasasetofinstitutionsbutasTocque-villesuggestsawayoflifeSeveralpoliticaltheoristshavecharacterizedthiselusiveunderstandingintermsofaldquodemocraticethosrdquoBythistheymeanbothanidealandanargumentforacultureofparticipationactivepowersharingmutualaccountabilityinclusivenessanddeliberationinwhichcitizensmayroutinelyandsafelychallengenotonlyspecificpoli-ciesandpolitical institutionsbutalso thevalues thatgoverncollectivelifeprinciplesofinclusionandexclusionandthepremisesofauthorityitself(Connolly1995JPEuben2003Sadiki2004)AdemocraticethosismuchmoredifficulttomeasureorquantifythanforexampleSamuelHuntingtonrsquosparsimoniousdefinitionofdemocracyasapolityinwhichtherehavebeentwoconsecutivepeacefulchangesofgovernmentbywayof freeand fairelections (Huntington1991)21Yetademocraticethosmakesitpossibletobothrecognizeanddisaggregatethepreconditionsaspirations mechanisms and institutions bundled into ldquodemocracyrdquotherebybringingintofocusforexamplethefrequentlyantidemocratic

21Manypoliticalscientistsprefertodefinedemocracyintermsofproceduresdesignedtorealizepopularruleincludingfreecompetitiveandfairelectionsalongwithstateprotec-tionofcertainrightsandlibertiesSuchaformalminimalistdefinitionhastheadvantageofdetachingdemocracyfromquestionsoforiginsandofferingastandardtowhichallgov-ernmentsmaybeheldregardlessofcultureandplaceAsKeithTopper(2005205ndash7)ar-gueshoweveritalsotendstosidestepknottyquestionsaboutthesubstanceofrepresenta-tion power responsiveness and accountability that are arguably central to democraticpolitics

34

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

casttoelectionsimposedbyelitesorforeignpowersthefeltimpotenceofmanycitizensinestablisheddemocraciesandthosehighlyparticipa-torycivilsocietiesthatflourishevenundermonarchicortheocraticrule

Forourpurposes inparticularademocraticethosmakesvisible theparadoxofanIslamistmovementthatseekstomobilizeordinaryMus-limsagainstcoercivepowerbutinthenameofareligio-politicalorderlargelyimmunizedfromchallengeQutbisanaptillustrationhereashistendencytogroundhisownspecialauthorityandinsightintheunsulliedwisdomofordinarybelieversmakesitpossibletoreadhisworkaseitherabriefagainstdemocracy(amongotherthings)oranenactmentofitIn-asmuchasdemocracyasaformofgovernanceisidentifiedwithpopularsovereigntyQutbrsquosbasicpremisethat thefoundationof legitimateau-thoritymustbedivineratherthanhumansuggeststhatheisunambigu-ouslyantidemocraticMoreoverQutbrsquoseffortstopluralizereligiousandpolitical authority express not a confidence in common wisdom butratheradesiretoclaimforhimselfthestatureofareligiousexpertwhodespitehislackofIslamicacademiccredentialscanclearlyseewhatoth-erscannotQutbcharacterizestherealIslamasself-evidentbuthealsoassumesthatonlyasmallvanguardofbelieversbesideshimselfwillhavetheabilitytorecognizeitandactdecisivelytoremaketheworldinitsimageSounderstoodthesignofldquochosennessrdquoisunyieldingcommitmenttoestablishingareligio-politicalorderthatsimultaneouslypresumesthesupremacyofthefewcapableoftrueknowledgeandpromisesaworldinwhichdissentitselfwillbecomebothunnecessaryandillegitimate

Yetifdemocracyrefersnotonlytoasystemofgovernanceorsetofprocedurestorealizepopularsovereigntybutalsotopracticesthatdis-ruptthoseforceswhichconcentratepowerandestablishpoliticalexclu-sionthecharacterizationofQutbrsquosworkassimplyantidemocraticmissesa crucial dimensionof its significance and appealAs the sacred textscontaintherulesandregulationsmeanttogovernbothpublicandpri-vateaffairsQutbrsquosinsistencethatordinaryuntrainedMuslimsmusten-gagethemdirectlyisinmanywaysademocratizationofaccesstoau-thoritySuchaccesscandisruptdeeplyentrenchedpatternsofpowerandpowerlessness particularlywhen conjoined to Islamist arguments thatarbitrarypowerisun-Islamicthatreligiousknowledgedependsoncom-mitmentratherthantrainingorexpertise thatMuslimshavetherightandobligationtodeterminewhenrulersareillegitimateandthatthosewhopreferordertojusticesecuritytofreedomandmoneytopietyhaveforfeitedanyclaimtoauthority

ThisaspectofIslamismhasfrequentlybeencomparedtotheProtestantReformationandmorespecificallytoCalvinistsrsquoattemptstotransferldquore-ligiousauthorityawayfromofficiallysanctionedindividualswhointer-prettextstoordinarycitizensrdquo(EGoldberg19913alsocfLoimeier2005)Suchaparallelhassparkedagreatdealofscholarlyspeculation

35

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INTRODUCTION

regardingapossibleldquoIslamicReformationrdquo22andarangeofargumentsaboutwhetherandhowIslamismmightfacilitatethedemocratizationofMuslim societies much as the Protestant Reformation is said to haveheralded the emergence of European ldquoliberal democracyrdquo While suchcomparisonsareevocativeafullerunderstandingof IslamismrequiresfirstsituatingitinrelationtoahistoricalshiftinthenatureandlocusofreligiousauthorityinIslambeginninginthenineteenthcenturyAsschol-arsofMuslimsocietieshavepointedouttheimpactofmasseducationnewtechnologiesfordisseminatingknowledgeandinformationanddra-matically changed social economic and political contexts have madeavailabletoamateurswhathadpreviouslybeenthepurviewofreligiousexpertsAtthesametimeithasinauguratedafragmentationofauthor-itywithintheveryranksofthelsquoulamathatcontinuestothepresentday23

InthiscontexttheascendanceandinfluenceofautodidactssuchasQutbHasanal-BannalsquoAbdal-SalamFarajandBinLadensimultaneouslyex-pressandaccelerateanongoingrenegotiationofauthorityoverwhomayspeakforIslamandonwhatbasisthepathofwhichisstillunfoldingandtheoutcomeasyetuncertain

Islamism and Gender

One already apparent consequence of this ongoing renegotiation overwhomayspeakforIslamandonwhatbasisistheentryofwomenintothe interpretive fray This development is increasingly unsettling thoseunwrittengendernormsarguablyattheveryheartofIslamistthoughtdisruptingthestandardsofmasculinityandfemininitythatreflecthowparticularculturesorganizehumanbeingsrsquosocialandreproductiveactiv-itiesintorolesthatareinturnthoughttoexpresstheldquonaturerdquoofmenand women Such norms are frequently considered tangential to theknottyproblemsofdefiningIslamismandadumbratingitscentralideasyetarangeofscholarshiponculturespastandpresenthasshownthatgenderisconsistentlytheterrainoverwhichbattlesforpoliticalcontrolandculturalidentityarefoughtMorespecificallyresearchindisciplinessuchasanthropologyhistoryclassicsandpostcolonialstudieshasdem-onstratedthatculturesinwhichfemalebodiesandbehaviorareregardedas indicesofmoralpurity tend to symbolically transformwomen intoconduitsof cultural corruption in timesof internal crisis and externalthreat(Papenek1994Chatterjee1990Tavakoli-Targhi1991Just1989Cohen1991Welter1966Bloch1978)Thisisespeciallytrueofcontem-

22Foralatenineteenth-centuryassessmentoftheprospectsforaldquoMuhammadanRefor-mationrdquoseeBlunt1882132ndash73

23EickelmanandPiscatori199637ndash39131ndash35Zaman2006Suchfragmentationhasinmanywaysbeenacceleratedbytheexplosionofdigitalcultureswhichpromoteamongotherthingsaldquoformofempoweredamateurismrdquo(Mirzoeff20026)

36

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

poraryreligio-politicalmovementswhosememberstendtoldquoidealizepa-triarchalstructuresofauthorityandmoralityrdquoendorsegenderdualismasgod-givenornaturalandcondemnvigorouslyrecentchangesingen-derrelationsasasymptomandsymbolofsecularistmoralbankruptcy(Riesebrodt1993Moghadam1992Hawley1994)

SeveralchaptersinthisvolumeilluminateIslamistgendernormsbyre-vealing thecharacterandcontentof Islamistconcernsabout theplaceandpurityofMuslimwomenmdashpreoccupationsFatimaMernissi(199199)hasgonesofarastocharacterizeasanobsessionDespiteimportantdifferences among Islamists thinkers many endorse gender norms inwhichthefairlyconventionalinsistencethatfemalenatureisdefinedinand through reproduction undergirds an understanding of women assymbolsofmoralvirtueandvesselsofculturalpurityThisviewsustainstheclaimthatmenandwomenareequalinreligiousbeliefbutperformfundamentallydifferentandcomplementaryfunctionsinsocietyWhilemenarenaturallymadetoruleinboththepublicandprivatedomainawomanbelongsinthedomesticrealmwhereherprimaryroleistobeawifeandmotheraswellastoinsuretheintegrityofthefamilythefirstschoolofmoraleducationAssuchfunctionsarerootedinaninescap-ablehumannaturefashionedbyGodawomanrsquosinabilityorunwilling-nesstoperformherdutiessignalsadisobediencetothedivinewillandpresages the corruption of the Muslim family from within From thisvantagepointtheWesterninsistenceonfullequalitybetweenthesexesisdoubly pernicious it at once liberates women from basic moral con-straintsandenslavesthemtomutuallyreinforcingsexualandcapitalistexploitationAsMurtazaMutahhari(1998xxxi)arguescapitalismmakesuseofwomentomarket itsgoodsldquoby trading inhonourandrespectthrough[their]powertoenticerdquotherebyldquotransform[ing]manintoaninvoluntaryagentofconsumptionrdquoInasmuchaswomenareresponsiblefor producing the next generation of Muslim men destined to restoreIslamtoitsformergloryitisnotonlythevirtueofwomenortheinteg-rityofthefamilythathangsinthebalancebutthefutureofIslamiccivili-zationitself

Zaynab al-Ghazali andMutahharimake several of these argumentsexplicitlyandindetail(seechapters10and11)butinmuchofIslamistrhetoricthenatureandsignificanceofwomenareestablishedindirectlyandsymbolicallyandthroughthreerecurrentimagesinparticularThefirstisofwomenassilentsymbolsofculturalmoralandsexualvulnera-bilityvoicelessfiguresinneedofmasculineprotectionorwhenitistoolatedefiledbodiesthatmutelydemandvengeanceSoforexamplelsquoAb-dallahlsquoAzzam(oneofBinLadenrsquosmentorsseechapter18)graphicallydetailstheagonizinghumiliationofyoungmenunabletoactwhentheAfghanwoman isldquocryingout forhelpher childrenarebeing slaugh-tered her women are being raped the innocent are killed and theircorpsesscatteredrdquo(lsquoAzzam1987a)Inthesecondimagewomenfunction

37

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INTRODUCTION

muchlikeachorusthatspeaksinpermittedcadencestoratifymasculineendeavorsSuchisthecaseforexampleinBinLadenrsquos1996ldquoDeclara-tionofWaragainsttheAmericansOccupyingtheLandoftheTwoHolyPlacesrdquo(seechapter18)wherethewomenexhortmentojihadinthefollowing way ldquoPrepare yourself like a struggler the matter is biggerthanwordsAreyougoingtoleaveusforthewolvesofKufr[unbe-lief]eatingourwingsWherearethefreemendefendingfreewomenbyarmsDeath isbetter than life inhumiliation Some scandals andshameswillneverbeotherwiseeradicatedrdquo24InthethirdimagewomenarecreaturesnotofthisworldbutofanothervirginalrewardsforthecourageousmartyrintheafterlifeThisisevidentinthefinalinstructionsforthe911hijackersforexamplewhereMuslimldquobrothersrdquoareurgedto purify their carnal impulses sharpen their knives for the dhabh (slaughter)andheedthecallofthehur lsquoayn (theblack-eyedones)await-ingtheminParadise(seechapter19)

Such rhetoric primarily registers women as an extensionmirror ormeasure of masculinity and together with explicit Islamist argumentsabouthumannatureandthefamilyarticulatesIslamistgendernormsinwhichmenandwomeneachhaveaproperlocationandpurposeinadi-vinely ordained social hierarchy Deviance from this gendered scriptthussignalsdisruptionofamuchbroaderreligio-politicalorderitbothpresumes and seeks to bring into existence The disruption caused byforeign aggression in particular exacerbates the tendency to translateconflict into an assault on Muslim masculinity and to conceptualizewomenaspotentialvehiclesforWesterncorruptioninneedofguidingand guarding Women such as Zaynab al-Ghazali and Nadia Yassinewho seek a prominent place and voice within the Islamist movementhavehadlittlechoicebuttocontendwiththisgenderedscriptDoingsohasentailedamongotherthingsnavigatingcarefullybetweenIslamistcharacterizations of womenrsquos visibility and agency as symptomatic ofthe new jahiliyya on the one hand and essentializing arguments thatequateIslamwithveilingfemalegenitalmutilationandhonorkillingsontheother

AsthechaptersonGhazaliandYassinesuggestIslamistwomenhavenegotiatedbetweensuchconstraintsandpressuresandtheirownambi-tionsindifferentwaysApioneeringdalsquoiya(onewhoinvitesMuslimstogreater piety)Ghazalirsquos own life reveals a fierce resistance to conven-tionalnormsofdomesticityevenasmuchofher(earlier)workappearsto embrace an Islamist gender ideology that defines women as wivesmothers andldquobuilders ofmenrdquo (al-Hashimi 1990 118)By contrastYassineisawifeandmotherwhoembracesanldquoIslamicfeminismrdquothatrequiresldquoreappropriatingtheinstrumentsofclassicaltheologyrdquoanden-

24TheIslamistjournalSawt alshyJihadhasgonesofarastofeatureldquowomenrsquosvoicesrdquointheformofrolemodelsnamedforexampleumm alshyshahid(motherofthemartyr)al-thoughitisunclearthattheseldquovoicesrdquoareactuallywomenrsquos(SUsher2004)

38

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

gaging the textsdirectly through ijtihad (NYassine2003) In this re-spect Yassine must be understood as part of a broader effort amongMuslimwomenwithdifferentpoliticalcommitmentstosimultaneouslyadvocateandenacttheirrighttorecuperatetheldquooriginalintentrdquooftheIslamictextsIfwomenandmendoinfacthavedistinctperspectivesontheworldYassinesuggestswomenhaveaspecialobligationtoexcavatewhattheyseeasthegenderparityoftheQurrsquoanburiedbeneaththoseldquomachointerpretationsrdquoofIslamuponwhichmenhavebuilttheirprivi-legeandpower(Khalaf2006)25

ManyAnglo-AmericanandEuropean feministsworry that Islamistsseekonly to secureor restorepatriarchalpowerConverselymany Is-lamist women view feminism as a term and a movement inescapablyWesterninoriginfreightedwiththelegacyofcolonialismanduneasilyimplicatedinculturalimperialismThisapplieseventoYassinewhoisunwillingtoadoptwithoutqualificationalabelsheassociateswithagen-dasopposedtoherowntheWesttheMoroccanstateMaghribi(North-westAfrican)elitesYetfeminismitselfisahighlycontestedtermwithin theso-calledWestitisthebearerofmultiplemeaningssomeofwhichareevenopposedandischaracterizedbydeepdisagreementsaboutwhowomenarewhatwomenneedwhoisauthorizedtoworkonwomenrsquosbehalf andbywhatmeans Inasmuch as these various feminismsmayshareonlyastatedconcernforwomenrsquoswelfarethereisnothinginco-herentinmodifyingldquofeminismrdquowithldquoIslamicrdquoldquoMuslimrdquoorevenldquoIs-lamistrdquounlessone iscommitted toarguing thatfirst Islam isanun-changingessencebeyondhistorypoliticsandculturesecondthereisaneutralobjectivevantagefromwhichtoidentifythisessenceonceandforallandfinallytheIslamicessencesoidentifiedisfundamentallyin-compatiblewitheffortstoimprovetheconditionsandqualityofwomenrsquoslivesBythesametokenIslamistwomenwhorejectthetermfeminismcanbe(althoughnotalwaysare)deeplycommittedtoimprovingwom-enrsquoswelfareaswellasactivelyresistanttoeffortsthatreduceortrans-formthemintosilentaccessoriesofmalepower

YassineandGhazalidifferaboutwhatwomenareandshouldbeyetbroadlyspeakingbothmaybeconsideredpartofarecenttrendtowardthe feminizationofdalsquowa Dalsquowa literallymeanscallappealor sum-monsbutthetermhascometosignifyavarietyofpracticesandargu-mentsmeanttoexhortinviteandguideMuslimstowhatisregardedasproperconductandmoraldevotionWomenrsquosparticipationindalsquowais

25WomenrsquosparticipationintheldquoproductionofofficialIslamicknowledgerdquohasalonghistoryalthoughtheyhaveoftendonesoinrelativeobscurityandwithoutthebenefitofeducation in the Islamicsciences thathas legitimateddirectengagementwith thesacredtexts (Cooke 2001 xiv Badran and Cooke 2004) Pioneering attempts to read genderequalityinIslamarealsonotconfinedtowritingbywomenasevincedbyQasimAminrsquosTahrir alshymarrsquoa [TheLiberationofWoman] (1899)andMumtaz lsquoAlirsquosHuquqshye niswan [TheRightsofWomen](1898)

39

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

notabrandnewphenomenonasisevidentinGhazalirsquosworkwiththeEgyptianSocietyofMuslimLadiesinthe1930sYetfromEgypttoPaki-stantoSaudiArabiatotheUnitedStatesthenumberoffemaledalsquoiyashasproliferatedexponentially inrecentyears(Cooke2001Mahmood2005Hirschkind2006)Thisreflectsinpartcurrentdoctrinalempha-sesondalsquowaasincumbentuponbothmenandwomenanddependentlessupontechnicalknowledgethanmoralvirtueandpracticalfamiliaritywiththeIslamictradition(Mahmood200565ndash66)It isalsoaconse-quenceofrecentpoliticalandsocioeconomictransformationsinMuslimsocietiesincludingtheexpansionofmasseducationthathasnotonlyin-creasedwomenrsquosliteracyandsocialmobilitybutalsomadeIslamictextsmoreaccessibletheproliferationoftechnologiesmdashfromthecassettetapetotheInternetmdashthatfacilitatethecirculationofreligiousknowledgeevenamongthosewhocannotreadortraveltheprecedentsetbythevigorousparticipationof IranianwomeninpostrevolutiondebatesaboutIslamandthemodeloflegalactivismevidentintheIslamistmovementrsquosownchallenge to the lsquoulamarsquos status as gatekeepers of religious knowledge(Singerman2005Mir-Hosseini1999)

If Ghazali and Yassine exemplify the feminization of dalsquowa amongelitesthemosquemovementinEgyptillustratesthegrowingparticipa-tionofwomenfromdiversesocialbackgroundsinreligiousclassesde-votedtostudyinganddebatingwhatIslamrequiresforawomantobeldquomorallyuprightrdquointhecontemporaryworld(Mahmood2005)Con-ceptualizingpiety in termsof adeepandholistic commitment to self-transformationparticipantsinthemosquemovementareconcernedlesswithmattersofsovereigntyandpoliticsconventionallyunderstoodandmorewiththeldquomoralcultivationrdquoofthosedailypracticesseenascrucialtobecomingclosertoGod(Mahmood2005)SomeIslamistshavecriti-cizedthis focusonpracticesofworshipasapoliticalandoverlypriva-tizedyetsuchcriticismmissestheforceofIslamistsrsquoowninsistenceondin(religion)asawayoflifeinwhichthedomainsofpublicandprivateare inextricably linked26AsSabaMahmood (2005193194) showsthesewomenrsquosintenseeffortsatldquoretrainingethicalsensibilitiesrdquohavealdquosociopoliticalforcerdquothatextendswellbeyondmattersofgovernancefacilitatingnolessthantheemergenceofaldquonewsocialandmoralorderrdquoEvidenceofitstransformativepowermaybefoundnotonlyinthesheernumbersandvarietyofwomenmdashwealthyandpoor literateand illiter-atemdashparticipatinginthemosquemovementbutalsointherhetoricalandpoliticaleffortsbythestateandsomeIslamiststocurtailcontrolordis-creditit(Mahmood200571194)

26ParticipantsinthemosquemovementinturnareoftencriticalofwhattheyseeasthereductionofIslamtotokensofculturalauthenticityorofitsinstrumentalizationbybothnationalistsandIslamiststheycharacterizeasmoreinterestedinpoliticalmaneuveringthanreligiouspiety

40

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

Understoodtoincludebothwrittenandembodiedpracticesthefemi-nizationof dalsquowa illustrates theways inwhichwomen fromdifferentperspectivesandsocialclassesareinsistingonengagingthesacredtextsdirectly for and with one another without the mediating authority ofmenwhohavetraditionallyheldthemonopolyonsuchactivitiesAsSu-danese Islamist Lubabah al-Fadl argues ldquoAs an insan [human being]whohappenstobeawomanIhavearighttorejectthemanipulativeexegesesofoursharilsquoa thatthreatenmyexistenceinawaythat isnotconsistentwiththeGodlywayandtoapplymyownijtihadtorectifyer-roneoustendenciesbysomeshuyukh[pluralofshaykh]rdquo(Sadiki2004290)DespitetheproliferationofvoicesintentonclaimingforthemselvestheauthoritytodemarcatewhatisauthenticallyIslamicandun-Islamiconceandforallcontestationoveritsscopeandmeaningproceedsapacefacilitatedatleastinpartbywomenformerlyexcludedfromtheconver-sationAtthesametimeIslamistwomenrsquosagencyandclaimstoauthorityarefrequentlystillpredicatedonawillingnesstofollowfairlypatriarchalrulesaboutwherehowandwithwhomtheymaypracticetheirvocation(Hirschkind2003Sadiki2004283)

Islamism and Violence

IfgenderisfrequentlyanimplicitpreoccupationamongIslamistsjihadisarguably Islamistsrsquomost consistently explicit concern Jihad is derivedfromtheArabicverbthatmeanstostruggleortostriveyetitisaparticu-larkindofstruggle that isofconcern tomanyof thefigurescollectedheretheoftenviolentstruggleagainstapostatesandinfidelsbothathomeandabroadtowhicheveryindividualMuslimmustcontributeTheclaimthatfightingunbelieversisthepreeminentenactmentofindividualMus-limpiety seems to justify characterizationsof Islam ingeneral and Is-lamisminparticularassanctioningevenencouragingviolenceYetwhatIslamistsrepresentasjihadtout courtisahistoricallyspecificunderstand-ingderivedfromahighlyselectiveuseoftextsandprecedentsprominentamongthemaformerlyobscureclaimbytheinfluentialfourteenth-cen-tury jurist IbnTaymiyya thatMongol rulerswhohad contravened Is-lamiclawcouldbesubjecttoforcibleremovalFarfromadefinitiveex-pressionof Islamldquoproperlyunderstoodrdquo such Islamist argumentsnotonlymarkasignificantdeparturefrommuchofantecedentdoctrineandpractice but also diminish the importance of ongoing disagreementsamongMuslimsabouttheformandpurposesofjihad

TobeginwithMuslimscholarshavetendedtoconsiderjihadagainstforeignenemiesafard kifaya(collectiveobligation)thatisadutyagroupofpeoplewithinthecommunitymayperformonbehalfoftherestandonethatpresupposesalegitimateMuslimleadertodeclareorleadthechargeJuristshavedistinguishedthisfromthefard lsquoayn(individualduty)thatmustbefulfilledbyeverysingleMuslimincasesofdefensivejihad

41

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

thatiswhentheummaisunderattackManyIslamistsincludedheretakeamuchlessnuancedviewofjihadAsamodeofpoliticalactionQutbarguesjihadmustberegardedasaldquopermanentconditionnotanocca-sionalconcernrdquoonethatincurrentcircumstancesrequiresdeedsratherthanwordsstruggleratherthancontemplationrevolutionathomeaswellasresistanceabroad(Qutb199167ndash6882)lsquoAbdal-SalamFarajarguesalongsimilarlinesthatthenatureoftheattackonIslammakespolitical authorization by a caliph (ldquodeputyrdquo referring to a legitimatesuccessortotheProphetrsquosleadership)unnecessaryafterallldquoleadershipovertheMuslimsis(always)intheirownhandsifonlytheymakethismanifestIfthereissomethinglackingintheleadershipwellthereisnothingthatcannotbeacquiredrdquo(Jansen1986asec93)

SuchargumentsareadeliberaterejectionofearlyMuslimmodernistswhohademphasizedthelargelydefensivecharacterofjihadandsoughttoshowthatrelationsbetweenMuslimsandnon-MuslimswerenormallypeacefulratherthanantagonisticMahmudShaltut(d1963)therectorof al-Azhar from 1958 to 1963 had argued for example that theQurrsquoanicversesonfightingldquoprohibittheprovocationofhostilityandthisprohibitionisreinforcedbyGodrsquosrepugnancetoaggressionandbyhisdislikeofthosewhoprovokehostilityrdquo(Peters199674onShaltutseeZebiri1993)ConversionbyforceisanathematoIslamShaltutaversandfightingiscommandedonlyindefenseinresponsetoaggressionini-tiatedbyothersEvendefensivejihadmustaimatldquotheterminationoftheaggressionandtheestablishmentofreligiouslibertydevotedtoGodandfreefromanypressureorforcerdquo(Peters199675)

ManyIslamistsexplicitlydismisssuchargumentsasasymptomoffalseconsciousnessoneamongmanydestructiveeffectsofcolonialdomina-tionMawdudiargues for example thatwhile imperialists ravage theworld to satisfy their greed jihad alone ldquoconjures up the vision of amarching band of religious fanatics with savage beards and fiery eyesbrandishingdrawnswordsandattackingtheinfidelswherevertheymeetthemrdquoHavinginternalizedthis imageMuslimsrushtoapologizeandrenouncearmedstruggleInthiswayhelamentscolonialistsretaintheexclusiverighttoldquofightwitharmsandammunitionwhilewearecon-tented with our pen and our tonguerdquo (Mawdudi 1948 1ndash3) SayyidQutbforhispartagreedthatIslamdoesnotcountenancespreadingitsmessagebyforceandcoercionyethehadlittlepatiencewiththosewhosoughttopresentjihadaslegitimateonlyinself-defense

IfweinsistoncallingIslamicjihadadefensivemovementthenwemustchangethemeaningofthewordldquodefenserdquoandmeanbyitldquothedefenseofmanrdquoagainstallthoseforcesthatlimithisfreedomWhenwetakethisbroadmeaningofthewordldquodefenserdquoweunder-standthetruecharacterofIslaminthatitproclaimstheuniversalfreedomofeverypersonandcommunityfromservitudetoanyother

42

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

individualorsocietytheendofmanrsquosarroganceandselfishnesstheestablishmentofthesovereigntyofAllahandHisLordshipthrough-outtheworldandtheruleofthedivinesharilsquoainhumanaffairs(Qutb199050)

Qutbdoesnotnameanynamesincastigatingtheldquowriterswithdefeatistandapologeticmentalities[who]writeaboutlsquojihadinIslamrsquoandtrytoremovethislsquoblotrsquofromIslamrdquo(Qutb199046)buthecouldverywellhavehadhisdistinguishedfellowEgyptianMahmudShaltutinmind

These arguments about jihad may be said to constitute a commongrammarandframeworkofanalysisformanyIslamistsalthoughseveralthinkers in this volume carefully calibrate such claims to suit variouspurposesanddifferentpublicspheresInhisjustificationfortheassassi-nationofEgyptianpresidentAnwaral-SadatforexamplelsquoAbdal-SalamFarajdepictsthestruggletoreclaimthemoralfoundationsoftheEgyp-tianstateasafightagainstjahiliyyafromwithinarguingthatthejihadagainstacorruptnationalistregimeathomemusttakeprecedenceoverfightingenemieselsewhereTheCharterofHamas(seechapter15)how-everinsiststhatallMuslimsrecognizetheprimacyofthejihadforJeru-salemweldingIslamistrhetorictothatofnationalistresistanceinanef-fortbothtofightIsraelioccupationandtocompeteforadherentswiththePalestinianLiberationOrganization(PLO)IncontrasttobothFarajandHamasBinLadenembracesaglobaljihadthatessentiallycollapsesdistinctionsbetweennationalandinternationaloffensiveanddefensivefightingenemiesathomeandthosefromafar

Yet despite such differences these arguments tend to presume thatviolent jihad is a necessary response to the pervasive power of thosewithdemonstratedhostilitytoMuslimliveslandspietiesandsensibili-tiesaformofretaliationwhoseurgencyandlegitimacyderivefromtheviolencemdashpsychologicalandeconomicaswellasphysicalmdashoftheinitialassaultThisviewofjihadsubsumesindividualsintoarchetypesofldquoin-fidelsrdquoandldquobelieversrdquoandinsodoingvitiatesmoreconventionaldis-tinctionsbetweenforexamplesoldierandcivilianorcollectiveandin-dividual responsibility It is far from inevitable that thosewhoharborsuchviewswillautomaticallyactuponthemyetthecarnagewroughtbytheattacksontheWorldTradeCenterandthePentagonin2001aBalinightclub in 2002 Madrid commuter trains in 2004 and throughoutIraqonadailybasissuggestjusthowlethalsuchclaimscanbegiventheright circumstances The fact that such violence does not discriminateamongvictimsonlyfurtherfuelsrhetoriccharacterizingIslamistsasirra-tional fanatics ldquoin love with deathrdquo terrorists animated by a religioncharacterizedbyapropensityforviolenceandauthoritarianism27

27AnxietiesabouttheparticularsusceptibilityofMuslimstoirrationalityinsularityandfanaticismhavealonganddistinguishedpedigreeinEuro-AmericanhistoryandpoliticalthoughtSeeforexampleRenan18833

43

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

AsinsomanyothermattershoweverIslamistsarehardlyofonemindonthesubjectofjihadindeedthereareIslamistswhoexplicitlyrejectthereductionof struggle toviolenceAcase inpoint isNadiaYassine(20032005c)whoinsiststhatjihadisthededicatedstruggleagainstisshytikbar(arrogance)particularlyinitscommonformasthelustforpoweranddominationAsjihadagainstistikbarisbothafinalgoalandapre-scriptionforactionYassinesuggestsitisantitheticaltoviolentpracticesthataimatdominationTheprimaryinstrumentsofjihadarenotbombsbutwords particularly thosedeployed in the art of persuasion (Fara-marzi2005NYassine2006a)WhenIslamistssuchaslsquoAbdal-SalamFarajandlsquoUmarlsquoAbdal-RahmanseektolegitimizeviolentrevolutionbyrecoursetoIslamictextsshearguestheycontravenethetruemeaningofjihadtoservetheirownarrogantendsBythesametokenBinLadenrsquosdecisiontoldquofightevilwithevilandbarbaritywithbarbarityrdquonotonlyviolatesspecificIslamicprohibitionsagainstharmingcivilianswomenandchildrenbutalsobetraystheethicalimperativetoembodythemes-sageofamercifulGodwhocautionsbelieversthat(Q8822)ldquoYouhavenopoweroverthemrdquo(NYassine2005cDaily Excelsior2002)

SuchpersistentdisagreementsamongMuslimspastandpresentsug-gest that Islam isnomore inherently violent andbloody-minded thanitmdashorChristianityor Judaism for thatmattermdashis inherentlypeacefulIslamists often claim to speak for an unchanging authentic Islam thatexistsoutsideoftimeandspaceyetthepoliticalpurchaseoftheirper-spective derives from the ways it assembles disparate yet recognizablecontemporaryexperiencesofsufferingfrustrationandlossintoanex-planationthatresonateswithMuslimswholiveincommunitiescultur-allylinguisticallyandgeographicallydistantfromoneanotherTheex-tenttowhichIslamistargumentsresonatebroadlyacrossMuslimsocie-tiesthusdependsuponasetofexperiencesandphenomenathatmarkthisparticularmomentinhistoryincludingthewaysinwhichcontempo-raryglobalinequalitiescompoundalegacyofhistoricalasymmetriestocontinuallyreproduceasenseofMuslimpowerlessnessmdashbothrealandimaginedmdashrelativetotheWestcontinuingEuro-Americanpoliticalandfinancialsupportofcorruptautocratsmanyofwhompresideoverna-tion-statesbrutallystitchedtogetherbyWesternfiat thepersistenceofauthoritarian regimes eager to control domestic unrest by catalyzingldquoMuslimragerdquotowardexternaltargetsthesenseofemasculationpro-ducedbydecadesofpoliticalrepressionandeconomicfrustrationandthecontinualflowofimagesofbloodiedMuslimbodiesdeliveredbyaburgeoningarrayofvideosatelliteandelectronicmedia

It is notable that the understanding of jihad many Islamists proffermirrorstheverystate-sanctionedviolenceagainstwhichtheyhavestrug-gledforalmostacenturyAlongwiththousandsofMuslimscaughtinthemachineryoftwentieth-centurystateviolenceprominentIslamistsfromQutbtoGhazalitoAymanal-Zawahirimdashal-Qalsquoidarsquossecondincommandmdash

44

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

arewellknowntohavebeenradicalizedbyextendedandoftenbrutaltermsofincarcerationinEgyptSyriaIraqJordanIsraelAlgeriaandelsewhere(onal-ZawahiriandprisoncfKepelandMilelli2008152ndash54)ItisthusfarfromsurprisingthatIslamistsforgedbyinterrogationtortureinprisoncampswouldconcludethatthepreeminentenactmentofMuslimpietyisviolentstruggleldquoPrisonrdquoasPalestinianKhaledAbuHilalhassaidldquoismyuniversityrdquo(Erlanger2007)anargumentmadeingreaterdetailinadifferenttimeandplacebyRussianwriterandrevolu-tionaryMaximGorky(1868ndash1936)

Apeoplebroughtupinaschoolthatremindsoneofthetormentsofhellonasmallscaleapeopleaccustomedtotheclenched-fistprisonandthewhipwillnotbeblestwithatenderheartApeoplethatthepoliceagentshaveriddenoverwillbecapableintheirturnofwalk-ingoverthebodiesofothersInacountrywhereunresthasreignedsolongit isdifficultforthepeopletorealizefromonedaytothenextthepowerofrightOnecannotdemandfromamanwhohasneverknownjusticethatheshouldbejust(Gorky1920)

InthiscontextasTimothyMitchell(1990195ndash96199207ndash8)suggestsIslamistviewsoftheworldcanbecharacterizedasbothamodeofresis-tancetostatemechanismsofcoercionandanexpressionofthemSuchisthedynamic evident inGhazalirsquosmemoirs for examplewhen shede-scribeshowtheldquodarknessofprisonsthebladesoftortureandthevi-ciousbeatingsonly increasetheenduranceandresolveofthefaithfulrdquo(Ghazali19786)

There is no doubt a great deal of pragmatism at work in IslamistargumentsaboutviolenceAsQutb(19916447ndash48)drylynotesthepathtofreedommustoccasionallybehewnbywayoftheswordbecausetyrants are not reasoned out of power and ldquojahiliyya is not lsquoabstracttheoryrsquo[it]consciouslyorunconsciouslystrivestopreserveitsownexistence to defend its essence to annihilate dangerous elementswhichthreatenitsverybeingrdquoYetitisalsothecasethatformanyoftheseIslamistsjihadisbothameansandanendanefforttoeradicatethoseobstacles torestoringa justcommunityonearththatsimultane-ouslybringshumanaction intoaccordwithGodrsquosplansandpurposes(Haddad198321)While theQurrsquoan (2256) states thatldquothere isnocompulsioninreligionrdquoIslamistscontendthatonlyinastateinwhichIslamiclawreignssupremearehumanbeingsfreefromenslavementtooneanotherrsquosruleandallareequalbyvirtueoftheircommonsubmissiontoGodAsQutb(1991107ndash8)argues

WhenthehighestauthorityinsocietyisGodalonemdashexpressedintheruleofdivinelawmdashonlythenishumanitytrulyandcompletelyliber-atedfromslaverytomenOnlythisisldquohumancivilizationrdquobecausetheessentialfoundationofhumancivilizationisthetrueandcom-

45

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

pletefreedomofhumanityandtheabsolutedignityofeveryindivid-ualinsocietyThereisnotruefreedomanddignityforhumanityortheindividualinasocietywheresomepeoplearelordswholegislateandothersareslaveswhoobey

From this perspective the realization of justice liberty equality andchoiceitselfnecessitatestheforcibleremovaloftheconstraintsimposedbyjahiliyyaalongwiththosewhoaidandabetitno matter the costAsMawdudi(1954160ndash61)writes

[W]hyisitthatinreligionsuchimportanceisgiventojihadthattheQurrsquoanpronouncesthejudgmentofhypocrisyuponthosewhoshirkandevadeitJihadisbutanothernamefortheattempttoerectthesystemoftruthandtheQurrsquoandeclaresjihadtobeatouchstoneonthesamefootingwithamanrsquosfaithInotherwordshewhohasfaithinhisheartwillneitherbecontentwiththedominationofthesystemofevilnorwillhegrudgetheexpenditureoflifeandwealthinthestruggleforerectingthesystemoftruthIfoneshowsweaknessinthismatterhisfaithitselfisdoubtfulWhatcananythingelsebesidethenprofithimThemanwhoprofesses faith in this religioncannotfulfillhisdutyonlybytryingasfaraspossibletopatternhislifeonIslamThenatureofhisfaithitselfrequiresthatheshouldconcentrateallhiseffortuponwrestingleadershipfromunbelievingandcorruptmentoentrustittotherighteousanduponerectingthesystemoftruththathasbeenordainedfortheconductoftheworldaccordingtothewillofGodBecausethisendisunattainablewith-out thehighestdegreeofcollectiveeffort theremustexistarigh-teouscommunitycommittedtotheprincipleoftruthanddevotedtothesolepurposeintheworldoferectingmaintainingandproperlyrealizingthesystemoftruth

ThefactthatsomeIslamistthinkerssanctifyviolentstruggleinsuchtermsdoesnotmeanofcoursethatallthosewhoadvocateorengageinjihadendorseviolence28NordoesitimplythatthosewhoclaimtokillforIslamareentirelywithoutulteriormotivesthosemanipulativepur-poses andpsychologicalmotivations that even themost rarified scrip-turalargumentscanexpressorserveWhattheprecedinganalysisdoessuggesthoweveristhatthereductionofthisviewofjihadtoirrationalbloodlusttheself-interestedgrabfortemporalpoweroradoorthroughwhichtopassintothehereaftermissesacrucialdimensionofitssignifi-canceandappealfortruebelieversjihadisnolessthananenactmentof

28EvenashespokeofaneweraofjahiliyyaandofjihadMawdudihimselfstoppedwellshortof recommendingor condoning the actual resort to violence in themannermanyotherIslamistsdidAsNasr(199670)observesMawdudirsquosorganizationtheJamalsquoat-iIs-lamildquohasavoidedviolentsocialchangeandhasinsteadviewedthepathtotheIslamicstateaslyingwithintheexistingsociopoliticalorderrdquoAlsoseethechapters5and3onQutbandMawdudiinthisvolume

46

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

adivineimperativetoremakethefoundationsofcollectivelifeInthisre-spectIslamistviewsofjihadcanbeseenaspartofalong-standingasso-ciationbetweenviolenceandpoliticalfoundingsuponwhichnoparticu-larcultureorhistoricalepochhasamonopolyThisassociationandtheldquolegacyofviolencerdquoitbequeathstofuturegenerationsarenolessappar-entinthoseradicalrevolutionsofrenewalthatmovebywayoftheswordfromthemarginstothecenterthanthosepoliticalfoundingsthatclaimtocreatesomethingoutofnothing(Connolly1995251)Ineithercasethetollofsuchbrutalitycanbeimmeasurableforinadditiontothevic-timswhosufferdirectlytheldquopracticeofviolencelikeallactionchangestheworldbutthemostprobablechangeistoamoreviolentworldrdquo(Ar-endt1972177)

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Page 28: Chapter 1 INTRODUCTION - assets.press.princeton.eduassets.press.princeton.edu/chapters/s9067.pdf · Chapter 1 INTRODUCTION This volume is intended as a broad introduction to the evolution

28

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

theultimateexpressionofdeferencetodivineomniscienceandportrayhumilityasaconstitutivefeatureofthehumanconditionAspirationstofullyknowandmasterthenaturalandsocialworldsthusentailnotonlyahumanhubrisdeaftotheQurrsquoanicadmonitionthatldquoAllahknowsbutandyoudonotknowrdquo(Q366)butalsoatransgressionagainstadi-vinely-ordainedontologicalorder

ItisnotablehoweverthattheIslamistemphasisonthelimitsofhumanknowledgerequireshumilityonlyinrelationtoAllahitrarelyyieldshu-milityinregardtotheirownclaimstospeakinHisnameortowardotherhumanbeingswhodissentfromthepremiseofdivineomnipotenceandIslamistaccountsofwhat it requiresThis suggests thatwhile IslamistchallengestostatepowerareobviouslypoliticaltheIslamistclaimtoau-thenticityisalsopolitical inthecoercivepoweritroutinelyenactsandjustifiesmostnotablybywayofthesilencesitimposesandthedebatesitforeclosesAzizal-Azmehpointsoutthatldquothenotionofauthenticityisnotsomuchadeterminateconceptasitisanodeofassociationsandin-terpellationsatropebymeansofwhichthehistoricalworldisreducedtoaparticularorderandatokenwhichmarksoffsocialandpoliticalgroupsandforgesandreconstituteshistoricalidentitiesrdquo(al-Azmeh199341)WhetherintheserviceofArabnationalismChristianfundamental-ismEuropeanromanticismorMuslimmodernismtheclaimofauthen-ticityisanactofpowerthatfunctionsnotjusttoreflecttheworldbuttoconstructitbydeterminingwhoisincludedandexcludedwhomayandmaynotspeakauthoritativelywhatistheproperrealmofdebateandwhatisbeyondcontestation

ItiscertainlythecasethatasingleldquoIslamrdquocapturesandorganizestheperspectivesofmillionswhoself-identifyasMuslim(amongotherthings)yetwhattravelsunderitsrubricisinescapablydiversemultiethnicanddefined asmuchbydisagreement as consensus Just as theTorah andBible lend themselves toat times radicallydivergent interpretationsofwhatitmeanstobeJewishorChristiantheQurrsquoanandhaditharecom-plexandsusceptibletomanydifferentandattimescontradictoryenact-mentsSounderstoodIslamislessafixedessencethanalivingtraditionthatcaptureswhatisimaginedascontinuousandunitaryindialecticalrelationshiptothoseconcretearticulationsandpracticesbywhichitistransformedandadaptedindifferentcontextsforpluralpurposesItispreciselythisunderstandingofreligionthatisanathematoIslamistswhoseek tofix theparametersof Islamicauthenticityonceandforallandtherebyarrogateforthemselvestherighttodeterminewhoqualifiesasagood Muslim to discredit those lsquoulama unable or unwilling to purgeIslamofpurportedimpietiestodeclarenominallyMuslimrulersapos-tatesunfittogovernandtocharacterizeallwhodisagreeascorrupthe-reticalguiltyofunbelieforvictimsoffalseconsciousness

Thesegeneralpoliticaltendencieshowevermustbecarefullysituatedwithinadialecticoftheglobalandthevernacularunderstoodtoreflect

29

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INTRODUCTION

thewaysinwhichunifyingmacrohistoricaldynamicsinformandareinturntransformedbydiversecontingentandfluidlocalcircumstancesInaworldstampedbyWesterndominanceandtheconsolidationofpostco-lonial authoritarian regimes Islamists confront a common set of con-straintsandchallengesInasmuchassuchconstraintsandchallengeshavemade Islamist thinkers (often reluctant) participants in conversationsacrossbothcultureandhistorytheireffortstoremakethefoundationsofcollectiveliferevealasharedinterpretiveframeworkandcommonreli-gio-political grammar At the same time this frame and grammar arecontinuallybeingreworkedinrelationtothedistinctpublicspheresinwhichIslamistsoperateandtowhichtheycarefullycalibratetheirpoliti-calcommitments

Attention to this complex dynamic suggests that the Islamist move-mentcannotsimplybecharacterizedasviolentantidemocraticandop-pressiveofwomenlabelsinvokedsofrequentlyinscholarlyandpopularliterature on the subject that they have become virtually synonymouswithIslamistpoliticsSuchcharacterizationsdocapturecrucialdimen-sionsofIslamistpoliticsyettheyalsosidesteptheparadoxesitsvarie-gatedandoftencontradictoryexpressionspresentInsteadwearguethatIslamistpoliticscanbeproductivelyreadin terms ofandagainst the grain ofsuchbroadcategorizationsasantidemocraticantiwomanorviolentmdashthat is as commitments that at different moments in various localesbothencourageandconstrainbroad-basedpoliticalparticipationdisruptandratifyhierarchicalgendernormsresistandreproducestate-sanctionedbrutalityThepointofreadingIslamistpoliticsinthiswayisnottosug-gestthatIslamistsaresecretlydemocraticfeministandopposedtovio-lenceRatherthepointistodrawattentiontothecomplexityandcon-tradictionserasedbyeasygeneralizationsontheonehandandtheoftenunacknowledgedfluidityandculturaladaptabilityofotherwisefamiliarpoliticalcategoriesontheother

Islamism and Democracy

DespiteimportantdifferencesamongIslamistthinkerstheyhaveincom-monatendencytoviewhumansovereigntyastransgressiveofdivinelawandsharetheaspirationtoestablishsharilsquoaastheprimaryorsolesourceofauthorityAsisoftennotedsuchpremisesandaspirationsrunafoulofassumptionsaboutpopularruleattheheartofdemocracynamelythathumanbeingshavetherighttolegislaterulesforcollectivebehaviorandarecapableofthewisdomrequiredtodevisejustlawsInrecentyearspolicymakersandcommentatorshaveevincedaparticularpreoccupa-tionwiththewaysinwhichIslamistnotionsofdivineauthoritythrottlethespiritandpracticeofpopularsovereigntySomehaveevengonesofarastocharacterizeIslamistsasldquoIslamo-fascistsrdquoanimatedbyhatredoftheldquodemocratic Westrdquo psychologically unable to contend with the fluidity

30

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

andindeterminacythatmarkpopularruleandeagertoconvertelectionsintoaldquoone-manone-voteone-timerdquomechanismforestablishinganIs-lamicstate(Murdock2002MRubin2005Kramer1993)

SuchviewsareechoedbythoseIslamistskeentoportraydemocracynotonlyasantitheticaltothesupremacyofdivinelawbutasaTrojanhorseforWesternimperialismFormanyIslamistsincludingseveralinthis volumedemocracy is justone symptomofametastasizingmoralandspiritualbankruptcywherebymoraltransgressionsaretransfiguredintonaturalurgescrassself-interestbecomesthebedrockofcollectivelifeandthedivineplanfortheuniverseandallthingsinitisreducedtoa system of physical causality just waiting to be mastered by way ofhumaningenuity(REuben2007)Qutbcallsthisdiseasedviewoftheworldjahiliyyaanditsignalsnotonlyhumanarrogancebutatransgres-sionagainstdivineauthoritythescopeofwhichencompassesbothpub-licandprivatedomainsofhumanaffairsaswellasbothvisibleandun-seendimensionsoftheuniverseFormanyIslamistssuchtransgressionisattherootofmuchofwhatpassesforMuslimruleinthecontemporaryworldmdashnationalistdemocraticandmonarchicalalikeSucharroganceisalsosaidtobethepatternunderlyingalonghistoryofunrelievedWest-ernaggressionagainstIslaminwhichtheChristianCrusadesEuropeancolonialismIsraelitreatmentofPalestiniansethniccleansinginBosniaGermananti-TurkishviolencetheAmericaninvasionofIraqandDutchcartoonsofMuhammadarebutafewexamples

YetthereisarangeofviewsamongIslamistsaboutboththesubstanceofdemocracyanditscompatibilitywiththereligio-politicalrenewaltheyadvocateAccordingtoQaradawiforexampleldquotheessenceofdemoc-racyisthatpeoplechoosewhorulesoverthemandmanagestheiraf-fairsthatnorulerorregimetheydislikeisforceduponthemthattheyhavetherighttocalltherulertoaccountifheerrsandtoremovehimfromofficeincaseofmisconductandthatpeoplearenotforcedineco-nomicsocialculturalorpoliticaldirectionsthattheyneitherrecognizenor acceptrdquo (Qaradawi1997132 also chapter9 in this volume)TohimthereisnoheavierburdenoppressingMuslimsinthecontemporaryworld thandespotism indeed it is throughdespoticgovernments thatMuslimshavebeenforcedtosubmittootherillsincludingtheneglectofthesharilsquoaandthecoerciveimpositionofsecularismandwesternizationDemocracy then recommends itself to Qaradawi as the most effectiveavailableantidotetodespotismandtheafflictionsofwhichitservesasavehicle

WheremanyamongtheIslamistsandthelsquoulamahaveseenconsider-able tensionbetween IslamanddemocracyQaradawiprofesses to seenoneAswesuggestedearlierbyfarthemostcommonoftheIslamistreservationsaboutademocraticsystemrelatestothesovereigntyofthepeoplewhichistakentocontravenetheideathatGodaloneissovereignQaradawi however is unperturbedby such concernsThe rule of the

31

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INTRODUCTION

peopleoughttobeseenhearguesnotinoppositiontotheruleofGodbutratherinoppositiontotheruleofthedespotMorefundamentallyQaradawirsquos view of democracy does not necessarily require that thepeopleshouldbeabletooverturndivinelyinstitutednormsRatherhisassumptionisthatpeopleexercisetheirsovereigntywithinconstitutionalboundsandMuslimslivinginapredominantlyMuslimdemocraticpol-itywouldlikewisenotwishtotransgresstheparametersoflegitimatehumanactionlaiddownintheIslamicfoundationaltexts(seeQaradawichapter9inthisvolumeandcfFeldman2007)

NadiaYassineofMoroccorsquosJusticeandSpiritualityAssociationisan-othercaseinpointWhilecriticalofthedemocraticgesturesembracedbyamonarchythatshedepictsasallergictogenuinelypopularsovereigntyYassineinsiststhatthemodelofMuslimruleadumbratedintheummafoundedbytheProphetMuhammadandinparticulartheConstitutionofMedina17isnothingshortofdemocratic(NYassine2005d2005e)UnliketheMuslimdynastiesthatarosetousurpitYassinecontendsthiscommunity was participatory egalitarian committed to freedom andexpressiveofGodrsquosmercyMostimportantitwasgovernedalwaysbytheQurrsquoanicprincipleofshura (consultation)bywhichYassinemeansaphilosophy of power that places sovereignty in the community ratherthaninanyindividuallinksvirtuetodeliberationratherthanobedienceandexhortsbelieverstocontinuallyadaptQurrsquoanicprinciplesthroughijtihad rather than adhere reflexively to precedent (N Yassine 2006a182ndash862005d)ManyscholarsandjournalistsremainskepticaloftheJSArsquosasyetuntestedcommitment toproceduraldemocracyandworrythatNadiaandher fatherAbdessalamultimatelyseektoestablishanIslamic state inhospitable to tolerance pluralism and civil liberties(Maghraoui2001Brandon2007Whitlock2006)YetothersarguethattheJSAisagenuinelypopulistorganizationthatrepresentstheunrepre-sentedtendstothewelfareofthedispossessedandbothexpressesandcontributestoanincreasinglyvibrantcivilsocietyinMorocco(Cavatorta2006Entelis2002)

QaradawirsquosandYassinersquosargumentstogethersuggestthatdemocracycanandhasservedaseitheracosmeticcoverfordespotismoranauthen-ticallyIslamiccheckuponcorruptandarbitraryruleAtissueinIslamistargumentsforandagainstdemocracythenarenotonlywhatcountsasldquoauthenticIslamrdquoandtheintentionsofthosewhoclaimtoknowitbutalsothecontentandcharacterofdemocracyitselfParadoxicallybothIslamistsopposedtodemocracyandthosewhotakeIslamismasinher-entlyantidemocraticregardthisasasimplematterwithanobviousan-swerdemocracyisanexpressionofandevensynonymouswithliberal-ismcapitalismandtheWestYetdemocracyisbothmorecapaciousand

17TheConstitutionofMedinawasanagreementtheProphethadenteredintowiththelocalcommunitiesincludingJewishtribesuponhisemigrationfromMeccatoMedina

32

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

moredistinctthanthispresumptionsuggestsTheworditselfofcoursederivesfromtheancientGreekdemokratiawhichmeansrule(kratos)ofthepeople(demos)andmanyderivetheequationofdemocracyandtheWestfromthisassociationwithclassicalGreeceYetancientGreekphi-losopherssuchasPlatosawindemocracythespecterofmobrulepartic-ularly vulnerable to demagoguery and despotism (a suspicion notablyechoedbyAmerican founder JamesMadison)Contrary to thedemo-cratic idealof inclusivenessmoreover citizenship inGreekdemocracyexcludedasubstantialpartofthepopulationincludingwomenslavesandforeignersFinallytheextenttowhichtheancientGreeksmayevenbecalledWesternisamatterofgreatdisputeparticularlyastheldquoWestrdquoisacategoryofrelativelyrecentprovenancethroughwhichhistoryandgeographyhavebeenretroactivelyorganized18DespitedepictionsoftheHellenicworldasWesternancientGreeksdidnotinfactviewthem-selvesintheseterms19

TheequationofdemocracywiththeWestalsopresupposestheexis-tenceofacoherentldquoWesterncivilizationrdquowitheitherculturallyhomoge-neousrootsorclearlydelineatedhistoricalandcontemporarybounda-riesorbothYetwhatiscalledtheWestisanamalgamationofmultipletraditionsincludingtheGreekRomanJudaicChristianandIslamicmdashtraditionsthatarethemselvespolyvalentratherthanhomogeneousmdashandistodaycharacterizedbyporousbordershybridsubculturesandmyriaddebtstodiversecivilizationspastandpresent20AsageographicmarkeritisvirtuallyimpossibletopinpointexactlywheretheWestbeginsandendsandthisisespeciallysonowthatpeoplesinformationandmate-rial goods crisscross cultural andnational borders atwill creating allkindsoftransnationalsubnationalandmultipleidentitiesthatshiftandreconstitutethemselvesinunpredictablewaysEventhosevaluesidenti-fiedasWesternoftenappearelsewhereinotherguisesIndeedscholarssuggestthatavarietyoftheldquostandardsexportedbytheWestanditscul-turalindustriesthemselvesturnouttobeofculturallymixedcharacterifweexaminetheirculturallineagesrdquo(Pieterse199553)

Manyalsoarguethatdemocracyisnotonlydistinctfrombutinten-sionwithboththetheoryandpracticeofpoliticsinldquoWesternrdquosocieties

18MichaelGillespie(19997ndash10)arguesthattherereadingofhistorygeographyandculturethroughtheprismofthissenseofldquotheWestrdquobegannoearlierthanthenineteenthcenturyTheideaofatimelessandbrightlinebetweenWestandEastisalsochallengedbyJeremyBrottonrsquosstudy(19989096ndash97)ofthediplomaticandintellectualexchangesbe-tweenEuropeandtheOttomanEmpireintheearlymodernperiodBrottonshowsnotonlytheextentandamityofsuchexchangesbutapersistentuncertaintyaboutwherepreciselyEuropeldquoendedrdquoandAsialdquobeganrdquo

19AncientGreeksunderstoodthemselvesasgeographicallywestofthebarbariansbutnotWesterninthecontemporarysensethatisasbothaculturalandhistoricalcategory

20StevenRuncimanrsquoswork(19543480)ontheCrusadesforexampledemonstratesaldquolongsequenceofinteractionandfusionbetweenOrientandOccidentoutofwhichourcivilizationhasgrownrdquo

33

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

many of which are more accurately classified as liberal and capitalist(Wood1994Wolin2001BallandDagger1999)Whileitisnowcom-monplacetospeakofldquoliberaldemocracyrdquoinasinglebreathliberalismanddemocracyareconceptsandpracticeswithverydifferenthistoriesandpresuppositionsUnlikedemocracyforexampleliberalismemergedfromthecrucibleofChristianreligiouswarsandintandemwiththeas-cendanceofamiddleclassthatpresagedtheendofEuropeanfeudalismTheliberalnation-statecanthusbeviewedasbothanexpressionandaconsolidationofcapitalismontheonehandandtheprincipleofasepa-rationbetweenchurchandstateontheotherBycontrastthereisnoth-ingaboutdemocracyeitherasasystemofgovernanceoracultureofpar-ticipationthatisinherentlysecularIndeedAlexisdeTocquevillefamouslyinsistedthatAmericandemocracycannotandshouldnotbesecularasreligionhelpsshiftattentionawayfromimmediatematerialpreoccupa-tionstolargerconcernsofcommunitycooperationandmoralityInfactmanydemocratictheoristsarguethatgenuinelyinclusivepopularsover-eignty is antithetical to the sharp inequalities of wealth and politicalpowerthatcapitalismoftenproducesandlegitimates

SuchongoingdefinitionalandsubstantivedebatessuggestthatthereismuchmoreatstakeindemocraticpoliticsthanprocedurespertainingtogovernmentauthorityandorderandpointtoawidespreadifelusiveunderstandingofdemocracynotjustasasetofinstitutionsbutasTocque-villesuggestsawayoflifeSeveralpoliticaltheoristshavecharacterizedthiselusiveunderstandingintermsofaldquodemocraticethosrdquoBythistheymeanbothanidealandanargumentforacultureofparticipationactivepowersharingmutualaccountabilityinclusivenessanddeliberationinwhichcitizensmayroutinelyandsafelychallengenotonlyspecificpoli-ciesandpolitical institutionsbutalso thevalues thatgoverncollectivelifeprinciplesofinclusionandexclusionandthepremisesofauthorityitself(Connolly1995JPEuben2003Sadiki2004)AdemocraticethosismuchmoredifficulttomeasureorquantifythanforexampleSamuelHuntingtonrsquosparsimoniousdefinitionofdemocracyasapolityinwhichtherehavebeentwoconsecutivepeacefulchangesofgovernmentbywayof freeand fairelections (Huntington1991)21Yetademocraticethosmakesitpossibletobothrecognizeanddisaggregatethepreconditionsaspirations mechanisms and institutions bundled into ldquodemocracyrdquotherebybringingintofocusforexamplethefrequentlyantidemocratic

21Manypoliticalscientistsprefertodefinedemocracyintermsofproceduresdesignedtorealizepopularruleincludingfreecompetitiveandfairelectionsalongwithstateprotec-tionofcertainrightsandlibertiesSuchaformalminimalistdefinitionhastheadvantageofdetachingdemocracyfromquestionsoforiginsandofferingastandardtowhichallgov-ernmentsmaybeheldregardlessofcultureandplaceAsKeithTopper(2005205ndash7)ar-gueshoweveritalsotendstosidestepknottyquestionsaboutthesubstanceofrepresenta-tion power responsiveness and accountability that are arguably central to democraticpolitics

34

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

casttoelectionsimposedbyelitesorforeignpowersthefeltimpotenceofmanycitizensinestablisheddemocraciesandthosehighlyparticipa-torycivilsocietiesthatflourishevenundermonarchicortheocraticrule

Forourpurposes inparticularademocraticethosmakesvisible theparadoxofanIslamistmovementthatseekstomobilizeordinaryMus-limsagainstcoercivepowerbutinthenameofareligio-politicalorderlargelyimmunizedfromchallengeQutbisanaptillustrationhereashistendencytogroundhisownspecialauthorityandinsightintheunsulliedwisdomofordinarybelieversmakesitpossibletoreadhisworkaseitherabriefagainstdemocracy(amongotherthings)oranenactmentofitIn-asmuchasdemocracyasaformofgovernanceisidentifiedwithpopularsovereigntyQutbrsquosbasicpremisethat thefoundationof legitimateau-thoritymustbedivineratherthanhumansuggeststhatheisunambigu-ouslyantidemocraticMoreoverQutbrsquoseffortstopluralizereligiousandpolitical authority express not a confidence in common wisdom butratheradesiretoclaimforhimselfthestatureofareligiousexpertwhodespitehislackofIslamicacademiccredentialscanclearlyseewhatoth-erscannotQutbcharacterizestherealIslamasself-evidentbuthealsoassumesthatonlyasmallvanguardofbelieversbesideshimselfwillhavetheabilitytorecognizeitandactdecisivelytoremaketheworldinitsimageSounderstoodthesignofldquochosennessrdquoisunyieldingcommitmenttoestablishingareligio-politicalorderthatsimultaneouslypresumesthesupremacyofthefewcapableoftrueknowledgeandpromisesaworldinwhichdissentitselfwillbecomebothunnecessaryandillegitimate

Yetifdemocracyrefersnotonlytoasystemofgovernanceorsetofprocedurestorealizepopularsovereigntybutalsotopracticesthatdis-ruptthoseforceswhichconcentratepowerandestablishpoliticalexclu-sionthecharacterizationofQutbrsquosworkassimplyantidemocraticmissesa crucial dimensionof its significance and appealAs the sacred textscontaintherulesandregulationsmeanttogovernbothpublicandpri-vateaffairsQutbrsquosinsistencethatordinaryuntrainedMuslimsmusten-gagethemdirectlyisinmanywaysademocratizationofaccesstoau-thoritySuchaccesscandisruptdeeplyentrenchedpatternsofpowerandpowerlessness particularlywhen conjoined to Islamist arguments thatarbitrarypowerisun-Islamicthatreligiousknowledgedependsoncom-mitmentratherthantrainingorexpertise thatMuslimshavetherightandobligationtodeterminewhenrulersareillegitimateandthatthosewhopreferordertojusticesecuritytofreedomandmoneytopietyhaveforfeitedanyclaimtoauthority

ThisaspectofIslamismhasfrequentlybeencomparedtotheProtestantReformationandmorespecificallytoCalvinistsrsquoattemptstotransferldquore-ligiousauthorityawayfromofficiallysanctionedindividualswhointer-prettextstoordinarycitizensrdquo(EGoldberg19913alsocfLoimeier2005)Suchaparallelhassparkedagreatdealofscholarlyspeculation

35

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

regardingapossibleldquoIslamicReformationrdquo22andarangeofargumentsaboutwhetherandhowIslamismmightfacilitatethedemocratizationofMuslim societies much as the Protestant Reformation is said to haveheralded the emergence of European ldquoliberal democracyrdquo While suchcomparisonsareevocativeafullerunderstandingof IslamismrequiresfirstsituatingitinrelationtoahistoricalshiftinthenatureandlocusofreligiousauthorityinIslambeginninginthenineteenthcenturyAsschol-arsofMuslimsocietieshavepointedouttheimpactofmasseducationnewtechnologiesfordisseminatingknowledgeandinformationanddra-matically changed social economic and political contexts have madeavailabletoamateurswhathadpreviouslybeenthepurviewofreligiousexpertsAtthesametimeithasinauguratedafragmentationofauthor-itywithintheveryranksofthelsquoulamathatcontinuestothepresentday23

InthiscontexttheascendanceandinfluenceofautodidactssuchasQutbHasanal-BannalsquoAbdal-SalamFarajandBinLadensimultaneouslyex-pressandaccelerateanongoingrenegotiationofauthorityoverwhomayspeakforIslamandonwhatbasisthepathofwhichisstillunfoldingandtheoutcomeasyetuncertain

Islamism and Gender

One already apparent consequence of this ongoing renegotiation overwhomayspeakforIslamandonwhatbasisistheentryofwomenintothe interpretive fray This development is increasingly unsettling thoseunwrittengendernormsarguablyattheveryheartofIslamistthoughtdisruptingthestandardsofmasculinityandfemininitythatreflecthowparticularculturesorganizehumanbeingsrsquosocialandreproductiveactiv-itiesintorolesthatareinturnthoughttoexpresstheldquonaturerdquoofmenand women Such norms are frequently considered tangential to theknottyproblemsofdefiningIslamismandadumbratingitscentralideasyetarangeofscholarshiponculturespastandpresenthasshownthatgenderisconsistentlytheterrainoverwhichbattlesforpoliticalcontrolandculturalidentityarefoughtMorespecificallyresearchindisciplinessuchasanthropologyhistoryclassicsandpostcolonialstudieshasdem-onstratedthatculturesinwhichfemalebodiesandbehaviorareregardedas indicesofmoralpurity tend to symbolically transformwomen intoconduitsof cultural corruption in timesof internal crisis and externalthreat(Papenek1994Chatterjee1990Tavakoli-Targhi1991Just1989Cohen1991Welter1966Bloch1978)Thisisespeciallytrueofcontem-

22Foralatenineteenth-centuryassessmentoftheprospectsforaldquoMuhammadanRefor-mationrdquoseeBlunt1882132ndash73

23EickelmanandPiscatori199637ndash39131ndash35Zaman2006Suchfragmentationhasinmanywaysbeenacceleratedbytheexplosionofdigitalcultureswhichpromoteamongotherthingsaldquoformofempoweredamateurismrdquo(Mirzoeff20026)

36

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

poraryreligio-politicalmovementswhosememberstendtoldquoidealizepa-triarchalstructuresofauthorityandmoralityrdquoendorsegenderdualismasgod-givenornaturalandcondemnvigorouslyrecentchangesingen-derrelationsasasymptomandsymbolofsecularistmoralbankruptcy(Riesebrodt1993Moghadam1992Hawley1994)

SeveralchaptersinthisvolumeilluminateIslamistgendernormsbyre-vealing thecharacterandcontentof Islamistconcernsabout theplaceandpurityofMuslimwomenmdashpreoccupationsFatimaMernissi(199199)hasgonesofarastocharacterizeasanobsessionDespiteimportantdifferences among Islamists thinkers many endorse gender norms inwhichthefairlyconventionalinsistencethatfemalenatureisdefinedinand through reproduction undergirds an understanding of women assymbolsofmoralvirtueandvesselsofculturalpurityThisviewsustainstheclaimthatmenandwomenareequalinreligiousbeliefbutperformfundamentallydifferentandcomplementaryfunctionsinsocietyWhilemenarenaturallymadetoruleinboththepublicandprivatedomainawomanbelongsinthedomesticrealmwhereherprimaryroleistobeawifeandmotheraswellastoinsuretheintegrityofthefamilythefirstschoolofmoraleducationAssuchfunctionsarerootedinaninescap-ablehumannaturefashionedbyGodawomanrsquosinabilityorunwilling-nesstoperformherdutiessignalsadisobediencetothedivinewillandpresages the corruption of the Muslim family from within From thisvantagepointtheWesterninsistenceonfullequalitybetweenthesexesisdoubly pernicious it at once liberates women from basic moral con-straintsandenslavesthemtomutuallyreinforcingsexualandcapitalistexploitationAsMurtazaMutahhari(1998xxxi)arguescapitalismmakesuseofwomentomarket itsgoodsldquoby trading inhonourandrespectthrough[their]powertoenticerdquotherebyldquotransform[ing]manintoaninvoluntaryagentofconsumptionrdquoInasmuchaswomenareresponsiblefor producing the next generation of Muslim men destined to restoreIslamtoitsformergloryitisnotonlythevirtueofwomenortheinteg-rityofthefamilythathangsinthebalancebutthefutureofIslamiccivili-zationitself

Zaynab al-Ghazali andMutahharimake several of these argumentsexplicitlyandindetail(seechapters10and11)butinmuchofIslamistrhetoricthenatureandsignificanceofwomenareestablishedindirectlyandsymbolicallyandthroughthreerecurrentimagesinparticularThefirstisofwomenassilentsymbolsofculturalmoralandsexualvulnera-bilityvoicelessfiguresinneedofmasculineprotectionorwhenitistoolatedefiledbodiesthatmutelydemandvengeanceSoforexamplelsquoAb-dallahlsquoAzzam(oneofBinLadenrsquosmentorsseechapter18)graphicallydetailstheagonizinghumiliationofyoungmenunabletoactwhentheAfghanwoman isldquocryingout forhelpher childrenarebeing slaugh-tered her women are being raped the innocent are killed and theircorpsesscatteredrdquo(lsquoAzzam1987a)Inthesecondimagewomenfunction

37

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

muchlikeachorusthatspeaksinpermittedcadencestoratifymasculineendeavorsSuchisthecaseforexampleinBinLadenrsquos1996ldquoDeclara-tionofWaragainsttheAmericansOccupyingtheLandoftheTwoHolyPlacesrdquo(seechapter18)wherethewomenexhortmentojihadinthefollowing way ldquoPrepare yourself like a struggler the matter is biggerthanwordsAreyougoingtoleaveusforthewolvesofKufr[unbe-lief]eatingourwingsWherearethefreemendefendingfreewomenbyarmsDeath isbetter than life inhumiliation Some scandals andshameswillneverbeotherwiseeradicatedrdquo24InthethirdimagewomenarecreaturesnotofthisworldbutofanothervirginalrewardsforthecourageousmartyrintheafterlifeThisisevidentinthefinalinstructionsforthe911hijackersforexamplewhereMuslimldquobrothersrdquoareurgedto purify their carnal impulses sharpen their knives for the dhabh (slaughter)andheedthecallofthehur lsquoayn (theblack-eyedones)await-ingtheminParadise(seechapter19)

Such rhetoric primarily registers women as an extensionmirror ormeasure of masculinity and together with explicit Islamist argumentsabouthumannatureandthefamilyarticulatesIslamistgendernormsinwhichmenandwomeneachhaveaproperlocationandpurposeinadi-vinely ordained social hierarchy Deviance from this gendered scriptthussignalsdisruptionofamuchbroaderreligio-politicalorderitbothpresumes and seeks to bring into existence The disruption caused byforeign aggression in particular exacerbates the tendency to translateconflict into an assault on Muslim masculinity and to conceptualizewomenaspotentialvehiclesforWesterncorruptioninneedofguidingand guarding Women such as Zaynab al-Ghazali and Nadia Yassinewho seek a prominent place and voice within the Islamist movementhavehadlittlechoicebuttocontendwiththisgenderedscriptDoingsohasentailedamongotherthingsnavigatingcarefullybetweenIslamistcharacterizations of womenrsquos visibility and agency as symptomatic ofthe new jahiliyya on the one hand and essentializing arguments thatequateIslamwithveilingfemalegenitalmutilationandhonorkillingsontheother

AsthechaptersonGhazaliandYassinesuggestIslamistwomenhavenegotiatedbetweensuchconstraintsandpressuresandtheirownambi-tionsindifferentwaysApioneeringdalsquoiya(onewhoinvitesMuslimstogreater piety)Ghazalirsquos own life reveals a fierce resistance to conven-tionalnormsofdomesticityevenasmuchofher(earlier)workappearsto embrace an Islamist gender ideology that defines women as wivesmothers andldquobuilders ofmenrdquo (al-Hashimi 1990 118)By contrastYassineisawifeandmotherwhoembracesanldquoIslamicfeminismrdquothatrequiresldquoreappropriatingtheinstrumentsofclassicaltheologyrdquoanden-

24TheIslamistjournalSawt alshyJihadhasgonesofarastofeatureldquowomenrsquosvoicesrdquointheformofrolemodelsnamedforexampleumm alshyshahid(motherofthemartyr)al-thoughitisunclearthattheseldquovoicesrdquoareactuallywomenrsquos(SUsher2004)

38

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INTRODUCTION

gaging the textsdirectly through ijtihad (NYassine2003) In this re-spect Yassine must be understood as part of a broader effort amongMuslimwomenwithdifferentpoliticalcommitmentstosimultaneouslyadvocateandenacttheirrighttorecuperatetheldquooriginalintentrdquooftheIslamictextsIfwomenandmendoinfacthavedistinctperspectivesontheworldYassinesuggestswomenhaveaspecialobligationtoexcavatewhattheyseeasthegenderparityoftheQurrsquoanburiedbeneaththoseldquomachointerpretationsrdquoofIslamuponwhichmenhavebuilttheirprivi-legeandpower(Khalaf2006)25

ManyAnglo-AmericanandEuropean feministsworry that Islamistsseekonly to secureor restorepatriarchalpowerConverselymany Is-lamist women view feminism as a term and a movement inescapablyWesterninoriginfreightedwiththelegacyofcolonialismanduneasilyimplicatedinculturalimperialismThisapplieseventoYassinewhoisunwillingtoadoptwithoutqualificationalabelsheassociateswithagen-dasopposedtoherowntheWesttheMoroccanstateMaghribi(North-westAfrican)elitesYetfeminismitselfisahighlycontestedtermwithin theso-calledWestitisthebearerofmultiplemeaningssomeofwhichareevenopposedandischaracterizedbydeepdisagreementsaboutwhowomenarewhatwomenneedwhoisauthorizedtoworkonwomenrsquosbehalf andbywhatmeans Inasmuch as these various feminismsmayshareonlyastatedconcernforwomenrsquoswelfarethereisnothinginco-herentinmodifyingldquofeminismrdquowithldquoIslamicrdquoldquoMuslimrdquoorevenldquoIs-lamistrdquounlessone iscommitted toarguing thatfirst Islam isanun-changingessencebeyondhistorypoliticsandculturesecondthereisaneutralobjectivevantagefromwhichtoidentifythisessenceonceandforallandfinallytheIslamicessencesoidentifiedisfundamentallyin-compatiblewitheffortstoimprovetheconditionsandqualityofwomenrsquoslivesBythesametokenIslamistwomenwhorejectthetermfeminismcanbe(althoughnotalwaysare)deeplycommittedtoimprovingwom-enrsquoswelfareaswellasactivelyresistanttoeffortsthatreduceortrans-formthemintosilentaccessoriesofmalepower

YassineandGhazalidifferaboutwhatwomenareandshouldbeyetbroadlyspeakingbothmaybeconsideredpartofarecenttrendtowardthe feminizationofdalsquowa Dalsquowa literallymeanscallappealor sum-monsbutthetermhascometosignifyavarietyofpracticesandargu-mentsmeanttoexhortinviteandguideMuslimstowhatisregardedasproperconductandmoraldevotionWomenrsquosparticipationindalsquowais

25WomenrsquosparticipationintheldquoproductionofofficialIslamicknowledgerdquohasalonghistoryalthoughtheyhaveoftendonesoinrelativeobscurityandwithoutthebenefitofeducation in the Islamicsciences thathas legitimateddirectengagementwith thesacredtexts (Cooke 2001 xiv Badran and Cooke 2004) Pioneering attempts to read genderequalityinIslamarealsonotconfinedtowritingbywomenasevincedbyQasimAminrsquosTahrir alshymarrsquoa [TheLiberationofWoman] (1899)andMumtaz lsquoAlirsquosHuquqshye niswan [TheRightsofWomen](1898)

39

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

notabrandnewphenomenonasisevidentinGhazalirsquosworkwiththeEgyptianSocietyofMuslimLadiesinthe1930sYetfromEgypttoPaki-stantoSaudiArabiatotheUnitedStatesthenumberoffemaledalsquoiyashasproliferatedexponentially inrecentyears(Cooke2001Mahmood2005Hirschkind2006)Thisreflectsinpartcurrentdoctrinalempha-sesondalsquowaasincumbentuponbothmenandwomenanddependentlessupontechnicalknowledgethanmoralvirtueandpracticalfamiliaritywiththeIslamictradition(Mahmood200565ndash66)It isalsoaconse-quenceofrecentpoliticalandsocioeconomictransformationsinMuslimsocietiesincludingtheexpansionofmasseducationthathasnotonlyin-creasedwomenrsquosliteracyandsocialmobilitybutalsomadeIslamictextsmoreaccessibletheproliferationoftechnologiesmdashfromthecassettetapetotheInternetmdashthatfacilitatethecirculationofreligiousknowledgeevenamongthosewhocannotreadortraveltheprecedentsetbythevigorousparticipationof IranianwomeninpostrevolutiondebatesaboutIslamandthemodeloflegalactivismevidentintheIslamistmovementrsquosownchallenge to the lsquoulamarsquos status as gatekeepers of religious knowledge(Singerman2005Mir-Hosseini1999)

If Ghazali and Yassine exemplify the feminization of dalsquowa amongelitesthemosquemovementinEgyptillustratesthegrowingparticipa-tionofwomenfromdiversesocialbackgroundsinreligiousclassesde-votedtostudyinganddebatingwhatIslamrequiresforawomantobeldquomorallyuprightrdquointhecontemporaryworld(Mahmood2005)Con-ceptualizingpiety in termsof adeepandholistic commitment to self-transformationparticipantsinthemosquemovementareconcernedlesswithmattersofsovereigntyandpoliticsconventionallyunderstoodandmorewiththeldquomoralcultivationrdquoofthosedailypracticesseenascrucialtobecomingclosertoGod(Mahmood2005)SomeIslamistshavecriti-cizedthis focusonpracticesofworshipasapoliticalandoverlypriva-tizedyetsuchcriticismmissestheforceofIslamistsrsquoowninsistenceondin(religion)asawayoflifeinwhichthedomainsofpublicandprivateare inextricably linked26AsSabaMahmood (2005193194) showsthesewomenrsquosintenseeffortsatldquoretrainingethicalsensibilitiesrdquohavealdquosociopoliticalforcerdquothatextendswellbeyondmattersofgovernancefacilitatingnolessthantheemergenceofaldquonewsocialandmoralorderrdquoEvidenceofitstransformativepowermaybefoundnotonlyinthesheernumbersandvarietyofwomenmdashwealthyandpoor literateand illiter-atemdashparticipatinginthemosquemovementbutalsointherhetoricalandpoliticaleffortsbythestateandsomeIslamiststocurtailcontrolordis-creditit(Mahmood200571194)

26ParticipantsinthemosquemovementinturnareoftencriticalofwhattheyseeasthereductionofIslamtotokensofculturalauthenticityorofitsinstrumentalizationbybothnationalistsandIslamiststheycharacterizeasmoreinterestedinpoliticalmaneuveringthanreligiouspiety

40

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

Understoodtoincludebothwrittenandembodiedpracticesthefemi-nizationof dalsquowa illustrates theways inwhichwomen fromdifferentperspectivesandsocialclassesareinsistingonengagingthesacredtextsdirectly for and with one another without the mediating authority ofmenwhohavetraditionallyheldthemonopolyonsuchactivitiesAsSu-danese Islamist Lubabah al-Fadl argues ldquoAs an insan [human being]whohappenstobeawomanIhavearighttorejectthemanipulativeexegesesofoursharilsquoa thatthreatenmyexistenceinawaythat isnotconsistentwiththeGodlywayandtoapplymyownijtihadtorectifyer-roneoustendenciesbysomeshuyukh[pluralofshaykh]rdquo(Sadiki2004290)DespitetheproliferationofvoicesintentonclaimingforthemselvestheauthoritytodemarcatewhatisauthenticallyIslamicandun-Islamiconceandforallcontestationoveritsscopeandmeaningproceedsapacefacilitatedatleastinpartbywomenformerlyexcludedfromtheconver-sationAtthesametimeIslamistwomenrsquosagencyandclaimstoauthorityarefrequentlystillpredicatedonawillingnesstofollowfairlypatriarchalrulesaboutwherehowandwithwhomtheymaypracticetheirvocation(Hirschkind2003Sadiki2004283)

Islamism and Violence

IfgenderisfrequentlyanimplicitpreoccupationamongIslamistsjihadisarguably Islamistsrsquomost consistently explicit concern Jihad is derivedfromtheArabicverbthatmeanstostruggleortostriveyetitisaparticu-larkindofstruggle that isofconcern tomanyof thefigurescollectedheretheoftenviolentstruggleagainstapostatesandinfidelsbothathomeandabroadtowhicheveryindividualMuslimmustcontributeTheclaimthatfightingunbelieversisthepreeminentenactmentofindividualMus-limpiety seems to justify characterizationsof Islam ingeneral and Is-lamisminparticularassanctioningevenencouragingviolenceYetwhatIslamistsrepresentasjihadtout courtisahistoricallyspecificunderstand-ingderivedfromahighlyselectiveuseoftextsandprecedentsprominentamongthemaformerlyobscureclaimbytheinfluentialfourteenth-cen-tury jurist IbnTaymiyya thatMongol rulerswhohad contravened Is-lamiclawcouldbesubjecttoforcibleremovalFarfromadefinitiveex-pressionof Islamldquoproperlyunderstoodrdquo such Islamist argumentsnotonlymarkasignificantdeparturefrommuchofantecedentdoctrineandpractice but also diminish the importance of ongoing disagreementsamongMuslimsabouttheformandpurposesofjihad

TobeginwithMuslimscholarshavetendedtoconsiderjihadagainstforeignenemiesafard kifaya(collectiveobligation)thatisadutyagroupofpeoplewithinthecommunitymayperformonbehalfoftherestandonethatpresupposesalegitimateMuslimleadertodeclareorleadthechargeJuristshavedistinguishedthisfromthefard lsquoayn(individualduty)thatmustbefulfilledbyeverysingleMuslimincasesofdefensivejihad

41

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

thatiswhentheummaisunderattackManyIslamistsincludedheretakeamuchlessnuancedviewofjihadAsamodeofpoliticalactionQutbarguesjihadmustberegardedasaldquopermanentconditionnotanocca-sionalconcernrdquoonethatincurrentcircumstancesrequiresdeedsratherthanwordsstruggleratherthancontemplationrevolutionathomeaswellasresistanceabroad(Qutb199167ndash6882)lsquoAbdal-SalamFarajarguesalongsimilarlinesthatthenatureoftheattackonIslammakespolitical authorization by a caliph (ldquodeputyrdquo referring to a legitimatesuccessortotheProphetrsquosleadership)unnecessaryafterallldquoleadershipovertheMuslimsis(always)intheirownhandsifonlytheymakethismanifestIfthereissomethinglackingintheleadershipwellthereisnothingthatcannotbeacquiredrdquo(Jansen1986asec93)

SuchargumentsareadeliberaterejectionofearlyMuslimmodernistswhohademphasizedthelargelydefensivecharacterofjihadandsoughttoshowthatrelationsbetweenMuslimsandnon-MuslimswerenormallypeacefulratherthanantagonisticMahmudShaltut(d1963)therectorof al-Azhar from 1958 to 1963 had argued for example that theQurrsquoanicversesonfightingldquoprohibittheprovocationofhostilityandthisprohibitionisreinforcedbyGodrsquosrepugnancetoaggressionandbyhisdislikeofthosewhoprovokehostilityrdquo(Peters199674onShaltutseeZebiri1993)ConversionbyforceisanathematoIslamShaltutaversandfightingiscommandedonlyindefenseinresponsetoaggressionini-tiatedbyothersEvendefensivejihadmustaimatldquotheterminationoftheaggressionandtheestablishmentofreligiouslibertydevotedtoGodandfreefromanypressureorforcerdquo(Peters199675)

ManyIslamistsexplicitlydismisssuchargumentsasasymptomoffalseconsciousnessoneamongmanydestructiveeffectsofcolonialdomina-tionMawdudiargues for example thatwhile imperialists ravage theworld to satisfy their greed jihad alone ldquoconjures up the vision of amarching band of religious fanatics with savage beards and fiery eyesbrandishingdrawnswordsandattackingtheinfidelswherevertheymeetthemrdquoHavinginternalizedthis imageMuslimsrushtoapologizeandrenouncearmedstruggleInthiswayhelamentscolonialistsretaintheexclusiverighttoldquofightwitharmsandammunitionwhilewearecon-tented with our pen and our tonguerdquo (Mawdudi 1948 1ndash3) SayyidQutbforhispartagreedthatIslamdoesnotcountenancespreadingitsmessagebyforceandcoercionyethehadlittlepatiencewiththosewhosoughttopresentjihadaslegitimateonlyinself-defense

IfweinsistoncallingIslamicjihadadefensivemovementthenwemustchangethemeaningofthewordldquodefenserdquoandmeanbyitldquothedefenseofmanrdquoagainstallthoseforcesthatlimithisfreedomWhenwetakethisbroadmeaningofthewordldquodefenserdquoweunder-standthetruecharacterofIslaminthatitproclaimstheuniversalfreedomofeverypersonandcommunityfromservitudetoanyother

42

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

individualorsocietytheendofmanrsquosarroganceandselfishnesstheestablishmentofthesovereigntyofAllahandHisLordshipthrough-outtheworldandtheruleofthedivinesharilsquoainhumanaffairs(Qutb199050)

Qutbdoesnotnameanynamesincastigatingtheldquowriterswithdefeatistandapologeticmentalities[who]writeaboutlsquojihadinIslamrsquoandtrytoremovethislsquoblotrsquofromIslamrdquo(Qutb199046)buthecouldverywellhavehadhisdistinguishedfellowEgyptianMahmudShaltutinmind

These arguments about jihad may be said to constitute a commongrammarandframeworkofanalysisformanyIslamistsalthoughseveralthinkers in this volume carefully calibrate such claims to suit variouspurposesanddifferentpublicspheresInhisjustificationfortheassassi-nationofEgyptianpresidentAnwaral-SadatforexamplelsquoAbdal-SalamFarajdepictsthestruggletoreclaimthemoralfoundationsoftheEgyp-tianstateasafightagainstjahiliyyafromwithinarguingthatthejihadagainstacorruptnationalistregimeathomemusttakeprecedenceoverfightingenemieselsewhereTheCharterofHamas(seechapter15)how-everinsiststhatallMuslimsrecognizetheprimacyofthejihadforJeru-salemweldingIslamistrhetorictothatofnationalistresistanceinanef-fortbothtofightIsraelioccupationandtocompeteforadherentswiththePalestinianLiberationOrganization(PLO)IncontrasttobothFarajandHamasBinLadenembracesaglobaljihadthatessentiallycollapsesdistinctionsbetweennationalandinternationaloffensiveanddefensivefightingenemiesathomeandthosefromafar

Yet despite such differences these arguments tend to presume thatviolent jihad is a necessary response to the pervasive power of thosewithdemonstratedhostilitytoMuslimliveslandspietiesandsensibili-tiesaformofretaliationwhoseurgencyandlegitimacyderivefromtheviolencemdashpsychologicalandeconomicaswellasphysicalmdashoftheinitialassaultThisviewofjihadsubsumesindividualsintoarchetypesofldquoin-fidelsrdquoandldquobelieversrdquoandinsodoingvitiatesmoreconventionaldis-tinctionsbetweenforexamplesoldierandcivilianorcollectiveandin-dividual responsibility It is far from inevitable that thosewhoharborsuchviewswillautomaticallyactuponthemyetthecarnagewroughtbytheattacksontheWorldTradeCenterandthePentagonin2001aBalinightclub in 2002 Madrid commuter trains in 2004 and throughoutIraqonadailybasissuggestjusthowlethalsuchclaimscanbegiventheright circumstances The fact that such violence does not discriminateamongvictimsonlyfurtherfuelsrhetoriccharacterizingIslamistsasirra-tional fanatics ldquoin love with deathrdquo terrorists animated by a religioncharacterizedbyapropensityforviolenceandauthoritarianism27

27AnxietiesabouttheparticularsusceptibilityofMuslimstoirrationalityinsularityandfanaticismhavealonganddistinguishedpedigreeinEuro-AmericanhistoryandpoliticalthoughtSeeforexampleRenan18833

43

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

AsinsomanyothermattershoweverIslamistsarehardlyofonemindonthesubjectofjihadindeedthereareIslamistswhoexplicitlyrejectthereductionof struggle toviolenceAcase inpoint isNadiaYassine(20032005c)whoinsiststhatjihadisthededicatedstruggleagainstisshytikbar(arrogance)particularlyinitscommonformasthelustforpoweranddominationAsjihadagainstistikbarisbothafinalgoalandapre-scriptionforactionYassinesuggestsitisantitheticaltoviolentpracticesthataimatdominationTheprimaryinstrumentsofjihadarenotbombsbutwords particularly thosedeployed in the art of persuasion (Fara-marzi2005NYassine2006a)WhenIslamistssuchaslsquoAbdal-SalamFarajandlsquoUmarlsquoAbdal-RahmanseektolegitimizeviolentrevolutionbyrecoursetoIslamictextsshearguestheycontravenethetruemeaningofjihadtoservetheirownarrogantendsBythesametokenBinLadenrsquosdecisiontoldquofightevilwithevilandbarbaritywithbarbarityrdquonotonlyviolatesspecificIslamicprohibitionsagainstharmingcivilianswomenandchildrenbutalsobetraystheethicalimperativetoembodythemes-sageofamercifulGodwhocautionsbelieversthat(Q8822)ldquoYouhavenopoweroverthemrdquo(NYassine2005cDaily Excelsior2002)

SuchpersistentdisagreementsamongMuslimspastandpresentsug-gest that Islam isnomore inherently violent andbloody-minded thanitmdashorChristianityor Judaism for thatmattermdashis inherentlypeacefulIslamists often claim to speak for an unchanging authentic Islam thatexistsoutsideoftimeandspaceyetthepoliticalpurchaseoftheirper-spective derives from the ways it assembles disparate yet recognizablecontemporaryexperiencesofsufferingfrustrationandlossintoanex-planationthatresonateswithMuslimswholiveincommunitiescultur-allylinguisticallyandgeographicallydistantfromoneanotherTheex-tenttowhichIslamistargumentsresonatebroadlyacrossMuslimsocie-tiesthusdependsuponasetofexperiencesandphenomenathatmarkthisparticularmomentinhistoryincludingthewaysinwhichcontempo-raryglobalinequalitiescompoundalegacyofhistoricalasymmetriestocontinuallyreproduceasenseofMuslimpowerlessnessmdashbothrealandimaginedmdashrelativetotheWestcontinuingEuro-Americanpoliticalandfinancialsupportofcorruptautocratsmanyofwhompresideoverna-tion-statesbrutallystitchedtogetherbyWesternfiat thepersistenceofauthoritarian regimes eager to control domestic unrest by catalyzingldquoMuslimragerdquotowardexternaltargetsthesenseofemasculationpro-ducedbydecadesofpoliticalrepressionandeconomicfrustrationandthecontinualflowofimagesofbloodiedMuslimbodiesdeliveredbyaburgeoningarrayofvideosatelliteandelectronicmedia

It is notable that the understanding of jihad many Islamists proffermirrorstheverystate-sanctionedviolenceagainstwhichtheyhavestrug-gledforalmostacenturyAlongwiththousandsofMuslimscaughtinthemachineryoftwentieth-centurystateviolenceprominentIslamistsfromQutbtoGhazalitoAymanal-Zawahirimdashal-Qalsquoidarsquossecondincommandmdash

44

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

arewellknowntohavebeenradicalizedbyextendedandoftenbrutaltermsofincarcerationinEgyptSyriaIraqJordanIsraelAlgeriaandelsewhere(onal-ZawahiriandprisoncfKepelandMilelli2008152ndash54)ItisthusfarfromsurprisingthatIslamistsforgedbyinterrogationtortureinprisoncampswouldconcludethatthepreeminentenactmentofMuslimpietyisviolentstruggleldquoPrisonrdquoasPalestinianKhaledAbuHilalhassaidldquoismyuniversityrdquo(Erlanger2007)anargumentmadeingreaterdetailinadifferenttimeandplacebyRussianwriterandrevolu-tionaryMaximGorky(1868ndash1936)

Apeoplebroughtupinaschoolthatremindsoneofthetormentsofhellonasmallscaleapeopleaccustomedtotheclenched-fistprisonandthewhipwillnotbeblestwithatenderheartApeoplethatthepoliceagentshaveriddenoverwillbecapableintheirturnofwalk-ingoverthebodiesofothersInacountrywhereunresthasreignedsolongit isdifficultforthepeopletorealizefromonedaytothenextthepowerofrightOnecannotdemandfromamanwhohasneverknownjusticethatheshouldbejust(Gorky1920)

InthiscontextasTimothyMitchell(1990195ndash96199207ndash8)suggestsIslamistviewsoftheworldcanbecharacterizedasbothamodeofresis-tancetostatemechanismsofcoercionandanexpressionofthemSuchisthedynamic evident inGhazalirsquosmemoirs for examplewhen shede-scribeshowtheldquodarknessofprisonsthebladesoftortureandthevi-ciousbeatingsonly increasetheenduranceandresolveofthefaithfulrdquo(Ghazali19786)

There is no doubt a great deal of pragmatism at work in IslamistargumentsaboutviolenceAsQutb(19916447ndash48)drylynotesthepathtofreedommustoccasionallybehewnbywayoftheswordbecausetyrants are not reasoned out of power and ldquojahiliyya is not lsquoabstracttheoryrsquo[it]consciouslyorunconsciouslystrivestopreserveitsownexistence to defend its essence to annihilate dangerous elementswhichthreatenitsverybeingrdquoYetitisalsothecasethatformanyoftheseIslamistsjihadisbothameansandanendanefforttoeradicatethoseobstacles torestoringa justcommunityonearththatsimultane-ouslybringshumanaction intoaccordwithGodrsquosplansandpurposes(Haddad198321)While theQurrsquoan (2256) states thatldquothere isnocompulsioninreligionrdquoIslamistscontendthatonlyinastateinwhichIslamiclawreignssupremearehumanbeingsfreefromenslavementtooneanotherrsquosruleandallareequalbyvirtueoftheircommonsubmissiontoGodAsQutb(1991107ndash8)argues

WhenthehighestauthorityinsocietyisGodalonemdashexpressedintheruleofdivinelawmdashonlythenishumanitytrulyandcompletelyliber-atedfromslaverytomenOnlythisisldquohumancivilizationrdquobecausetheessentialfoundationofhumancivilizationisthetrueandcom-

45

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

pletefreedomofhumanityandtheabsolutedignityofeveryindivid-ualinsocietyThereisnotruefreedomanddignityforhumanityortheindividualinasocietywheresomepeoplearelordswholegislateandothersareslaveswhoobey

From this perspective the realization of justice liberty equality andchoiceitselfnecessitatestheforcibleremovaloftheconstraintsimposedbyjahiliyyaalongwiththosewhoaidandabetitno matter the costAsMawdudi(1954160ndash61)writes

[W]hyisitthatinreligionsuchimportanceisgiventojihadthattheQurrsquoanpronouncesthejudgmentofhypocrisyuponthosewhoshirkandevadeitJihadisbutanothernamefortheattempttoerectthesystemoftruthandtheQurrsquoandeclaresjihadtobeatouchstoneonthesamefootingwithamanrsquosfaithInotherwordshewhohasfaithinhisheartwillneitherbecontentwiththedominationofthesystemofevilnorwillhegrudgetheexpenditureoflifeandwealthinthestruggleforerectingthesystemoftruthIfoneshowsweaknessinthismatterhisfaithitselfisdoubtfulWhatcananythingelsebesidethenprofithimThemanwhoprofesses faith in this religioncannotfulfillhisdutyonlybytryingasfaraspossibletopatternhislifeonIslamThenatureofhisfaithitselfrequiresthatheshouldconcentrateallhiseffortuponwrestingleadershipfromunbelievingandcorruptmentoentrustittotherighteousanduponerectingthesystemoftruththathasbeenordainedfortheconductoftheworldaccordingtothewillofGodBecausethisendisunattainablewith-out thehighestdegreeofcollectiveeffort theremustexistarigh-teouscommunitycommittedtotheprincipleoftruthanddevotedtothesolepurposeintheworldoferectingmaintainingandproperlyrealizingthesystemoftruth

ThefactthatsomeIslamistthinkerssanctifyviolentstruggleinsuchtermsdoesnotmeanofcoursethatallthosewhoadvocateorengageinjihadendorseviolence28NordoesitimplythatthosewhoclaimtokillforIslamareentirelywithoutulteriormotivesthosemanipulativepur-poses andpsychologicalmotivations that even themost rarified scrip-turalargumentscanexpressorserveWhattheprecedinganalysisdoessuggesthoweveristhatthereductionofthisviewofjihadtoirrationalbloodlusttheself-interestedgrabfortemporalpoweroradoorthroughwhichtopassintothehereaftermissesacrucialdimensionofitssignifi-canceandappealfortruebelieversjihadisnolessthananenactmentof

28EvenashespokeofaneweraofjahiliyyaandofjihadMawdudihimselfstoppedwellshortof recommendingor condoning the actual resort to violence in themannermanyotherIslamistsdidAsNasr(199670)observesMawdudirsquosorganizationtheJamalsquoat-iIs-lamildquohasavoidedviolentsocialchangeandhasinsteadviewedthepathtotheIslamicstateaslyingwithintheexistingsociopoliticalorderrdquoAlsoseethechapters5and3onQutbandMawdudiinthisvolume

46

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

adivineimperativetoremakethefoundationsofcollectivelifeInthisre-spectIslamistviewsofjihadcanbeseenaspartofalong-standingasso-ciationbetweenviolenceandpoliticalfoundingsuponwhichnoparticu-larcultureorhistoricalepochhasamonopolyThisassociationandtheldquolegacyofviolencerdquoitbequeathstofuturegenerationsarenolessappar-entinthoseradicalrevolutionsofrenewalthatmovebywayoftheswordfromthemarginstothecenterthanthosepoliticalfoundingsthatclaimtocreatesomethingoutofnothing(Connolly1995251)Ineithercasethetollofsuchbrutalitycanbeimmeasurableforinadditiontothevic-timswhosufferdirectlytheldquopracticeofviolencelikeallactionchangestheworldbutthemostprobablechangeistoamoreviolentworldrdquo(Ar-endt1972177)

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Page 29: Chapter 1 INTRODUCTION - assets.press.princeton.eduassets.press.princeton.edu/chapters/s9067.pdf · Chapter 1 INTRODUCTION This volume is intended as a broad introduction to the evolution

29

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

thewaysinwhichunifyingmacrohistoricaldynamicsinformandareinturntransformedbydiversecontingentandfluidlocalcircumstancesInaworldstampedbyWesterndominanceandtheconsolidationofpostco-lonial authoritarian regimes Islamists confront a common set of con-straintsandchallengesInasmuchassuchconstraintsandchallengeshavemade Islamist thinkers (often reluctant) participants in conversationsacrossbothcultureandhistorytheireffortstoremakethefoundationsofcollectiveliferevealasharedinterpretiveframeworkandcommonreli-gio-political grammar At the same time this frame and grammar arecontinuallybeingreworkedinrelationtothedistinctpublicspheresinwhichIslamistsoperateandtowhichtheycarefullycalibratetheirpoliti-calcommitments

Attention to this complex dynamic suggests that the Islamist move-mentcannotsimplybecharacterizedasviolentantidemocraticandop-pressiveofwomenlabelsinvokedsofrequentlyinscholarlyandpopularliterature on the subject that they have become virtually synonymouswithIslamistpoliticsSuchcharacterizationsdocapturecrucialdimen-sionsofIslamistpoliticsyettheyalsosidesteptheparadoxesitsvarie-gatedandoftencontradictoryexpressionspresentInsteadwearguethatIslamistpoliticscanbeproductivelyreadin terms ofandagainst the grain ofsuchbroadcategorizationsasantidemocraticantiwomanorviolentmdashthat is as commitments that at different moments in various localesbothencourageandconstrainbroad-basedpoliticalparticipationdisruptandratifyhierarchicalgendernormsresistandreproducestate-sanctionedbrutalityThepointofreadingIslamistpoliticsinthiswayisnottosug-gestthatIslamistsaresecretlydemocraticfeministandopposedtovio-lenceRatherthepointistodrawattentiontothecomplexityandcon-tradictionserasedbyeasygeneralizationsontheonehandandtheoftenunacknowledgedfluidityandculturaladaptabilityofotherwisefamiliarpoliticalcategoriesontheother

Islamism and Democracy

DespiteimportantdifferencesamongIslamistthinkerstheyhaveincom-monatendencytoviewhumansovereigntyastransgressiveofdivinelawandsharetheaspirationtoestablishsharilsquoaastheprimaryorsolesourceofauthorityAsisoftennotedsuchpremisesandaspirationsrunafoulofassumptionsaboutpopularruleattheheartofdemocracynamelythathumanbeingshavetherighttolegislaterulesforcollectivebehaviorandarecapableofthewisdomrequiredtodevisejustlawsInrecentyearspolicymakersandcommentatorshaveevincedaparticularpreoccupa-tionwiththewaysinwhichIslamistnotionsofdivineauthoritythrottlethespiritandpracticeofpopularsovereigntySomehaveevengonesofarastocharacterizeIslamistsasldquoIslamo-fascistsrdquoanimatedbyhatredoftheldquodemocratic Westrdquo psychologically unable to contend with the fluidity

30

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INTRODUCTION

andindeterminacythatmarkpopularruleandeagertoconvertelectionsintoaldquoone-manone-voteone-timerdquomechanismforestablishinganIs-lamicstate(Murdock2002MRubin2005Kramer1993)

SuchviewsareechoedbythoseIslamistskeentoportraydemocracynotonlyasantitheticaltothesupremacyofdivinelawbutasaTrojanhorseforWesternimperialismFormanyIslamistsincludingseveralinthis volumedemocracy is justone symptomofametastasizingmoralandspiritualbankruptcywherebymoraltransgressionsaretransfiguredintonaturalurgescrassself-interestbecomesthebedrockofcollectivelifeandthedivineplanfortheuniverseandallthingsinitisreducedtoa system of physical causality just waiting to be mastered by way ofhumaningenuity(REuben2007)Qutbcallsthisdiseasedviewoftheworldjahiliyyaanditsignalsnotonlyhumanarrogancebutatransgres-sionagainstdivineauthoritythescopeofwhichencompassesbothpub-licandprivatedomainsofhumanaffairsaswellasbothvisibleandun-seendimensionsoftheuniverseFormanyIslamistssuchtransgressionisattherootofmuchofwhatpassesforMuslimruleinthecontemporaryworldmdashnationalistdemocraticandmonarchicalalikeSucharroganceisalsosaidtobethepatternunderlyingalonghistoryofunrelievedWest-ernaggressionagainstIslaminwhichtheChristianCrusadesEuropeancolonialismIsraelitreatmentofPalestiniansethniccleansinginBosniaGermananti-TurkishviolencetheAmericaninvasionofIraqandDutchcartoonsofMuhammadarebutafewexamples

YetthereisarangeofviewsamongIslamistsaboutboththesubstanceofdemocracyanditscompatibilitywiththereligio-politicalrenewaltheyadvocateAccordingtoQaradawiforexampleldquotheessenceofdemoc-racyisthatpeoplechoosewhorulesoverthemandmanagestheiraf-fairsthatnorulerorregimetheydislikeisforceduponthemthattheyhavetherighttocalltherulertoaccountifheerrsandtoremovehimfromofficeincaseofmisconductandthatpeoplearenotforcedineco-nomicsocialculturalorpoliticaldirectionsthattheyneitherrecognizenor acceptrdquo (Qaradawi1997132 also chapter9 in this volume)TohimthereisnoheavierburdenoppressingMuslimsinthecontemporaryworld thandespotism indeed it is throughdespoticgovernments thatMuslimshavebeenforcedtosubmittootherillsincludingtheneglectofthesharilsquoaandthecoerciveimpositionofsecularismandwesternizationDemocracy then recommends itself to Qaradawi as the most effectiveavailableantidotetodespotismandtheafflictionsofwhichitservesasavehicle

WheremanyamongtheIslamistsandthelsquoulamahaveseenconsider-able tensionbetween IslamanddemocracyQaradawiprofesses to seenoneAswesuggestedearlierbyfarthemostcommonoftheIslamistreservationsaboutademocraticsystemrelatestothesovereigntyofthepeoplewhichistakentocontravenetheideathatGodaloneissovereignQaradawi however is unperturbedby such concernsThe rule of the

31

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INTRODUCTION

peopleoughttobeseenhearguesnotinoppositiontotheruleofGodbutratherinoppositiontotheruleofthedespotMorefundamentallyQaradawirsquos view of democracy does not necessarily require that thepeopleshouldbeabletooverturndivinelyinstitutednormsRatherhisassumptionisthatpeopleexercisetheirsovereigntywithinconstitutionalboundsandMuslimslivinginapredominantlyMuslimdemocraticpol-itywouldlikewisenotwishtotransgresstheparametersoflegitimatehumanactionlaiddownintheIslamicfoundationaltexts(seeQaradawichapter9inthisvolumeandcfFeldman2007)

NadiaYassineofMoroccorsquosJusticeandSpiritualityAssociationisan-othercaseinpointWhilecriticalofthedemocraticgesturesembracedbyamonarchythatshedepictsasallergictogenuinelypopularsovereigntyYassineinsiststhatthemodelofMuslimruleadumbratedintheummafoundedbytheProphetMuhammadandinparticulartheConstitutionofMedina17isnothingshortofdemocratic(NYassine2005d2005e)UnliketheMuslimdynastiesthatarosetousurpitYassinecontendsthiscommunity was participatory egalitarian committed to freedom andexpressiveofGodrsquosmercyMostimportantitwasgovernedalwaysbytheQurrsquoanicprincipleofshura (consultation)bywhichYassinemeansaphilosophy of power that places sovereignty in the community ratherthaninanyindividuallinksvirtuetodeliberationratherthanobedienceandexhortsbelieverstocontinuallyadaptQurrsquoanicprinciplesthroughijtihad rather than adhere reflexively to precedent (N Yassine 2006a182ndash862005d)ManyscholarsandjournalistsremainskepticaloftheJSArsquosasyetuntestedcommitment toproceduraldemocracyandworrythatNadiaandher fatherAbdessalamultimatelyseektoestablishanIslamic state inhospitable to tolerance pluralism and civil liberties(Maghraoui2001Brandon2007Whitlock2006)YetothersarguethattheJSAisagenuinelypopulistorganizationthatrepresentstheunrepre-sentedtendstothewelfareofthedispossessedandbothexpressesandcontributestoanincreasinglyvibrantcivilsocietyinMorocco(Cavatorta2006Entelis2002)

QaradawirsquosandYassinersquosargumentstogethersuggestthatdemocracycanandhasservedaseitheracosmeticcoverfordespotismoranauthen-ticallyIslamiccheckuponcorruptandarbitraryruleAtissueinIslamistargumentsforandagainstdemocracythenarenotonlywhatcountsasldquoauthenticIslamrdquoandtheintentionsofthosewhoclaimtoknowitbutalsothecontentandcharacterofdemocracyitselfParadoxicallybothIslamistsopposedtodemocracyandthosewhotakeIslamismasinher-entlyantidemocraticregardthisasasimplematterwithanobviousan-swerdemocracyisanexpressionofandevensynonymouswithliberal-ismcapitalismandtheWestYetdemocracyisbothmorecapaciousand

17TheConstitutionofMedinawasanagreementtheProphethadenteredintowiththelocalcommunitiesincludingJewishtribesuponhisemigrationfromMeccatoMedina

32

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

moredistinctthanthispresumptionsuggestsTheworditselfofcoursederivesfromtheancientGreekdemokratiawhichmeansrule(kratos)ofthepeople(demos)andmanyderivetheequationofdemocracyandtheWestfromthisassociationwithclassicalGreeceYetancientGreekphi-losopherssuchasPlatosawindemocracythespecterofmobrulepartic-ularly vulnerable to demagoguery and despotism (a suspicion notablyechoedbyAmerican founder JamesMadison)Contrary to thedemo-cratic idealof inclusivenessmoreover citizenship inGreekdemocracyexcludedasubstantialpartofthepopulationincludingwomenslavesandforeignersFinallytheextenttowhichtheancientGreeksmayevenbecalledWesternisamatterofgreatdisputeparticularlyastheldquoWestrdquoisacategoryofrelativelyrecentprovenancethroughwhichhistoryandgeographyhavebeenretroactivelyorganized18DespitedepictionsoftheHellenicworldasWesternancientGreeksdidnotinfactviewthem-selvesintheseterms19

TheequationofdemocracywiththeWestalsopresupposestheexis-tenceofacoherentldquoWesterncivilizationrdquowitheitherculturallyhomoge-neousrootsorclearlydelineatedhistoricalandcontemporarybounda-riesorbothYetwhatiscalledtheWestisanamalgamationofmultipletraditionsincludingtheGreekRomanJudaicChristianandIslamicmdashtraditionsthatarethemselvespolyvalentratherthanhomogeneousmdashandistodaycharacterizedbyporousbordershybridsubculturesandmyriaddebtstodiversecivilizationspastandpresent20AsageographicmarkeritisvirtuallyimpossibletopinpointexactlywheretheWestbeginsandendsandthisisespeciallysonowthatpeoplesinformationandmate-rial goods crisscross cultural andnational borders atwill creating allkindsoftransnationalsubnationalandmultipleidentitiesthatshiftandreconstitutethemselvesinunpredictablewaysEventhosevaluesidenti-fiedasWesternoftenappearelsewhereinotherguisesIndeedscholarssuggestthatavarietyoftheldquostandardsexportedbytheWestanditscul-turalindustriesthemselvesturnouttobeofculturallymixedcharacterifweexaminetheirculturallineagesrdquo(Pieterse199553)

Manyalsoarguethatdemocracyisnotonlydistinctfrombutinten-sionwithboththetheoryandpracticeofpoliticsinldquoWesternrdquosocieties

18MichaelGillespie(19997ndash10)arguesthattherereadingofhistorygeographyandculturethroughtheprismofthissenseofldquotheWestrdquobegannoearlierthanthenineteenthcenturyTheideaofatimelessandbrightlinebetweenWestandEastisalsochallengedbyJeremyBrottonrsquosstudy(19989096ndash97)ofthediplomaticandintellectualexchangesbe-tweenEuropeandtheOttomanEmpireintheearlymodernperiodBrottonshowsnotonlytheextentandamityofsuchexchangesbutapersistentuncertaintyaboutwherepreciselyEuropeldquoendedrdquoandAsialdquobeganrdquo

19AncientGreeksunderstoodthemselvesasgeographicallywestofthebarbariansbutnotWesterninthecontemporarysensethatisasbothaculturalandhistoricalcategory

20StevenRuncimanrsquoswork(19543480)ontheCrusadesforexampledemonstratesaldquolongsequenceofinteractionandfusionbetweenOrientandOccidentoutofwhichourcivilizationhasgrownrdquo

33

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

many of which are more accurately classified as liberal and capitalist(Wood1994Wolin2001BallandDagger1999)Whileitisnowcom-monplacetospeakofldquoliberaldemocracyrdquoinasinglebreathliberalismanddemocracyareconceptsandpracticeswithverydifferenthistoriesandpresuppositionsUnlikedemocracyforexampleliberalismemergedfromthecrucibleofChristianreligiouswarsandintandemwiththeas-cendanceofamiddleclassthatpresagedtheendofEuropeanfeudalismTheliberalnation-statecanthusbeviewedasbothanexpressionandaconsolidationofcapitalismontheonehandandtheprincipleofasepa-rationbetweenchurchandstateontheotherBycontrastthereisnoth-ingaboutdemocracyeitherasasystemofgovernanceoracultureofpar-ticipationthatisinherentlysecularIndeedAlexisdeTocquevillefamouslyinsistedthatAmericandemocracycannotandshouldnotbesecularasreligionhelpsshiftattentionawayfromimmediatematerialpreoccupa-tionstolargerconcernsofcommunitycooperationandmoralityInfactmanydemocratictheoristsarguethatgenuinelyinclusivepopularsover-eignty is antithetical to the sharp inequalities of wealth and politicalpowerthatcapitalismoftenproducesandlegitimates

SuchongoingdefinitionalandsubstantivedebatessuggestthatthereismuchmoreatstakeindemocraticpoliticsthanprocedurespertainingtogovernmentauthorityandorderandpointtoawidespreadifelusiveunderstandingofdemocracynotjustasasetofinstitutionsbutasTocque-villesuggestsawayoflifeSeveralpoliticaltheoristshavecharacterizedthiselusiveunderstandingintermsofaldquodemocraticethosrdquoBythistheymeanbothanidealandanargumentforacultureofparticipationactivepowersharingmutualaccountabilityinclusivenessanddeliberationinwhichcitizensmayroutinelyandsafelychallengenotonlyspecificpoli-ciesandpolitical institutionsbutalso thevalues thatgoverncollectivelifeprinciplesofinclusionandexclusionandthepremisesofauthorityitself(Connolly1995JPEuben2003Sadiki2004)AdemocraticethosismuchmoredifficulttomeasureorquantifythanforexampleSamuelHuntingtonrsquosparsimoniousdefinitionofdemocracyasapolityinwhichtherehavebeentwoconsecutivepeacefulchangesofgovernmentbywayof freeand fairelections (Huntington1991)21Yetademocraticethosmakesitpossibletobothrecognizeanddisaggregatethepreconditionsaspirations mechanisms and institutions bundled into ldquodemocracyrdquotherebybringingintofocusforexamplethefrequentlyantidemocratic

21Manypoliticalscientistsprefertodefinedemocracyintermsofproceduresdesignedtorealizepopularruleincludingfreecompetitiveandfairelectionsalongwithstateprotec-tionofcertainrightsandlibertiesSuchaformalminimalistdefinitionhastheadvantageofdetachingdemocracyfromquestionsoforiginsandofferingastandardtowhichallgov-ernmentsmaybeheldregardlessofcultureandplaceAsKeithTopper(2005205ndash7)ar-gueshoweveritalsotendstosidestepknottyquestionsaboutthesubstanceofrepresenta-tion power responsiveness and accountability that are arguably central to democraticpolitics

34

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

casttoelectionsimposedbyelitesorforeignpowersthefeltimpotenceofmanycitizensinestablisheddemocraciesandthosehighlyparticipa-torycivilsocietiesthatflourishevenundermonarchicortheocraticrule

Forourpurposes inparticularademocraticethosmakesvisible theparadoxofanIslamistmovementthatseekstomobilizeordinaryMus-limsagainstcoercivepowerbutinthenameofareligio-politicalorderlargelyimmunizedfromchallengeQutbisanaptillustrationhereashistendencytogroundhisownspecialauthorityandinsightintheunsulliedwisdomofordinarybelieversmakesitpossibletoreadhisworkaseitherabriefagainstdemocracy(amongotherthings)oranenactmentofitIn-asmuchasdemocracyasaformofgovernanceisidentifiedwithpopularsovereigntyQutbrsquosbasicpremisethat thefoundationof legitimateau-thoritymustbedivineratherthanhumansuggeststhatheisunambigu-ouslyantidemocraticMoreoverQutbrsquoseffortstopluralizereligiousandpolitical authority express not a confidence in common wisdom butratheradesiretoclaimforhimselfthestatureofareligiousexpertwhodespitehislackofIslamicacademiccredentialscanclearlyseewhatoth-erscannotQutbcharacterizestherealIslamasself-evidentbuthealsoassumesthatonlyasmallvanguardofbelieversbesideshimselfwillhavetheabilitytorecognizeitandactdecisivelytoremaketheworldinitsimageSounderstoodthesignofldquochosennessrdquoisunyieldingcommitmenttoestablishingareligio-politicalorderthatsimultaneouslypresumesthesupremacyofthefewcapableoftrueknowledgeandpromisesaworldinwhichdissentitselfwillbecomebothunnecessaryandillegitimate

Yetifdemocracyrefersnotonlytoasystemofgovernanceorsetofprocedurestorealizepopularsovereigntybutalsotopracticesthatdis-ruptthoseforceswhichconcentratepowerandestablishpoliticalexclu-sionthecharacterizationofQutbrsquosworkassimplyantidemocraticmissesa crucial dimensionof its significance and appealAs the sacred textscontaintherulesandregulationsmeanttogovernbothpublicandpri-vateaffairsQutbrsquosinsistencethatordinaryuntrainedMuslimsmusten-gagethemdirectlyisinmanywaysademocratizationofaccesstoau-thoritySuchaccesscandisruptdeeplyentrenchedpatternsofpowerandpowerlessness particularlywhen conjoined to Islamist arguments thatarbitrarypowerisun-Islamicthatreligiousknowledgedependsoncom-mitmentratherthantrainingorexpertise thatMuslimshavetherightandobligationtodeterminewhenrulersareillegitimateandthatthosewhopreferordertojusticesecuritytofreedomandmoneytopietyhaveforfeitedanyclaimtoauthority

ThisaspectofIslamismhasfrequentlybeencomparedtotheProtestantReformationandmorespecificallytoCalvinistsrsquoattemptstotransferldquore-ligiousauthorityawayfromofficiallysanctionedindividualswhointer-prettextstoordinarycitizensrdquo(EGoldberg19913alsocfLoimeier2005)Suchaparallelhassparkedagreatdealofscholarlyspeculation

35

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

regardingapossibleldquoIslamicReformationrdquo22andarangeofargumentsaboutwhetherandhowIslamismmightfacilitatethedemocratizationofMuslim societies much as the Protestant Reformation is said to haveheralded the emergence of European ldquoliberal democracyrdquo While suchcomparisonsareevocativeafullerunderstandingof IslamismrequiresfirstsituatingitinrelationtoahistoricalshiftinthenatureandlocusofreligiousauthorityinIslambeginninginthenineteenthcenturyAsschol-arsofMuslimsocietieshavepointedouttheimpactofmasseducationnewtechnologiesfordisseminatingknowledgeandinformationanddra-matically changed social economic and political contexts have madeavailabletoamateurswhathadpreviouslybeenthepurviewofreligiousexpertsAtthesametimeithasinauguratedafragmentationofauthor-itywithintheveryranksofthelsquoulamathatcontinuestothepresentday23

InthiscontexttheascendanceandinfluenceofautodidactssuchasQutbHasanal-BannalsquoAbdal-SalamFarajandBinLadensimultaneouslyex-pressandaccelerateanongoingrenegotiationofauthorityoverwhomayspeakforIslamandonwhatbasisthepathofwhichisstillunfoldingandtheoutcomeasyetuncertain

Islamism and Gender

One already apparent consequence of this ongoing renegotiation overwhomayspeakforIslamandonwhatbasisistheentryofwomenintothe interpretive fray This development is increasingly unsettling thoseunwrittengendernormsarguablyattheveryheartofIslamistthoughtdisruptingthestandardsofmasculinityandfemininitythatreflecthowparticularculturesorganizehumanbeingsrsquosocialandreproductiveactiv-itiesintorolesthatareinturnthoughttoexpresstheldquonaturerdquoofmenand women Such norms are frequently considered tangential to theknottyproblemsofdefiningIslamismandadumbratingitscentralideasyetarangeofscholarshiponculturespastandpresenthasshownthatgenderisconsistentlytheterrainoverwhichbattlesforpoliticalcontrolandculturalidentityarefoughtMorespecificallyresearchindisciplinessuchasanthropologyhistoryclassicsandpostcolonialstudieshasdem-onstratedthatculturesinwhichfemalebodiesandbehaviorareregardedas indicesofmoralpurity tend to symbolically transformwomen intoconduitsof cultural corruption in timesof internal crisis and externalthreat(Papenek1994Chatterjee1990Tavakoli-Targhi1991Just1989Cohen1991Welter1966Bloch1978)Thisisespeciallytrueofcontem-

22Foralatenineteenth-centuryassessmentoftheprospectsforaldquoMuhammadanRefor-mationrdquoseeBlunt1882132ndash73

23EickelmanandPiscatori199637ndash39131ndash35Zaman2006Suchfragmentationhasinmanywaysbeenacceleratedbytheexplosionofdigitalcultureswhichpromoteamongotherthingsaldquoformofempoweredamateurismrdquo(Mirzoeff20026)

36

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

poraryreligio-politicalmovementswhosememberstendtoldquoidealizepa-triarchalstructuresofauthorityandmoralityrdquoendorsegenderdualismasgod-givenornaturalandcondemnvigorouslyrecentchangesingen-derrelationsasasymptomandsymbolofsecularistmoralbankruptcy(Riesebrodt1993Moghadam1992Hawley1994)

SeveralchaptersinthisvolumeilluminateIslamistgendernormsbyre-vealing thecharacterandcontentof Islamistconcernsabout theplaceandpurityofMuslimwomenmdashpreoccupationsFatimaMernissi(199199)hasgonesofarastocharacterizeasanobsessionDespiteimportantdifferences among Islamists thinkers many endorse gender norms inwhichthefairlyconventionalinsistencethatfemalenatureisdefinedinand through reproduction undergirds an understanding of women assymbolsofmoralvirtueandvesselsofculturalpurityThisviewsustainstheclaimthatmenandwomenareequalinreligiousbeliefbutperformfundamentallydifferentandcomplementaryfunctionsinsocietyWhilemenarenaturallymadetoruleinboththepublicandprivatedomainawomanbelongsinthedomesticrealmwhereherprimaryroleistobeawifeandmotheraswellastoinsuretheintegrityofthefamilythefirstschoolofmoraleducationAssuchfunctionsarerootedinaninescap-ablehumannaturefashionedbyGodawomanrsquosinabilityorunwilling-nesstoperformherdutiessignalsadisobediencetothedivinewillandpresages the corruption of the Muslim family from within From thisvantagepointtheWesterninsistenceonfullequalitybetweenthesexesisdoubly pernicious it at once liberates women from basic moral con-straintsandenslavesthemtomutuallyreinforcingsexualandcapitalistexploitationAsMurtazaMutahhari(1998xxxi)arguescapitalismmakesuseofwomentomarket itsgoodsldquoby trading inhonourandrespectthrough[their]powertoenticerdquotherebyldquotransform[ing]manintoaninvoluntaryagentofconsumptionrdquoInasmuchaswomenareresponsiblefor producing the next generation of Muslim men destined to restoreIslamtoitsformergloryitisnotonlythevirtueofwomenortheinteg-rityofthefamilythathangsinthebalancebutthefutureofIslamiccivili-zationitself

Zaynab al-Ghazali andMutahharimake several of these argumentsexplicitlyandindetail(seechapters10and11)butinmuchofIslamistrhetoricthenatureandsignificanceofwomenareestablishedindirectlyandsymbolicallyandthroughthreerecurrentimagesinparticularThefirstisofwomenassilentsymbolsofculturalmoralandsexualvulnera-bilityvoicelessfiguresinneedofmasculineprotectionorwhenitistoolatedefiledbodiesthatmutelydemandvengeanceSoforexamplelsquoAb-dallahlsquoAzzam(oneofBinLadenrsquosmentorsseechapter18)graphicallydetailstheagonizinghumiliationofyoungmenunabletoactwhentheAfghanwoman isldquocryingout forhelpher childrenarebeing slaugh-tered her women are being raped the innocent are killed and theircorpsesscatteredrdquo(lsquoAzzam1987a)Inthesecondimagewomenfunction

37

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

muchlikeachorusthatspeaksinpermittedcadencestoratifymasculineendeavorsSuchisthecaseforexampleinBinLadenrsquos1996ldquoDeclara-tionofWaragainsttheAmericansOccupyingtheLandoftheTwoHolyPlacesrdquo(seechapter18)wherethewomenexhortmentojihadinthefollowing way ldquoPrepare yourself like a struggler the matter is biggerthanwordsAreyougoingtoleaveusforthewolvesofKufr[unbe-lief]eatingourwingsWherearethefreemendefendingfreewomenbyarmsDeath isbetter than life inhumiliation Some scandals andshameswillneverbeotherwiseeradicatedrdquo24InthethirdimagewomenarecreaturesnotofthisworldbutofanothervirginalrewardsforthecourageousmartyrintheafterlifeThisisevidentinthefinalinstructionsforthe911hijackersforexamplewhereMuslimldquobrothersrdquoareurgedto purify their carnal impulses sharpen their knives for the dhabh (slaughter)andheedthecallofthehur lsquoayn (theblack-eyedones)await-ingtheminParadise(seechapter19)

Such rhetoric primarily registers women as an extensionmirror ormeasure of masculinity and together with explicit Islamist argumentsabouthumannatureandthefamilyarticulatesIslamistgendernormsinwhichmenandwomeneachhaveaproperlocationandpurposeinadi-vinely ordained social hierarchy Deviance from this gendered scriptthussignalsdisruptionofamuchbroaderreligio-politicalorderitbothpresumes and seeks to bring into existence The disruption caused byforeign aggression in particular exacerbates the tendency to translateconflict into an assault on Muslim masculinity and to conceptualizewomenaspotentialvehiclesforWesterncorruptioninneedofguidingand guarding Women such as Zaynab al-Ghazali and Nadia Yassinewho seek a prominent place and voice within the Islamist movementhavehadlittlechoicebuttocontendwiththisgenderedscriptDoingsohasentailedamongotherthingsnavigatingcarefullybetweenIslamistcharacterizations of womenrsquos visibility and agency as symptomatic ofthe new jahiliyya on the one hand and essentializing arguments thatequateIslamwithveilingfemalegenitalmutilationandhonorkillingsontheother

AsthechaptersonGhazaliandYassinesuggestIslamistwomenhavenegotiatedbetweensuchconstraintsandpressuresandtheirownambi-tionsindifferentwaysApioneeringdalsquoiya(onewhoinvitesMuslimstogreater piety)Ghazalirsquos own life reveals a fierce resistance to conven-tionalnormsofdomesticityevenasmuchofher(earlier)workappearsto embrace an Islamist gender ideology that defines women as wivesmothers andldquobuilders ofmenrdquo (al-Hashimi 1990 118)By contrastYassineisawifeandmotherwhoembracesanldquoIslamicfeminismrdquothatrequiresldquoreappropriatingtheinstrumentsofclassicaltheologyrdquoanden-

24TheIslamistjournalSawt alshyJihadhasgonesofarastofeatureldquowomenrsquosvoicesrdquointheformofrolemodelsnamedforexampleumm alshyshahid(motherofthemartyr)al-thoughitisunclearthattheseldquovoicesrdquoareactuallywomenrsquos(SUsher2004)

38

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INTRODUCTION

gaging the textsdirectly through ijtihad (NYassine2003) In this re-spect Yassine must be understood as part of a broader effort amongMuslimwomenwithdifferentpoliticalcommitmentstosimultaneouslyadvocateandenacttheirrighttorecuperatetheldquooriginalintentrdquooftheIslamictextsIfwomenandmendoinfacthavedistinctperspectivesontheworldYassinesuggestswomenhaveaspecialobligationtoexcavatewhattheyseeasthegenderparityoftheQurrsquoanburiedbeneaththoseldquomachointerpretationsrdquoofIslamuponwhichmenhavebuilttheirprivi-legeandpower(Khalaf2006)25

ManyAnglo-AmericanandEuropean feministsworry that Islamistsseekonly to secureor restorepatriarchalpowerConverselymany Is-lamist women view feminism as a term and a movement inescapablyWesterninoriginfreightedwiththelegacyofcolonialismanduneasilyimplicatedinculturalimperialismThisapplieseventoYassinewhoisunwillingtoadoptwithoutqualificationalabelsheassociateswithagen-dasopposedtoherowntheWesttheMoroccanstateMaghribi(North-westAfrican)elitesYetfeminismitselfisahighlycontestedtermwithin theso-calledWestitisthebearerofmultiplemeaningssomeofwhichareevenopposedandischaracterizedbydeepdisagreementsaboutwhowomenarewhatwomenneedwhoisauthorizedtoworkonwomenrsquosbehalf andbywhatmeans Inasmuch as these various feminismsmayshareonlyastatedconcernforwomenrsquoswelfarethereisnothinginco-herentinmodifyingldquofeminismrdquowithldquoIslamicrdquoldquoMuslimrdquoorevenldquoIs-lamistrdquounlessone iscommitted toarguing thatfirst Islam isanun-changingessencebeyondhistorypoliticsandculturesecondthereisaneutralobjectivevantagefromwhichtoidentifythisessenceonceandforallandfinallytheIslamicessencesoidentifiedisfundamentallyin-compatiblewitheffortstoimprovetheconditionsandqualityofwomenrsquoslivesBythesametokenIslamistwomenwhorejectthetermfeminismcanbe(althoughnotalwaysare)deeplycommittedtoimprovingwom-enrsquoswelfareaswellasactivelyresistanttoeffortsthatreduceortrans-formthemintosilentaccessoriesofmalepower

YassineandGhazalidifferaboutwhatwomenareandshouldbeyetbroadlyspeakingbothmaybeconsideredpartofarecenttrendtowardthe feminizationofdalsquowa Dalsquowa literallymeanscallappealor sum-monsbutthetermhascometosignifyavarietyofpracticesandargu-mentsmeanttoexhortinviteandguideMuslimstowhatisregardedasproperconductandmoraldevotionWomenrsquosparticipationindalsquowais

25WomenrsquosparticipationintheldquoproductionofofficialIslamicknowledgerdquohasalonghistoryalthoughtheyhaveoftendonesoinrelativeobscurityandwithoutthebenefitofeducation in the Islamicsciences thathas legitimateddirectengagementwith thesacredtexts (Cooke 2001 xiv Badran and Cooke 2004) Pioneering attempts to read genderequalityinIslamarealsonotconfinedtowritingbywomenasevincedbyQasimAminrsquosTahrir alshymarrsquoa [TheLiberationofWoman] (1899)andMumtaz lsquoAlirsquosHuquqshye niswan [TheRightsofWomen](1898)

39

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

notabrandnewphenomenonasisevidentinGhazalirsquosworkwiththeEgyptianSocietyofMuslimLadiesinthe1930sYetfromEgypttoPaki-stantoSaudiArabiatotheUnitedStatesthenumberoffemaledalsquoiyashasproliferatedexponentially inrecentyears(Cooke2001Mahmood2005Hirschkind2006)Thisreflectsinpartcurrentdoctrinalempha-sesondalsquowaasincumbentuponbothmenandwomenanddependentlessupontechnicalknowledgethanmoralvirtueandpracticalfamiliaritywiththeIslamictradition(Mahmood200565ndash66)It isalsoaconse-quenceofrecentpoliticalandsocioeconomictransformationsinMuslimsocietiesincludingtheexpansionofmasseducationthathasnotonlyin-creasedwomenrsquosliteracyandsocialmobilitybutalsomadeIslamictextsmoreaccessibletheproliferationoftechnologiesmdashfromthecassettetapetotheInternetmdashthatfacilitatethecirculationofreligiousknowledgeevenamongthosewhocannotreadortraveltheprecedentsetbythevigorousparticipationof IranianwomeninpostrevolutiondebatesaboutIslamandthemodeloflegalactivismevidentintheIslamistmovementrsquosownchallenge to the lsquoulamarsquos status as gatekeepers of religious knowledge(Singerman2005Mir-Hosseini1999)

If Ghazali and Yassine exemplify the feminization of dalsquowa amongelitesthemosquemovementinEgyptillustratesthegrowingparticipa-tionofwomenfromdiversesocialbackgroundsinreligiousclassesde-votedtostudyinganddebatingwhatIslamrequiresforawomantobeldquomorallyuprightrdquointhecontemporaryworld(Mahmood2005)Con-ceptualizingpiety in termsof adeepandholistic commitment to self-transformationparticipantsinthemosquemovementareconcernedlesswithmattersofsovereigntyandpoliticsconventionallyunderstoodandmorewiththeldquomoralcultivationrdquoofthosedailypracticesseenascrucialtobecomingclosertoGod(Mahmood2005)SomeIslamistshavecriti-cizedthis focusonpracticesofworshipasapoliticalandoverlypriva-tizedyetsuchcriticismmissestheforceofIslamistsrsquoowninsistenceondin(religion)asawayoflifeinwhichthedomainsofpublicandprivateare inextricably linked26AsSabaMahmood (2005193194) showsthesewomenrsquosintenseeffortsatldquoretrainingethicalsensibilitiesrdquohavealdquosociopoliticalforcerdquothatextendswellbeyondmattersofgovernancefacilitatingnolessthantheemergenceofaldquonewsocialandmoralorderrdquoEvidenceofitstransformativepowermaybefoundnotonlyinthesheernumbersandvarietyofwomenmdashwealthyandpoor literateand illiter-atemdashparticipatinginthemosquemovementbutalsointherhetoricalandpoliticaleffortsbythestateandsomeIslamiststocurtailcontrolordis-creditit(Mahmood200571194)

26ParticipantsinthemosquemovementinturnareoftencriticalofwhattheyseeasthereductionofIslamtotokensofculturalauthenticityorofitsinstrumentalizationbybothnationalistsandIslamiststheycharacterizeasmoreinterestedinpoliticalmaneuveringthanreligiouspiety

40

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

Understoodtoincludebothwrittenandembodiedpracticesthefemi-nizationof dalsquowa illustrates theways inwhichwomen fromdifferentperspectivesandsocialclassesareinsistingonengagingthesacredtextsdirectly for and with one another without the mediating authority ofmenwhohavetraditionallyheldthemonopolyonsuchactivitiesAsSu-danese Islamist Lubabah al-Fadl argues ldquoAs an insan [human being]whohappenstobeawomanIhavearighttorejectthemanipulativeexegesesofoursharilsquoa thatthreatenmyexistenceinawaythat isnotconsistentwiththeGodlywayandtoapplymyownijtihadtorectifyer-roneoustendenciesbysomeshuyukh[pluralofshaykh]rdquo(Sadiki2004290)DespitetheproliferationofvoicesintentonclaimingforthemselvestheauthoritytodemarcatewhatisauthenticallyIslamicandun-Islamiconceandforallcontestationoveritsscopeandmeaningproceedsapacefacilitatedatleastinpartbywomenformerlyexcludedfromtheconver-sationAtthesametimeIslamistwomenrsquosagencyandclaimstoauthorityarefrequentlystillpredicatedonawillingnesstofollowfairlypatriarchalrulesaboutwherehowandwithwhomtheymaypracticetheirvocation(Hirschkind2003Sadiki2004283)

Islamism and Violence

IfgenderisfrequentlyanimplicitpreoccupationamongIslamistsjihadisarguably Islamistsrsquomost consistently explicit concern Jihad is derivedfromtheArabicverbthatmeanstostruggleortostriveyetitisaparticu-larkindofstruggle that isofconcern tomanyof thefigurescollectedheretheoftenviolentstruggleagainstapostatesandinfidelsbothathomeandabroadtowhicheveryindividualMuslimmustcontributeTheclaimthatfightingunbelieversisthepreeminentenactmentofindividualMus-limpiety seems to justify characterizationsof Islam ingeneral and Is-lamisminparticularassanctioningevenencouragingviolenceYetwhatIslamistsrepresentasjihadtout courtisahistoricallyspecificunderstand-ingderivedfromahighlyselectiveuseoftextsandprecedentsprominentamongthemaformerlyobscureclaimbytheinfluentialfourteenth-cen-tury jurist IbnTaymiyya thatMongol rulerswhohad contravened Is-lamiclawcouldbesubjecttoforcibleremovalFarfromadefinitiveex-pressionof Islamldquoproperlyunderstoodrdquo such Islamist argumentsnotonlymarkasignificantdeparturefrommuchofantecedentdoctrineandpractice but also diminish the importance of ongoing disagreementsamongMuslimsabouttheformandpurposesofjihad

TobeginwithMuslimscholarshavetendedtoconsiderjihadagainstforeignenemiesafard kifaya(collectiveobligation)thatisadutyagroupofpeoplewithinthecommunitymayperformonbehalfoftherestandonethatpresupposesalegitimateMuslimleadertodeclareorleadthechargeJuristshavedistinguishedthisfromthefard lsquoayn(individualduty)thatmustbefulfilledbyeverysingleMuslimincasesofdefensivejihad

41

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

thatiswhentheummaisunderattackManyIslamistsincludedheretakeamuchlessnuancedviewofjihadAsamodeofpoliticalactionQutbarguesjihadmustberegardedasaldquopermanentconditionnotanocca-sionalconcernrdquoonethatincurrentcircumstancesrequiresdeedsratherthanwordsstruggleratherthancontemplationrevolutionathomeaswellasresistanceabroad(Qutb199167ndash6882)lsquoAbdal-SalamFarajarguesalongsimilarlinesthatthenatureoftheattackonIslammakespolitical authorization by a caliph (ldquodeputyrdquo referring to a legitimatesuccessortotheProphetrsquosleadership)unnecessaryafterallldquoleadershipovertheMuslimsis(always)intheirownhandsifonlytheymakethismanifestIfthereissomethinglackingintheleadershipwellthereisnothingthatcannotbeacquiredrdquo(Jansen1986asec93)

SuchargumentsareadeliberaterejectionofearlyMuslimmodernistswhohademphasizedthelargelydefensivecharacterofjihadandsoughttoshowthatrelationsbetweenMuslimsandnon-MuslimswerenormallypeacefulratherthanantagonisticMahmudShaltut(d1963)therectorof al-Azhar from 1958 to 1963 had argued for example that theQurrsquoanicversesonfightingldquoprohibittheprovocationofhostilityandthisprohibitionisreinforcedbyGodrsquosrepugnancetoaggressionandbyhisdislikeofthosewhoprovokehostilityrdquo(Peters199674onShaltutseeZebiri1993)ConversionbyforceisanathematoIslamShaltutaversandfightingiscommandedonlyindefenseinresponsetoaggressionini-tiatedbyothersEvendefensivejihadmustaimatldquotheterminationoftheaggressionandtheestablishmentofreligiouslibertydevotedtoGodandfreefromanypressureorforcerdquo(Peters199675)

ManyIslamistsexplicitlydismisssuchargumentsasasymptomoffalseconsciousnessoneamongmanydestructiveeffectsofcolonialdomina-tionMawdudiargues for example thatwhile imperialists ravage theworld to satisfy their greed jihad alone ldquoconjures up the vision of amarching band of religious fanatics with savage beards and fiery eyesbrandishingdrawnswordsandattackingtheinfidelswherevertheymeetthemrdquoHavinginternalizedthis imageMuslimsrushtoapologizeandrenouncearmedstruggleInthiswayhelamentscolonialistsretaintheexclusiverighttoldquofightwitharmsandammunitionwhilewearecon-tented with our pen and our tonguerdquo (Mawdudi 1948 1ndash3) SayyidQutbforhispartagreedthatIslamdoesnotcountenancespreadingitsmessagebyforceandcoercionyethehadlittlepatiencewiththosewhosoughttopresentjihadaslegitimateonlyinself-defense

IfweinsistoncallingIslamicjihadadefensivemovementthenwemustchangethemeaningofthewordldquodefenserdquoandmeanbyitldquothedefenseofmanrdquoagainstallthoseforcesthatlimithisfreedomWhenwetakethisbroadmeaningofthewordldquodefenserdquoweunder-standthetruecharacterofIslaminthatitproclaimstheuniversalfreedomofeverypersonandcommunityfromservitudetoanyother

42

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

individualorsocietytheendofmanrsquosarroganceandselfishnesstheestablishmentofthesovereigntyofAllahandHisLordshipthrough-outtheworldandtheruleofthedivinesharilsquoainhumanaffairs(Qutb199050)

Qutbdoesnotnameanynamesincastigatingtheldquowriterswithdefeatistandapologeticmentalities[who]writeaboutlsquojihadinIslamrsquoandtrytoremovethislsquoblotrsquofromIslamrdquo(Qutb199046)buthecouldverywellhavehadhisdistinguishedfellowEgyptianMahmudShaltutinmind

These arguments about jihad may be said to constitute a commongrammarandframeworkofanalysisformanyIslamistsalthoughseveralthinkers in this volume carefully calibrate such claims to suit variouspurposesanddifferentpublicspheresInhisjustificationfortheassassi-nationofEgyptianpresidentAnwaral-SadatforexamplelsquoAbdal-SalamFarajdepictsthestruggletoreclaimthemoralfoundationsoftheEgyp-tianstateasafightagainstjahiliyyafromwithinarguingthatthejihadagainstacorruptnationalistregimeathomemusttakeprecedenceoverfightingenemieselsewhereTheCharterofHamas(seechapter15)how-everinsiststhatallMuslimsrecognizetheprimacyofthejihadforJeru-salemweldingIslamistrhetorictothatofnationalistresistanceinanef-fortbothtofightIsraelioccupationandtocompeteforadherentswiththePalestinianLiberationOrganization(PLO)IncontrasttobothFarajandHamasBinLadenembracesaglobaljihadthatessentiallycollapsesdistinctionsbetweennationalandinternationaloffensiveanddefensivefightingenemiesathomeandthosefromafar

Yet despite such differences these arguments tend to presume thatviolent jihad is a necessary response to the pervasive power of thosewithdemonstratedhostilitytoMuslimliveslandspietiesandsensibili-tiesaformofretaliationwhoseurgencyandlegitimacyderivefromtheviolencemdashpsychologicalandeconomicaswellasphysicalmdashoftheinitialassaultThisviewofjihadsubsumesindividualsintoarchetypesofldquoin-fidelsrdquoandldquobelieversrdquoandinsodoingvitiatesmoreconventionaldis-tinctionsbetweenforexamplesoldierandcivilianorcollectiveandin-dividual responsibility It is far from inevitable that thosewhoharborsuchviewswillautomaticallyactuponthemyetthecarnagewroughtbytheattacksontheWorldTradeCenterandthePentagonin2001aBalinightclub in 2002 Madrid commuter trains in 2004 and throughoutIraqonadailybasissuggestjusthowlethalsuchclaimscanbegiventheright circumstances The fact that such violence does not discriminateamongvictimsonlyfurtherfuelsrhetoriccharacterizingIslamistsasirra-tional fanatics ldquoin love with deathrdquo terrorists animated by a religioncharacterizedbyapropensityforviolenceandauthoritarianism27

27AnxietiesabouttheparticularsusceptibilityofMuslimstoirrationalityinsularityandfanaticismhavealonganddistinguishedpedigreeinEuro-AmericanhistoryandpoliticalthoughtSeeforexampleRenan18833

43

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

AsinsomanyothermattershoweverIslamistsarehardlyofonemindonthesubjectofjihadindeedthereareIslamistswhoexplicitlyrejectthereductionof struggle toviolenceAcase inpoint isNadiaYassine(20032005c)whoinsiststhatjihadisthededicatedstruggleagainstisshytikbar(arrogance)particularlyinitscommonformasthelustforpoweranddominationAsjihadagainstistikbarisbothafinalgoalandapre-scriptionforactionYassinesuggestsitisantitheticaltoviolentpracticesthataimatdominationTheprimaryinstrumentsofjihadarenotbombsbutwords particularly thosedeployed in the art of persuasion (Fara-marzi2005NYassine2006a)WhenIslamistssuchaslsquoAbdal-SalamFarajandlsquoUmarlsquoAbdal-RahmanseektolegitimizeviolentrevolutionbyrecoursetoIslamictextsshearguestheycontravenethetruemeaningofjihadtoservetheirownarrogantendsBythesametokenBinLadenrsquosdecisiontoldquofightevilwithevilandbarbaritywithbarbarityrdquonotonlyviolatesspecificIslamicprohibitionsagainstharmingcivilianswomenandchildrenbutalsobetraystheethicalimperativetoembodythemes-sageofamercifulGodwhocautionsbelieversthat(Q8822)ldquoYouhavenopoweroverthemrdquo(NYassine2005cDaily Excelsior2002)

SuchpersistentdisagreementsamongMuslimspastandpresentsug-gest that Islam isnomore inherently violent andbloody-minded thanitmdashorChristianityor Judaism for thatmattermdashis inherentlypeacefulIslamists often claim to speak for an unchanging authentic Islam thatexistsoutsideoftimeandspaceyetthepoliticalpurchaseoftheirper-spective derives from the ways it assembles disparate yet recognizablecontemporaryexperiencesofsufferingfrustrationandlossintoanex-planationthatresonateswithMuslimswholiveincommunitiescultur-allylinguisticallyandgeographicallydistantfromoneanotherTheex-tenttowhichIslamistargumentsresonatebroadlyacrossMuslimsocie-tiesthusdependsuponasetofexperiencesandphenomenathatmarkthisparticularmomentinhistoryincludingthewaysinwhichcontempo-raryglobalinequalitiescompoundalegacyofhistoricalasymmetriestocontinuallyreproduceasenseofMuslimpowerlessnessmdashbothrealandimaginedmdashrelativetotheWestcontinuingEuro-Americanpoliticalandfinancialsupportofcorruptautocratsmanyofwhompresideoverna-tion-statesbrutallystitchedtogetherbyWesternfiat thepersistenceofauthoritarian regimes eager to control domestic unrest by catalyzingldquoMuslimragerdquotowardexternaltargetsthesenseofemasculationpro-ducedbydecadesofpoliticalrepressionandeconomicfrustrationandthecontinualflowofimagesofbloodiedMuslimbodiesdeliveredbyaburgeoningarrayofvideosatelliteandelectronicmedia

It is notable that the understanding of jihad many Islamists proffermirrorstheverystate-sanctionedviolenceagainstwhichtheyhavestrug-gledforalmostacenturyAlongwiththousandsofMuslimscaughtinthemachineryoftwentieth-centurystateviolenceprominentIslamistsfromQutbtoGhazalitoAymanal-Zawahirimdashal-Qalsquoidarsquossecondincommandmdash

44

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

arewellknowntohavebeenradicalizedbyextendedandoftenbrutaltermsofincarcerationinEgyptSyriaIraqJordanIsraelAlgeriaandelsewhere(onal-ZawahiriandprisoncfKepelandMilelli2008152ndash54)ItisthusfarfromsurprisingthatIslamistsforgedbyinterrogationtortureinprisoncampswouldconcludethatthepreeminentenactmentofMuslimpietyisviolentstruggleldquoPrisonrdquoasPalestinianKhaledAbuHilalhassaidldquoismyuniversityrdquo(Erlanger2007)anargumentmadeingreaterdetailinadifferenttimeandplacebyRussianwriterandrevolu-tionaryMaximGorky(1868ndash1936)

Apeoplebroughtupinaschoolthatremindsoneofthetormentsofhellonasmallscaleapeopleaccustomedtotheclenched-fistprisonandthewhipwillnotbeblestwithatenderheartApeoplethatthepoliceagentshaveriddenoverwillbecapableintheirturnofwalk-ingoverthebodiesofothersInacountrywhereunresthasreignedsolongit isdifficultforthepeopletorealizefromonedaytothenextthepowerofrightOnecannotdemandfromamanwhohasneverknownjusticethatheshouldbejust(Gorky1920)

InthiscontextasTimothyMitchell(1990195ndash96199207ndash8)suggestsIslamistviewsoftheworldcanbecharacterizedasbothamodeofresis-tancetostatemechanismsofcoercionandanexpressionofthemSuchisthedynamic evident inGhazalirsquosmemoirs for examplewhen shede-scribeshowtheldquodarknessofprisonsthebladesoftortureandthevi-ciousbeatingsonly increasetheenduranceandresolveofthefaithfulrdquo(Ghazali19786)

There is no doubt a great deal of pragmatism at work in IslamistargumentsaboutviolenceAsQutb(19916447ndash48)drylynotesthepathtofreedommustoccasionallybehewnbywayoftheswordbecausetyrants are not reasoned out of power and ldquojahiliyya is not lsquoabstracttheoryrsquo[it]consciouslyorunconsciouslystrivestopreserveitsownexistence to defend its essence to annihilate dangerous elementswhichthreatenitsverybeingrdquoYetitisalsothecasethatformanyoftheseIslamistsjihadisbothameansandanendanefforttoeradicatethoseobstacles torestoringa justcommunityonearththatsimultane-ouslybringshumanaction intoaccordwithGodrsquosplansandpurposes(Haddad198321)While theQurrsquoan (2256) states thatldquothere isnocompulsioninreligionrdquoIslamistscontendthatonlyinastateinwhichIslamiclawreignssupremearehumanbeingsfreefromenslavementtooneanotherrsquosruleandallareequalbyvirtueoftheircommonsubmissiontoGodAsQutb(1991107ndash8)argues

WhenthehighestauthorityinsocietyisGodalonemdashexpressedintheruleofdivinelawmdashonlythenishumanitytrulyandcompletelyliber-atedfromslaverytomenOnlythisisldquohumancivilizationrdquobecausetheessentialfoundationofhumancivilizationisthetrueandcom-

45

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INTRODUCTION

pletefreedomofhumanityandtheabsolutedignityofeveryindivid-ualinsocietyThereisnotruefreedomanddignityforhumanityortheindividualinasocietywheresomepeoplearelordswholegislateandothersareslaveswhoobey

From this perspective the realization of justice liberty equality andchoiceitselfnecessitatestheforcibleremovaloftheconstraintsimposedbyjahiliyyaalongwiththosewhoaidandabetitno matter the costAsMawdudi(1954160ndash61)writes

[W]hyisitthatinreligionsuchimportanceisgiventojihadthattheQurrsquoanpronouncesthejudgmentofhypocrisyuponthosewhoshirkandevadeitJihadisbutanothernamefortheattempttoerectthesystemoftruthandtheQurrsquoandeclaresjihadtobeatouchstoneonthesamefootingwithamanrsquosfaithInotherwordshewhohasfaithinhisheartwillneitherbecontentwiththedominationofthesystemofevilnorwillhegrudgetheexpenditureoflifeandwealthinthestruggleforerectingthesystemoftruthIfoneshowsweaknessinthismatterhisfaithitselfisdoubtfulWhatcananythingelsebesidethenprofithimThemanwhoprofesses faith in this religioncannotfulfillhisdutyonlybytryingasfaraspossibletopatternhislifeonIslamThenatureofhisfaithitselfrequiresthatheshouldconcentrateallhiseffortuponwrestingleadershipfromunbelievingandcorruptmentoentrustittotherighteousanduponerectingthesystemoftruththathasbeenordainedfortheconductoftheworldaccordingtothewillofGodBecausethisendisunattainablewith-out thehighestdegreeofcollectiveeffort theremustexistarigh-teouscommunitycommittedtotheprincipleoftruthanddevotedtothesolepurposeintheworldoferectingmaintainingandproperlyrealizingthesystemoftruth

ThefactthatsomeIslamistthinkerssanctifyviolentstruggleinsuchtermsdoesnotmeanofcoursethatallthosewhoadvocateorengageinjihadendorseviolence28NordoesitimplythatthosewhoclaimtokillforIslamareentirelywithoutulteriormotivesthosemanipulativepur-poses andpsychologicalmotivations that even themost rarified scrip-turalargumentscanexpressorserveWhattheprecedinganalysisdoessuggesthoweveristhatthereductionofthisviewofjihadtoirrationalbloodlusttheself-interestedgrabfortemporalpoweroradoorthroughwhichtopassintothehereaftermissesacrucialdimensionofitssignifi-canceandappealfortruebelieversjihadisnolessthananenactmentof

28EvenashespokeofaneweraofjahiliyyaandofjihadMawdudihimselfstoppedwellshortof recommendingor condoning the actual resort to violence in themannermanyotherIslamistsdidAsNasr(199670)observesMawdudirsquosorganizationtheJamalsquoat-iIs-lamildquohasavoidedviolentsocialchangeandhasinsteadviewedthepathtotheIslamicstateaslyingwithintheexistingsociopoliticalorderrdquoAlsoseethechapters5and3onQutbandMawdudiinthisvolume

46

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adivineimperativetoremakethefoundationsofcollectivelifeInthisre-spectIslamistviewsofjihadcanbeseenaspartofalong-standingasso-ciationbetweenviolenceandpoliticalfoundingsuponwhichnoparticu-larcultureorhistoricalepochhasamonopolyThisassociationandtheldquolegacyofviolencerdquoitbequeathstofuturegenerationsarenolessappar-entinthoseradicalrevolutionsofrenewalthatmovebywayoftheswordfromthemarginstothecenterthanthosepoliticalfoundingsthatclaimtocreatesomethingoutofnothing(Connolly1995251)Ineithercasethetollofsuchbrutalitycanbeimmeasurableforinadditiontothevic-timswhosufferdirectlytheldquopracticeofviolencelikeallactionchangestheworldbutthemostprobablechangeistoamoreviolentworldrdquo(Ar-endt1972177)

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Page 30: Chapter 1 INTRODUCTION - assets.press.princeton.eduassets.press.princeton.edu/chapters/s9067.pdf · Chapter 1 INTRODUCTION This volume is intended as a broad introduction to the evolution

30

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andindeterminacythatmarkpopularruleandeagertoconvertelectionsintoaldquoone-manone-voteone-timerdquomechanismforestablishinganIs-lamicstate(Murdock2002MRubin2005Kramer1993)

SuchviewsareechoedbythoseIslamistskeentoportraydemocracynotonlyasantitheticaltothesupremacyofdivinelawbutasaTrojanhorseforWesternimperialismFormanyIslamistsincludingseveralinthis volumedemocracy is justone symptomofametastasizingmoralandspiritualbankruptcywherebymoraltransgressionsaretransfiguredintonaturalurgescrassself-interestbecomesthebedrockofcollectivelifeandthedivineplanfortheuniverseandallthingsinitisreducedtoa system of physical causality just waiting to be mastered by way ofhumaningenuity(REuben2007)Qutbcallsthisdiseasedviewoftheworldjahiliyyaanditsignalsnotonlyhumanarrogancebutatransgres-sionagainstdivineauthoritythescopeofwhichencompassesbothpub-licandprivatedomainsofhumanaffairsaswellasbothvisibleandun-seendimensionsoftheuniverseFormanyIslamistssuchtransgressionisattherootofmuchofwhatpassesforMuslimruleinthecontemporaryworldmdashnationalistdemocraticandmonarchicalalikeSucharroganceisalsosaidtobethepatternunderlyingalonghistoryofunrelievedWest-ernaggressionagainstIslaminwhichtheChristianCrusadesEuropeancolonialismIsraelitreatmentofPalestiniansethniccleansinginBosniaGermananti-TurkishviolencetheAmericaninvasionofIraqandDutchcartoonsofMuhammadarebutafewexamples

YetthereisarangeofviewsamongIslamistsaboutboththesubstanceofdemocracyanditscompatibilitywiththereligio-politicalrenewaltheyadvocateAccordingtoQaradawiforexampleldquotheessenceofdemoc-racyisthatpeoplechoosewhorulesoverthemandmanagestheiraf-fairsthatnorulerorregimetheydislikeisforceduponthemthattheyhavetherighttocalltherulertoaccountifheerrsandtoremovehimfromofficeincaseofmisconductandthatpeoplearenotforcedineco-nomicsocialculturalorpoliticaldirectionsthattheyneitherrecognizenor acceptrdquo (Qaradawi1997132 also chapter9 in this volume)TohimthereisnoheavierburdenoppressingMuslimsinthecontemporaryworld thandespotism indeed it is throughdespoticgovernments thatMuslimshavebeenforcedtosubmittootherillsincludingtheneglectofthesharilsquoaandthecoerciveimpositionofsecularismandwesternizationDemocracy then recommends itself to Qaradawi as the most effectiveavailableantidotetodespotismandtheafflictionsofwhichitservesasavehicle

WheremanyamongtheIslamistsandthelsquoulamahaveseenconsider-able tensionbetween IslamanddemocracyQaradawiprofesses to seenoneAswesuggestedearlierbyfarthemostcommonoftheIslamistreservationsaboutademocraticsystemrelatestothesovereigntyofthepeoplewhichistakentocontravenetheideathatGodaloneissovereignQaradawi however is unperturbedby such concernsThe rule of the

31

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INTRODUCTION

peopleoughttobeseenhearguesnotinoppositiontotheruleofGodbutratherinoppositiontotheruleofthedespotMorefundamentallyQaradawirsquos view of democracy does not necessarily require that thepeopleshouldbeabletooverturndivinelyinstitutednormsRatherhisassumptionisthatpeopleexercisetheirsovereigntywithinconstitutionalboundsandMuslimslivinginapredominantlyMuslimdemocraticpol-itywouldlikewisenotwishtotransgresstheparametersoflegitimatehumanactionlaiddownintheIslamicfoundationaltexts(seeQaradawichapter9inthisvolumeandcfFeldman2007)

NadiaYassineofMoroccorsquosJusticeandSpiritualityAssociationisan-othercaseinpointWhilecriticalofthedemocraticgesturesembracedbyamonarchythatshedepictsasallergictogenuinelypopularsovereigntyYassineinsiststhatthemodelofMuslimruleadumbratedintheummafoundedbytheProphetMuhammadandinparticulartheConstitutionofMedina17isnothingshortofdemocratic(NYassine2005d2005e)UnliketheMuslimdynastiesthatarosetousurpitYassinecontendsthiscommunity was participatory egalitarian committed to freedom andexpressiveofGodrsquosmercyMostimportantitwasgovernedalwaysbytheQurrsquoanicprincipleofshura (consultation)bywhichYassinemeansaphilosophy of power that places sovereignty in the community ratherthaninanyindividuallinksvirtuetodeliberationratherthanobedienceandexhortsbelieverstocontinuallyadaptQurrsquoanicprinciplesthroughijtihad rather than adhere reflexively to precedent (N Yassine 2006a182ndash862005d)ManyscholarsandjournalistsremainskepticaloftheJSArsquosasyetuntestedcommitment toproceduraldemocracyandworrythatNadiaandher fatherAbdessalamultimatelyseektoestablishanIslamic state inhospitable to tolerance pluralism and civil liberties(Maghraoui2001Brandon2007Whitlock2006)YetothersarguethattheJSAisagenuinelypopulistorganizationthatrepresentstheunrepre-sentedtendstothewelfareofthedispossessedandbothexpressesandcontributestoanincreasinglyvibrantcivilsocietyinMorocco(Cavatorta2006Entelis2002)

QaradawirsquosandYassinersquosargumentstogethersuggestthatdemocracycanandhasservedaseitheracosmeticcoverfordespotismoranauthen-ticallyIslamiccheckuponcorruptandarbitraryruleAtissueinIslamistargumentsforandagainstdemocracythenarenotonlywhatcountsasldquoauthenticIslamrdquoandtheintentionsofthosewhoclaimtoknowitbutalsothecontentandcharacterofdemocracyitselfParadoxicallybothIslamistsopposedtodemocracyandthosewhotakeIslamismasinher-entlyantidemocraticregardthisasasimplematterwithanobviousan-swerdemocracyisanexpressionofandevensynonymouswithliberal-ismcapitalismandtheWestYetdemocracyisbothmorecapaciousand

17TheConstitutionofMedinawasanagreementtheProphethadenteredintowiththelocalcommunitiesincludingJewishtribesuponhisemigrationfromMeccatoMedina

32

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

moredistinctthanthispresumptionsuggestsTheworditselfofcoursederivesfromtheancientGreekdemokratiawhichmeansrule(kratos)ofthepeople(demos)andmanyderivetheequationofdemocracyandtheWestfromthisassociationwithclassicalGreeceYetancientGreekphi-losopherssuchasPlatosawindemocracythespecterofmobrulepartic-ularly vulnerable to demagoguery and despotism (a suspicion notablyechoedbyAmerican founder JamesMadison)Contrary to thedemo-cratic idealof inclusivenessmoreover citizenship inGreekdemocracyexcludedasubstantialpartofthepopulationincludingwomenslavesandforeignersFinallytheextenttowhichtheancientGreeksmayevenbecalledWesternisamatterofgreatdisputeparticularlyastheldquoWestrdquoisacategoryofrelativelyrecentprovenancethroughwhichhistoryandgeographyhavebeenretroactivelyorganized18DespitedepictionsoftheHellenicworldasWesternancientGreeksdidnotinfactviewthem-selvesintheseterms19

TheequationofdemocracywiththeWestalsopresupposestheexis-tenceofacoherentldquoWesterncivilizationrdquowitheitherculturallyhomoge-neousrootsorclearlydelineatedhistoricalandcontemporarybounda-riesorbothYetwhatiscalledtheWestisanamalgamationofmultipletraditionsincludingtheGreekRomanJudaicChristianandIslamicmdashtraditionsthatarethemselvespolyvalentratherthanhomogeneousmdashandistodaycharacterizedbyporousbordershybridsubculturesandmyriaddebtstodiversecivilizationspastandpresent20AsageographicmarkeritisvirtuallyimpossibletopinpointexactlywheretheWestbeginsandendsandthisisespeciallysonowthatpeoplesinformationandmate-rial goods crisscross cultural andnational borders atwill creating allkindsoftransnationalsubnationalandmultipleidentitiesthatshiftandreconstitutethemselvesinunpredictablewaysEventhosevaluesidenti-fiedasWesternoftenappearelsewhereinotherguisesIndeedscholarssuggestthatavarietyoftheldquostandardsexportedbytheWestanditscul-turalindustriesthemselvesturnouttobeofculturallymixedcharacterifweexaminetheirculturallineagesrdquo(Pieterse199553)

Manyalsoarguethatdemocracyisnotonlydistinctfrombutinten-sionwithboththetheoryandpracticeofpoliticsinldquoWesternrdquosocieties

18MichaelGillespie(19997ndash10)arguesthattherereadingofhistorygeographyandculturethroughtheprismofthissenseofldquotheWestrdquobegannoearlierthanthenineteenthcenturyTheideaofatimelessandbrightlinebetweenWestandEastisalsochallengedbyJeremyBrottonrsquosstudy(19989096ndash97)ofthediplomaticandintellectualexchangesbe-tweenEuropeandtheOttomanEmpireintheearlymodernperiodBrottonshowsnotonlytheextentandamityofsuchexchangesbutapersistentuncertaintyaboutwherepreciselyEuropeldquoendedrdquoandAsialdquobeganrdquo

19AncientGreeksunderstoodthemselvesasgeographicallywestofthebarbariansbutnotWesterninthecontemporarysensethatisasbothaculturalandhistoricalcategory

20StevenRuncimanrsquoswork(19543480)ontheCrusadesforexampledemonstratesaldquolongsequenceofinteractionandfusionbetweenOrientandOccidentoutofwhichourcivilizationhasgrownrdquo

33

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

many of which are more accurately classified as liberal and capitalist(Wood1994Wolin2001BallandDagger1999)Whileitisnowcom-monplacetospeakofldquoliberaldemocracyrdquoinasinglebreathliberalismanddemocracyareconceptsandpracticeswithverydifferenthistoriesandpresuppositionsUnlikedemocracyforexampleliberalismemergedfromthecrucibleofChristianreligiouswarsandintandemwiththeas-cendanceofamiddleclassthatpresagedtheendofEuropeanfeudalismTheliberalnation-statecanthusbeviewedasbothanexpressionandaconsolidationofcapitalismontheonehandandtheprincipleofasepa-rationbetweenchurchandstateontheotherBycontrastthereisnoth-ingaboutdemocracyeitherasasystemofgovernanceoracultureofpar-ticipationthatisinherentlysecularIndeedAlexisdeTocquevillefamouslyinsistedthatAmericandemocracycannotandshouldnotbesecularasreligionhelpsshiftattentionawayfromimmediatematerialpreoccupa-tionstolargerconcernsofcommunitycooperationandmoralityInfactmanydemocratictheoristsarguethatgenuinelyinclusivepopularsover-eignty is antithetical to the sharp inequalities of wealth and politicalpowerthatcapitalismoftenproducesandlegitimates

SuchongoingdefinitionalandsubstantivedebatessuggestthatthereismuchmoreatstakeindemocraticpoliticsthanprocedurespertainingtogovernmentauthorityandorderandpointtoawidespreadifelusiveunderstandingofdemocracynotjustasasetofinstitutionsbutasTocque-villesuggestsawayoflifeSeveralpoliticaltheoristshavecharacterizedthiselusiveunderstandingintermsofaldquodemocraticethosrdquoBythistheymeanbothanidealandanargumentforacultureofparticipationactivepowersharingmutualaccountabilityinclusivenessanddeliberationinwhichcitizensmayroutinelyandsafelychallengenotonlyspecificpoli-ciesandpolitical institutionsbutalso thevalues thatgoverncollectivelifeprinciplesofinclusionandexclusionandthepremisesofauthorityitself(Connolly1995JPEuben2003Sadiki2004)AdemocraticethosismuchmoredifficulttomeasureorquantifythanforexampleSamuelHuntingtonrsquosparsimoniousdefinitionofdemocracyasapolityinwhichtherehavebeentwoconsecutivepeacefulchangesofgovernmentbywayof freeand fairelections (Huntington1991)21Yetademocraticethosmakesitpossibletobothrecognizeanddisaggregatethepreconditionsaspirations mechanisms and institutions bundled into ldquodemocracyrdquotherebybringingintofocusforexamplethefrequentlyantidemocratic

21Manypoliticalscientistsprefertodefinedemocracyintermsofproceduresdesignedtorealizepopularruleincludingfreecompetitiveandfairelectionsalongwithstateprotec-tionofcertainrightsandlibertiesSuchaformalminimalistdefinitionhastheadvantageofdetachingdemocracyfromquestionsoforiginsandofferingastandardtowhichallgov-ernmentsmaybeheldregardlessofcultureandplaceAsKeithTopper(2005205ndash7)ar-gueshoweveritalsotendstosidestepknottyquestionsaboutthesubstanceofrepresenta-tion power responsiveness and accountability that are arguably central to democraticpolitics

34

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

casttoelectionsimposedbyelitesorforeignpowersthefeltimpotenceofmanycitizensinestablisheddemocraciesandthosehighlyparticipa-torycivilsocietiesthatflourishevenundermonarchicortheocraticrule

Forourpurposes inparticularademocraticethosmakesvisible theparadoxofanIslamistmovementthatseekstomobilizeordinaryMus-limsagainstcoercivepowerbutinthenameofareligio-politicalorderlargelyimmunizedfromchallengeQutbisanaptillustrationhereashistendencytogroundhisownspecialauthorityandinsightintheunsulliedwisdomofordinarybelieversmakesitpossibletoreadhisworkaseitherabriefagainstdemocracy(amongotherthings)oranenactmentofitIn-asmuchasdemocracyasaformofgovernanceisidentifiedwithpopularsovereigntyQutbrsquosbasicpremisethat thefoundationof legitimateau-thoritymustbedivineratherthanhumansuggeststhatheisunambigu-ouslyantidemocraticMoreoverQutbrsquoseffortstopluralizereligiousandpolitical authority express not a confidence in common wisdom butratheradesiretoclaimforhimselfthestatureofareligiousexpertwhodespitehislackofIslamicacademiccredentialscanclearlyseewhatoth-erscannotQutbcharacterizestherealIslamasself-evidentbuthealsoassumesthatonlyasmallvanguardofbelieversbesideshimselfwillhavetheabilitytorecognizeitandactdecisivelytoremaketheworldinitsimageSounderstoodthesignofldquochosennessrdquoisunyieldingcommitmenttoestablishingareligio-politicalorderthatsimultaneouslypresumesthesupremacyofthefewcapableoftrueknowledgeandpromisesaworldinwhichdissentitselfwillbecomebothunnecessaryandillegitimate

Yetifdemocracyrefersnotonlytoasystemofgovernanceorsetofprocedurestorealizepopularsovereigntybutalsotopracticesthatdis-ruptthoseforceswhichconcentratepowerandestablishpoliticalexclu-sionthecharacterizationofQutbrsquosworkassimplyantidemocraticmissesa crucial dimensionof its significance and appealAs the sacred textscontaintherulesandregulationsmeanttogovernbothpublicandpri-vateaffairsQutbrsquosinsistencethatordinaryuntrainedMuslimsmusten-gagethemdirectlyisinmanywaysademocratizationofaccesstoau-thoritySuchaccesscandisruptdeeplyentrenchedpatternsofpowerandpowerlessness particularlywhen conjoined to Islamist arguments thatarbitrarypowerisun-Islamicthatreligiousknowledgedependsoncom-mitmentratherthantrainingorexpertise thatMuslimshavetherightandobligationtodeterminewhenrulersareillegitimateandthatthosewhopreferordertojusticesecuritytofreedomandmoneytopietyhaveforfeitedanyclaimtoauthority

ThisaspectofIslamismhasfrequentlybeencomparedtotheProtestantReformationandmorespecificallytoCalvinistsrsquoattemptstotransferldquore-ligiousauthorityawayfromofficiallysanctionedindividualswhointer-prettextstoordinarycitizensrdquo(EGoldberg19913alsocfLoimeier2005)Suchaparallelhassparkedagreatdealofscholarlyspeculation

35

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

regardingapossibleldquoIslamicReformationrdquo22andarangeofargumentsaboutwhetherandhowIslamismmightfacilitatethedemocratizationofMuslim societies much as the Protestant Reformation is said to haveheralded the emergence of European ldquoliberal democracyrdquo While suchcomparisonsareevocativeafullerunderstandingof IslamismrequiresfirstsituatingitinrelationtoahistoricalshiftinthenatureandlocusofreligiousauthorityinIslambeginninginthenineteenthcenturyAsschol-arsofMuslimsocietieshavepointedouttheimpactofmasseducationnewtechnologiesfordisseminatingknowledgeandinformationanddra-matically changed social economic and political contexts have madeavailabletoamateurswhathadpreviouslybeenthepurviewofreligiousexpertsAtthesametimeithasinauguratedafragmentationofauthor-itywithintheveryranksofthelsquoulamathatcontinuestothepresentday23

InthiscontexttheascendanceandinfluenceofautodidactssuchasQutbHasanal-BannalsquoAbdal-SalamFarajandBinLadensimultaneouslyex-pressandaccelerateanongoingrenegotiationofauthorityoverwhomayspeakforIslamandonwhatbasisthepathofwhichisstillunfoldingandtheoutcomeasyetuncertain

Islamism and Gender

One already apparent consequence of this ongoing renegotiation overwhomayspeakforIslamandonwhatbasisistheentryofwomenintothe interpretive fray This development is increasingly unsettling thoseunwrittengendernormsarguablyattheveryheartofIslamistthoughtdisruptingthestandardsofmasculinityandfemininitythatreflecthowparticularculturesorganizehumanbeingsrsquosocialandreproductiveactiv-itiesintorolesthatareinturnthoughttoexpresstheldquonaturerdquoofmenand women Such norms are frequently considered tangential to theknottyproblemsofdefiningIslamismandadumbratingitscentralideasyetarangeofscholarshiponculturespastandpresenthasshownthatgenderisconsistentlytheterrainoverwhichbattlesforpoliticalcontrolandculturalidentityarefoughtMorespecificallyresearchindisciplinessuchasanthropologyhistoryclassicsandpostcolonialstudieshasdem-onstratedthatculturesinwhichfemalebodiesandbehaviorareregardedas indicesofmoralpurity tend to symbolically transformwomen intoconduitsof cultural corruption in timesof internal crisis and externalthreat(Papenek1994Chatterjee1990Tavakoli-Targhi1991Just1989Cohen1991Welter1966Bloch1978)Thisisespeciallytrueofcontem-

22Foralatenineteenth-centuryassessmentoftheprospectsforaldquoMuhammadanRefor-mationrdquoseeBlunt1882132ndash73

23EickelmanandPiscatori199637ndash39131ndash35Zaman2006Suchfragmentationhasinmanywaysbeenacceleratedbytheexplosionofdigitalcultureswhichpromoteamongotherthingsaldquoformofempoweredamateurismrdquo(Mirzoeff20026)

36

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

poraryreligio-politicalmovementswhosememberstendtoldquoidealizepa-triarchalstructuresofauthorityandmoralityrdquoendorsegenderdualismasgod-givenornaturalandcondemnvigorouslyrecentchangesingen-derrelationsasasymptomandsymbolofsecularistmoralbankruptcy(Riesebrodt1993Moghadam1992Hawley1994)

SeveralchaptersinthisvolumeilluminateIslamistgendernormsbyre-vealing thecharacterandcontentof Islamistconcernsabout theplaceandpurityofMuslimwomenmdashpreoccupationsFatimaMernissi(199199)hasgonesofarastocharacterizeasanobsessionDespiteimportantdifferences among Islamists thinkers many endorse gender norms inwhichthefairlyconventionalinsistencethatfemalenatureisdefinedinand through reproduction undergirds an understanding of women assymbolsofmoralvirtueandvesselsofculturalpurityThisviewsustainstheclaimthatmenandwomenareequalinreligiousbeliefbutperformfundamentallydifferentandcomplementaryfunctionsinsocietyWhilemenarenaturallymadetoruleinboththepublicandprivatedomainawomanbelongsinthedomesticrealmwhereherprimaryroleistobeawifeandmotheraswellastoinsuretheintegrityofthefamilythefirstschoolofmoraleducationAssuchfunctionsarerootedinaninescap-ablehumannaturefashionedbyGodawomanrsquosinabilityorunwilling-nesstoperformherdutiessignalsadisobediencetothedivinewillandpresages the corruption of the Muslim family from within From thisvantagepointtheWesterninsistenceonfullequalitybetweenthesexesisdoubly pernicious it at once liberates women from basic moral con-straintsandenslavesthemtomutuallyreinforcingsexualandcapitalistexploitationAsMurtazaMutahhari(1998xxxi)arguescapitalismmakesuseofwomentomarket itsgoodsldquoby trading inhonourandrespectthrough[their]powertoenticerdquotherebyldquotransform[ing]manintoaninvoluntaryagentofconsumptionrdquoInasmuchaswomenareresponsiblefor producing the next generation of Muslim men destined to restoreIslamtoitsformergloryitisnotonlythevirtueofwomenortheinteg-rityofthefamilythathangsinthebalancebutthefutureofIslamiccivili-zationitself

Zaynab al-Ghazali andMutahharimake several of these argumentsexplicitlyandindetail(seechapters10and11)butinmuchofIslamistrhetoricthenatureandsignificanceofwomenareestablishedindirectlyandsymbolicallyandthroughthreerecurrentimagesinparticularThefirstisofwomenassilentsymbolsofculturalmoralandsexualvulnera-bilityvoicelessfiguresinneedofmasculineprotectionorwhenitistoolatedefiledbodiesthatmutelydemandvengeanceSoforexamplelsquoAb-dallahlsquoAzzam(oneofBinLadenrsquosmentorsseechapter18)graphicallydetailstheagonizinghumiliationofyoungmenunabletoactwhentheAfghanwoman isldquocryingout forhelpher childrenarebeing slaugh-tered her women are being raped the innocent are killed and theircorpsesscatteredrdquo(lsquoAzzam1987a)Inthesecondimagewomenfunction

37

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INTRODUCTION

muchlikeachorusthatspeaksinpermittedcadencestoratifymasculineendeavorsSuchisthecaseforexampleinBinLadenrsquos1996ldquoDeclara-tionofWaragainsttheAmericansOccupyingtheLandoftheTwoHolyPlacesrdquo(seechapter18)wherethewomenexhortmentojihadinthefollowing way ldquoPrepare yourself like a struggler the matter is biggerthanwordsAreyougoingtoleaveusforthewolvesofKufr[unbe-lief]eatingourwingsWherearethefreemendefendingfreewomenbyarmsDeath isbetter than life inhumiliation Some scandals andshameswillneverbeotherwiseeradicatedrdquo24InthethirdimagewomenarecreaturesnotofthisworldbutofanothervirginalrewardsforthecourageousmartyrintheafterlifeThisisevidentinthefinalinstructionsforthe911hijackersforexamplewhereMuslimldquobrothersrdquoareurgedto purify their carnal impulses sharpen their knives for the dhabh (slaughter)andheedthecallofthehur lsquoayn (theblack-eyedones)await-ingtheminParadise(seechapter19)

Such rhetoric primarily registers women as an extensionmirror ormeasure of masculinity and together with explicit Islamist argumentsabouthumannatureandthefamilyarticulatesIslamistgendernormsinwhichmenandwomeneachhaveaproperlocationandpurposeinadi-vinely ordained social hierarchy Deviance from this gendered scriptthussignalsdisruptionofamuchbroaderreligio-politicalorderitbothpresumes and seeks to bring into existence The disruption caused byforeign aggression in particular exacerbates the tendency to translateconflict into an assault on Muslim masculinity and to conceptualizewomenaspotentialvehiclesforWesterncorruptioninneedofguidingand guarding Women such as Zaynab al-Ghazali and Nadia Yassinewho seek a prominent place and voice within the Islamist movementhavehadlittlechoicebuttocontendwiththisgenderedscriptDoingsohasentailedamongotherthingsnavigatingcarefullybetweenIslamistcharacterizations of womenrsquos visibility and agency as symptomatic ofthe new jahiliyya on the one hand and essentializing arguments thatequateIslamwithveilingfemalegenitalmutilationandhonorkillingsontheother

AsthechaptersonGhazaliandYassinesuggestIslamistwomenhavenegotiatedbetweensuchconstraintsandpressuresandtheirownambi-tionsindifferentwaysApioneeringdalsquoiya(onewhoinvitesMuslimstogreater piety)Ghazalirsquos own life reveals a fierce resistance to conven-tionalnormsofdomesticityevenasmuchofher(earlier)workappearsto embrace an Islamist gender ideology that defines women as wivesmothers andldquobuilders ofmenrdquo (al-Hashimi 1990 118)By contrastYassineisawifeandmotherwhoembracesanldquoIslamicfeminismrdquothatrequiresldquoreappropriatingtheinstrumentsofclassicaltheologyrdquoanden-

24TheIslamistjournalSawt alshyJihadhasgonesofarastofeatureldquowomenrsquosvoicesrdquointheformofrolemodelsnamedforexampleumm alshyshahid(motherofthemartyr)al-thoughitisunclearthattheseldquovoicesrdquoareactuallywomenrsquos(SUsher2004)

38

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INTRODUCTION

gaging the textsdirectly through ijtihad (NYassine2003) In this re-spect Yassine must be understood as part of a broader effort amongMuslimwomenwithdifferentpoliticalcommitmentstosimultaneouslyadvocateandenacttheirrighttorecuperatetheldquooriginalintentrdquooftheIslamictextsIfwomenandmendoinfacthavedistinctperspectivesontheworldYassinesuggestswomenhaveaspecialobligationtoexcavatewhattheyseeasthegenderparityoftheQurrsquoanburiedbeneaththoseldquomachointerpretationsrdquoofIslamuponwhichmenhavebuilttheirprivi-legeandpower(Khalaf2006)25

ManyAnglo-AmericanandEuropean feministsworry that Islamistsseekonly to secureor restorepatriarchalpowerConverselymany Is-lamist women view feminism as a term and a movement inescapablyWesterninoriginfreightedwiththelegacyofcolonialismanduneasilyimplicatedinculturalimperialismThisapplieseventoYassinewhoisunwillingtoadoptwithoutqualificationalabelsheassociateswithagen-dasopposedtoherowntheWesttheMoroccanstateMaghribi(North-westAfrican)elitesYetfeminismitselfisahighlycontestedtermwithin theso-calledWestitisthebearerofmultiplemeaningssomeofwhichareevenopposedandischaracterizedbydeepdisagreementsaboutwhowomenarewhatwomenneedwhoisauthorizedtoworkonwomenrsquosbehalf andbywhatmeans Inasmuch as these various feminismsmayshareonlyastatedconcernforwomenrsquoswelfarethereisnothinginco-herentinmodifyingldquofeminismrdquowithldquoIslamicrdquoldquoMuslimrdquoorevenldquoIs-lamistrdquounlessone iscommitted toarguing thatfirst Islam isanun-changingessencebeyondhistorypoliticsandculturesecondthereisaneutralobjectivevantagefromwhichtoidentifythisessenceonceandforallandfinallytheIslamicessencesoidentifiedisfundamentallyin-compatiblewitheffortstoimprovetheconditionsandqualityofwomenrsquoslivesBythesametokenIslamistwomenwhorejectthetermfeminismcanbe(althoughnotalwaysare)deeplycommittedtoimprovingwom-enrsquoswelfareaswellasactivelyresistanttoeffortsthatreduceortrans-formthemintosilentaccessoriesofmalepower

YassineandGhazalidifferaboutwhatwomenareandshouldbeyetbroadlyspeakingbothmaybeconsideredpartofarecenttrendtowardthe feminizationofdalsquowa Dalsquowa literallymeanscallappealor sum-monsbutthetermhascometosignifyavarietyofpracticesandargu-mentsmeanttoexhortinviteandguideMuslimstowhatisregardedasproperconductandmoraldevotionWomenrsquosparticipationindalsquowais

25WomenrsquosparticipationintheldquoproductionofofficialIslamicknowledgerdquohasalonghistoryalthoughtheyhaveoftendonesoinrelativeobscurityandwithoutthebenefitofeducation in the Islamicsciences thathas legitimateddirectengagementwith thesacredtexts (Cooke 2001 xiv Badran and Cooke 2004) Pioneering attempts to read genderequalityinIslamarealsonotconfinedtowritingbywomenasevincedbyQasimAminrsquosTahrir alshymarrsquoa [TheLiberationofWoman] (1899)andMumtaz lsquoAlirsquosHuquqshye niswan [TheRightsofWomen](1898)

39

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

notabrandnewphenomenonasisevidentinGhazalirsquosworkwiththeEgyptianSocietyofMuslimLadiesinthe1930sYetfromEgypttoPaki-stantoSaudiArabiatotheUnitedStatesthenumberoffemaledalsquoiyashasproliferatedexponentially inrecentyears(Cooke2001Mahmood2005Hirschkind2006)Thisreflectsinpartcurrentdoctrinalempha-sesondalsquowaasincumbentuponbothmenandwomenanddependentlessupontechnicalknowledgethanmoralvirtueandpracticalfamiliaritywiththeIslamictradition(Mahmood200565ndash66)It isalsoaconse-quenceofrecentpoliticalandsocioeconomictransformationsinMuslimsocietiesincludingtheexpansionofmasseducationthathasnotonlyin-creasedwomenrsquosliteracyandsocialmobilitybutalsomadeIslamictextsmoreaccessibletheproliferationoftechnologiesmdashfromthecassettetapetotheInternetmdashthatfacilitatethecirculationofreligiousknowledgeevenamongthosewhocannotreadortraveltheprecedentsetbythevigorousparticipationof IranianwomeninpostrevolutiondebatesaboutIslamandthemodeloflegalactivismevidentintheIslamistmovementrsquosownchallenge to the lsquoulamarsquos status as gatekeepers of religious knowledge(Singerman2005Mir-Hosseini1999)

If Ghazali and Yassine exemplify the feminization of dalsquowa amongelitesthemosquemovementinEgyptillustratesthegrowingparticipa-tionofwomenfromdiversesocialbackgroundsinreligiousclassesde-votedtostudyinganddebatingwhatIslamrequiresforawomantobeldquomorallyuprightrdquointhecontemporaryworld(Mahmood2005)Con-ceptualizingpiety in termsof adeepandholistic commitment to self-transformationparticipantsinthemosquemovementareconcernedlesswithmattersofsovereigntyandpoliticsconventionallyunderstoodandmorewiththeldquomoralcultivationrdquoofthosedailypracticesseenascrucialtobecomingclosertoGod(Mahmood2005)SomeIslamistshavecriti-cizedthis focusonpracticesofworshipasapoliticalandoverlypriva-tizedyetsuchcriticismmissestheforceofIslamistsrsquoowninsistenceondin(religion)asawayoflifeinwhichthedomainsofpublicandprivateare inextricably linked26AsSabaMahmood (2005193194) showsthesewomenrsquosintenseeffortsatldquoretrainingethicalsensibilitiesrdquohavealdquosociopoliticalforcerdquothatextendswellbeyondmattersofgovernancefacilitatingnolessthantheemergenceofaldquonewsocialandmoralorderrdquoEvidenceofitstransformativepowermaybefoundnotonlyinthesheernumbersandvarietyofwomenmdashwealthyandpoor literateand illiter-atemdashparticipatinginthemosquemovementbutalsointherhetoricalandpoliticaleffortsbythestateandsomeIslamiststocurtailcontrolordis-creditit(Mahmood200571194)

26ParticipantsinthemosquemovementinturnareoftencriticalofwhattheyseeasthereductionofIslamtotokensofculturalauthenticityorofitsinstrumentalizationbybothnationalistsandIslamiststheycharacterizeasmoreinterestedinpoliticalmaneuveringthanreligiouspiety

40

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

Understoodtoincludebothwrittenandembodiedpracticesthefemi-nizationof dalsquowa illustrates theways inwhichwomen fromdifferentperspectivesandsocialclassesareinsistingonengagingthesacredtextsdirectly for and with one another without the mediating authority ofmenwhohavetraditionallyheldthemonopolyonsuchactivitiesAsSu-danese Islamist Lubabah al-Fadl argues ldquoAs an insan [human being]whohappenstobeawomanIhavearighttorejectthemanipulativeexegesesofoursharilsquoa thatthreatenmyexistenceinawaythat isnotconsistentwiththeGodlywayandtoapplymyownijtihadtorectifyer-roneoustendenciesbysomeshuyukh[pluralofshaykh]rdquo(Sadiki2004290)DespitetheproliferationofvoicesintentonclaimingforthemselvestheauthoritytodemarcatewhatisauthenticallyIslamicandun-Islamiconceandforallcontestationoveritsscopeandmeaningproceedsapacefacilitatedatleastinpartbywomenformerlyexcludedfromtheconver-sationAtthesametimeIslamistwomenrsquosagencyandclaimstoauthorityarefrequentlystillpredicatedonawillingnesstofollowfairlypatriarchalrulesaboutwherehowandwithwhomtheymaypracticetheirvocation(Hirschkind2003Sadiki2004283)

Islamism and Violence

IfgenderisfrequentlyanimplicitpreoccupationamongIslamistsjihadisarguably Islamistsrsquomost consistently explicit concern Jihad is derivedfromtheArabicverbthatmeanstostruggleortostriveyetitisaparticu-larkindofstruggle that isofconcern tomanyof thefigurescollectedheretheoftenviolentstruggleagainstapostatesandinfidelsbothathomeandabroadtowhicheveryindividualMuslimmustcontributeTheclaimthatfightingunbelieversisthepreeminentenactmentofindividualMus-limpiety seems to justify characterizationsof Islam ingeneral and Is-lamisminparticularassanctioningevenencouragingviolenceYetwhatIslamistsrepresentasjihadtout courtisahistoricallyspecificunderstand-ingderivedfromahighlyselectiveuseoftextsandprecedentsprominentamongthemaformerlyobscureclaimbytheinfluentialfourteenth-cen-tury jurist IbnTaymiyya thatMongol rulerswhohad contravened Is-lamiclawcouldbesubjecttoforcibleremovalFarfromadefinitiveex-pressionof Islamldquoproperlyunderstoodrdquo such Islamist argumentsnotonlymarkasignificantdeparturefrommuchofantecedentdoctrineandpractice but also diminish the importance of ongoing disagreementsamongMuslimsabouttheformandpurposesofjihad

TobeginwithMuslimscholarshavetendedtoconsiderjihadagainstforeignenemiesafard kifaya(collectiveobligation)thatisadutyagroupofpeoplewithinthecommunitymayperformonbehalfoftherestandonethatpresupposesalegitimateMuslimleadertodeclareorleadthechargeJuristshavedistinguishedthisfromthefard lsquoayn(individualduty)thatmustbefulfilledbyeverysingleMuslimincasesofdefensivejihad

41

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

thatiswhentheummaisunderattackManyIslamistsincludedheretakeamuchlessnuancedviewofjihadAsamodeofpoliticalactionQutbarguesjihadmustberegardedasaldquopermanentconditionnotanocca-sionalconcernrdquoonethatincurrentcircumstancesrequiresdeedsratherthanwordsstruggleratherthancontemplationrevolutionathomeaswellasresistanceabroad(Qutb199167ndash6882)lsquoAbdal-SalamFarajarguesalongsimilarlinesthatthenatureoftheattackonIslammakespolitical authorization by a caliph (ldquodeputyrdquo referring to a legitimatesuccessortotheProphetrsquosleadership)unnecessaryafterallldquoleadershipovertheMuslimsis(always)intheirownhandsifonlytheymakethismanifestIfthereissomethinglackingintheleadershipwellthereisnothingthatcannotbeacquiredrdquo(Jansen1986asec93)

SuchargumentsareadeliberaterejectionofearlyMuslimmodernistswhohademphasizedthelargelydefensivecharacterofjihadandsoughttoshowthatrelationsbetweenMuslimsandnon-MuslimswerenormallypeacefulratherthanantagonisticMahmudShaltut(d1963)therectorof al-Azhar from 1958 to 1963 had argued for example that theQurrsquoanicversesonfightingldquoprohibittheprovocationofhostilityandthisprohibitionisreinforcedbyGodrsquosrepugnancetoaggressionandbyhisdislikeofthosewhoprovokehostilityrdquo(Peters199674onShaltutseeZebiri1993)ConversionbyforceisanathematoIslamShaltutaversandfightingiscommandedonlyindefenseinresponsetoaggressionini-tiatedbyothersEvendefensivejihadmustaimatldquotheterminationoftheaggressionandtheestablishmentofreligiouslibertydevotedtoGodandfreefromanypressureorforcerdquo(Peters199675)

ManyIslamistsexplicitlydismisssuchargumentsasasymptomoffalseconsciousnessoneamongmanydestructiveeffectsofcolonialdomina-tionMawdudiargues for example thatwhile imperialists ravage theworld to satisfy their greed jihad alone ldquoconjures up the vision of amarching band of religious fanatics with savage beards and fiery eyesbrandishingdrawnswordsandattackingtheinfidelswherevertheymeetthemrdquoHavinginternalizedthis imageMuslimsrushtoapologizeandrenouncearmedstruggleInthiswayhelamentscolonialistsretaintheexclusiverighttoldquofightwitharmsandammunitionwhilewearecon-tented with our pen and our tonguerdquo (Mawdudi 1948 1ndash3) SayyidQutbforhispartagreedthatIslamdoesnotcountenancespreadingitsmessagebyforceandcoercionyethehadlittlepatiencewiththosewhosoughttopresentjihadaslegitimateonlyinself-defense

IfweinsistoncallingIslamicjihadadefensivemovementthenwemustchangethemeaningofthewordldquodefenserdquoandmeanbyitldquothedefenseofmanrdquoagainstallthoseforcesthatlimithisfreedomWhenwetakethisbroadmeaningofthewordldquodefenserdquoweunder-standthetruecharacterofIslaminthatitproclaimstheuniversalfreedomofeverypersonandcommunityfromservitudetoanyother

42

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

individualorsocietytheendofmanrsquosarroganceandselfishnesstheestablishmentofthesovereigntyofAllahandHisLordshipthrough-outtheworldandtheruleofthedivinesharilsquoainhumanaffairs(Qutb199050)

Qutbdoesnotnameanynamesincastigatingtheldquowriterswithdefeatistandapologeticmentalities[who]writeaboutlsquojihadinIslamrsquoandtrytoremovethislsquoblotrsquofromIslamrdquo(Qutb199046)buthecouldverywellhavehadhisdistinguishedfellowEgyptianMahmudShaltutinmind

These arguments about jihad may be said to constitute a commongrammarandframeworkofanalysisformanyIslamistsalthoughseveralthinkers in this volume carefully calibrate such claims to suit variouspurposesanddifferentpublicspheresInhisjustificationfortheassassi-nationofEgyptianpresidentAnwaral-SadatforexamplelsquoAbdal-SalamFarajdepictsthestruggletoreclaimthemoralfoundationsoftheEgyp-tianstateasafightagainstjahiliyyafromwithinarguingthatthejihadagainstacorruptnationalistregimeathomemusttakeprecedenceoverfightingenemieselsewhereTheCharterofHamas(seechapter15)how-everinsiststhatallMuslimsrecognizetheprimacyofthejihadforJeru-salemweldingIslamistrhetorictothatofnationalistresistanceinanef-fortbothtofightIsraelioccupationandtocompeteforadherentswiththePalestinianLiberationOrganization(PLO)IncontrasttobothFarajandHamasBinLadenembracesaglobaljihadthatessentiallycollapsesdistinctionsbetweennationalandinternationaloffensiveanddefensivefightingenemiesathomeandthosefromafar

Yet despite such differences these arguments tend to presume thatviolent jihad is a necessary response to the pervasive power of thosewithdemonstratedhostilitytoMuslimliveslandspietiesandsensibili-tiesaformofretaliationwhoseurgencyandlegitimacyderivefromtheviolencemdashpsychologicalandeconomicaswellasphysicalmdashoftheinitialassaultThisviewofjihadsubsumesindividualsintoarchetypesofldquoin-fidelsrdquoandldquobelieversrdquoandinsodoingvitiatesmoreconventionaldis-tinctionsbetweenforexamplesoldierandcivilianorcollectiveandin-dividual responsibility It is far from inevitable that thosewhoharborsuchviewswillautomaticallyactuponthemyetthecarnagewroughtbytheattacksontheWorldTradeCenterandthePentagonin2001aBalinightclub in 2002 Madrid commuter trains in 2004 and throughoutIraqonadailybasissuggestjusthowlethalsuchclaimscanbegiventheright circumstances The fact that such violence does not discriminateamongvictimsonlyfurtherfuelsrhetoriccharacterizingIslamistsasirra-tional fanatics ldquoin love with deathrdquo terrorists animated by a religioncharacterizedbyapropensityforviolenceandauthoritarianism27

27AnxietiesabouttheparticularsusceptibilityofMuslimstoirrationalityinsularityandfanaticismhavealonganddistinguishedpedigreeinEuro-AmericanhistoryandpoliticalthoughtSeeforexampleRenan18833

43

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

AsinsomanyothermattershoweverIslamistsarehardlyofonemindonthesubjectofjihadindeedthereareIslamistswhoexplicitlyrejectthereductionof struggle toviolenceAcase inpoint isNadiaYassine(20032005c)whoinsiststhatjihadisthededicatedstruggleagainstisshytikbar(arrogance)particularlyinitscommonformasthelustforpoweranddominationAsjihadagainstistikbarisbothafinalgoalandapre-scriptionforactionYassinesuggestsitisantitheticaltoviolentpracticesthataimatdominationTheprimaryinstrumentsofjihadarenotbombsbutwords particularly thosedeployed in the art of persuasion (Fara-marzi2005NYassine2006a)WhenIslamistssuchaslsquoAbdal-SalamFarajandlsquoUmarlsquoAbdal-RahmanseektolegitimizeviolentrevolutionbyrecoursetoIslamictextsshearguestheycontravenethetruemeaningofjihadtoservetheirownarrogantendsBythesametokenBinLadenrsquosdecisiontoldquofightevilwithevilandbarbaritywithbarbarityrdquonotonlyviolatesspecificIslamicprohibitionsagainstharmingcivilianswomenandchildrenbutalsobetraystheethicalimperativetoembodythemes-sageofamercifulGodwhocautionsbelieversthat(Q8822)ldquoYouhavenopoweroverthemrdquo(NYassine2005cDaily Excelsior2002)

SuchpersistentdisagreementsamongMuslimspastandpresentsug-gest that Islam isnomore inherently violent andbloody-minded thanitmdashorChristianityor Judaism for thatmattermdashis inherentlypeacefulIslamists often claim to speak for an unchanging authentic Islam thatexistsoutsideoftimeandspaceyetthepoliticalpurchaseoftheirper-spective derives from the ways it assembles disparate yet recognizablecontemporaryexperiencesofsufferingfrustrationandlossintoanex-planationthatresonateswithMuslimswholiveincommunitiescultur-allylinguisticallyandgeographicallydistantfromoneanotherTheex-tenttowhichIslamistargumentsresonatebroadlyacrossMuslimsocie-tiesthusdependsuponasetofexperiencesandphenomenathatmarkthisparticularmomentinhistoryincludingthewaysinwhichcontempo-raryglobalinequalitiescompoundalegacyofhistoricalasymmetriestocontinuallyreproduceasenseofMuslimpowerlessnessmdashbothrealandimaginedmdashrelativetotheWestcontinuingEuro-Americanpoliticalandfinancialsupportofcorruptautocratsmanyofwhompresideoverna-tion-statesbrutallystitchedtogetherbyWesternfiat thepersistenceofauthoritarian regimes eager to control domestic unrest by catalyzingldquoMuslimragerdquotowardexternaltargetsthesenseofemasculationpro-ducedbydecadesofpoliticalrepressionandeconomicfrustrationandthecontinualflowofimagesofbloodiedMuslimbodiesdeliveredbyaburgeoningarrayofvideosatelliteandelectronicmedia

It is notable that the understanding of jihad many Islamists proffermirrorstheverystate-sanctionedviolenceagainstwhichtheyhavestrug-gledforalmostacenturyAlongwiththousandsofMuslimscaughtinthemachineryoftwentieth-centurystateviolenceprominentIslamistsfromQutbtoGhazalitoAymanal-Zawahirimdashal-Qalsquoidarsquossecondincommandmdash

44

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

arewellknowntohavebeenradicalizedbyextendedandoftenbrutaltermsofincarcerationinEgyptSyriaIraqJordanIsraelAlgeriaandelsewhere(onal-ZawahiriandprisoncfKepelandMilelli2008152ndash54)ItisthusfarfromsurprisingthatIslamistsforgedbyinterrogationtortureinprisoncampswouldconcludethatthepreeminentenactmentofMuslimpietyisviolentstruggleldquoPrisonrdquoasPalestinianKhaledAbuHilalhassaidldquoismyuniversityrdquo(Erlanger2007)anargumentmadeingreaterdetailinadifferenttimeandplacebyRussianwriterandrevolu-tionaryMaximGorky(1868ndash1936)

Apeoplebroughtupinaschoolthatremindsoneofthetormentsofhellonasmallscaleapeopleaccustomedtotheclenched-fistprisonandthewhipwillnotbeblestwithatenderheartApeoplethatthepoliceagentshaveriddenoverwillbecapableintheirturnofwalk-ingoverthebodiesofothersInacountrywhereunresthasreignedsolongit isdifficultforthepeopletorealizefromonedaytothenextthepowerofrightOnecannotdemandfromamanwhohasneverknownjusticethatheshouldbejust(Gorky1920)

InthiscontextasTimothyMitchell(1990195ndash96199207ndash8)suggestsIslamistviewsoftheworldcanbecharacterizedasbothamodeofresis-tancetostatemechanismsofcoercionandanexpressionofthemSuchisthedynamic evident inGhazalirsquosmemoirs for examplewhen shede-scribeshowtheldquodarknessofprisonsthebladesoftortureandthevi-ciousbeatingsonly increasetheenduranceandresolveofthefaithfulrdquo(Ghazali19786)

There is no doubt a great deal of pragmatism at work in IslamistargumentsaboutviolenceAsQutb(19916447ndash48)drylynotesthepathtofreedommustoccasionallybehewnbywayoftheswordbecausetyrants are not reasoned out of power and ldquojahiliyya is not lsquoabstracttheoryrsquo[it]consciouslyorunconsciouslystrivestopreserveitsownexistence to defend its essence to annihilate dangerous elementswhichthreatenitsverybeingrdquoYetitisalsothecasethatformanyoftheseIslamistsjihadisbothameansandanendanefforttoeradicatethoseobstacles torestoringa justcommunityonearththatsimultane-ouslybringshumanaction intoaccordwithGodrsquosplansandpurposes(Haddad198321)While theQurrsquoan (2256) states thatldquothere isnocompulsioninreligionrdquoIslamistscontendthatonlyinastateinwhichIslamiclawreignssupremearehumanbeingsfreefromenslavementtooneanotherrsquosruleandallareequalbyvirtueoftheircommonsubmissiontoGodAsQutb(1991107ndash8)argues

WhenthehighestauthorityinsocietyisGodalonemdashexpressedintheruleofdivinelawmdashonlythenishumanitytrulyandcompletelyliber-atedfromslaverytomenOnlythisisldquohumancivilizationrdquobecausetheessentialfoundationofhumancivilizationisthetrueandcom-

45

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

pletefreedomofhumanityandtheabsolutedignityofeveryindivid-ualinsocietyThereisnotruefreedomanddignityforhumanityortheindividualinasocietywheresomepeoplearelordswholegislateandothersareslaveswhoobey

From this perspective the realization of justice liberty equality andchoiceitselfnecessitatestheforcibleremovaloftheconstraintsimposedbyjahiliyyaalongwiththosewhoaidandabetitno matter the costAsMawdudi(1954160ndash61)writes

[W]hyisitthatinreligionsuchimportanceisgiventojihadthattheQurrsquoanpronouncesthejudgmentofhypocrisyuponthosewhoshirkandevadeitJihadisbutanothernamefortheattempttoerectthesystemoftruthandtheQurrsquoandeclaresjihadtobeatouchstoneonthesamefootingwithamanrsquosfaithInotherwordshewhohasfaithinhisheartwillneitherbecontentwiththedominationofthesystemofevilnorwillhegrudgetheexpenditureoflifeandwealthinthestruggleforerectingthesystemoftruthIfoneshowsweaknessinthismatterhisfaithitselfisdoubtfulWhatcananythingelsebesidethenprofithimThemanwhoprofesses faith in this religioncannotfulfillhisdutyonlybytryingasfaraspossibletopatternhislifeonIslamThenatureofhisfaithitselfrequiresthatheshouldconcentrateallhiseffortuponwrestingleadershipfromunbelievingandcorruptmentoentrustittotherighteousanduponerectingthesystemoftruththathasbeenordainedfortheconductoftheworldaccordingtothewillofGodBecausethisendisunattainablewith-out thehighestdegreeofcollectiveeffort theremustexistarigh-teouscommunitycommittedtotheprincipleoftruthanddevotedtothesolepurposeintheworldoferectingmaintainingandproperlyrealizingthesystemoftruth

ThefactthatsomeIslamistthinkerssanctifyviolentstruggleinsuchtermsdoesnotmeanofcoursethatallthosewhoadvocateorengageinjihadendorseviolence28NordoesitimplythatthosewhoclaimtokillforIslamareentirelywithoutulteriormotivesthosemanipulativepur-poses andpsychologicalmotivations that even themost rarified scrip-turalargumentscanexpressorserveWhattheprecedinganalysisdoessuggesthoweveristhatthereductionofthisviewofjihadtoirrationalbloodlusttheself-interestedgrabfortemporalpoweroradoorthroughwhichtopassintothehereaftermissesacrucialdimensionofitssignifi-canceandappealfortruebelieversjihadisnolessthananenactmentof

28EvenashespokeofaneweraofjahiliyyaandofjihadMawdudihimselfstoppedwellshortof recommendingor condoning the actual resort to violence in themannermanyotherIslamistsdidAsNasr(199670)observesMawdudirsquosorganizationtheJamalsquoat-iIs-lamildquohasavoidedviolentsocialchangeandhasinsteadviewedthepathtotheIslamicstateaslyingwithintheexistingsociopoliticalorderrdquoAlsoseethechapters5and3onQutbandMawdudiinthisvolume

46

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

adivineimperativetoremakethefoundationsofcollectivelifeInthisre-spectIslamistviewsofjihadcanbeseenaspartofalong-standingasso-ciationbetweenviolenceandpoliticalfoundingsuponwhichnoparticu-larcultureorhistoricalepochhasamonopolyThisassociationandtheldquolegacyofviolencerdquoitbequeathstofuturegenerationsarenolessappar-entinthoseradicalrevolutionsofrenewalthatmovebywayoftheswordfromthemarginstothecenterthanthosepoliticalfoundingsthatclaimtocreatesomethingoutofnothing(Connolly1995251)Ineithercasethetollofsuchbrutalitycanbeimmeasurableforinadditiontothevic-timswhosufferdirectlytheldquopracticeofviolencelikeallactionchangestheworldbutthemostprobablechangeistoamoreviolentworldrdquo(Ar-endt1972177)

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Page 31: Chapter 1 INTRODUCTION - assets.press.princeton.eduassets.press.princeton.edu/chapters/s9067.pdf · Chapter 1 INTRODUCTION This volume is intended as a broad introduction to the evolution

31

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INTRODUCTION

peopleoughttobeseenhearguesnotinoppositiontotheruleofGodbutratherinoppositiontotheruleofthedespotMorefundamentallyQaradawirsquos view of democracy does not necessarily require that thepeopleshouldbeabletooverturndivinelyinstitutednormsRatherhisassumptionisthatpeopleexercisetheirsovereigntywithinconstitutionalboundsandMuslimslivinginapredominantlyMuslimdemocraticpol-itywouldlikewisenotwishtotransgresstheparametersoflegitimatehumanactionlaiddownintheIslamicfoundationaltexts(seeQaradawichapter9inthisvolumeandcfFeldman2007)

NadiaYassineofMoroccorsquosJusticeandSpiritualityAssociationisan-othercaseinpointWhilecriticalofthedemocraticgesturesembracedbyamonarchythatshedepictsasallergictogenuinelypopularsovereigntyYassineinsiststhatthemodelofMuslimruleadumbratedintheummafoundedbytheProphetMuhammadandinparticulartheConstitutionofMedina17isnothingshortofdemocratic(NYassine2005d2005e)UnliketheMuslimdynastiesthatarosetousurpitYassinecontendsthiscommunity was participatory egalitarian committed to freedom andexpressiveofGodrsquosmercyMostimportantitwasgovernedalwaysbytheQurrsquoanicprincipleofshura (consultation)bywhichYassinemeansaphilosophy of power that places sovereignty in the community ratherthaninanyindividuallinksvirtuetodeliberationratherthanobedienceandexhortsbelieverstocontinuallyadaptQurrsquoanicprinciplesthroughijtihad rather than adhere reflexively to precedent (N Yassine 2006a182ndash862005d)ManyscholarsandjournalistsremainskepticaloftheJSArsquosasyetuntestedcommitment toproceduraldemocracyandworrythatNadiaandher fatherAbdessalamultimatelyseektoestablishanIslamic state inhospitable to tolerance pluralism and civil liberties(Maghraoui2001Brandon2007Whitlock2006)YetothersarguethattheJSAisagenuinelypopulistorganizationthatrepresentstheunrepre-sentedtendstothewelfareofthedispossessedandbothexpressesandcontributestoanincreasinglyvibrantcivilsocietyinMorocco(Cavatorta2006Entelis2002)

QaradawirsquosandYassinersquosargumentstogethersuggestthatdemocracycanandhasservedaseitheracosmeticcoverfordespotismoranauthen-ticallyIslamiccheckuponcorruptandarbitraryruleAtissueinIslamistargumentsforandagainstdemocracythenarenotonlywhatcountsasldquoauthenticIslamrdquoandtheintentionsofthosewhoclaimtoknowitbutalsothecontentandcharacterofdemocracyitselfParadoxicallybothIslamistsopposedtodemocracyandthosewhotakeIslamismasinher-entlyantidemocraticregardthisasasimplematterwithanobviousan-swerdemocracyisanexpressionofandevensynonymouswithliberal-ismcapitalismandtheWestYetdemocracyisbothmorecapaciousand

17TheConstitutionofMedinawasanagreementtheProphethadenteredintowiththelocalcommunitiesincludingJewishtribesuponhisemigrationfromMeccatoMedina

32

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

moredistinctthanthispresumptionsuggestsTheworditselfofcoursederivesfromtheancientGreekdemokratiawhichmeansrule(kratos)ofthepeople(demos)andmanyderivetheequationofdemocracyandtheWestfromthisassociationwithclassicalGreeceYetancientGreekphi-losopherssuchasPlatosawindemocracythespecterofmobrulepartic-ularly vulnerable to demagoguery and despotism (a suspicion notablyechoedbyAmerican founder JamesMadison)Contrary to thedemo-cratic idealof inclusivenessmoreover citizenship inGreekdemocracyexcludedasubstantialpartofthepopulationincludingwomenslavesandforeignersFinallytheextenttowhichtheancientGreeksmayevenbecalledWesternisamatterofgreatdisputeparticularlyastheldquoWestrdquoisacategoryofrelativelyrecentprovenancethroughwhichhistoryandgeographyhavebeenretroactivelyorganized18DespitedepictionsoftheHellenicworldasWesternancientGreeksdidnotinfactviewthem-selvesintheseterms19

TheequationofdemocracywiththeWestalsopresupposestheexis-tenceofacoherentldquoWesterncivilizationrdquowitheitherculturallyhomoge-neousrootsorclearlydelineatedhistoricalandcontemporarybounda-riesorbothYetwhatiscalledtheWestisanamalgamationofmultipletraditionsincludingtheGreekRomanJudaicChristianandIslamicmdashtraditionsthatarethemselvespolyvalentratherthanhomogeneousmdashandistodaycharacterizedbyporousbordershybridsubculturesandmyriaddebtstodiversecivilizationspastandpresent20AsageographicmarkeritisvirtuallyimpossibletopinpointexactlywheretheWestbeginsandendsandthisisespeciallysonowthatpeoplesinformationandmate-rial goods crisscross cultural andnational borders atwill creating allkindsoftransnationalsubnationalandmultipleidentitiesthatshiftandreconstitutethemselvesinunpredictablewaysEventhosevaluesidenti-fiedasWesternoftenappearelsewhereinotherguisesIndeedscholarssuggestthatavarietyoftheldquostandardsexportedbytheWestanditscul-turalindustriesthemselvesturnouttobeofculturallymixedcharacterifweexaminetheirculturallineagesrdquo(Pieterse199553)

Manyalsoarguethatdemocracyisnotonlydistinctfrombutinten-sionwithboththetheoryandpracticeofpoliticsinldquoWesternrdquosocieties

18MichaelGillespie(19997ndash10)arguesthattherereadingofhistorygeographyandculturethroughtheprismofthissenseofldquotheWestrdquobegannoearlierthanthenineteenthcenturyTheideaofatimelessandbrightlinebetweenWestandEastisalsochallengedbyJeremyBrottonrsquosstudy(19989096ndash97)ofthediplomaticandintellectualexchangesbe-tweenEuropeandtheOttomanEmpireintheearlymodernperiodBrottonshowsnotonlytheextentandamityofsuchexchangesbutapersistentuncertaintyaboutwherepreciselyEuropeldquoendedrdquoandAsialdquobeganrdquo

19AncientGreeksunderstoodthemselvesasgeographicallywestofthebarbariansbutnotWesterninthecontemporarysensethatisasbothaculturalandhistoricalcategory

20StevenRuncimanrsquoswork(19543480)ontheCrusadesforexampledemonstratesaldquolongsequenceofinteractionandfusionbetweenOrientandOccidentoutofwhichourcivilizationhasgrownrdquo

33

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

many of which are more accurately classified as liberal and capitalist(Wood1994Wolin2001BallandDagger1999)Whileitisnowcom-monplacetospeakofldquoliberaldemocracyrdquoinasinglebreathliberalismanddemocracyareconceptsandpracticeswithverydifferenthistoriesandpresuppositionsUnlikedemocracyforexampleliberalismemergedfromthecrucibleofChristianreligiouswarsandintandemwiththeas-cendanceofamiddleclassthatpresagedtheendofEuropeanfeudalismTheliberalnation-statecanthusbeviewedasbothanexpressionandaconsolidationofcapitalismontheonehandandtheprincipleofasepa-rationbetweenchurchandstateontheotherBycontrastthereisnoth-ingaboutdemocracyeitherasasystemofgovernanceoracultureofpar-ticipationthatisinherentlysecularIndeedAlexisdeTocquevillefamouslyinsistedthatAmericandemocracycannotandshouldnotbesecularasreligionhelpsshiftattentionawayfromimmediatematerialpreoccupa-tionstolargerconcernsofcommunitycooperationandmoralityInfactmanydemocratictheoristsarguethatgenuinelyinclusivepopularsover-eignty is antithetical to the sharp inequalities of wealth and politicalpowerthatcapitalismoftenproducesandlegitimates

SuchongoingdefinitionalandsubstantivedebatessuggestthatthereismuchmoreatstakeindemocraticpoliticsthanprocedurespertainingtogovernmentauthorityandorderandpointtoawidespreadifelusiveunderstandingofdemocracynotjustasasetofinstitutionsbutasTocque-villesuggestsawayoflifeSeveralpoliticaltheoristshavecharacterizedthiselusiveunderstandingintermsofaldquodemocraticethosrdquoBythistheymeanbothanidealandanargumentforacultureofparticipationactivepowersharingmutualaccountabilityinclusivenessanddeliberationinwhichcitizensmayroutinelyandsafelychallengenotonlyspecificpoli-ciesandpolitical institutionsbutalso thevalues thatgoverncollectivelifeprinciplesofinclusionandexclusionandthepremisesofauthorityitself(Connolly1995JPEuben2003Sadiki2004)AdemocraticethosismuchmoredifficulttomeasureorquantifythanforexampleSamuelHuntingtonrsquosparsimoniousdefinitionofdemocracyasapolityinwhichtherehavebeentwoconsecutivepeacefulchangesofgovernmentbywayof freeand fairelections (Huntington1991)21Yetademocraticethosmakesitpossibletobothrecognizeanddisaggregatethepreconditionsaspirations mechanisms and institutions bundled into ldquodemocracyrdquotherebybringingintofocusforexamplethefrequentlyantidemocratic

21Manypoliticalscientistsprefertodefinedemocracyintermsofproceduresdesignedtorealizepopularruleincludingfreecompetitiveandfairelectionsalongwithstateprotec-tionofcertainrightsandlibertiesSuchaformalminimalistdefinitionhastheadvantageofdetachingdemocracyfromquestionsoforiginsandofferingastandardtowhichallgov-ernmentsmaybeheldregardlessofcultureandplaceAsKeithTopper(2005205ndash7)ar-gueshoweveritalsotendstosidestepknottyquestionsaboutthesubstanceofrepresenta-tion power responsiveness and accountability that are arguably central to democraticpolitics

34

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

casttoelectionsimposedbyelitesorforeignpowersthefeltimpotenceofmanycitizensinestablisheddemocraciesandthosehighlyparticipa-torycivilsocietiesthatflourishevenundermonarchicortheocraticrule

Forourpurposes inparticularademocraticethosmakesvisible theparadoxofanIslamistmovementthatseekstomobilizeordinaryMus-limsagainstcoercivepowerbutinthenameofareligio-politicalorderlargelyimmunizedfromchallengeQutbisanaptillustrationhereashistendencytogroundhisownspecialauthorityandinsightintheunsulliedwisdomofordinarybelieversmakesitpossibletoreadhisworkaseitherabriefagainstdemocracy(amongotherthings)oranenactmentofitIn-asmuchasdemocracyasaformofgovernanceisidentifiedwithpopularsovereigntyQutbrsquosbasicpremisethat thefoundationof legitimateau-thoritymustbedivineratherthanhumansuggeststhatheisunambigu-ouslyantidemocraticMoreoverQutbrsquoseffortstopluralizereligiousandpolitical authority express not a confidence in common wisdom butratheradesiretoclaimforhimselfthestatureofareligiousexpertwhodespitehislackofIslamicacademiccredentialscanclearlyseewhatoth-erscannotQutbcharacterizestherealIslamasself-evidentbuthealsoassumesthatonlyasmallvanguardofbelieversbesideshimselfwillhavetheabilitytorecognizeitandactdecisivelytoremaketheworldinitsimageSounderstoodthesignofldquochosennessrdquoisunyieldingcommitmenttoestablishingareligio-politicalorderthatsimultaneouslypresumesthesupremacyofthefewcapableoftrueknowledgeandpromisesaworldinwhichdissentitselfwillbecomebothunnecessaryandillegitimate

Yetifdemocracyrefersnotonlytoasystemofgovernanceorsetofprocedurestorealizepopularsovereigntybutalsotopracticesthatdis-ruptthoseforceswhichconcentratepowerandestablishpoliticalexclu-sionthecharacterizationofQutbrsquosworkassimplyantidemocraticmissesa crucial dimensionof its significance and appealAs the sacred textscontaintherulesandregulationsmeanttogovernbothpublicandpri-vateaffairsQutbrsquosinsistencethatordinaryuntrainedMuslimsmusten-gagethemdirectlyisinmanywaysademocratizationofaccesstoau-thoritySuchaccesscandisruptdeeplyentrenchedpatternsofpowerandpowerlessness particularlywhen conjoined to Islamist arguments thatarbitrarypowerisun-Islamicthatreligiousknowledgedependsoncom-mitmentratherthantrainingorexpertise thatMuslimshavetherightandobligationtodeterminewhenrulersareillegitimateandthatthosewhopreferordertojusticesecuritytofreedomandmoneytopietyhaveforfeitedanyclaimtoauthority

ThisaspectofIslamismhasfrequentlybeencomparedtotheProtestantReformationandmorespecificallytoCalvinistsrsquoattemptstotransferldquore-ligiousauthorityawayfromofficiallysanctionedindividualswhointer-prettextstoordinarycitizensrdquo(EGoldberg19913alsocfLoimeier2005)Suchaparallelhassparkedagreatdealofscholarlyspeculation

35

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

regardingapossibleldquoIslamicReformationrdquo22andarangeofargumentsaboutwhetherandhowIslamismmightfacilitatethedemocratizationofMuslim societies much as the Protestant Reformation is said to haveheralded the emergence of European ldquoliberal democracyrdquo While suchcomparisonsareevocativeafullerunderstandingof IslamismrequiresfirstsituatingitinrelationtoahistoricalshiftinthenatureandlocusofreligiousauthorityinIslambeginninginthenineteenthcenturyAsschol-arsofMuslimsocietieshavepointedouttheimpactofmasseducationnewtechnologiesfordisseminatingknowledgeandinformationanddra-matically changed social economic and political contexts have madeavailabletoamateurswhathadpreviouslybeenthepurviewofreligiousexpertsAtthesametimeithasinauguratedafragmentationofauthor-itywithintheveryranksofthelsquoulamathatcontinuestothepresentday23

InthiscontexttheascendanceandinfluenceofautodidactssuchasQutbHasanal-BannalsquoAbdal-SalamFarajandBinLadensimultaneouslyex-pressandaccelerateanongoingrenegotiationofauthorityoverwhomayspeakforIslamandonwhatbasisthepathofwhichisstillunfoldingandtheoutcomeasyetuncertain

Islamism and Gender

One already apparent consequence of this ongoing renegotiation overwhomayspeakforIslamandonwhatbasisistheentryofwomenintothe interpretive fray This development is increasingly unsettling thoseunwrittengendernormsarguablyattheveryheartofIslamistthoughtdisruptingthestandardsofmasculinityandfemininitythatreflecthowparticularculturesorganizehumanbeingsrsquosocialandreproductiveactiv-itiesintorolesthatareinturnthoughttoexpresstheldquonaturerdquoofmenand women Such norms are frequently considered tangential to theknottyproblemsofdefiningIslamismandadumbratingitscentralideasyetarangeofscholarshiponculturespastandpresenthasshownthatgenderisconsistentlytheterrainoverwhichbattlesforpoliticalcontrolandculturalidentityarefoughtMorespecificallyresearchindisciplinessuchasanthropologyhistoryclassicsandpostcolonialstudieshasdem-onstratedthatculturesinwhichfemalebodiesandbehaviorareregardedas indicesofmoralpurity tend to symbolically transformwomen intoconduitsof cultural corruption in timesof internal crisis and externalthreat(Papenek1994Chatterjee1990Tavakoli-Targhi1991Just1989Cohen1991Welter1966Bloch1978)Thisisespeciallytrueofcontem-

22Foralatenineteenth-centuryassessmentoftheprospectsforaldquoMuhammadanRefor-mationrdquoseeBlunt1882132ndash73

23EickelmanandPiscatori199637ndash39131ndash35Zaman2006Suchfragmentationhasinmanywaysbeenacceleratedbytheexplosionofdigitalcultureswhichpromoteamongotherthingsaldquoformofempoweredamateurismrdquo(Mirzoeff20026)

36

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

poraryreligio-politicalmovementswhosememberstendtoldquoidealizepa-triarchalstructuresofauthorityandmoralityrdquoendorsegenderdualismasgod-givenornaturalandcondemnvigorouslyrecentchangesingen-derrelationsasasymptomandsymbolofsecularistmoralbankruptcy(Riesebrodt1993Moghadam1992Hawley1994)

SeveralchaptersinthisvolumeilluminateIslamistgendernormsbyre-vealing thecharacterandcontentof Islamistconcernsabout theplaceandpurityofMuslimwomenmdashpreoccupationsFatimaMernissi(199199)hasgonesofarastocharacterizeasanobsessionDespiteimportantdifferences among Islamists thinkers many endorse gender norms inwhichthefairlyconventionalinsistencethatfemalenatureisdefinedinand through reproduction undergirds an understanding of women assymbolsofmoralvirtueandvesselsofculturalpurityThisviewsustainstheclaimthatmenandwomenareequalinreligiousbeliefbutperformfundamentallydifferentandcomplementaryfunctionsinsocietyWhilemenarenaturallymadetoruleinboththepublicandprivatedomainawomanbelongsinthedomesticrealmwhereherprimaryroleistobeawifeandmotheraswellastoinsuretheintegrityofthefamilythefirstschoolofmoraleducationAssuchfunctionsarerootedinaninescap-ablehumannaturefashionedbyGodawomanrsquosinabilityorunwilling-nesstoperformherdutiessignalsadisobediencetothedivinewillandpresages the corruption of the Muslim family from within From thisvantagepointtheWesterninsistenceonfullequalitybetweenthesexesisdoubly pernicious it at once liberates women from basic moral con-straintsandenslavesthemtomutuallyreinforcingsexualandcapitalistexploitationAsMurtazaMutahhari(1998xxxi)arguescapitalismmakesuseofwomentomarket itsgoodsldquoby trading inhonourandrespectthrough[their]powertoenticerdquotherebyldquotransform[ing]manintoaninvoluntaryagentofconsumptionrdquoInasmuchaswomenareresponsiblefor producing the next generation of Muslim men destined to restoreIslamtoitsformergloryitisnotonlythevirtueofwomenortheinteg-rityofthefamilythathangsinthebalancebutthefutureofIslamiccivili-zationitself

Zaynab al-Ghazali andMutahharimake several of these argumentsexplicitlyandindetail(seechapters10and11)butinmuchofIslamistrhetoricthenatureandsignificanceofwomenareestablishedindirectlyandsymbolicallyandthroughthreerecurrentimagesinparticularThefirstisofwomenassilentsymbolsofculturalmoralandsexualvulnera-bilityvoicelessfiguresinneedofmasculineprotectionorwhenitistoolatedefiledbodiesthatmutelydemandvengeanceSoforexamplelsquoAb-dallahlsquoAzzam(oneofBinLadenrsquosmentorsseechapter18)graphicallydetailstheagonizinghumiliationofyoungmenunabletoactwhentheAfghanwoman isldquocryingout forhelpher childrenarebeing slaugh-tered her women are being raped the innocent are killed and theircorpsesscatteredrdquo(lsquoAzzam1987a)Inthesecondimagewomenfunction

37

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

muchlikeachorusthatspeaksinpermittedcadencestoratifymasculineendeavorsSuchisthecaseforexampleinBinLadenrsquos1996ldquoDeclara-tionofWaragainsttheAmericansOccupyingtheLandoftheTwoHolyPlacesrdquo(seechapter18)wherethewomenexhortmentojihadinthefollowing way ldquoPrepare yourself like a struggler the matter is biggerthanwordsAreyougoingtoleaveusforthewolvesofKufr[unbe-lief]eatingourwingsWherearethefreemendefendingfreewomenbyarmsDeath isbetter than life inhumiliation Some scandals andshameswillneverbeotherwiseeradicatedrdquo24InthethirdimagewomenarecreaturesnotofthisworldbutofanothervirginalrewardsforthecourageousmartyrintheafterlifeThisisevidentinthefinalinstructionsforthe911hijackersforexamplewhereMuslimldquobrothersrdquoareurgedto purify their carnal impulses sharpen their knives for the dhabh (slaughter)andheedthecallofthehur lsquoayn (theblack-eyedones)await-ingtheminParadise(seechapter19)

Such rhetoric primarily registers women as an extensionmirror ormeasure of masculinity and together with explicit Islamist argumentsabouthumannatureandthefamilyarticulatesIslamistgendernormsinwhichmenandwomeneachhaveaproperlocationandpurposeinadi-vinely ordained social hierarchy Deviance from this gendered scriptthussignalsdisruptionofamuchbroaderreligio-politicalorderitbothpresumes and seeks to bring into existence The disruption caused byforeign aggression in particular exacerbates the tendency to translateconflict into an assault on Muslim masculinity and to conceptualizewomenaspotentialvehiclesforWesterncorruptioninneedofguidingand guarding Women such as Zaynab al-Ghazali and Nadia Yassinewho seek a prominent place and voice within the Islamist movementhavehadlittlechoicebuttocontendwiththisgenderedscriptDoingsohasentailedamongotherthingsnavigatingcarefullybetweenIslamistcharacterizations of womenrsquos visibility and agency as symptomatic ofthe new jahiliyya on the one hand and essentializing arguments thatequateIslamwithveilingfemalegenitalmutilationandhonorkillingsontheother

AsthechaptersonGhazaliandYassinesuggestIslamistwomenhavenegotiatedbetweensuchconstraintsandpressuresandtheirownambi-tionsindifferentwaysApioneeringdalsquoiya(onewhoinvitesMuslimstogreater piety)Ghazalirsquos own life reveals a fierce resistance to conven-tionalnormsofdomesticityevenasmuchofher(earlier)workappearsto embrace an Islamist gender ideology that defines women as wivesmothers andldquobuilders ofmenrdquo (al-Hashimi 1990 118)By contrastYassineisawifeandmotherwhoembracesanldquoIslamicfeminismrdquothatrequiresldquoreappropriatingtheinstrumentsofclassicaltheologyrdquoanden-

24TheIslamistjournalSawt alshyJihadhasgonesofarastofeatureldquowomenrsquosvoicesrdquointheformofrolemodelsnamedforexampleumm alshyshahid(motherofthemartyr)al-thoughitisunclearthattheseldquovoicesrdquoareactuallywomenrsquos(SUsher2004)

38

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INTRODUCTION

gaging the textsdirectly through ijtihad (NYassine2003) In this re-spect Yassine must be understood as part of a broader effort amongMuslimwomenwithdifferentpoliticalcommitmentstosimultaneouslyadvocateandenacttheirrighttorecuperatetheldquooriginalintentrdquooftheIslamictextsIfwomenandmendoinfacthavedistinctperspectivesontheworldYassinesuggestswomenhaveaspecialobligationtoexcavatewhattheyseeasthegenderparityoftheQurrsquoanburiedbeneaththoseldquomachointerpretationsrdquoofIslamuponwhichmenhavebuilttheirprivi-legeandpower(Khalaf2006)25

ManyAnglo-AmericanandEuropean feministsworry that Islamistsseekonly to secureor restorepatriarchalpowerConverselymany Is-lamist women view feminism as a term and a movement inescapablyWesterninoriginfreightedwiththelegacyofcolonialismanduneasilyimplicatedinculturalimperialismThisapplieseventoYassinewhoisunwillingtoadoptwithoutqualificationalabelsheassociateswithagen-dasopposedtoherowntheWesttheMoroccanstateMaghribi(North-westAfrican)elitesYetfeminismitselfisahighlycontestedtermwithin theso-calledWestitisthebearerofmultiplemeaningssomeofwhichareevenopposedandischaracterizedbydeepdisagreementsaboutwhowomenarewhatwomenneedwhoisauthorizedtoworkonwomenrsquosbehalf andbywhatmeans Inasmuch as these various feminismsmayshareonlyastatedconcernforwomenrsquoswelfarethereisnothinginco-herentinmodifyingldquofeminismrdquowithldquoIslamicrdquoldquoMuslimrdquoorevenldquoIs-lamistrdquounlessone iscommitted toarguing thatfirst Islam isanun-changingessencebeyondhistorypoliticsandculturesecondthereisaneutralobjectivevantagefromwhichtoidentifythisessenceonceandforallandfinallytheIslamicessencesoidentifiedisfundamentallyin-compatiblewitheffortstoimprovetheconditionsandqualityofwomenrsquoslivesBythesametokenIslamistwomenwhorejectthetermfeminismcanbe(althoughnotalwaysare)deeplycommittedtoimprovingwom-enrsquoswelfareaswellasactivelyresistanttoeffortsthatreduceortrans-formthemintosilentaccessoriesofmalepower

YassineandGhazalidifferaboutwhatwomenareandshouldbeyetbroadlyspeakingbothmaybeconsideredpartofarecenttrendtowardthe feminizationofdalsquowa Dalsquowa literallymeanscallappealor sum-monsbutthetermhascometosignifyavarietyofpracticesandargu-mentsmeanttoexhortinviteandguideMuslimstowhatisregardedasproperconductandmoraldevotionWomenrsquosparticipationindalsquowais

25WomenrsquosparticipationintheldquoproductionofofficialIslamicknowledgerdquohasalonghistoryalthoughtheyhaveoftendonesoinrelativeobscurityandwithoutthebenefitofeducation in the Islamicsciences thathas legitimateddirectengagementwith thesacredtexts (Cooke 2001 xiv Badran and Cooke 2004) Pioneering attempts to read genderequalityinIslamarealsonotconfinedtowritingbywomenasevincedbyQasimAminrsquosTahrir alshymarrsquoa [TheLiberationofWoman] (1899)andMumtaz lsquoAlirsquosHuquqshye niswan [TheRightsofWomen](1898)

39

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

notabrandnewphenomenonasisevidentinGhazalirsquosworkwiththeEgyptianSocietyofMuslimLadiesinthe1930sYetfromEgypttoPaki-stantoSaudiArabiatotheUnitedStatesthenumberoffemaledalsquoiyashasproliferatedexponentially inrecentyears(Cooke2001Mahmood2005Hirschkind2006)Thisreflectsinpartcurrentdoctrinalempha-sesondalsquowaasincumbentuponbothmenandwomenanddependentlessupontechnicalknowledgethanmoralvirtueandpracticalfamiliaritywiththeIslamictradition(Mahmood200565ndash66)It isalsoaconse-quenceofrecentpoliticalandsocioeconomictransformationsinMuslimsocietiesincludingtheexpansionofmasseducationthathasnotonlyin-creasedwomenrsquosliteracyandsocialmobilitybutalsomadeIslamictextsmoreaccessibletheproliferationoftechnologiesmdashfromthecassettetapetotheInternetmdashthatfacilitatethecirculationofreligiousknowledgeevenamongthosewhocannotreadortraveltheprecedentsetbythevigorousparticipationof IranianwomeninpostrevolutiondebatesaboutIslamandthemodeloflegalactivismevidentintheIslamistmovementrsquosownchallenge to the lsquoulamarsquos status as gatekeepers of religious knowledge(Singerman2005Mir-Hosseini1999)

If Ghazali and Yassine exemplify the feminization of dalsquowa amongelitesthemosquemovementinEgyptillustratesthegrowingparticipa-tionofwomenfromdiversesocialbackgroundsinreligiousclassesde-votedtostudyinganddebatingwhatIslamrequiresforawomantobeldquomorallyuprightrdquointhecontemporaryworld(Mahmood2005)Con-ceptualizingpiety in termsof adeepandholistic commitment to self-transformationparticipantsinthemosquemovementareconcernedlesswithmattersofsovereigntyandpoliticsconventionallyunderstoodandmorewiththeldquomoralcultivationrdquoofthosedailypracticesseenascrucialtobecomingclosertoGod(Mahmood2005)SomeIslamistshavecriti-cizedthis focusonpracticesofworshipasapoliticalandoverlypriva-tizedyetsuchcriticismmissestheforceofIslamistsrsquoowninsistenceondin(religion)asawayoflifeinwhichthedomainsofpublicandprivateare inextricably linked26AsSabaMahmood (2005193194) showsthesewomenrsquosintenseeffortsatldquoretrainingethicalsensibilitiesrdquohavealdquosociopoliticalforcerdquothatextendswellbeyondmattersofgovernancefacilitatingnolessthantheemergenceofaldquonewsocialandmoralorderrdquoEvidenceofitstransformativepowermaybefoundnotonlyinthesheernumbersandvarietyofwomenmdashwealthyandpoor literateand illiter-atemdashparticipatinginthemosquemovementbutalsointherhetoricalandpoliticaleffortsbythestateandsomeIslamiststocurtailcontrolordis-creditit(Mahmood200571194)

26ParticipantsinthemosquemovementinturnareoftencriticalofwhattheyseeasthereductionofIslamtotokensofculturalauthenticityorofitsinstrumentalizationbybothnationalistsandIslamiststheycharacterizeasmoreinterestedinpoliticalmaneuveringthanreligiouspiety

40

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

Understoodtoincludebothwrittenandembodiedpracticesthefemi-nizationof dalsquowa illustrates theways inwhichwomen fromdifferentperspectivesandsocialclassesareinsistingonengagingthesacredtextsdirectly for and with one another without the mediating authority ofmenwhohavetraditionallyheldthemonopolyonsuchactivitiesAsSu-danese Islamist Lubabah al-Fadl argues ldquoAs an insan [human being]whohappenstobeawomanIhavearighttorejectthemanipulativeexegesesofoursharilsquoa thatthreatenmyexistenceinawaythat isnotconsistentwiththeGodlywayandtoapplymyownijtihadtorectifyer-roneoustendenciesbysomeshuyukh[pluralofshaykh]rdquo(Sadiki2004290)DespitetheproliferationofvoicesintentonclaimingforthemselvestheauthoritytodemarcatewhatisauthenticallyIslamicandun-Islamiconceandforallcontestationoveritsscopeandmeaningproceedsapacefacilitatedatleastinpartbywomenformerlyexcludedfromtheconver-sationAtthesametimeIslamistwomenrsquosagencyandclaimstoauthorityarefrequentlystillpredicatedonawillingnesstofollowfairlypatriarchalrulesaboutwherehowandwithwhomtheymaypracticetheirvocation(Hirschkind2003Sadiki2004283)

Islamism and Violence

IfgenderisfrequentlyanimplicitpreoccupationamongIslamistsjihadisarguably Islamistsrsquomost consistently explicit concern Jihad is derivedfromtheArabicverbthatmeanstostruggleortostriveyetitisaparticu-larkindofstruggle that isofconcern tomanyof thefigurescollectedheretheoftenviolentstruggleagainstapostatesandinfidelsbothathomeandabroadtowhicheveryindividualMuslimmustcontributeTheclaimthatfightingunbelieversisthepreeminentenactmentofindividualMus-limpiety seems to justify characterizationsof Islam ingeneral and Is-lamisminparticularassanctioningevenencouragingviolenceYetwhatIslamistsrepresentasjihadtout courtisahistoricallyspecificunderstand-ingderivedfromahighlyselectiveuseoftextsandprecedentsprominentamongthemaformerlyobscureclaimbytheinfluentialfourteenth-cen-tury jurist IbnTaymiyya thatMongol rulerswhohad contravened Is-lamiclawcouldbesubjecttoforcibleremovalFarfromadefinitiveex-pressionof Islamldquoproperlyunderstoodrdquo such Islamist argumentsnotonlymarkasignificantdeparturefrommuchofantecedentdoctrineandpractice but also diminish the importance of ongoing disagreementsamongMuslimsabouttheformandpurposesofjihad

TobeginwithMuslimscholarshavetendedtoconsiderjihadagainstforeignenemiesafard kifaya(collectiveobligation)thatisadutyagroupofpeoplewithinthecommunitymayperformonbehalfoftherestandonethatpresupposesalegitimateMuslimleadertodeclareorleadthechargeJuristshavedistinguishedthisfromthefard lsquoayn(individualduty)thatmustbefulfilledbyeverysingleMuslimincasesofdefensivejihad

41

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

thatiswhentheummaisunderattackManyIslamistsincludedheretakeamuchlessnuancedviewofjihadAsamodeofpoliticalactionQutbarguesjihadmustberegardedasaldquopermanentconditionnotanocca-sionalconcernrdquoonethatincurrentcircumstancesrequiresdeedsratherthanwordsstruggleratherthancontemplationrevolutionathomeaswellasresistanceabroad(Qutb199167ndash6882)lsquoAbdal-SalamFarajarguesalongsimilarlinesthatthenatureoftheattackonIslammakespolitical authorization by a caliph (ldquodeputyrdquo referring to a legitimatesuccessortotheProphetrsquosleadership)unnecessaryafterallldquoleadershipovertheMuslimsis(always)intheirownhandsifonlytheymakethismanifestIfthereissomethinglackingintheleadershipwellthereisnothingthatcannotbeacquiredrdquo(Jansen1986asec93)

SuchargumentsareadeliberaterejectionofearlyMuslimmodernistswhohademphasizedthelargelydefensivecharacterofjihadandsoughttoshowthatrelationsbetweenMuslimsandnon-MuslimswerenormallypeacefulratherthanantagonisticMahmudShaltut(d1963)therectorof al-Azhar from 1958 to 1963 had argued for example that theQurrsquoanicversesonfightingldquoprohibittheprovocationofhostilityandthisprohibitionisreinforcedbyGodrsquosrepugnancetoaggressionandbyhisdislikeofthosewhoprovokehostilityrdquo(Peters199674onShaltutseeZebiri1993)ConversionbyforceisanathematoIslamShaltutaversandfightingiscommandedonlyindefenseinresponsetoaggressionini-tiatedbyothersEvendefensivejihadmustaimatldquotheterminationoftheaggressionandtheestablishmentofreligiouslibertydevotedtoGodandfreefromanypressureorforcerdquo(Peters199675)

ManyIslamistsexplicitlydismisssuchargumentsasasymptomoffalseconsciousnessoneamongmanydestructiveeffectsofcolonialdomina-tionMawdudiargues for example thatwhile imperialists ravage theworld to satisfy their greed jihad alone ldquoconjures up the vision of amarching band of religious fanatics with savage beards and fiery eyesbrandishingdrawnswordsandattackingtheinfidelswherevertheymeetthemrdquoHavinginternalizedthis imageMuslimsrushtoapologizeandrenouncearmedstruggleInthiswayhelamentscolonialistsretaintheexclusiverighttoldquofightwitharmsandammunitionwhilewearecon-tented with our pen and our tonguerdquo (Mawdudi 1948 1ndash3) SayyidQutbforhispartagreedthatIslamdoesnotcountenancespreadingitsmessagebyforceandcoercionyethehadlittlepatiencewiththosewhosoughttopresentjihadaslegitimateonlyinself-defense

IfweinsistoncallingIslamicjihadadefensivemovementthenwemustchangethemeaningofthewordldquodefenserdquoandmeanbyitldquothedefenseofmanrdquoagainstallthoseforcesthatlimithisfreedomWhenwetakethisbroadmeaningofthewordldquodefenserdquoweunder-standthetruecharacterofIslaminthatitproclaimstheuniversalfreedomofeverypersonandcommunityfromservitudetoanyother

42

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

individualorsocietytheendofmanrsquosarroganceandselfishnesstheestablishmentofthesovereigntyofAllahandHisLordshipthrough-outtheworldandtheruleofthedivinesharilsquoainhumanaffairs(Qutb199050)

Qutbdoesnotnameanynamesincastigatingtheldquowriterswithdefeatistandapologeticmentalities[who]writeaboutlsquojihadinIslamrsquoandtrytoremovethislsquoblotrsquofromIslamrdquo(Qutb199046)buthecouldverywellhavehadhisdistinguishedfellowEgyptianMahmudShaltutinmind

These arguments about jihad may be said to constitute a commongrammarandframeworkofanalysisformanyIslamistsalthoughseveralthinkers in this volume carefully calibrate such claims to suit variouspurposesanddifferentpublicspheresInhisjustificationfortheassassi-nationofEgyptianpresidentAnwaral-SadatforexamplelsquoAbdal-SalamFarajdepictsthestruggletoreclaimthemoralfoundationsoftheEgyp-tianstateasafightagainstjahiliyyafromwithinarguingthatthejihadagainstacorruptnationalistregimeathomemusttakeprecedenceoverfightingenemieselsewhereTheCharterofHamas(seechapter15)how-everinsiststhatallMuslimsrecognizetheprimacyofthejihadforJeru-salemweldingIslamistrhetorictothatofnationalistresistanceinanef-fortbothtofightIsraelioccupationandtocompeteforadherentswiththePalestinianLiberationOrganization(PLO)IncontrasttobothFarajandHamasBinLadenembracesaglobaljihadthatessentiallycollapsesdistinctionsbetweennationalandinternationaloffensiveanddefensivefightingenemiesathomeandthosefromafar

Yet despite such differences these arguments tend to presume thatviolent jihad is a necessary response to the pervasive power of thosewithdemonstratedhostilitytoMuslimliveslandspietiesandsensibili-tiesaformofretaliationwhoseurgencyandlegitimacyderivefromtheviolencemdashpsychologicalandeconomicaswellasphysicalmdashoftheinitialassaultThisviewofjihadsubsumesindividualsintoarchetypesofldquoin-fidelsrdquoandldquobelieversrdquoandinsodoingvitiatesmoreconventionaldis-tinctionsbetweenforexamplesoldierandcivilianorcollectiveandin-dividual responsibility It is far from inevitable that thosewhoharborsuchviewswillautomaticallyactuponthemyetthecarnagewroughtbytheattacksontheWorldTradeCenterandthePentagonin2001aBalinightclub in 2002 Madrid commuter trains in 2004 and throughoutIraqonadailybasissuggestjusthowlethalsuchclaimscanbegiventheright circumstances The fact that such violence does not discriminateamongvictimsonlyfurtherfuelsrhetoriccharacterizingIslamistsasirra-tional fanatics ldquoin love with deathrdquo terrorists animated by a religioncharacterizedbyapropensityforviolenceandauthoritarianism27

27AnxietiesabouttheparticularsusceptibilityofMuslimstoirrationalityinsularityandfanaticismhavealonganddistinguishedpedigreeinEuro-AmericanhistoryandpoliticalthoughtSeeforexampleRenan18833

43

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

AsinsomanyothermattershoweverIslamistsarehardlyofonemindonthesubjectofjihadindeedthereareIslamistswhoexplicitlyrejectthereductionof struggle toviolenceAcase inpoint isNadiaYassine(20032005c)whoinsiststhatjihadisthededicatedstruggleagainstisshytikbar(arrogance)particularlyinitscommonformasthelustforpoweranddominationAsjihadagainstistikbarisbothafinalgoalandapre-scriptionforactionYassinesuggestsitisantitheticaltoviolentpracticesthataimatdominationTheprimaryinstrumentsofjihadarenotbombsbutwords particularly thosedeployed in the art of persuasion (Fara-marzi2005NYassine2006a)WhenIslamistssuchaslsquoAbdal-SalamFarajandlsquoUmarlsquoAbdal-RahmanseektolegitimizeviolentrevolutionbyrecoursetoIslamictextsshearguestheycontravenethetruemeaningofjihadtoservetheirownarrogantendsBythesametokenBinLadenrsquosdecisiontoldquofightevilwithevilandbarbaritywithbarbarityrdquonotonlyviolatesspecificIslamicprohibitionsagainstharmingcivilianswomenandchildrenbutalsobetraystheethicalimperativetoembodythemes-sageofamercifulGodwhocautionsbelieversthat(Q8822)ldquoYouhavenopoweroverthemrdquo(NYassine2005cDaily Excelsior2002)

SuchpersistentdisagreementsamongMuslimspastandpresentsug-gest that Islam isnomore inherently violent andbloody-minded thanitmdashorChristianityor Judaism for thatmattermdashis inherentlypeacefulIslamists often claim to speak for an unchanging authentic Islam thatexistsoutsideoftimeandspaceyetthepoliticalpurchaseoftheirper-spective derives from the ways it assembles disparate yet recognizablecontemporaryexperiencesofsufferingfrustrationandlossintoanex-planationthatresonateswithMuslimswholiveincommunitiescultur-allylinguisticallyandgeographicallydistantfromoneanotherTheex-tenttowhichIslamistargumentsresonatebroadlyacrossMuslimsocie-tiesthusdependsuponasetofexperiencesandphenomenathatmarkthisparticularmomentinhistoryincludingthewaysinwhichcontempo-raryglobalinequalitiescompoundalegacyofhistoricalasymmetriestocontinuallyreproduceasenseofMuslimpowerlessnessmdashbothrealandimaginedmdashrelativetotheWestcontinuingEuro-Americanpoliticalandfinancialsupportofcorruptautocratsmanyofwhompresideoverna-tion-statesbrutallystitchedtogetherbyWesternfiat thepersistenceofauthoritarian regimes eager to control domestic unrest by catalyzingldquoMuslimragerdquotowardexternaltargetsthesenseofemasculationpro-ducedbydecadesofpoliticalrepressionandeconomicfrustrationandthecontinualflowofimagesofbloodiedMuslimbodiesdeliveredbyaburgeoningarrayofvideosatelliteandelectronicmedia

It is notable that the understanding of jihad many Islamists proffermirrorstheverystate-sanctionedviolenceagainstwhichtheyhavestrug-gledforalmostacenturyAlongwiththousandsofMuslimscaughtinthemachineryoftwentieth-centurystateviolenceprominentIslamistsfromQutbtoGhazalitoAymanal-Zawahirimdashal-Qalsquoidarsquossecondincommandmdash

44

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

arewellknowntohavebeenradicalizedbyextendedandoftenbrutaltermsofincarcerationinEgyptSyriaIraqJordanIsraelAlgeriaandelsewhere(onal-ZawahiriandprisoncfKepelandMilelli2008152ndash54)ItisthusfarfromsurprisingthatIslamistsforgedbyinterrogationtortureinprisoncampswouldconcludethatthepreeminentenactmentofMuslimpietyisviolentstruggleldquoPrisonrdquoasPalestinianKhaledAbuHilalhassaidldquoismyuniversityrdquo(Erlanger2007)anargumentmadeingreaterdetailinadifferenttimeandplacebyRussianwriterandrevolu-tionaryMaximGorky(1868ndash1936)

Apeoplebroughtupinaschoolthatremindsoneofthetormentsofhellonasmallscaleapeopleaccustomedtotheclenched-fistprisonandthewhipwillnotbeblestwithatenderheartApeoplethatthepoliceagentshaveriddenoverwillbecapableintheirturnofwalk-ingoverthebodiesofothersInacountrywhereunresthasreignedsolongit isdifficultforthepeopletorealizefromonedaytothenextthepowerofrightOnecannotdemandfromamanwhohasneverknownjusticethatheshouldbejust(Gorky1920)

InthiscontextasTimothyMitchell(1990195ndash96199207ndash8)suggestsIslamistviewsoftheworldcanbecharacterizedasbothamodeofresis-tancetostatemechanismsofcoercionandanexpressionofthemSuchisthedynamic evident inGhazalirsquosmemoirs for examplewhen shede-scribeshowtheldquodarknessofprisonsthebladesoftortureandthevi-ciousbeatingsonly increasetheenduranceandresolveofthefaithfulrdquo(Ghazali19786)

There is no doubt a great deal of pragmatism at work in IslamistargumentsaboutviolenceAsQutb(19916447ndash48)drylynotesthepathtofreedommustoccasionallybehewnbywayoftheswordbecausetyrants are not reasoned out of power and ldquojahiliyya is not lsquoabstracttheoryrsquo[it]consciouslyorunconsciouslystrivestopreserveitsownexistence to defend its essence to annihilate dangerous elementswhichthreatenitsverybeingrdquoYetitisalsothecasethatformanyoftheseIslamistsjihadisbothameansandanendanefforttoeradicatethoseobstacles torestoringa justcommunityonearththatsimultane-ouslybringshumanaction intoaccordwithGodrsquosplansandpurposes(Haddad198321)While theQurrsquoan (2256) states thatldquothere isnocompulsioninreligionrdquoIslamistscontendthatonlyinastateinwhichIslamiclawreignssupremearehumanbeingsfreefromenslavementtooneanotherrsquosruleandallareequalbyvirtueoftheircommonsubmissiontoGodAsQutb(1991107ndash8)argues

WhenthehighestauthorityinsocietyisGodalonemdashexpressedintheruleofdivinelawmdashonlythenishumanitytrulyandcompletelyliber-atedfromslaverytomenOnlythisisldquohumancivilizationrdquobecausetheessentialfoundationofhumancivilizationisthetrueandcom-

45

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

pletefreedomofhumanityandtheabsolutedignityofeveryindivid-ualinsocietyThereisnotruefreedomanddignityforhumanityortheindividualinasocietywheresomepeoplearelordswholegislateandothersareslaveswhoobey

From this perspective the realization of justice liberty equality andchoiceitselfnecessitatestheforcibleremovaloftheconstraintsimposedbyjahiliyyaalongwiththosewhoaidandabetitno matter the costAsMawdudi(1954160ndash61)writes

[W]hyisitthatinreligionsuchimportanceisgiventojihadthattheQurrsquoanpronouncesthejudgmentofhypocrisyuponthosewhoshirkandevadeitJihadisbutanothernamefortheattempttoerectthesystemoftruthandtheQurrsquoandeclaresjihadtobeatouchstoneonthesamefootingwithamanrsquosfaithInotherwordshewhohasfaithinhisheartwillneitherbecontentwiththedominationofthesystemofevilnorwillhegrudgetheexpenditureoflifeandwealthinthestruggleforerectingthesystemoftruthIfoneshowsweaknessinthismatterhisfaithitselfisdoubtfulWhatcananythingelsebesidethenprofithimThemanwhoprofesses faith in this religioncannotfulfillhisdutyonlybytryingasfaraspossibletopatternhislifeonIslamThenatureofhisfaithitselfrequiresthatheshouldconcentrateallhiseffortuponwrestingleadershipfromunbelievingandcorruptmentoentrustittotherighteousanduponerectingthesystemoftruththathasbeenordainedfortheconductoftheworldaccordingtothewillofGodBecausethisendisunattainablewith-out thehighestdegreeofcollectiveeffort theremustexistarigh-teouscommunitycommittedtotheprincipleoftruthanddevotedtothesolepurposeintheworldoferectingmaintainingandproperlyrealizingthesystemoftruth

ThefactthatsomeIslamistthinkerssanctifyviolentstruggleinsuchtermsdoesnotmeanofcoursethatallthosewhoadvocateorengageinjihadendorseviolence28NordoesitimplythatthosewhoclaimtokillforIslamareentirelywithoutulteriormotivesthosemanipulativepur-poses andpsychologicalmotivations that even themost rarified scrip-turalargumentscanexpressorserveWhattheprecedinganalysisdoessuggesthoweveristhatthereductionofthisviewofjihadtoirrationalbloodlusttheself-interestedgrabfortemporalpoweroradoorthroughwhichtopassintothehereaftermissesacrucialdimensionofitssignifi-canceandappealfortruebelieversjihadisnolessthananenactmentof

28EvenashespokeofaneweraofjahiliyyaandofjihadMawdudihimselfstoppedwellshortof recommendingor condoning the actual resort to violence in themannermanyotherIslamistsdidAsNasr(199670)observesMawdudirsquosorganizationtheJamalsquoat-iIs-lamildquohasavoidedviolentsocialchangeandhasinsteadviewedthepathtotheIslamicstateaslyingwithintheexistingsociopoliticalorderrdquoAlsoseethechapters5and3onQutbandMawdudiinthisvolume

46

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

adivineimperativetoremakethefoundationsofcollectivelifeInthisre-spectIslamistviewsofjihadcanbeseenaspartofalong-standingasso-ciationbetweenviolenceandpoliticalfoundingsuponwhichnoparticu-larcultureorhistoricalepochhasamonopolyThisassociationandtheldquolegacyofviolencerdquoitbequeathstofuturegenerationsarenolessappar-entinthoseradicalrevolutionsofrenewalthatmovebywayoftheswordfromthemarginstothecenterthanthosepoliticalfoundingsthatclaimtocreatesomethingoutofnothing(Connolly1995251)Ineithercasethetollofsuchbrutalitycanbeimmeasurableforinadditiontothevic-timswhosufferdirectlytheldquopracticeofviolencelikeallactionchangestheworldbutthemostprobablechangeistoamoreviolentworldrdquo(Ar-endt1972177)

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geoptimaliseerd voor prepress-afdrukken van hoge kwaliteit De gemaakte PDF-documenten kunnen worden geopend met Acrobat en Adobe Reader 50 en hoger) NOR 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 PTB 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Page 32: Chapter 1 INTRODUCTION - assets.press.princeton.eduassets.press.princeton.edu/chapters/s9067.pdf · Chapter 1 INTRODUCTION This volume is intended as a broad introduction to the evolution

32

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

moredistinctthanthispresumptionsuggestsTheworditselfofcoursederivesfromtheancientGreekdemokratiawhichmeansrule(kratos)ofthepeople(demos)andmanyderivetheequationofdemocracyandtheWestfromthisassociationwithclassicalGreeceYetancientGreekphi-losopherssuchasPlatosawindemocracythespecterofmobrulepartic-ularly vulnerable to demagoguery and despotism (a suspicion notablyechoedbyAmerican founder JamesMadison)Contrary to thedemo-cratic idealof inclusivenessmoreover citizenship inGreekdemocracyexcludedasubstantialpartofthepopulationincludingwomenslavesandforeignersFinallytheextenttowhichtheancientGreeksmayevenbecalledWesternisamatterofgreatdisputeparticularlyastheldquoWestrdquoisacategoryofrelativelyrecentprovenancethroughwhichhistoryandgeographyhavebeenretroactivelyorganized18DespitedepictionsoftheHellenicworldasWesternancientGreeksdidnotinfactviewthem-selvesintheseterms19

TheequationofdemocracywiththeWestalsopresupposestheexis-tenceofacoherentldquoWesterncivilizationrdquowitheitherculturallyhomoge-neousrootsorclearlydelineatedhistoricalandcontemporarybounda-riesorbothYetwhatiscalledtheWestisanamalgamationofmultipletraditionsincludingtheGreekRomanJudaicChristianandIslamicmdashtraditionsthatarethemselvespolyvalentratherthanhomogeneousmdashandistodaycharacterizedbyporousbordershybridsubculturesandmyriaddebtstodiversecivilizationspastandpresent20AsageographicmarkeritisvirtuallyimpossibletopinpointexactlywheretheWestbeginsandendsandthisisespeciallysonowthatpeoplesinformationandmate-rial goods crisscross cultural andnational borders atwill creating allkindsoftransnationalsubnationalandmultipleidentitiesthatshiftandreconstitutethemselvesinunpredictablewaysEventhosevaluesidenti-fiedasWesternoftenappearelsewhereinotherguisesIndeedscholarssuggestthatavarietyoftheldquostandardsexportedbytheWestanditscul-turalindustriesthemselvesturnouttobeofculturallymixedcharacterifweexaminetheirculturallineagesrdquo(Pieterse199553)

Manyalsoarguethatdemocracyisnotonlydistinctfrombutinten-sionwithboththetheoryandpracticeofpoliticsinldquoWesternrdquosocieties

18MichaelGillespie(19997ndash10)arguesthattherereadingofhistorygeographyandculturethroughtheprismofthissenseofldquotheWestrdquobegannoearlierthanthenineteenthcenturyTheideaofatimelessandbrightlinebetweenWestandEastisalsochallengedbyJeremyBrottonrsquosstudy(19989096ndash97)ofthediplomaticandintellectualexchangesbe-tweenEuropeandtheOttomanEmpireintheearlymodernperiodBrottonshowsnotonlytheextentandamityofsuchexchangesbutapersistentuncertaintyaboutwherepreciselyEuropeldquoendedrdquoandAsialdquobeganrdquo

19AncientGreeksunderstoodthemselvesasgeographicallywestofthebarbariansbutnotWesterninthecontemporarysensethatisasbothaculturalandhistoricalcategory

20StevenRuncimanrsquoswork(19543480)ontheCrusadesforexampledemonstratesaldquolongsequenceofinteractionandfusionbetweenOrientandOccidentoutofwhichourcivilizationhasgrownrdquo

33

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

many of which are more accurately classified as liberal and capitalist(Wood1994Wolin2001BallandDagger1999)Whileitisnowcom-monplacetospeakofldquoliberaldemocracyrdquoinasinglebreathliberalismanddemocracyareconceptsandpracticeswithverydifferenthistoriesandpresuppositionsUnlikedemocracyforexampleliberalismemergedfromthecrucibleofChristianreligiouswarsandintandemwiththeas-cendanceofamiddleclassthatpresagedtheendofEuropeanfeudalismTheliberalnation-statecanthusbeviewedasbothanexpressionandaconsolidationofcapitalismontheonehandandtheprincipleofasepa-rationbetweenchurchandstateontheotherBycontrastthereisnoth-ingaboutdemocracyeitherasasystemofgovernanceoracultureofpar-ticipationthatisinherentlysecularIndeedAlexisdeTocquevillefamouslyinsistedthatAmericandemocracycannotandshouldnotbesecularasreligionhelpsshiftattentionawayfromimmediatematerialpreoccupa-tionstolargerconcernsofcommunitycooperationandmoralityInfactmanydemocratictheoristsarguethatgenuinelyinclusivepopularsover-eignty is antithetical to the sharp inequalities of wealth and politicalpowerthatcapitalismoftenproducesandlegitimates

SuchongoingdefinitionalandsubstantivedebatessuggestthatthereismuchmoreatstakeindemocraticpoliticsthanprocedurespertainingtogovernmentauthorityandorderandpointtoawidespreadifelusiveunderstandingofdemocracynotjustasasetofinstitutionsbutasTocque-villesuggestsawayoflifeSeveralpoliticaltheoristshavecharacterizedthiselusiveunderstandingintermsofaldquodemocraticethosrdquoBythistheymeanbothanidealandanargumentforacultureofparticipationactivepowersharingmutualaccountabilityinclusivenessanddeliberationinwhichcitizensmayroutinelyandsafelychallengenotonlyspecificpoli-ciesandpolitical institutionsbutalso thevalues thatgoverncollectivelifeprinciplesofinclusionandexclusionandthepremisesofauthorityitself(Connolly1995JPEuben2003Sadiki2004)AdemocraticethosismuchmoredifficulttomeasureorquantifythanforexampleSamuelHuntingtonrsquosparsimoniousdefinitionofdemocracyasapolityinwhichtherehavebeentwoconsecutivepeacefulchangesofgovernmentbywayof freeand fairelections (Huntington1991)21Yetademocraticethosmakesitpossibletobothrecognizeanddisaggregatethepreconditionsaspirations mechanisms and institutions bundled into ldquodemocracyrdquotherebybringingintofocusforexamplethefrequentlyantidemocratic

21Manypoliticalscientistsprefertodefinedemocracyintermsofproceduresdesignedtorealizepopularruleincludingfreecompetitiveandfairelectionsalongwithstateprotec-tionofcertainrightsandlibertiesSuchaformalminimalistdefinitionhastheadvantageofdetachingdemocracyfromquestionsoforiginsandofferingastandardtowhichallgov-ernmentsmaybeheldregardlessofcultureandplaceAsKeithTopper(2005205ndash7)ar-gueshoweveritalsotendstosidestepknottyquestionsaboutthesubstanceofrepresenta-tion power responsiveness and accountability that are arguably central to democraticpolitics

34

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

casttoelectionsimposedbyelitesorforeignpowersthefeltimpotenceofmanycitizensinestablisheddemocraciesandthosehighlyparticipa-torycivilsocietiesthatflourishevenundermonarchicortheocraticrule

Forourpurposes inparticularademocraticethosmakesvisible theparadoxofanIslamistmovementthatseekstomobilizeordinaryMus-limsagainstcoercivepowerbutinthenameofareligio-politicalorderlargelyimmunizedfromchallengeQutbisanaptillustrationhereashistendencytogroundhisownspecialauthorityandinsightintheunsulliedwisdomofordinarybelieversmakesitpossibletoreadhisworkaseitherabriefagainstdemocracy(amongotherthings)oranenactmentofitIn-asmuchasdemocracyasaformofgovernanceisidentifiedwithpopularsovereigntyQutbrsquosbasicpremisethat thefoundationof legitimateau-thoritymustbedivineratherthanhumansuggeststhatheisunambigu-ouslyantidemocraticMoreoverQutbrsquoseffortstopluralizereligiousandpolitical authority express not a confidence in common wisdom butratheradesiretoclaimforhimselfthestatureofareligiousexpertwhodespitehislackofIslamicacademiccredentialscanclearlyseewhatoth-erscannotQutbcharacterizestherealIslamasself-evidentbuthealsoassumesthatonlyasmallvanguardofbelieversbesideshimselfwillhavetheabilitytorecognizeitandactdecisivelytoremaketheworldinitsimageSounderstoodthesignofldquochosennessrdquoisunyieldingcommitmenttoestablishingareligio-politicalorderthatsimultaneouslypresumesthesupremacyofthefewcapableoftrueknowledgeandpromisesaworldinwhichdissentitselfwillbecomebothunnecessaryandillegitimate

Yetifdemocracyrefersnotonlytoasystemofgovernanceorsetofprocedurestorealizepopularsovereigntybutalsotopracticesthatdis-ruptthoseforceswhichconcentratepowerandestablishpoliticalexclu-sionthecharacterizationofQutbrsquosworkassimplyantidemocraticmissesa crucial dimensionof its significance and appealAs the sacred textscontaintherulesandregulationsmeanttogovernbothpublicandpri-vateaffairsQutbrsquosinsistencethatordinaryuntrainedMuslimsmusten-gagethemdirectlyisinmanywaysademocratizationofaccesstoau-thoritySuchaccesscandisruptdeeplyentrenchedpatternsofpowerandpowerlessness particularlywhen conjoined to Islamist arguments thatarbitrarypowerisun-Islamicthatreligiousknowledgedependsoncom-mitmentratherthantrainingorexpertise thatMuslimshavetherightandobligationtodeterminewhenrulersareillegitimateandthatthosewhopreferordertojusticesecuritytofreedomandmoneytopietyhaveforfeitedanyclaimtoauthority

ThisaspectofIslamismhasfrequentlybeencomparedtotheProtestantReformationandmorespecificallytoCalvinistsrsquoattemptstotransferldquore-ligiousauthorityawayfromofficiallysanctionedindividualswhointer-prettextstoordinarycitizensrdquo(EGoldberg19913alsocfLoimeier2005)Suchaparallelhassparkedagreatdealofscholarlyspeculation

35

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

regardingapossibleldquoIslamicReformationrdquo22andarangeofargumentsaboutwhetherandhowIslamismmightfacilitatethedemocratizationofMuslim societies much as the Protestant Reformation is said to haveheralded the emergence of European ldquoliberal democracyrdquo While suchcomparisonsareevocativeafullerunderstandingof IslamismrequiresfirstsituatingitinrelationtoahistoricalshiftinthenatureandlocusofreligiousauthorityinIslambeginninginthenineteenthcenturyAsschol-arsofMuslimsocietieshavepointedouttheimpactofmasseducationnewtechnologiesfordisseminatingknowledgeandinformationanddra-matically changed social economic and political contexts have madeavailabletoamateurswhathadpreviouslybeenthepurviewofreligiousexpertsAtthesametimeithasinauguratedafragmentationofauthor-itywithintheveryranksofthelsquoulamathatcontinuestothepresentday23

InthiscontexttheascendanceandinfluenceofautodidactssuchasQutbHasanal-BannalsquoAbdal-SalamFarajandBinLadensimultaneouslyex-pressandaccelerateanongoingrenegotiationofauthorityoverwhomayspeakforIslamandonwhatbasisthepathofwhichisstillunfoldingandtheoutcomeasyetuncertain

Islamism and Gender

One already apparent consequence of this ongoing renegotiation overwhomayspeakforIslamandonwhatbasisistheentryofwomenintothe interpretive fray This development is increasingly unsettling thoseunwrittengendernormsarguablyattheveryheartofIslamistthoughtdisruptingthestandardsofmasculinityandfemininitythatreflecthowparticularculturesorganizehumanbeingsrsquosocialandreproductiveactiv-itiesintorolesthatareinturnthoughttoexpresstheldquonaturerdquoofmenand women Such norms are frequently considered tangential to theknottyproblemsofdefiningIslamismandadumbratingitscentralideasyetarangeofscholarshiponculturespastandpresenthasshownthatgenderisconsistentlytheterrainoverwhichbattlesforpoliticalcontrolandculturalidentityarefoughtMorespecificallyresearchindisciplinessuchasanthropologyhistoryclassicsandpostcolonialstudieshasdem-onstratedthatculturesinwhichfemalebodiesandbehaviorareregardedas indicesofmoralpurity tend to symbolically transformwomen intoconduitsof cultural corruption in timesof internal crisis and externalthreat(Papenek1994Chatterjee1990Tavakoli-Targhi1991Just1989Cohen1991Welter1966Bloch1978)Thisisespeciallytrueofcontem-

22Foralatenineteenth-centuryassessmentoftheprospectsforaldquoMuhammadanRefor-mationrdquoseeBlunt1882132ndash73

23EickelmanandPiscatori199637ndash39131ndash35Zaman2006Suchfragmentationhasinmanywaysbeenacceleratedbytheexplosionofdigitalcultureswhichpromoteamongotherthingsaldquoformofempoweredamateurismrdquo(Mirzoeff20026)

36

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

poraryreligio-politicalmovementswhosememberstendtoldquoidealizepa-triarchalstructuresofauthorityandmoralityrdquoendorsegenderdualismasgod-givenornaturalandcondemnvigorouslyrecentchangesingen-derrelationsasasymptomandsymbolofsecularistmoralbankruptcy(Riesebrodt1993Moghadam1992Hawley1994)

SeveralchaptersinthisvolumeilluminateIslamistgendernormsbyre-vealing thecharacterandcontentof Islamistconcernsabout theplaceandpurityofMuslimwomenmdashpreoccupationsFatimaMernissi(199199)hasgonesofarastocharacterizeasanobsessionDespiteimportantdifferences among Islamists thinkers many endorse gender norms inwhichthefairlyconventionalinsistencethatfemalenatureisdefinedinand through reproduction undergirds an understanding of women assymbolsofmoralvirtueandvesselsofculturalpurityThisviewsustainstheclaimthatmenandwomenareequalinreligiousbeliefbutperformfundamentallydifferentandcomplementaryfunctionsinsocietyWhilemenarenaturallymadetoruleinboththepublicandprivatedomainawomanbelongsinthedomesticrealmwhereherprimaryroleistobeawifeandmotheraswellastoinsuretheintegrityofthefamilythefirstschoolofmoraleducationAssuchfunctionsarerootedinaninescap-ablehumannaturefashionedbyGodawomanrsquosinabilityorunwilling-nesstoperformherdutiessignalsadisobediencetothedivinewillandpresages the corruption of the Muslim family from within From thisvantagepointtheWesterninsistenceonfullequalitybetweenthesexesisdoubly pernicious it at once liberates women from basic moral con-straintsandenslavesthemtomutuallyreinforcingsexualandcapitalistexploitationAsMurtazaMutahhari(1998xxxi)arguescapitalismmakesuseofwomentomarket itsgoodsldquoby trading inhonourandrespectthrough[their]powertoenticerdquotherebyldquotransform[ing]manintoaninvoluntaryagentofconsumptionrdquoInasmuchaswomenareresponsiblefor producing the next generation of Muslim men destined to restoreIslamtoitsformergloryitisnotonlythevirtueofwomenortheinteg-rityofthefamilythathangsinthebalancebutthefutureofIslamiccivili-zationitself

Zaynab al-Ghazali andMutahharimake several of these argumentsexplicitlyandindetail(seechapters10and11)butinmuchofIslamistrhetoricthenatureandsignificanceofwomenareestablishedindirectlyandsymbolicallyandthroughthreerecurrentimagesinparticularThefirstisofwomenassilentsymbolsofculturalmoralandsexualvulnera-bilityvoicelessfiguresinneedofmasculineprotectionorwhenitistoolatedefiledbodiesthatmutelydemandvengeanceSoforexamplelsquoAb-dallahlsquoAzzam(oneofBinLadenrsquosmentorsseechapter18)graphicallydetailstheagonizinghumiliationofyoungmenunabletoactwhentheAfghanwoman isldquocryingout forhelpher childrenarebeing slaugh-tered her women are being raped the innocent are killed and theircorpsesscatteredrdquo(lsquoAzzam1987a)Inthesecondimagewomenfunction

37

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

muchlikeachorusthatspeaksinpermittedcadencestoratifymasculineendeavorsSuchisthecaseforexampleinBinLadenrsquos1996ldquoDeclara-tionofWaragainsttheAmericansOccupyingtheLandoftheTwoHolyPlacesrdquo(seechapter18)wherethewomenexhortmentojihadinthefollowing way ldquoPrepare yourself like a struggler the matter is biggerthanwordsAreyougoingtoleaveusforthewolvesofKufr[unbe-lief]eatingourwingsWherearethefreemendefendingfreewomenbyarmsDeath isbetter than life inhumiliation Some scandals andshameswillneverbeotherwiseeradicatedrdquo24InthethirdimagewomenarecreaturesnotofthisworldbutofanothervirginalrewardsforthecourageousmartyrintheafterlifeThisisevidentinthefinalinstructionsforthe911hijackersforexamplewhereMuslimldquobrothersrdquoareurgedto purify their carnal impulses sharpen their knives for the dhabh (slaughter)andheedthecallofthehur lsquoayn (theblack-eyedones)await-ingtheminParadise(seechapter19)

Such rhetoric primarily registers women as an extensionmirror ormeasure of masculinity and together with explicit Islamist argumentsabouthumannatureandthefamilyarticulatesIslamistgendernormsinwhichmenandwomeneachhaveaproperlocationandpurposeinadi-vinely ordained social hierarchy Deviance from this gendered scriptthussignalsdisruptionofamuchbroaderreligio-politicalorderitbothpresumes and seeks to bring into existence The disruption caused byforeign aggression in particular exacerbates the tendency to translateconflict into an assault on Muslim masculinity and to conceptualizewomenaspotentialvehiclesforWesterncorruptioninneedofguidingand guarding Women such as Zaynab al-Ghazali and Nadia Yassinewho seek a prominent place and voice within the Islamist movementhavehadlittlechoicebuttocontendwiththisgenderedscriptDoingsohasentailedamongotherthingsnavigatingcarefullybetweenIslamistcharacterizations of womenrsquos visibility and agency as symptomatic ofthe new jahiliyya on the one hand and essentializing arguments thatequateIslamwithveilingfemalegenitalmutilationandhonorkillingsontheother

AsthechaptersonGhazaliandYassinesuggestIslamistwomenhavenegotiatedbetweensuchconstraintsandpressuresandtheirownambi-tionsindifferentwaysApioneeringdalsquoiya(onewhoinvitesMuslimstogreater piety)Ghazalirsquos own life reveals a fierce resistance to conven-tionalnormsofdomesticityevenasmuchofher(earlier)workappearsto embrace an Islamist gender ideology that defines women as wivesmothers andldquobuilders ofmenrdquo (al-Hashimi 1990 118)By contrastYassineisawifeandmotherwhoembracesanldquoIslamicfeminismrdquothatrequiresldquoreappropriatingtheinstrumentsofclassicaltheologyrdquoanden-

24TheIslamistjournalSawt alshyJihadhasgonesofarastofeatureldquowomenrsquosvoicesrdquointheformofrolemodelsnamedforexampleumm alshyshahid(motherofthemartyr)al-thoughitisunclearthattheseldquovoicesrdquoareactuallywomenrsquos(SUsher2004)

38

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

gaging the textsdirectly through ijtihad (NYassine2003) In this re-spect Yassine must be understood as part of a broader effort amongMuslimwomenwithdifferentpoliticalcommitmentstosimultaneouslyadvocateandenacttheirrighttorecuperatetheldquooriginalintentrdquooftheIslamictextsIfwomenandmendoinfacthavedistinctperspectivesontheworldYassinesuggestswomenhaveaspecialobligationtoexcavatewhattheyseeasthegenderparityoftheQurrsquoanburiedbeneaththoseldquomachointerpretationsrdquoofIslamuponwhichmenhavebuilttheirprivi-legeandpower(Khalaf2006)25

ManyAnglo-AmericanandEuropean feministsworry that Islamistsseekonly to secureor restorepatriarchalpowerConverselymany Is-lamist women view feminism as a term and a movement inescapablyWesterninoriginfreightedwiththelegacyofcolonialismanduneasilyimplicatedinculturalimperialismThisapplieseventoYassinewhoisunwillingtoadoptwithoutqualificationalabelsheassociateswithagen-dasopposedtoherowntheWesttheMoroccanstateMaghribi(North-westAfrican)elitesYetfeminismitselfisahighlycontestedtermwithin theso-calledWestitisthebearerofmultiplemeaningssomeofwhichareevenopposedandischaracterizedbydeepdisagreementsaboutwhowomenarewhatwomenneedwhoisauthorizedtoworkonwomenrsquosbehalf andbywhatmeans Inasmuch as these various feminismsmayshareonlyastatedconcernforwomenrsquoswelfarethereisnothinginco-herentinmodifyingldquofeminismrdquowithldquoIslamicrdquoldquoMuslimrdquoorevenldquoIs-lamistrdquounlessone iscommitted toarguing thatfirst Islam isanun-changingessencebeyondhistorypoliticsandculturesecondthereisaneutralobjectivevantagefromwhichtoidentifythisessenceonceandforallandfinallytheIslamicessencesoidentifiedisfundamentallyin-compatiblewitheffortstoimprovetheconditionsandqualityofwomenrsquoslivesBythesametokenIslamistwomenwhorejectthetermfeminismcanbe(althoughnotalwaysare)deeplycommittedtoimprovingwom-enrsquoswelfareaswellasactivelyresistanttoeffortsthatreduceortrans-formthemintosilentaccessoriesofmalepower

YassineandGhazalidifferaboutwhatwomenareandshouldbeyetbroadlyspeakingbothmaybeconsideredpartofarecenttrendtowardthe feminizationofdalsquowa Dalsquowa literallymeanscallappealor sum-monsbutthetermhascometosignifyavarietyofpracticesandargu-mentsmeanttoexhortinviteandguideMuslimstowhatisregardedasproperconductandmoraldevotionWomenrsquosparticipationindalsquowais

25WomenrsquosparticipationintheldquoproductionofofficialIslamicknowledgerdquohasalonghistoryalthoughtheyhaveoftendonesoinrelativeobscurityandwithoutthebenefitofeducation in the Islamicsciences thathas legitimateddirectengagementwith thesacredtexts (Cooke 2001 xiv Badran and Cooke 2004) Pioneering attempts to read genderequalityinIslamarealsonotconfinedtowritingbywomenasevincedbyQasimAminrsquosTahrir alshymarrsquoa [TheLiberationofWoman] (1899)andMumtaz lsquoAlirsquosHuquqshye niswan [TheRightsofWomen](1898)

39

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

notabrandnewphenomenonasisevidentinGhazalirsquosworkwiththeEgyptianSocietyofMuslimLadiesinthe1930sYetfromEgypttoPaki-stantoSaudiArabiatotheUnitedStatesthenumberoffemaledalsquoiyashasproliferatedexponentially inrecentyears(Cooke2001Mahmood2005Hirschkind2006)Thisreflectsinpartcurrentdoctrinalempha-sesondalsquowaasincumbentuponbothmenandwomenanddependentlessupontechnicalknowledgethanmoralvirtueandpracticalfamiliaritywiththeIslamictradition(Mahmood200565ndash66)It isalsoaconse-quenceofrecentpoliticalandsocioeconomictransformationsinMuslimsocietiesincludingtheexpansionofmasseducationthathasnotonlyin-creasedwomenrsquosliteracyandsocialmobilitybutalsomadeIslamictextsmoreaccessibletheproliferationoftechnologiesmdashfromthecassettetapetotheInternetmdashthatfacilitatethecirculationofreligiousknowledgeevenamongthosewhocannotreadortraveltheprecedentsetbythevigorousparticipationof IranianwomeninpostrevolutiondebatesaboutIslamandthemodeloflegalactivismevidentintheIslamistmovementrsquosownchallenge to the lsquoulamarsquos status as gatekeepers of religious knowledge(Singerman2005Mir-Hosseini1999)

If Ghazali and Yassine exemplify the feminization of dalsquowa amongelitesthemosquemovementinEgyptillustratesthegrowingparticipa-tionofwomenfromdiversesocialbackgroundsinreligiousclassesde-votedtostudyinganddebatingwhatIslamrequiresforawomantobeldquomorallyuprightrdquointhecontemporaryworld(Mahmood2005)Con-ceptualizingpiety in termsof adeepandholistic commitment to self-transformationparticipantsinthemosquemovementareconcernedlesswithmattersofsovereigntyandpoliticsconventionallyunderstoodandmorewiththeldquomoralcultivationrdquoofthosedailypracticesseenascrucialtobecomingclosertoGod(Mahmood2005)SomeIslamistshavecriti-cizedthis focusonpracticesofworshipasapoliticalandoverlypriva-tizedyetsuchcriticismmissestheforceofIslamistsrsquoowninsistenceondin(religion)asawayoflifeinwhichthedomainsofpublicandprivateare inextricably linked26AsSabaMahmood (2005193194) showsthesewomenrsquosintenseeffortsatldquoretrainingethicalsensibilitiesrdquohavealdquosociopoliticalforcerdquothatextendswellbeyondmattersofgovernancefacilitatingnolessthantheemergenceofaldquonewsocialandmoralorderrdquoEvidenceofitstransformativepowermaybefoundnotonlyinthesheernumbersandvarietyofwomenmdashwealthyandpoor literateand illiter-atemdashparticipatinginthemosquemovementbutalsointherhetoricalandpoliticaleffortsbythestateandsomeIslamiststocurtailcontrolordis-creditit(Mahmood200571194)

26ParticipantsinthemosquemovementinturnareoftencriticalofwhattheyseeasthereductionofIslamtotokensofculturalauthenticityorofitsinstrumentalizationbybothnationalistsandIslamiststheycharacterizeasmoreinterestedinpoliticalmaneuveringthanreligiouspiety

40

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

Understoodtoincludebothwrittenandembodiedpracticesthefemi-nizationof dalsquowa illustrates theways inwhichwomen fromdifferentperspectivesandsocialclassesareinsistingonengagingthesacredtextsdirectly for and with one another without the mediating authority ofmenwhohavetraditionallyheldthemonopolyonsuchactivitiesAsSu-danese Islamist Lubabah al-Fadl argues ldquoAs an insan [human being]whohappenstobeawomanIhavearighttorejectthemanipulativeexegesesofoursharilsquoa thatthreatenmyexistenceinawaythat isnotconsistentwiththeGodlywayandtoapplymyownijtihadtorectifyer-roneoustendenciesbysomeshuyukh[pluralofshaykh]rdquo(Sadiki2004290)DespitetheproliferationofvoicesintentonclaimingforthemselvestheauthoritytodemarcatewhatisauthenticallyIslamicandun-Islamiconceandforallcontestationoveritsscopeandmeaningproceedsapacefacilitatedatleastinpartbywomenformerlyexcludedfromtheconver-sationAtthesametimeIslamistwomenrsquosagencyandclaimstoauthorityarefrequentlystillpredicatedonawillingnesstofollowfairlypatriarchalrulesaboutwherehowandwithwhomtheymaypracticetheirvocation(Hirschkind2003Sadiki2004283)

Islamism and Violence

IfgenderisfrequentlyanimplicitpreoccupationamongIslamistsjihadisarguably Islamistsrsquomost consistently explicit concern Jihad is derivedfromtheArabicverbthatmeanstostruggleortostriveyetitisaparticu-larkindofstruggle that isofconcern tomanyof thefigurescollectedheretheoftenviolentstruggleagainstapostatesandinfidelsbothathomeandabroadtowhicheveryindividualMuslimmustcontributeTheclaimthatfightingunbelieversisthepreeminentenactmentofindividualMus-limpiety seems to justify characterizationsof Islam ingeneral and Is-lamisminparticularassanctioningevenencouragingviolenceYetwhatIslamistsrepresentasjihadtout courtisahistoricallyspecificunderstand-ingderivedfromahighlyselectiveuseoftextsandprecedentsprominentamongthemaformerlyobscureclaimbytheinfluentialfourteenth-cen-tury jurist IbnTaymiyya thatMongol rulerswhohad contravened Is-lamiclawcouldbesubjecttoforcibleremovalFarfromadefinitiveex-pressionof Islamldquoproperlyunderstoodrdquo such Islamist argumentsnotonlymarkasignificantdeparturefrommuchofantecedentdoctrineandpractice but also diminish the importance of ongoing disagreementsamongMuslimsabouttheformandpurposesofjihad

TobeginwithMuslimscholarshavetendedtoconsiderjihadagainstforeignenemiesafard kifaya(collectiveobligation)thatisadutyagroupofpeoplewithinthecommunitymayperformonbehalfoftherestandonethatpresupposesalegitimateMuslimleadertodeclareorleadthechargeJuristshavedistinguishedthisfromthefard lsquoayn(individualduty)thatmustbefulfilledbyeverysingleMuslimincasesofdefensivejihad

41

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

thatiswhentheummaisunderattackManyIslamistsincludedheretakeamuchlessnuancedviewofjihadAsamodeofpoliticalactionQutbarguesjihadmustberegardedasaldquopermanentconditionnotanocca-sionalconcernrdquoonethatincurrentcircumstancesrequiresdeedsratherthanwordsstruggleratherthancontemplationrevolutionathomeaswellasresistanceabroad(Qutb199167ndash6882)lsquoAbdal-SalamFarajarguesalongsimilarlinesthatthenatureoftheattackonIslammakespolitical authorization by a caliph (ldquodeputyrdquo referring to a legitimatesuccessortotheProphetrsquosleadership)unnecessaryafterallldquoleadershipovertheMuslimsis(always)intheirownhandsifonlytheymakethismanifestIfthereissomethinglackingintheleadershipwellthereisnothingthatcannotbeacquiredrdquo(Jansen1986asec93)

SuchargumentsareadeliberaterejectionofearlyMuslimmodernistswhohademphasizedthelargelydefensivecharacterofjihadandsoughttoshowthatrelationsbetweenMuslimsandnon-MuslimswerenormallypeacefulratherthanantagonisticMahmudShaltut(d1963)therectorof al-Azhar from 1958 to 1963 had argued for example that theQurrsquoanicversesonfightingldquoprohibittheprovocationofhostilityandthisprohibitionisreinforcedbyGodrsquosrepugnancetoaggressionandbyhisdislikeofthosewhoprovokehostilityrdquo(Peters199674onShaltutseeZebiri1993)ConversionbyforceisanathematoIslamShaltutaversandfightingiscommandedonlyindefenseinresponsetoaggressionini-tiatedbyothersEvendefensivejihadmustaimatldquotheterminationoftheaggressionandtheestablishmentofreligiouslibertydevotedtoGodandfreefromanypressureorforcerdquo(Peters199675)

ManyIslamistsexplicitlydismisssuchargumentsasasymptomoffalseconsciousnessoneamongmanydestructiveeffectsofcolonialdomina-tionMawdudiargues for example thatwhile imperialists ravage theworld to satisfy their greed jihad alone ldquoconjures up the vision of amarching band of religious fanatics with savage beards and fiery eyesbrandishingdrawnswordsandattackingtheinfidelswherevertheymeetthemrdquoHavinginternalizedthis imageMuslimsrushtoapologizeandrenouncearmedstruggleInthiswayhelamentscolonialistsretaintheexclusiverighttoldquofightwitharmsandammunitionwhilewearecon-tented with our pen and our tonguerdquo (Mawdudi 1948 1ndash3) SayyidQutbforhispartagreedthatIslamdoesnotcountenancespreadingitsmessagebyforceandcoercionyethehadlittlepatiencewiththosewhosoughttopresentjihadaslegitimateonlyinself-defense

IfweinsistoncallingIslamicjihadadefensivemovementthenwemustchangethemeaningofthewordldquodefenserdquoandmeanbyitldquothedefenseofmanrdquoagainstallthoseforcesthatlimithisfreedomWhenwetakethisbroadmeaningofthewordldquodefenserdquoweunder-standthetruecharacterofIslaminthatitproclaimstheuniversalfreedomofeverypersonandcommunityfromservitudetoanyother

42

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

individualorsocietytheendofmanrsquosarroganceandselfishnesstheestablishmentofthesovereigntyofAllahandHisLordshipthrough-outtheworldandtheruleofthedivinesharilsquoainhumanaffairs(Qutb199050)

Qutbdoesnotnameanynamesincastigatingtheldquowriterswithdefeatistandapologeticmentalities[who]writeaboutlsquojihadinIslamrsquoandtrytoremovethislsquoblotrsquofromIslamrdquo(Qutb199046)buthecouldverywellhavehadhisdistinguishedfellowEgyptianMahmudShaltutinmind

These arguments about jihad may be said to constitute a commongrammarandframeworkofanalysisformanyIslamistsalthoughseveralthinkers in this volume carefully calibrate such claims to suit variouspurposesanddifferentpublicspheresInhisjustificationfortheassassi-nationofEgyptianpresidentAnwaral-SadatforexamplelsquoAbdal-SalamFarajdepictsthestruggletoreclaimthemoralfoundationsoftheEgyp-tianstateasafightagainstjahiliyyafromwithinarguingthatthejihadagainstacorruptnationalistregimeathomemusttakeprecedenceoverfightingenemieselsewhereTheCharterofHamas(seechapter15)how-everinsiststhatallMuslimsrecognizetheprimacyofthejihadforJeru-salemweldingIslamistrhetorictothatofnationalistresistanceinanef-fortbothtofightIsraelioccupationandtocompeteforadherentswiththePalestinianLiberationOrganization(PLO)IncontrasttobothFarajandHamasBinLadenembracesaglobaljihadthatessentiallycollapsesdistinctionsbetweennationalandinternationaloffensiveanddefensivefightingenemiesathomeandthosefromafar

Yet despite such differences these arguments tend to presume thatviolent jihad is a necessary response to the pervasive power of thosewithdemonstratedhostilitytoMuslimliveslandspietiesandsensibili-tiesaformofretaliationwhoseurgencyandlegitimacyderivefromtheviolencemdashpsychologicalandeconomicaswellasphysicalmdashoftheinitialassaultThisviewofjihadsubsumesindividualsintoarchetypesofldquoin-fidelsrdquoandldquobelieversrdquoandinsodoingvitiatesmoreconventionaldis-tinctionsbetweenforexamplesoldierandcivilianorcollectiveandin-dividual responsibility It is far from inevitable that thosewhoharborsuchviewswillautomaticallyactuponthemyetthecarnagewroughtbytheattacksontheWorldTradeCenterandthePentagonin2001aBalinightclub in 2002 Madrid commuter trains in 2004 and throughoutIraqonadailybasissuggestjusthowlethalsuchclaimscanbegiventheright circumstances The fact that such violence does not discriminateamongvictimsonlyfurtherfuelsrhetoriccharacterizingIslamistsasirra-tional fanatics ldquoin love with deathrdquo terrorists animated by a religioncharacterizedbyapropensityforviolenceandauthoritarianism27

27AnxietiesabouttheparticularsusceptibilityofMuslimstoirrationalityinsularityandfanaticismhavealonganddistinguishedpedigreeinEuro-AmericanhistoryandpoliticalthoughtSeeforexampleRenan18833

43

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

AsinsomanyothermattershoweverIslamistsarehardlyofonemindonthesubjectofjihadindeedthereareIslamistswhoexplicitlyrejectthereductionof struggle toviolenceAcase inpoint isNadiaYassine(20032005c)whoinsiststhatjihadisthededicatedstruggleagainstisshytikbar(arrogance)particularlyinitscommonformasthelustforpoweranddominationAsjihadagainstistikbarisbothafinalgoalandapre-scriptionforactionYassinesuggestsitisantitheticaltoviolentpracticesthataimatdominationTheprimaryinstrumentsofjihadarenotbombsbutwords particularly thosedeployed in the art of persuasion (Fara-marzi2005NYassine2006a)WhenIslamistssuchaslsquoAbdal-SalamFarajandlsquoUmarlsquoAbdal-RahmanseektolegitimizeviolentrevolutionbyrecoursetoIslamictextsshearguestheycontravenethetruemeaningofjihadtoservetheirownarrogantendsBythesametokenBinLadenrsquosdecisiontoldquofightevilwithevilandbarbaritywithbarbarityrdquonotonlyviolatesspecificIslamicprohibitionsagainstharmingcivilianswomenandchildrenbutalsobetraystheethicalimperativetoembodythemes-sageofamercifulGodwhocautionsbelieversthat(Q8822)ldquoYouhavenopoweroverthemrdquo(NYassine2005cDaily Excelsior2002)

SuchpersistentdisagreementsamongMuslimspastandpresentsug-gest that Islam isnomore inherently violent andbloody-minded thanitmdashorChristianityor Judaism for thatmattermdashis inherentlypeacefulIslamists often claim to speak for an unchanging authentic Islam thatexistsoutsideoftimeandspaceyetthepoliticalpurchaseoftheirper-spective derives from the ways it assembles disparate yet recognizablecontemporaryexperiencesofsufferingfrustrationandlossintoanex-planationthatresonateswithMuslimswholiveincommunitiescultur-allylinguisticallyandgeographicallydistantfromoneanotherTheex-tenttowhichIslamistargumentsresonatebroadlyacrossMuslimsocie-tiesthusdependsuponasetofexperiencesandphenomenathatmarkthisparticularmomentinhistoryincludingthewaysinwhichcontempo-raryglobalinequalitiescompoundalegacyofhistoricalasymmetriestocontinuallyreproduceasenseofMuslimpowerlessnessmdashbothrealandimaginedmdashrelativetotheWestcontinuingEuro-Americanpoliticalandfinancialsupportofcorruptautocratsmanyofwhompresideoverna-tion-statesbrutallystitchedtogetherbyWesternfiat thepersistenceofauthoritarian regimes eager to control domestic unrest by catalyzingldquoMuslimragerdquotowardexternaltargetsthesenseofemasculationpro-ducedbydecadesofpoliticalrepressionandeconomicfrustrationandthecontinualflowofimagesofbloodiedMuslimbodiesdeliveredbyaburgeoningarrayofvideosatelliteandelectronicmedia

It is notable that the understanding of jihad many Islamists proffermirrorstheverystate-sanctionedviolenceagainstwhichtheyhavestrug-gledforalmostacenturyAlongwiththousandsofMuslimscaughtinthemachineryoftwentieth-centurystateviolenceprominentIslamistsfromQutbtoGhazalitoAymanal-Zawahirimdashal-Qalsquoidarsquossecondincommandmdash

44

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

arewellknowntohavebeenradicalizedbyextendedandoftenbrutaltermsofincarcerationinEgyptSyriaIraqJordanIsraelAlgeriaandelsewhere(onal-ZawahiriandprisoncfKepelandMilelli2008152ndash54)ItisthusfarfromsurprisingthatIslamistsforgedbyinterrogationtortureinprisoncampswouldconcludethatthepreeminentenactmentofMuslimpietyisviolentstruggleldquoPrisonrdquoasPalestinianKhaledAbuHilalhassaidldquoismyuniversityrdquo(Erlanger2007)anargumentmadeingreaterdetailinadifferenttimeandplacebyRussianwriterandrevolu-tionaryMaximGorky(1868ndash1936)

Apeoplebroughtupinaschoolthatremindsoneofthetormentsofhellonasmallscaleapeopleaccustomedtotheclenched-fistprisonandthewhipwillnotbeblestwithatenderheartApeoplethatthepoliceagentshaveriddenoverwillbecapableintheirturnofwalk-ingoverthebodiesofothersInacountrywhereunresthasreignedsolongit isdifficultforthepeopletorealizefromonedaytothenextthepowerofrightOnecannotdemandfromamanwhohasneverknownjusticethatheshouldbejust(Gorky1920)

InthiscontextasTimothyMitchell(1990195ndash96199207ndash8)suggestsIslamistviewsoftheworldcanbecharacterizedasbothamodeofresis-tancetostatemechanismsofcoercionandanexpressionofthemSuchisthedynamic evident inGhazalirsquosmemoirs for examplewhen shede-scribeshowtheldquodarknessofprisonsthebladesoftortureandthevi-ciousbeatingsonly increasetheenduranceandresolveofthefaithfulrdquo(Ghazali19786)

There is no doubt a great deal of pragmatism at work in IslamistargumentsaboutviolenceAsQutb(19916447ndash48)drylynotesthepathtofreedommustoccasionallybehewnbywayoftheswordbecausetyrants are not reasoned out of power and ldquojahiliyya is not lsquoabstracttheoryrsquo[it]consciouslyorunconsciouslystrivestopreserveitsownexistence to defend its essence to annihilate dangerous elementswhichthreatenitsverybeingrdquoYetitisalsothecasethatformanyoftheseIslamistsjihadisbothameansandanendanefforttoeradicatethoseobstacles torestoringa justcommunityonearththatsimultane-ouslybringshumanaction intoaccordwithGodrsquosplansandpurposes(Haddad198321)While theQurrsquoan (2256) states thatldquothere isnocompulsioninreligionrdquoIslamistscontendthatonlyinastateinwhichIslamiclawreignssupremearehumanbeingsfreefromenslavementtooneanotherrsquosruleandallareequalbyvirtueoftheircommonsubmissiontoGodAsQutb(1991107ndash8)argues

WhenthehighestauthorityinsocietyisGodalonemdashexpressedintheruleofdivinelawmdashonlythenishumanitytrulyandcompletelyliber-atedfromslaverytomenOnlythisisldquohumancivilizationrdquobecausetheessentialfoundationofhumancivilizationisthetrueandcom-

45

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

pletefreedomofhumanityandtheabsolutedignityofeveryindivid-ualinsocietyThereisnotruefreedomanddignityforhumanityortheindividualinasocietywheresomepeoplearelordswholegislateandothersareslaveswhoobey

From this perspective the realization of justice liberty equality andchoiceitselfnecessitatestheforcibleremovaloftheconstraintsimposedbyjahiliyyaalongwiththosewhoaidandabetitno matter the costAsMawdudi(1954160ndash61)writes

[W]hyisitthatinreligionsuchimportanceisgiventojihadthattheQurrsquoanpronouncesthejudgmentofhypocrisyuponthosewhoshirkandevadeitJihadisbutanothernamefortheattempttoerectthesystemoftruthandtheQurrsquoandeclaresjihadtobeatouchstoneonthesamefootingwithamanrsquosfaithInotherwordshewhohasfaithinhisheartwillneitherbecontentwiththedominationofthesystemofevilnorwillhegrudgetheexpenditureoflifeandwealthinthestruggleforerectingthesystemoftruthIfoneshowsweaknessinthismatterhisfaithitselfisdoubtfulWhatcananythingelsebesidethenprofithimThemanwhoprofesses faith in this religioncannotfulfillhisdutyonlybytryingasfaraspossibletopatternhislifeonIslamThenatureofhisfaithitselfrequiresthatheshouldconcentrateallhiseffortuponwrestingleadershipfromunbelievingandcorruptmentoentrustittotherighteousanduponerectingthesystemoftruththathasbeenordainedfortheconductoftheworldaccordingtothewillofGodBecausethisendisunattainablewith-out thehighestdegreeofcollectiveeffort theremustexistarigh-teouscommunitycommittedtotheprincipleoftruthanddevotedtothesolepurposeintheworldoferectingmaintainingandproperlyrealizingthesystemoftruth

ThefactthatsomeIslamistthinkerssanctifyviolentstruggleinsuchtermsdoesnotmeanofcoursethatallthosewhoadvocateorengageinjihadendorseviolence28NordoesitimplythatthosewhoclaimtokillforIslamareentirelywithoutulteriormotivesthosemanipulativepur-poses andpsychologicalmotivations that even themost rarified scrip-turalargumentscanexpressorserveWhattheprecedinganalysisdoessuggesthoweveristhatthereductionofthisviewofjihadtoirrationalbloodlusttheself-interestedgrabfortemporalpoweroradoorthroughwhichtopassintothehereaftermissesacrucialdimensionofitssignifi-canceandappealfortruebelieversjihadisnolessthananenactmentof

28EvenashespokeofaneweraofjahiliyyaandofjihadMawdudihimselfstoppedwellshortof recommendingor condoning the actual resort to violence in themannermanyotherIslamistsdidAsNasr(199670)observesMawdudirsquosorganizationtheJamalsquoat-iIs-lamildquohasavoidedviolentsocialchangeandhasinsteadviewedthepathtotheIslamicstateaslyingwithintheexistingsociopoliticalorderrdquoAlsoseethechapters5and3onQutbandMawdudiinthisvolume

46

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

adivineimperativetoremakethefoundationsofcollectivelifeInthisre-spectIslamistviewsofjihadcanbeseenaspartofalong-standingasso-ciationbetweenviolenceandpoliticalfoundingsuponwhichnoparticu-larcultureorhistoricalepochhasamonopolyThisassociationandtheldquolegacyofviolencerdquoitbequeathstofuturegenerationsarenolessappar-entinthoseradicalrevolutionsofrenewalthatmovebywayoftheswordfromthemarginstothecenterthanthosepoliticalfoundingsthatclaimtocreatesomethingoutofnothing(Connolly1995251)Ineithercasethetollofsuchbrutalitycanbeimmeasurableforinadditiontothevic-timswhosufferdirectlytheldquopracticeofviolencelikeallactionchangestheworldbutthemostprobablechangeistoamoreviolentworldrdquo(Ar-endt1972177)

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Page 33: Chapter 1 INTRODUCTION - assets.press.princeton.eduassets.press.princeton.edu/chapters/s9067.pdf · Chapter 1 INTRODUCTION This volume is intended as a broad introduction to the evolution

33

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

many of which are more accurately classified as liberal and capitalist(Wood1994Wolin2001BallandDagger1999)Whileitisnowcom-monplacetospeakofldquoliberaldemocracyrdquoinasinglebreathliberalismanddemocracyareconceptsandpracticeswithverydifferenthistoriesandpresuppositionsUnlikedemocracyforexampleliberalismemergedfromthecrucibleofChristianreligiouswarsandintandemwiththeas-cendanceofamiddleclassthatpresagedtheendofEuropeanfeudalismTheliberalnation-statecanthusbeviewedasbothanexpressionandaconsolidationofcapitalismontheonehandandtheprincipleofasepa-rationbetweenchurchandstateontheotherBycontrastthereisnoth-ingaboutdemocracyeitherasasystemofgovernanceoracultureofpar-ticipationthatisinherentlysecularIndeedAlexisdeTocquevillefamouslyinsistedthatAmericandemocracycannotandshouldnotbesecularasreligionhelpsshiftattentionawayfromimmediatematerialpreoccupa-tionstolargerconcernsofcommunitycooperationandmoralityInfactmanydemocratictheoristsarguethatgenuinelyinclusivepopularsover-eignty is antithetical to the sharp inequalities of wealth and politicalpowerthatcapitalismoftenproducesandlegitimates

SuchongoingdefinitionalandsubstantivedebatessuggestthatthereismuchmoreatstakeindemocraticpoliticsthanprocedurespertainingtogovernmentauthorityandorderandpointtoawidespreadifelusiveunderstandingofdemocracynotjustasasetofinstitutionsbutasTocque-villesuggestsawayoflifeSeveralpoliticaltheoristshavecharacterizedthiselusiveunderstandingintermsofaldquodemocraticethosrdquoBythistheymeanbothanidealandanargumentforacultureofparticipationactivepowersharingmutualaccountabilityinclusivenessanddeliberationinwhichcitizensmayroutinelyandsafelychallengenotonlyspecificpoli-ciesandpolitical institutionsbutalso thevalues thatgoverncollectivelifeprinciplesofinclusionandexclusionandthepremisesofauthorityitself(Connolly1995JPEuben2003Sadiki2004)AdemocraticethosismuchmoredifficulttomeasureorquantifythanforexampleSamuelHuntingtonrsquosparsimoniousdefinitionofdemocracyasapolityinwhichtherehavebeentwoconsecutivepeacefulchangesofgovernmentbywayof freeand fairelections (Huntington1991)21Yetademocraticethosmakesitpossibletobothrecognizeanddisaggregatethepreconditionsaspirations mechanisms and institutions bundled into ldquodemocracyrdquotherebybringingintofocusforexamplethefrequentlyantidemocratic

21Manypoliticalscientistsprefertodefinedemocracyintermsofproceduresdesignedtorealizepopularruleincludingfreecompetitiveandfairelectionsalongwithstateprotec-tionofcertainrightsandlibertiesSuchaformalminimalistdefinitionhastheadvantageofdetachingdemocracyfromquestionsoforiginsandofferingastandardtowhichallgov-ernmentsmaybeheldregardlessofcultureandplaceAsKeithTopper(2005205ndash7)ar-gueshoweveritalsotendstosidestepknottyquestionsaboutthesubstanceofrepresenta-tion power responsiveness and accountability that are arguably central to democraticpolitics

34

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

casttoelectionsimposedbyelitesorforeignpowersthefeltimpotenceofmanycitizensinestablisheddemocraciesandthosehighlyparticipa-torycivilsocietiesthatflourishevenundermonarchicortheocraticrule

Forourpurposes inparticularademocraticethosmakesvisible theparadoxofanIslamistmovementthatseekstomobilizeordinaryMus-limsagainstcoercivepowerbutinthenameofareligio-politicalorderlargelyimmunizedfromchallengeQutbisanaptillustrationhereashistendencytogroundhisownspecialauthorityandinsightintheunsulliedwisdomofordinarybelieversmakesitpossibletoreadhisworkaseitherabriefagainstdemocracy(amongotherthings)oranenactmentofitIn-asmuchasdemocracyasaformofgovernanceisidentifiedwithpopularsovereigntyQutbrsquosbasicpremisethat thefoundationof legitimateau-thoritymustbedivineratherthanhumansuggeststhatheisunambigu-ouslyantidemocraticMoreoverQutbrsquoseffortstopluralizereligiousandpolitical authority express not a confidence in common wisdom butratheradesiretoclaimforhimselfthestatureofareligiousexpertwhodespitehislackofIslamicacademiccredentialscanclearlyseewhatoth-erscannotQutbcharacterizestherealIslamasself-evidentbuthealsoassumesthatonlyasmallvanguardofbelieversbesideshimselfwillhavetheabilitytorecognizeitandactdecisivelytoremaketheworldinitsimageSounderstoodthesignofldquochosennessrdquoisunyieldingcommitmenttoestablishingareligio-politicalorderthatsimultaneouslypresumesthesupremacyofthefewcapableoftrueknowledgeandpromisesaworldinwhichdissentitselfwillbecomebothunnecessaryandillegitimate

Yetifdemocracyrefersnotonlytoasystemofgovernanceorsetofprocedurestorealizepopularsovereigntybutalsotopracticesthatdis-ruptthoseforceswhichconcentratepowerandestablishpoliticalexclu-sionthecharacterizationofQutbrsquosworkassimplyantidemocraticmissesa crucial dimensionof its significance and appealAs the sacred textscontaintherulesandregulationsmeanttogovernbothpublicandpri-vateaffairsQutbrsquosinsistencethatordinaryuntrainedMuslimsmusten-gagethemdirectlyisinmanywaysademocratizationofaccesstoau-thoritySuchaccesscandisruptdeeplyentrenchedpatternsofpowerandpowerlessness particularlywhen conjoined to Islamist arguments thatarbitrarypowerisun-Islamicthatreligiousknowledgedependsoncom-mitmentratherthantrainingorexpertise thatMuslimshavetherightandobligationtodeterminewhenrulersareillegitimateandthatthosewhopreferordertojusticesecuritytofreedomandmoneytopietyhaveforfeitedanyclaimtoauthority

ThisaspectofIslamismhasfrequentlybeencomparedtotheProtestantReformationandmorespecificallytoCalvinistsrsquoattemptstotransferldquore-ligiousauthorityawayfromofficiallysanctionedindividualswhointer-prettextstoordinarycitizensrdquo(EGoldberg19913alsocfLoimeier2005)Suchaparallelhassparkedagreatdealofscholarlyspeculation

35

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

regardingapossibleldquoIslamicReformationrdquo22andarangeofargumentsaboutwhetherandhowIslamismmightfacilitatethedemocratizationofMuslim societies much as the Protestant Reformation is said to haveheralded the emergence of European ldquoliberal democracyrdquo While suchcomparisonsareevocativeafullerunderstandingof IslamismrequiresfirstsituatingitinrelationtoahistoricalshiftinthenatureandlocusofreligiousauthorityinIslambeginninginthenineteenthcenturyAsschol-arsofMuslimsocietieshavepointedouttheimpactofmasseducationnewtechnologiesfordisseminatingknowledgeandinformationanddra-matically changed social economic and political contexts have madeavailabletoamateurswhathadpreviouslybeenthepurviewofreligiousexpertsAtthesametimeithasinauguratedafragmentationofauthor-itywithintheveryranksofthelsquoulamathatcontinuestothepresentday23

InthiscontexttheascendanceandinfluenceofautodidactssuchasQutbHasanal-BannalsquoAbdal-SalamFarajandBinLadensimultaneouslyex-pressandaccelerateanongoingrenegotiationofauthorityoverwhomayspeakforIslamandonwhatbasisthepathofwhichisstillunfoldingandtheoutcomeasyetuncertain

Islamism and Gender

One already apparent consequence of this ongoing renegotiation overwhomayspeakforIslamandonwhatbasisistheentryofwomenintothe interpretive fray This development is increasingly unsettling thoseunwrittengendernormsarguablyattheveryheartofIslamistthoughtdisruptingthestandardsofmasculinityandfemininitythatreflecthowparticularculturesorganizehumanbeingsrsquosocialandreproductiveactiv-itiesintorolesthatareinturnthoughttoexpresstheldquonaturerdquoofmenand women Such norms are frequently considered tangential to theknottyproblemsofdefiningIslamismandadumbratingitscentralideasyetarangeofscholarshiponculturespastandpresenthasshownthatgenderisconsistentlytheterrainoverwhichbattlesforpoliticalcontrolandculturalidentityarefoughtMorespecificallyresearchindisciplinessuchasanthropologyhistoryclassicsandpostcolonialstudieshasdem-onstratedthatculturesinwhichfemalebodiesandbehaviorareregardedas indicesofmoralpurity tend to symbolically transformwomen intoconduitsof cultural corruption in timesof internal crisis and externalthreat(Papenek1994Chatterjee1990Tavakoli-Targhi1991Just1989Cohen1991Welter1966Bloch1978)Thisisespeciallytrueofcontem-

22Foralatenineteenth-centuryassessmentoftheprospectsforaldquoMuhammadanRefor-mationrdquoseeBlunt1882132ndash73

23EickelmanandPiscatori199637ndash39131ndash35Zaman2006Suchfragmentationhasinmanywaysbeenacceleratedbytheexplosionofdigitalcultureswhichpromoteamongotherthingsaldquoformofempoweredamateurismrdquo(Mirzoeff20026)

36

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

poraryreligio-politicalmovementswhosememberstendtoldquoidealizepa-triarchalstructuresofauthorityandmoralityrdquoendorsegenderdualismasgod-givenornaturalandcondemnvigorouslyrecentchangesingen-derrelationsasasymptomandsymbolofsecularistmoralbankruptcy(Riesebrodt1993Moghadam1992Hawley1994)

SeveralchaptersinthisvolumeilluminateIslamistgendernormsbyre-vealing thecharacterandcontentof Islamistconcernsabout theplaceandpurityofMuslimwomenmdashpreoccupationsFatimaMernissi(199199)hasgonesofarastocharacterizeasanobsessionDespiteimportantdifferences among Islamists thinkers many endorse gender norms inwhichthefairlyconventionalinsistencethatfemalenatureisdefinedinand through reproduction undergirds an understanding of women assymbolsofmoralvirtueandvesselsofculturalpurityThisviewsustainstheclaimthatmenandwomenareequalinreligiousbeliefbutperformfundamentallydifferentandcomplementaryfunctionsinsocietyWhilemenarenaturallymadetoruleinboththepublicandprivatedomainawomanbelongsinthedomesticrealmwhereherprimaryroleistobeawifeandmotheraswellastoinsuretheintegrityofthefamilythefirstschoolofmoraleducationAssuchfunctionsarerootedinaninescap-ablehumannaturefashionedbyGodawomanrsquosinabilityorunwilling-nesstoperformherdutiessignalsadisobediencetothedivinewillandpresages the corruption of the Muslim family from within From thisvantagepointtheWesterninsistenceonfullequalitybetweenthesexesisdoubly pernicious it at once liberates women from basic moral con-straintsandenslavesthemtomutuallyreinforcingsexualandcapitalistexploitationAsMurtazaMutahhari(1998xxxi)arguescapitalismmakesuseofwomentomarket itsgoodsldquoby trading inhonourandrespectthrough[their]powertoenticerdquotherebyldquotransform[ing]manintoaninvoluntaryagentofconsumptionrdquoInasmuchaswomenareresponsiblefor producing the next generation of Muslim men destined to restoreIslamtoitsformergloryitisnotonlythevirtueofwomenortheinteg-rityofthefamilythathangsinthebalancebutthefutureofIslamiccivili-zationitself

Zaynab al-Ghazali andMutahharimake several of these argumentsexplicitlyandindetail(seechapters10and11)butinmuchofIslamistrhetoricthenatureandsignificanceofwomenareestablishedindirectlyandsymbolicallyandthroughthreerecurrentimagesinparticularThefirstisofwomenassilentsymbolsofculturalmoralandsexualvulnera-bilityvoicelessfiguresinneedofmasculineprotectionorwhenitistoolatedefiledbodiesthatmutelydemandvengeanceSoforexamplelsquoAb-dallahlsquoAzzam(oneofBinLadenrsquosmentorsseechapter18)graphicallydetailstheagonizinghumiliationofyoungmenunabletoactwhentheAfghanwoman isldquocryingout forhelpher childrenarebeing slaugh-tered her women are being raped the innocent are killed and theircorpsesscatteredrdquo(lsquoAzzam1987a)Inthesecondimagewomenfunction

37

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

muchlikeachorusthatspeaksinpermittedcadencestoratifymasculineendeavorsSuchisthecaseforexampleinBinLadenrsquos1996ldquoDeclara-tionofWaragainsttheAmericansOccupyingtheLandoftheTwoHolyPlacesrdquo(seechapter18)wherethewomenexhortmentojihadinthefollowing way ldquoPrepare yourself like a struggler the matter is biggerthanwordsAreyougoingtoleaveusforthewolvesofKufr[unbe-lief]eatingourwingsWherearethefreemendefendingfreewomenbyarmsDeath isbetter than life inhumiliation Some scandals andshameswillneverbeotherwiseeradicatedrdquo24InthethirdimagewomenarecreaturesnotofthisworldbutofanothervirginalrewardsforthecourageousmartyrintheafterlifeThisisevidentinthefinalinstructionsforthe911hijackersforexamplewhereMuslimldquobrothersrdquoareurgedto purify their carnal impulses sharpen their knives for the dhabh (slaughter)andheedthecallofthehur lsquoayn (theblack-eyedones)await-ingtheminParadise(seechapter19)

Such rhetoric primarily registers women as an extensionmirror ormeasure of masculinity and together with explicit Islamist argumentsabouthumannatureandthefamilyarticulatesIslamistgendernormsinwhichmenandwomeneachhaveaproperlocationandpurposeinadi-vinely ordained social hierarchy Deviance from this gendered scriptthussignalsdisruptionofamuchbroaderreligio-politicalorderitbothpresumes and seeks to bring into existence The disruption caused byforeign aggression in particular exacerbates the tendency to translateconflict into an assault on Muslim masculinity and to conceptualizewomenaspotentialvehiclesforWesterncorruptioninneedofguidingand guarding Women such as Zaynab al-Ghazali and Nadia Yassinewho seek a prominent place and voice within the Islamist movementhavehadlittlechoicebuttocontendwiththisgenderedscriptDoingsohasentailedamongotherthingsnavigatingcarefullybetweenIslamistcharacterizations of womenrsquos visibility and agency as symptomatic ofthe new jahiliyya on the one hand and essentializing arguments thatequateIslamwithveilingfemalegenitalmutilationandhonorkillingsontheother

AsthechaptersonGhazaliandYassinesuggestIslamistwomenhavenegotiatedbetweensuchconstraintsandpressuresandtheirownambi-tionsindifferentwaysApioneeringdalsquoiya(onewhoinvitesMuslimstogreater piety)Ghazalirsquos own life reveals a fierce resistance to conven-tionalnormsofdomesticityevenasmuchofher(earlier)workappearsto embrace an Islamist gender ideology that defines women as wivesmothers andldquobuilders ofmenrdquo (al-Hashimi 1990 118)By contrastYassineisawifeandmotherwhoembracesanldquoIslamicfeminismrdquothatrequiresldquoreappropriatingtheinstrumentsofclassicaltheologyrdquoanden-

24TheIslamistjournalSawt alshyJihadhasgonesofarastofeatureldquowomenrsquosvoicesrdquointheformofrolemodelsnamedforexampleumm alshyshahid(motherofthemartyr)al-thoughitisunclearthattheseldquovoicesrdquoareactuallywomenrsquos(SUsher2004)

38

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

gaging the textsdirectly through ijtihad (NYassine2003) In this re-spect Yassine must be understood as part of a broader effort amongMuslimwomenwithdifferentpoliticalcommitmentstosimultaneouslyadvocateandenacttheirrighttorecuperatetheldquooriginalintentrdquooftheIslamictextsIfwomenandmendoinfacthavedistinctperspectivesontheworldYassinesuggestswomenhaveaspecialobligationtoexcavatewhattheyseeasthegenderparityoftheQurrsquoanburiedbeneaththoseldquomachointerpretationsrdquoofIslamuponwhichmenhavebuilttheirprivi-legeandpower(Khalaf2006)25

ManyAnglo-AmericanandEuropean feministsworry that Islamistsseekonly to secureor restorepatriarchalpowerConverselymany Is-lamist women view feminism as a term and a movement inescapablyWesterninoriginfreightedwiththelegacyofcolonialismanduneasilyimplicatedinculturalimperialismThisapplieseventoYassinewhoisunwillingtoadoptwithoutqualificationalabelsheassociateswithagen-dasopposedtoherowntheWesttheMoroccanstateMaghribi(North-westAfrican)elitesYetfeminismitselfisahighlycontestedtermwithin theso-calledWestitisthebearerofmultiplemeaningssomeofwhichareevenopposedandischaracterizedbydeepdisagreementsaboutwhowomenarewhatwomenneedwhoisauthorizedtoworkonwomenrsquosbehalf andbywhatmeans Inasmuch as these various feminismsmayshareonlyastatedconcernforwomenrsquoswelfarethereisnothinginco-herentinmodifyingldquofeminismrdquowithldquoIslamicrdquoldquoMuslimrdquoorevenldquoIs-lamistrdquounlessone iscommitted toarguing thatfirst Islam isanun-changingessencebeyondhistorypoliticsandculturesecondthereisaneutralobjectivevantagefromwhichtoidentifythisessenceonceandforallandfinallytheIslamicessencesoidentifiedisfundamentallyin-compatiblewitheffortstoimprovetheconditionsandqualityofwomenrsquoslivesBythesametokenIslamistwomenwhorejectthetermfeminismcanbe(althoughnotalwaysare)deeplycommittedtoimprovingwom-enrsquoswelfareaswellasactivelyresistanttoeffortsthatreduceortrans-formthemintosilentaccessoriesofmalepower

YassineandGhazalidifferaboutwhatwomenareandshouldbeyetbroadlyspeakingbothmaybeconsideredpartofarecenttrendtowardthe feminizationofdalsquowa Dalsquowa literallymeanscallappealor sum-monsbutthetermhascometosignifyavarietyofpracticesandargu-mentsmeanttoexhortinviteandguideMuslimstowhatisregardedasproperconductandmoraldevotionWomenrsquosparticipationindalsquowais

25WomenrsquosparticipationintheldquoproductionofofficialIslamicknowledgerdquohasalonghistoryalthoughtheyhaveoftendonesoinrelativeobscurityandwithoutthebenefitofeducation in the Islamicsciences thathas legitimateddirectengagementwith thesacredtexts (Cooke 2001 xiv Badran and Cooke 2004) Pioneering attempts to read genderequalityinIslamarealsonotconfinedtowritingbywomenasevincedbyQasimAminrsquosTahrir alshymarrsquoa [TheLiberationofWoman] (1899)andMumtaz lsquoAlirsquosHuquqshye niswan [TheRightsofWomen](1898)

39

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

notabrandnewphenomenonasisevidentinGhazalirsquosworkwiththeEgyptianSocietyofMuslimLadiesinthe1930sYetfromEgypttoPaki-stantoSaudiArabiatotheUnitedStatesthenumberoffemaledalsquoiyashasproliferatedexponentially inrecentyears(Cooke2001Mahmood2005Hirschkind2006)Thisreflectsinpartcurrentdoctrinalempha-sesondalsquowaasincumbentuponbothmenandwomenanddependentlessupontechnicalknowledgethanmoralvirtueandpracticalfamiliaritywiththeIslamictradition(Mahmood200565ndash66)It isalsoaconse-quenceofrecentpoliticalandsocioeconomictransformationsinMuslimsocietiesincludingtheexpansionofmasseducationthathasnotonlyin-creasedwomenrsquosliteracyandsocialmobilitybutalsomadeIslamictextsmoreaccessibletheproliferationoftechnologiesmdashfromthecassettetapetotheInternetmdashthatfacilitatethecirculationofreligiousknowledgeevenamongthosewhocannotreadortraveltheprecedentsetbythevigorousparticipationof IranianwomeninpostrevolutiondebatesaboutIslamandthemodeloflegalactivismevidentintheIslamistmovementrsquosownchallenge to the lsquoulamarsquos status as gatekeepers of religious knowledge(Singerman2005Mir-Hosseini1999)

If Ghazali and Yassine exemplify the feminization of dalsquowa amongelitesthemosquemovementinEgyptillustratesthegrowingparticipa-tionofwomenfromdiversesocialbackgroundsinreligiousclassesde-votedtostudyinganddebatingwhatIslamrequiresforawomantobeldquomorallyuprightrdquointhecontemporaryworld(Mahmood2005)Con-ceptualizingpiety in termsof adeepandholistic commitment to self-transformationparticipantsinthemosquemovementareconcernedlesswithmattersofsovereigntyandpoliticsconventionallyunderstoodandmorewiththeldquomoralcultivationrdquoofthosedailypracticesseenascrucialtobecomingclosertoGod(Mahmood2005)SomeIslamistshavecriti-cizedthis focusonpracticesofworshipasapoliticalandoverlypriva-tizedyetsuchcriticismmissestheforceofIslamistsrsquoowninsistenceondin(religion)asawayoflifeinwhichthedomainsofpublicandprivateare inextricably linked26AsSabaMahmood (2005193194) showsthesewomenrsquosintenseeffortsatldquoretrainingethicalsensibilitiesrdquohavealdquosociopoliticalforcerdquothatextendswellbeyondmattersofgovernancefacilitatingnolessthantheemergenceofaldquonewsocialandmoralorderrdquoEvidenceofitstransformativepowermaybefoundnotonlyinthesheernumbersandvarietyofwomenmdashwealthyandpoor literateand illiter-atemdashparticipatinginthemosquemovementbutalsointherhetoricalandpoliticaleffortsbythestateandsomeIslamiststocurtailcontrolordis-creditit(Mahmood200571194)

26ParticipantsinthemosquemovementinturnareoftencriticalofwhattheyseeasthereductionofIslamtotokensofculturalauthenticityorofitsinstrumentalizationbybothnationalistsandIslamiststheycharacterizeasmoreinterestedinpoliticalmaneuveringthanreligiouspiety

40

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

Understoodtoincludebothwrittenandembodiedpracticesthefemi-nizationof dalsquowa illustrates theways inwhichwomen fromdifferentperspectivesandsocialclassesareinsistingonengagingthesacredtextsdirectly for and with one another without the mediating authority ofmenwhohavetraditionallyheldthemonopolyonsuchactivitiesAsSu-danese Islamist Lubabah al-Fadl argues ldquoAs an insan [human being]whohappenstobeawomanIhavearighttorejectthemanipulativeexegesesofoursharilsquoa thatthreatenmyexistenceinawaythat isnotconsistentwiththeGodlywayandtoapplymyownijtihadtorectifyer-roneoustendenciesbysomeshuyukh[pluralofshaykh]rdquo(Sadiki2004290)DespitetheproliferationofvoicesintentonclaimingforthemselvestheauthoritytodemarcatewhatisauthenticallyIslamicandun-Islamiconceandforallcontestationoveritsscopeandmeaningproceedsapacefacilitatedatleastinpartbywomenformerlyexcludedfromtheconver-sationAtthesametimeIslamistwomenrsquosagencyandclaimstoauthorityarefrequentlystillpredicatedonawillingnesstofollowfairlypatriarchalrulesaboutwherehowandwithwhomtheymaypracticetheirvocation(Hirschkind2003Sadiki2004283)

Islamism and Violence

IfgenderisfrequentlyanimplicitpreoccupationamongIslamistsjihadisarguably Islamistsrsquomost consistently explicit concern Jihad is derivedfromtheArabicverbthatmeanstostruggleortostriveyetitisaparticu-larkindofstruggle that isofconcern tomanyof thefigurescollectedheretheoftenviolentstruggleagainstapostatesandinfidelsbothathomeandabroadtowhicheveryindividualMuslimmustcontributeTheclaimthatfightingunbelieversisthepreeminentenactmentofindividualMus-limpiety seems to justify characterizationsof Islam ingeneral and Is-lamisminparticularassanctioningevenencouragingviolenceYetwhatIslamistsrepresentasjihadtout courtisahistoricallyspecificunderstand-ingderivedfromahighlyselectiveuseoftextsandprecedentsprominentamongthemaformerlyobscureclaimbytheinfluentialfourteenth-cen-tury jurist IbnTaymiyya thatMongol rulerswhohad contravened Is-lamiclawcouldbesubjecttoforcibleremovalFarfromadefinitiveex-pressionof Islamldquoproperlyunderstoodrdquo such Islamist argumentsnotonlymarkasignificantdeparturefrommuchofantecedentdoctrineandpractice but also diminish the importance of ongoing disagreementsamongMuslimsabouttheformandpurposesofjihad

TobeginwithMuslimscholarshavetendedtoconsiderjihadagainstforeignenemiesafard kifaya(collectiveobligation)thatisadutyagroupofpeoplewithinthecommunitymayperformonbehalfoftherestandonethatpresupposesalegitimateMuslimleadertodeclareorleadthechargeJuristshavedistinguishedthisfromthefard lsquoayn(individualduty)thatmustbefulfilledbyeverysingleMuslimincasesofdefensivejihad

41

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

thatiswhentheummaisunderattackManyIslamistsincludedheretakeamuchlessnuancedviewofjihadAsamodeofpoliticalactionQutbarguesjihadmustberegardedasaldquopermanentconditionnotanocca-sionalconcernrdquoonethatincurrentcircumstancesrequiresdeedsratherthanwordsstruggleratherthancontemplationrevolutionathomeaswellasresistanceabroad(Qutb199167ndash6882)lsquoAbdal-SalamFarajarguesalongsimilarlinesthatthenatureoftheattackonIslammakespolitical authorization by a caliph (ldquodeputyrdquo referring to a legitimatesuccessortotheProphetrsquosleadership)unnecessaryafterallldquoleadershipovertheMuslimsis(always)intheirownhandsifonlytheymakethismanifestIfthereissomethinglackingintheleadershipwellthereisnothingthatcannotbeacquiredrdquo(Jansen1986asec93)

SuchargumentsareadeliberaterejectionofearlyMuslimmodernistswhohademphasizedthelargelydefensivecharacterofjihadandsoughttoshowthatrelationsbetweenMuslimsandnon-MuslimswerenormallypeacefulratherthanantagonisticMahmudShaltut(d1963)therectorof al-Azhar from 1958 to 1963 had argued for example that theQurrsquoanicversesonfightingldquoprohibittheprovocationofhostilityandthisprohibitionisreinforcedbyGodrsquosrepugnancetoaggressionandbyhisdislikeofthosewhoprovokehostilityrdquo(Peters199674onShaltutseeZebiri1993)ConversionbyforceisanathematoIslamShaltutaversandfightingiscommandedonlyindefenseinresponsetoaggressionini-tiatedbyothersEvendefensivejihadmustaimatldquotheterminationoftheaggressionandtheestablishmentofreligiouslibertydevotedtoGodandfreefromanypressureorforcerdquo(Peters199675)

ManyIslamistsexplicitlydismisssuchargumentsasasymptomoffalseconsciousnessoneamongmanydestructiveeffectsofcolonialdomina-tionMawdudiargues for example thatwhile imperialists ravage theworld to satisfy their greed jihad alone ldquoconjures up the vision of amarching band of religious fanatics with savage beards and fiery eyesbrandishingdrawnswordsandattackingtheinfidelswherevertheymeetthemrdquoHavinginternalizedthis imageMuslimsrushtoapologizeandrenouncearmedstruggleInthiswayhelamentscolonialistsretaintheexclusiverighttoldquofightwitharmsandammunitionwhilewearecon-tented with our pen and our tonguerdquo (Mawdudi 1948 1ndash3) SayyidQutbforhispartagreedthatIslamdoesnotcountenancespreadingitsmessagebyforceandcoercionyethehadlittlepatiencewiththosewhosoughttopresentjihadaslegitimateonlyinself-defense

IfweinsistoncallingIslamicjihadadefensivemovementthenwemustchangethemeaningofthewordldquodefenserdquoandmeanbyitldquothedefenseofmanrdquoagainstallthoseforcesthatlimithisfreedomWhenwetakethisbroadmeaningofthewordldquodefenserdquoweunder-standthetruecharacterofIslaminthatitproclaimstheuniversalfreedomofeverypersonandcommunityfromservitudetoanyother

42

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

individualorsocietytheendofmanrsquosarroganceandselfishnesstheestablishmentofthesovereigntyofAllahandHisLordshipthrough-outtheworldandtheruleofthedivinesharilsquoainhumanaffairs(Qutb199050)

Qutbdoesnotnameanynamesincastigatingtheldquowriterswithdefeatistandapologeticmentalities[who]writeaboutlsquojihadinIslamrsquoandtrytoremovethislsquoblotrsquofromIslamrdquo(Qutb199046)buthecouldverywellhavehadhisdistinguishedfellowEgyptianMahmudShaltutinmind

These arguments about jihad may be said to constitute a commongrammarandframeworkofanalysisformanyIslamistsalthoughseveralthinkers in this volume carefully calibrate such claims to suit variouspurposesanddifferentpublicspheresInhisjustificationfortheassassi-nationofEgyptianpresidentAnwaral-SadatforexamplelsquoAbdal-SalamFarajdepictsthestruggletoreclaimthemoralfoundationsoftheEgyp-tianstateasafightagainstjahiliyyafromwithinarguingthatthejihadagainstacorruptnationalistregimeathomemusttakeprecedenceoverfightingenemieselsewhereTheCharterofHamas(seechapter15)how-everinsiststhatallMuslimsrecognizetheprimacyofthejihadforJeru-salemweldingIslamistrhetorictothatofnationalistresistanceinanef-fortbothtofightIsraelioccupationandtocompeteforadherentswiththePalestinianLiberationOrganization(PLO)IncontrasttobothFarajandHamasBinLadenembracesaglobaljihadthatessentiallycollapsesdistinctionsbetweennationalandinternationaloffensiveanddefensivefightingenemiesathomeandthosefromafar

Yet despite such differences these arguments tend to presume thatviolent jihad is a necessary response to the pervasive power of thosewithdemonstratedhostilitytoMuslimliveslandspietiesandsensibili-tiesaformofretaliationwhoseurgencyandlegitimacyderivefromtheviolencemdashpsychologicalandeconomicaswellasphysicalmdashoftheinitialassaultThisviewofjihadsubsumesindividualsintoarchetypesofldquoin-fidelsrdquoandldquobelieversrdquoandinsodoingvitiatesmoreconventionaldis-tinctionsbetweenforexamplesoldierandcivilianorcollectiveandin-dividual responsibility It is far from inevitable that thosewhoharborsuchviewswillautomaticallyactuponthemyetthecarnagewroughtbytheattacksontheWorldTradeCenterandthePentagonin2001aBalinightclub in 2002 Madrid commuter trains in 2004 and throughoutIraqonadailybasissuggestjusthowlethalsuchclaimscanbegiventheright circumstances The fact that such violence does not discriminateamongvictimsonlyfurtherfuelsrhetoriccharacterizingIslamistsasirra-tional fanatics ldquoin love with deathrdquo terrorists animated by a religioncharacterizedbyapropensityforviolenceandauthoritarianism27

27AnxietiesabouttheparticularsusceptibilityofMuslimstoirrationalityinsularityandfanaticismhavealonganddistinguishedpedigreeinEuro-AmericanhistoryandpoliticalthoughtSeeforexampleRenan18833

43

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

AsinsomanyothermattershoweverIslamistsarehardlyofonemindonthesubjectofjihadindeedthereareIslamistswhoexplicitlyrejectthereductionof struggle toviolenceAcase inpoint isNadiaYassine(20032005c)whoinsiststhatjihadisthededicatedstruggleagainstisshytikbar(arrogance)particularlyinitscommonformasthelustforpoweranddominationAsjihadagainstistikbarisbothafinalgoalandapre-scriptionforactionYassinesuggestsitisantitheticaltoviolentpracticesthataimatdominationTheprimaryinstrumentsofjihadarenotbombsbutwords particularly thosedeployed in the art of persuasion (Fara-marzi2005NYassine2006a)WhenIslamistssuchaslsquoAbdal-SalamFarajandlsquoUmarlsquoAbdal-RahmanseektolegitimizeviolentrevolutionbyrecoursetoIslamictextsshearguestheycontravenethetruemeaningofjihadtoservetheirownarrogantendsBythesametokenBinLadenrsquosdecisiontoldquofightevilwithevilandbarbaritywithbarbarityrdquonotonlyviolatesspecificIslamicprohibitionsagainstharmingcivilianswomenandchildrenbutalsobetraystheethicalimperativetoembodythemes-sageofamercifulGodwhocautionsbelieversthat(Q8822)ldquoYouhavenopoweroverthemrdquo(NYassine2005cDaily Excelsior2002)

SuchpersistentdisagreementsamongMuslimspastandpresentsug-gest that Islam isnomore inherently violent andbloody-minded thanitmdashorChristianityor Judaism for thatmattermdashis inherentlypeacefulIslamists often claim to speak for an unchanging authentic Islam thatexistsoutsideoftimeandspaceyetthepoliticalpurchaseoftheirper-spective derives from the ways it assembles disparate yet recognizablecontemporaryexperiencesofsufferingfrustrationandlossintoanex-planationthatresonateswithMuslimswholiveincommunitiescultur-allylinguisticallyandgeographicallydistantfromoneanotherTheex-tenttowhichIslamistargumentsresonatebroadlyacrossMuslimsocie-tiesthusdependsuponasetofexperiencesandphenomenathatmarkthisparticularmomentinhistoryincludingthewaysinwhichcontempo-raryglobalinequalitiescompoundalegacyofhistoricalasymmetriestocontinuallyreproduceasenseofMuslimpowerlessnessmdashbothrealandimaginedmdashrelativetotheWestcontinuingEuro-Americanpoliticalandfinancialsupportofcorruptautocratsmanyofwhompresideoverna-tion-statesbrutallystitchedtogetherbyWesternfiat thepersistenceofauthoritarian regimes eager to control domestic unrest by catalyzingldquoMuslimragerdquotowardexternaltargetsthesenseofemasculationpro-ducedbydecadesofpoliticalrepressionandeconomicfrustrationandthecontinualflowofimagesofbloodiedMuslimbodiesdeliveredbyaburgeoningarrayofvideosatelliteandelectronicmedia

It is notable that the understanding of jihad many Islamists proffermirrorstheverystate-sanctionedviolenceagainstwhichtheyhavestrug-gledforalmostacenturyAlongwiththousandsofMuslimscaughtinthemachineryoftwentieth-centurystateviolenceprominentIslamistsfromQutbtoGhazalitoAymanal-Zawahirimdashal-Qalsquoidarsquossecondincommandmdash

44

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

arewellknowntohavebeenradicalizedbyextendedandoftenbrutaltermsofincarcerationinEgyptSyriaIraqJordanIsraelAlgeriaandelsewhere(onal-ZawahiriandprisoncfKepelandMilelli2008152ndash54)ItisthusfarfromsurprisingthatIslamistsforgedbyinterrogationtortureinprisoncampswouldconcludethatthepreeminentenactmentofMuslimpietyisviolentstruggleldquoPrisonrdquoasPalestinianKhaledAbuHilalhassaidldquoismyuniversityrdquo(Erlanger2007)anargumentmadeingreaterdetailinadifferenttimeandplacebyRussianwriterandrevolu-tionaryMaximGorky(1868ndash1936)

Apeoplebroughtupinaschoolthatremindsoneofthetormentsofhellonasmallscaleapeopleaccustomedtotheclenched-fistprisonandthewhipwillnotbeblestwithatenderheartApeoplethatthepoliceagentshaveriddenoverwillbecapableintheirturnofwalk-ingoverthebodiesofothersInacountrywhereunresthasreignedsolongit isdifficultforthepeopletorealizefromonedaytothenextthepowerofrightOnecannotdemandfromamanwhohasneverknownjusticethatheshouldbejust(Gorky1920)

InthiscontextasTimothyMitchell(1990195ndash96199207ndash8)suggestsIslamistviewsoftheworldcanbecharacterizedasbothamodeofresis-tancetostatemechanismsofcoercionandanexpressionofthemSuchisthedynamic evident inGhazalirsquosmemoirs for examplewhen shede-scribeshowtheldquodarknessofprisonsthebladesoftortureandthevi-ciousbeatingsonly increasetheenduranceandresolveofthefaithfulrdquo(Ghazali19786)

There is no doubt a great deal of pragmatism at work in IslamistargumentsaboutviolenceAsQutb(19916447ndash48)drylynotesthepathtofreedommustoccasionallybehewnbywayoftheswordbecausetyrants are not reasoned out of power and ldquojahiliyya is not lsquoabstracttheoryrsquo[it]consciouslyorunconsciouslystrivestopreserveitsownexistence to defend its essence to annihilate dangerous elementswhichthreatenitsverybeingrdquoYetitisalsothecasethatformanyoftheseIslamistsjihadisbothameansandanendanefforttoeradicatethoseobstacles torestoringa justcommunityonearththatsimultane-ouslybringshumanaction intoaccordwithGodrsquosplansandpurposes(Haddad198321)While theQurrsquoan (2256) states thatldquothere isnocompulsioninreligionrdquoIslamistscontendthatonlyinastateinwhichIslamiclawreignssupremearehumanbeingsfreefromenslavementtooneanotherrsquosruleandallareequalbyvirtueoftheircommonsubmissiontoGodAsQutb(1991107ndash8)argues

WhenthehighestauthorityinsocietyisGodalonemdashexpressedintheruleofdivinelawmdashonlythenishumanitytrulyandcompletelyliber-atedfromslaverytomenOnlythisisldquohumancivilizationrdquobecausetheessentialfoundationofhumancivilizationisthetrueandcom-

45

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

pletefreedomofhumanityandtheabsolutedignityofeveryindivid-ualinsocietyThereisnotruefreedomanddignityforhumanityortheindividualinasocietywheresomepeoplearelordswholegislateandothersareslaveswhoobey

From this perspective the realization of justice liberty equality andchoiceitselfnecessitatestheforcibleremovaloftheconstraintsimposedbyjahiliyyaalongwiththosewhoaidandabetitno matter the costAsMawdudi(1954160ndash61)writes

[W]hyisitthatinreligionsuchimportanceisgiventojihadthattheQurrsquoanpronouncesthejudgmentofhypocrisyuponthosewhoshirkandevadeitJihadisbutanothernamefortheattempttoerectthesystemoftruthandtheQurrsquoandeclaresjihadtobeatouchstoneonthesamefootingwithamanrsquosfaithInotherwordshewhohasfaithinhisheartwillneitherbecontentwiththedominationofthesystemofevilnorwillhegrudgetheexpenditureoflifeandwealthinthestruggleforerectingthesystemoftruthIfoneshowsweaknessinthismatterhisfaithitselfisdoubtfulWhatcananythingelsebesidethenprofithimThemanwhoprofesses faith in this religioncannotfulfillhisdutyonlybytryingasfaraspossibletopatternhislifeonIslamThenatureofhisfaithitselfrequiresthatheshouldconcentrateallhiseffortuponwrestingleadershipfromunbelievingandcorruptmentoentrustittotherighteousanduponerectingthesystemoftruththathasbeenordainedfortheconductoftheworldaccordingtothewillofGodBecausethisendisunattainablewith-out thehighestdegreeofcollectiveeffort theremustexistarigh-teouscommunitycommittedtotheprincipleoftruthanddevotedtothesolepurposeintheworldoferectingmaintainingandproperlyrealizingthesystemoftruth

ThefactthatsomeIslamistthinkerssanctifyviolentstruggleinsuchtermsdoesnotmeanofcoursethatallthosewhoadvocateorengageinjihadendorseviolence28NordoesitimplythatthosewhoclaimtokillforIslamareentirelywithoutulteriormotivesthosemanipulativepur-poses andpsychologicalmotivations that even themost rarified scrip-turalargumentscanexpressorserveWhattheprecedinganalysisdoessuggesthoweveristhatthereductionofthisviewofjihadtoirrationalbloodlusttheself-interestedgrabfortemporalpoweroradoorthroughwhichtopassintothehereaftermissesacrucialdimensionofitssignifi-canceandappealfortruebelieversjihadisnolessthananenactmentof

28EvenashespokeofaneweraofjahiliyyaandofjihadMawdudihimselfstoppedwellshortof recommendingor condoning the actual resort to violence in themannermanyotherIslamistsdidAsNasr(199670)observesMawdudirsquosorganizationtheJamalsquoat-iIs-lamildquohasavoidedviolentsocialchangeandhasinsteadviewedthepathtotheIslamicstateaslyingwithintheexistingsociopoliticalorderrdquoAlsoseethechapters5and3onQutbandMawdudiinthisvolume

46

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

adivineimperativetoremakethefoundationsofcollectivelifeInthisre-spectIslamistviewsofjihadcanbeseenaspartofalong-standingasso-ciationbetweenviolenceandpoliticalfoundingsuponwhichnoparticu-larcultureorhistoricalepochhasamonopolyThisassociationandtheldquolegacyofviolencerdquoitbequeathstofuturegenerationsarenolessappar-entinthoseradicalrevolutionsofrenewalthatmovebywayoftheswordfromthemarginstothecenterthanthosepoliticalfoundingsthatclaimtocreatesomethingoutofnothing(Connolly1995251)Ineithercasethetollofsuchbrutalitycanbeimmeasurableforinadditiontothevic-timswhosufferdirectlytheldquopracticeofviolencelikeallactionchangestheworldbutthemostprobablechangeistoamoreviolentworldrdquo(Ar-endt1972177)

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Page 34: Chapter 1 INTRODUCTION - assets.press.princeton.eduassets.press.princeton.edu/chapters/s9067.pdf · Chapter 1 INTRODUCTION This volume is intended as a broad introduction to the evolution

34

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

casttoelectionsimposedbyelitesorforeignpowersthefeltimpotenceofmanycitizensinestablisheddemocraciesandthosehighlyparticipa-torycivilsocietiesthatflourishevenundermonarchicortheocraticrule

Forourpurposes inparticularademocraticethosmakesvisible theparadoxofanIslamistmovementthatseekstomobilizeordinaryMus-limsagainstcoercivepowerbutinthenameofareligio-politicalorderlargelyimmunizedfromchallengeQutbisanaptillustrationhereashistendencytogroundhisownspecialauthorityandinsightintheunsulliedwisdomofordinarybelieversmakesitpossibletoreadhisworkaseitherabriefagainstdemocracy(amongotherthings)oranenactmentofitIn-asmuchasdemocracyasaformofgovernanceisidentifiedwithpopularsovereigntyQutbrsquosbasicpremisethat thefoundationof legitimateau-thoritymustbedivineratherthanhumansuggeststhatheisunambigu-ouslyantidemocraticMoreoverQutbrsquoseffortstopluralizereligiousandpolitical authority express not a confidence in common wisdom butratheradesiretoclaimforhimselfthestatureofareligiousexpertwhodespitehislackofIslamicacademiccredentialscanclearlyseewhatoth-erscannotQutbcharacterizestherealIslamasself-evidentbuthealsoassumesthatonlyasmallvanguardofbelieversbesideshimselfwillhavetheabilitytorecognizeitandactdecisivelytoremaketheworldinitsimageSounderstoodthesignofldquochosennessrdquoisunyieldingcommitmenttoestablishingareligio-politicalorderthatsimultaneouslypresumesthesupremacyofthefewcapableoftrueknowledgeandpromisesaworldinwhichdissentitselfwillbecomebothunnecessaryandillegitimate

Yetifdemocracyrefersnotonlytoasystemofgovernanceorsetofprocedurestorealizepopularsovereigntybutalsotopracticesthatdis-ruptthoseforceswhichconcentratepowerandestablishpoliticalexclu-sionthecharacterizationofQutbrsquosworkassimplyantidemocraticmissesa crucial dimensionof its significance and appealAs the sacred textscontaintherulesandregulationsmeanttogovernbothpublicandpri-vateaffairsQutbrsquosinsistencethatordinaryuntrainedMuslimsmusten-gagethemdirectlyisinmanywaysademocratizationofaccesstoau-thoritySuchaccesscandisruptdeeplyentrenchedpatternsofpowerandpowerlessness particularlywhen conjoined to Islamist arguments thatarbitrarypowerisun-Islamicthatreligiousknowledgedependsoncom-mitmentratherthantrainingorexpertise thatMuslimshavetherightandobligationtodeterminewhenrulersareillegitimateandthatthosewhopreferordertojusticesecuritytofreedomandmoneytopietyhaveforfeitedanyclaimtoauthority

ThisaspectofIslamismhasfrequentlybeencomparedtotheProtestantReformationandmorespecificallytoCalvinistsrsquoattemptstotransferldquore-ligiousauthorityawayfromofficiallysanctionedindividualswhointer-prettextstoordinarycitizensrdquo(EGoldberg19913alsocfLoimeier2005)Suchaparallelhassparkedagreatdealofscholarlyspeculation

35

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

regardingapossibleldquoIslamicReformationrdquo22andarangeofargumentsaboutwhetherandhowIslamismmightfacilitatethedemocratizationofMuslim societies much as the Protestant Reformation is said to haveheralded the emergence of European ldquoliberal democracyrdquo While suchcomparisonsareevocativeafullerunderstandingof IslamismrequiresfirstsituatingitinrelationtoahistoricalshiftinthenatureandlocusofreligiousauthorityinIslambeginninginthenineteenthcenturyAsschol-arsofMuslimsocietieshavepointedouttheimpactofmasseducationnewtechnologiesfordisseminatingknowledgeandinformationanddra-matically changed social economic and political contexts have madeavailabletoamateurswhathadpreviouslybeenthepurviewofreligiousexpertsAtthesametimeithasinauguratedafragmentationofauthor-itywithintheveryranksofthelsquoulamathatcontinuestothepresentday23

InthiscontexttheascendanceandinfluenceofautodidactssuchasQutbHasanal-BannalsquoAbdal-SalamFarajandBinLadensimultaneouslyex-pressandaccelerateanongoingrenegotiationofauthorityoverwhomayspeakforIslamandonwhatbasisthepathofwhichisstillunfoldingandtheoutcomeasyetuncertain

Islamism and Gender

One already apparent consequence of this ongoing renegotiation overwhomayspeakforIslamandonwhatbasisistheentryofwomenintothe interpretive fray This development is increasingly unsettling thoseunwrittengendernormsarguablyattheveryheartofIslamistthoughtdisruptingthestandardsofmasculinityandfemininitythatreflecthowparticularculturesorganizehumanbeingsrsquosocialandreproductiveactiv-itiesintorolesthatareinturnthoughttoexpresstheldquonaturerdquoofmenand women Such norms are frequently considered tangential to theknottyproblemsofdefiningIslamismandadumbratingitscentralideasyetarangeofscholarshiponculturespastandpresenthasshownthatgenderisconsistentlytheterrainoverwhichbattlesforpoliticalcontrolandculturalidentityarefoughtMorespecificallyresearchindisciplinessuchasanthropologyhistoryclassicsandpostcolonialstudieshasdem-onstratedthatculturesinwhichfemalebodiesandbehaviorareregardedas indicesofmoralpurity tend to symbolically transformwomen intoconduitsof cultural corruption in timesof internal crisis and externalthreat(Papenek1994Chatterjee1990Tavakoli-Targhi1991Just1989Cohen1991Welter1966Bloch1978)Thisisespeciallytrueofcontem-

22Foralatenineteenth-centuryassessmentoftheprospectsforaldquoMuhammadanRefor-mationrdquoseeBlunt1882132ndash73

23EickelmanandPiscatori199637ndash39131ndash35Zaman2006Suchfragmentationhasinmanywaysbeenacceleratedbytheexplosionofdigitalcultureswhichpromoteamongotherthingsaldquoformofempoweredamateurismrdquo(Mirzoeff20026)

36

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

poraryreligio-politicalmovementswhosememberstendtoldquoidealizepa-triarchalstructuresofauthorityandmoralityrdquoendorsegenderdualismasgod-givenornaturalandcondemnvigorouslyrecentchangesingen-derrelationsasasymptomandsymbolofsecularistmoralbankruptcy(Riesebrodt1993Moghadam1992Hawley1994)

SeveralchaptersinthisvolumeilluminateIslamistgendernormsbyre-vealing thecharacterandcontentof Islamistconcernsabout theplaceandpurityofMuslimwomenmdashpreoccupationsFatimaMernissi(199199)hasgonesofarastocharacterizeasanobsessionDespiteimportantdifferences among Islamists thinkers many endorse gender norms inwhichthefairlyconventionalinsistencethatfemalenatureisdefinedinand through reproduction undergirds an understanding of women assymbolsofmoralvirtueandvesselsofculturalpurityThisviewsustainstheclaimthatmenandwomenareequalinreligiousbeliefbutperformfundamentallydifferentandcomplementaryfunctionsinsocietyWhilemenarenaturallymadetoruleinboththepublicandprivatedomainawomanbelongsinthedomesticrealmwhereherprimaryroleistobeawifeandmotheraswellastoinsuretheintegrityofthefamilythefirstschoolofmoraleducationAssuchfunctionsarerootedinaninescap-ablehumannaturefashionedbyGodawomanrsquosinabilityorunwilling-nesstoperformherdutiessignalsadisobediencetothedivinewillandpresages the corruption of the Muslim family from within From thisvantagepointtheWesterninsistenceonfullequalitybetweenthesexesisdoubly pernicious it at once liberates women from basic moral con-straintsandenslavesthemtomutuallyreinforcingsexualandcapitalistexploitationAsMurtazaMutahhari(1998xxxi)arguescapitalismmakesuseofwomentomarket itsgoodsldquoby trading inhonourandrespectthrough[their]powertoenticerdquotherebyldquotransform[ing]manintoaninvoluntaryagentofconsumptionrdquoInasmuchaswomenareresponsiblefor producing the next generation of Muslim men destined to restoreIslamtoitsformergloryitisnotonlythevirtueofwomenortheinteg-rityofthefamilythathangsinthebalancebutthefutureofIslamiccivili-zationitself

Zaynab al-Ghazali andMutahharimake several of these argumentsexplicitlyandindetail(seechapters10and11)butinmuchofIslamistrhetoricthenatureandsignificanceofwomenareestablishedindirectlyandsymbolicallyandthroughthreerecurrentimagesinparticularThefirstisofwomenassilentsymbolsofculturalmoralandsexualvulnera-bilityvoicelessfiguresinneedofmasculineprotectionorwhenitistoolatedefiledbodiesthatmutelydemandvengeanceSoforexamplelsquoAb-dallahlsquoAzzam(oneofBinLadenrsquosmentorsseechapter18)graphicallydetailstheagonizinghumiliationofyoungmenunabletoactwhentheAfghanwoman isldquocryingout forhelpher childrenarebeing slaugh-tered her women are being raped the innocent are killed and theircorpsesscatteredrdquo(lsquoAzzam1987a)Inthesecondimagewomenfunction

37

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

muchlikeachorusthatspeaksinpermittedcadencestoratifymasculineendeavorsSuchisthecaseforexampleinBinLadenrsquos1996ldquoDeclara-tionofWaragainsttheAmericansOccupyingtheLandoftheTwoHolyPlacesrdquo(seechapter18)wherethewomenexhortmentojihadinthefollowing way ldquoPrepare yourself like a struggler the matter is biggerthanwordsAreyougoingtoleaveusforthewolvesofKufr[unbe-lief]eatingourwingsWherearethefreemendefendingfreewomenbyarmsDeath isbetter than life inhumiliation Some scandals andshameswillneverbeotherwiseeradicatedrdquo24InthethirdimagewomenarecreaturesnotofthisworldbutofanothervirginalrewardsforthecourageousmartyrintheafterlifeThisisevidentinthefinalinstructionsforthe911hijackersforexamplewhereMuslimldquobrothersrdquoareurgedto purify their carnal impulses sharpen their knives for the dhabh (slaughter)andheedthecallofthehur lsquoayn (theblack-eyedones)await-ingtheminParadise(seechapter19)

Such rhetoric primarily registers women as an extensionmirror ormeasure of masculinity and together with explicit Islamist argumentsabouthumannatureandthefamilyarticulatesIslamistgendernormsinwhichmenandwomeneachhaveaproperlocationandpurposeinadi-vinely ordained social hierarchy Deviance from this gendered scriptthussignalsdisruptionofamuchbroaderreligio-politicalorderitbothpresumes and seeks to bring into existence The disruption caused byforeign aggression in particular exacerbates the tendency to translateconflict into an assault on Muslim masculinity and to conceptualizewomenaspotentialvehiclesforWesterncorruptioninneedofguidingand guarding Women such as Zaynab al-Ghazali and Nadia Yassinewho seek a prominent place and voice within the Islamist movementhavehadlittlechoicebuttocontendwiththisgenderedscriptDoingsohasentailedamongotherthingsnavigatingcarefullybetweenIslamistcharacterizations of womenrsquos visibility and agency as symptomatic ofthe new jahiliyya on the one hand and essentializing arguments thatequateIslamwithveilingfemalegenitalmutilationandhonorkillingsontheother

AsthechaptersonGhazaliandYassinesuggestIslamistwomenhavenegotiatedbetweensuchconstraintsandpressuresandtheirownambi-tionsindifferentwaysApioneeringdalsquoiya(onewhoinvitesMuslimstogreater piety)Ghazalirsquos own life reveals a fierce resistance to conven-tionalnormsofdomesticityevenasmuchofher(earlier)workappearsto embrace an Islamist gender ideology that defines women as wivesmothers andldquobuilders ofmenrdquo (al-Hashimi 1990 118)By contrastYassineisawifeandmotherwhoembracesanldquoIslamicfeminismrdquothatrequiresldquoreappropriatingtheinstrumentsofclassicaltheologyrdquoanden-

24TheIslamistjournalSawt alshyJihadhasgonesofarastofeatureldquowomenrsquosvoicesrdquointheformofrolemodelsnamedforexampleumm alshyshahid(motherofthemartyr)al-thoughitisunclearthattheseldquovoicesrdquoareactuallywomenrsquos(SUsher2004)

38

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

gaging the textsdirectly through ijtihad (NYassine2003) In this re-spect Yassine must be understood as part of a broader effort amongMuslimwomenwithdifferentpoliticalcommitmentstosimultaneouslyadvocateandenacttheirrighttorecuperatetheldquooriginalintentrdquooftheIslamictextsIfwomenandmendoinfacthavedistinctperspectivesontheworldYassinesuggestswomenhaveaspecialobligationtoexcavatewhattheyseeasthegenderparityoftheQurrsquoanburiedbeneaththoseldquomachointerpretationsrdquoofIslamuponwhichmenhavebuilttheirprivi-legeandpower(Khalaf2006)25

ManyAnglo-AmericanandEuropean feministsworry that Islamistsseekonly to secureor restorepatriarchalpowerConverselymany Is-lamist women view feminism as a term and a movement inescapablyWesterninoriginfreightedwiththelegacyofcolonialismanduneasilyimplicatedinculturalimperialismThisapplieseventoYassinewhoisunwillingtoadoptwithoutqualificationalabelsheassociateswithagen-dasopposedtoherowntheWesttheMoroccanstateMaghribi(North-westAfrican)elitesYetfeminismitselfisahighlycontestedtermwithin theso-calledWestitisthebearerofmultiplemeaningssomeofwhichareevenopposedandischaracterizedbydeepdisagreementsaboutwhowomenarewhatwomenneedwhoisauthorizedtoworkonwomenrsquosbehalf andbywhatmeans Inasmuch as these various feminismsmayshareonlyastatedconcernforwomenrsquoswelfarethereisnothinginco-herentinmodifyingldquofeminismrdquowithldquoIslamicrdquoldquoMuslimrdquoorevenldquoIs-lamistrdquounlessone iscommitted toarguing thatfirst Islam isanun-changingessencebeyondhistorypoliticsandculturesecondthereisaneutralobjectivevantagefromwhichtoidentifythisessenceonceandforallandfinallytheIslamicessencesoidentifiedisfundamentallyin-compatiblewitheffortstoimprovetheconditionsandqualityofwomenrsquoslivesBythesametokenIslamistwomenwhorejectthetermfeminismcanbe(althoughnotalwaysare)deeplycommittedtoimprovingwom-enrsquoswelfareaswellasactivelyresistanttoeffortsthatreduceortrans-formthemintosilentaccessoriesofmalepower

YassineandGhazalidifferaboutwhatwomenareandshouldbeyetbroadlyspeakingbothmaybeconsideredpartofarecenttrendtowardthe feminizationofdalsquowa Dalsquowa literallymeanscallappealor sum-monsbutthetermhascometosignifyavarietyofpracticesandargu-mentsmeanttoexhortinviteandguideMuslimstowhatisregardedasproperconductandmoraldevotionWomenrsquosparticipationindalsquowais

25WomenrsquosparticipationintheldquoproductionofofficialIslamicknowledgerdquohasalonghistoryalthoughtheyhaveoftendonesoinrelativeobscurityandwithoutthebenefitofeducation in the Islamicsciences thathas legitimateddirectengagementwith thesacredtexts (Cooke 2001 xiv Badran and Cooke 2004) Pioneering attempts to read genderequalityinIslamarealsonotconfinedtowritingbywomenasevincedbyQasimAminrsquosTahrir alshymarrsquoa [TheLiberationofWoman] (1899)andMumtaz lsquoAlirsquosHuquqshye niswan [TheRightsofWomen](1898)

39

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

notabrandnewphenomenonasisevidentinGhazalirsquosworkwiththeEgyptianSocietyofMuslimLadiesinthe1930sYetfromEgypttoPaki-stantoSaudiArabiatotheUnitedStatesthenumberoffemaledalsquoiyashasproliferatedexponentially inrecentyears(Cooke2001Mahmood2005Hirschkind2006)Thisreflectsinpartcurrentdoctrinalempha-sesondalsquowaasincumbentuponbothmenandwomenanddependentlessupontechnicalknowledgethanmoralvirtueandpracticalfamiliaritywiththeIslamictradition(Mahmood200565ndash66)It isalsoaconse-quenceofrecentpoliticalandsocioeconomictransformationsinMuslimsocietiesincludingtheexpansionofmasseducationthathasnotonlyin-creasedwomenrsquosliteracyandsocialmobilitybutalsomadeIslamictextsmoreaccessibletheproliferationoftechnologiesmdashfromthecassettetapetotheInternetmdashthatfacilitatethecirculationofreligiousknowledgeevenamongthosewhocannotreadortraveltheprecedentsetbythevigorousparticipationof IranianwomeninpostrevolutiondebatesaboutIslamandthemodeloflegalactivismevidentintheIslamistmovementrsquosownchallenge to the lsquoulamarsquos status as gatekeepers of religious knowledge(Singerman2005Mir-Hosseini1999)

If Ghazali and Yassine exemplify the feminization of dalsquowa amongelitesthemosquemovementinEgyptillustratesthegrowingparticipa-tionofwomenfromdiversesocialbackgroundsinreligiousclassesde-votedtostudyinganddebatingwhatIslamrequiresforawomantobeldquomorallyuprightrdquointhecontemporaryworld(Mahmood2005)Con-ceptualizingpiety in termsof adeepandholistic commitment to self-transformationparticipantsinthemosquemovementareconcernedlesswithmattersofsovereigntyandpoliticsconventionallyunderstoodandmorewiththeldquomoralcultivationrdquoofthosedailypracticesseenascrucialtobecomingclosertoGod(Mahmood2005)SomeIslamistshavecriti-cizedthis focusonpracticesofworshipasapoliticalandoverlypriva-tizedyetsuchcriticismmissestheforceofIslamistsrsquoowninsistenceondin(religion)asawayoflifeinwhichthedomainsofpublicandprivateare inextricably linked26AsSabaMahmood (2005193194) showsthesewomenrsquosintenseeffortsatldquoretrainingethicalsensibilitiesrdquohavealdquosociopoliticalforcerdquothatextendswellbeyondmattersofgovernancefacilitatingnolessthantheemergenceofaldquonewsocialandmoralorderrdquoEvidenceofitstransformativepowermaybefoundnotonlyinthesheernumbersandvarietyofwomenmdashwealthyandpoor literateand illiter-atemdashparticipatinginthemosquemovementbutalsointherhetoricalandpoliticaleffortsbythestateandsomeIslamiststocurtailcontrolordis-creditit(Mahmood200571194)

26ParticipantsinthemosquemovementinturnareoftencriticalofwhattheyseeasthereductionofIslamtotokensofculturalauthenticityorofitsinstrumentalizationbybothnationalistsandIslamiststheycharacterizeasmoreinterestedinpoliticalmaneuveringthanreligiouspiety

40

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

Understoodtoincludebothwrittenandembodiedpracticesthefemi-nizationof dalsquowa illustrates theways inwhichwomen fromdifferentperspectivesandsocialclassesareinsistingonengagingthesacredtextsdirectly for and with one another without the mediating authority ofmenwhohavetraditionallyheldthemonopolyonsuchactivitiesAsSu-danese Islamist Lubabah al-Fadl argues ldquoAs an insan [human being]whohappenstobeawomanIhavearighttorejectthemanipulativeexegesesofoursharilsquoa thatthreatenmyexistenceinawaythat isnotconsistentwiththeGodlywayandtoapplymyownijtihadtorectifyer-roneoustendenciesbysomeshuyukh[pluralofshaykh]rdquo(Sadiki2004290)DespitetheproliferationofvoicesintentonclaimingforthemselvestheauthoritytodemarcatewhatisauthenticallyIslamicandun-Islamiconceandforallcontestationoveritsscopeandmeaningproceedsapacefacilitatedatleastinpartbywomenformerlyexcludedfromtheconver-sationAtthesametimeIslamistwomenrsquosagencyandclaimstoauthorityarefrequentlystillpredicatedonawillingnesstofollowfairlypatriarchalrulesaboutwherehowandwithwhomtheymaypracticetheirvocation(Hirschkind2003Sadiki2004283)

Islamism and Violence

IfgenderisfrequentlyanimplicitpreoccupationamongIslamistsjihadisarguably Islamistsrsquomost consistently explicit concern Jihad is derivedfromtheArabicverbthatmeanstostruggleortostriveyetitisaparticu-larkindofstruggle that isofconcern tomanyof thefigurescollectedheretheoftenviolentstruggleagainstapostatesandinfidelsbothathomeandabroadtowhicheveryindividualMuslimmustcontributeTheclaimthatfightingunbelieversisthepreeminentenactmentofindividualMus-limpiety seems to justify characterizationsof Islam ingeneral and Is-lamisminparticularassanctioningevenencouragingviolenceYetwhatIslamistsrepresentasjihadtout courtisahistoricallyspecificunderstand-ingderivedfromahighlyselectiveuseoftextsandprecedentsprominentamongthemaformerlyobscureclaimbytheinfluentialfourteenth-cen-tury jurist IbnTaymiyya thatMongol rulerswhohad contravened Is-lamiclawcouldbesubjecttoforcibleremovalFarfromadefinitiveex-pressionof Islamldquoproperlyunderstoodrdquo such Islamist argumentsnotonlymarkasignificantdeparturefrommuchofantecedentdoctrineandpractice but also diminish the importance of ongoing disagreementsamongMuslimsabouttheformandpurposesofjihad

TobeginwithMuslimscholarshavetendedtoconsiderjihadagainstforeignenemiesafard kifaya(collectiveobligation)thatisadutyagroupofpeoplewithinthecommunitymayperformonbehalfoftherestandonethatpresupposesalegitimateMuslimleadertodeclareorleadthechargeJuristshavedistinguishedthisfromthefard lsquoayn(individualduty)thatmustbefulfilledbyeverysingleMuslimincasesofdefensivejihad

41

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

thatiswhentheummaisunderattackManyIslamistsincludedheretakeamuchlessnuancedviewofjihadAsamodeofpoliticalactionQutbarguesjihadmustberegardedasaldquopermanentconditionnotanocca-sionalconcernrdquoonethatincurrentcircumstancesrequiresdeedsratherthanwordsstruggleratherthancontemplationrevolutionathomeaswellasresistanceabroad(Qutb199167ndash6882)lsquoAbdal-SalamFarajarguesalongsimilarlinesthatthenatureoftheattackonIslammakespolitical authorization by a caliph (ldquodeputyrdquo referring to a legitimatesuccessortotheProphetrsquosleadership)unnecessaryafterallldquoleadershipovertheMuslimsis(always)intheirownhandsifonlytheymakethismanifestIfthereissomethinglackingintheleadershipwellthereisnothingthatcannotbeacquiredrdquo(Jansen1986asec93)

SuchargumentsareadeliberaterejectionofearlyMuslimmodernistswhohademphasizedthelargelydefensivecharacterofjihadandsoughttoshowthatrelationsbetweenMuslimsandnon-MuslimswerenormallypeacefulratherthanantagonisticMahmudShaltut(d1963)therectorof al-Azhar from 1958 to 1963 had argued for example that theQurrsquoanicversesonfightingldquoprohibittheprovocationofhostilityandthisprohibitionisreinforcedbyGodrsquosrepugnancetoaggressionandbyhisdislikeofthosewhoprovokehostilityrdquo(Peters199674onShaltutseeZebiri1993)ConversionbyforceisanathematoIslamShaltutaversandfightingiscommandedonlyindefenseinresponsetoaggressionini-tiatedbyothersEvendefensivejihadmustaimatldquotheterminationoftheaggressionandtheestablishmentofreligiouslibertydevotedtoGodandfreefromanypressureorforcerdquo(Peters199675)

ManyIslamistsexplicitlydismisssuchargumentsasasymptomoffalseconsciousnessoneamongmanydestructiveeffectsofcolonialdomina-tionMawdudiargues for example thatwhile imperialists ravage theworld to satisfy their greed jihad alone ldquoconjures up the vision of amarching band of religious fanatics with savage beards and fiery eyesbrandishingdrawnswordsandattackingtheinfidelswherevertheymeetthemrdquoHavinginternalizedthis imageMuslimsrushtoapologizeandrenouncearmedstruggleInthiswayhelamentscolonialistsretaintheexclusiverighttoldquofightwitharmsandammunitionwhilewearecon-tented with our pen and our tonguerdquo (Mawdudi 1948 1ndash3) SayyidQutbforhispartagreedthatIslamdoesnotcountenancespreadingitsmessagebyforceandcoercionyethehadlittlepatiencewiththosewhosoughttopresentjihadaslegitimateonlyinself-defense

IfweinsistoncallingIslamicjihadadefensivemovementthenwemustchangethemeaningofthewordldquodefenserdquoandmeanbyitldquothedefenseofmanrdquoagainstallthoseforcesthatlimithisfreedomWhenwetakethisbroadmeaningofthewordldquodefenserdquoweunder-standthetruecharacterofIslaminthatitproclaimstheuniversalfreedomofeverypersonandcommunityfromservitudetoanyother

42

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

individualorsocietytheendofmanrsquosarroganceandselfishnesstheestablishmentofthesovereigntyofAllahandHisLordshipthrough-outtheworldandtheruleofthedivinesharilsquoainhumanaffairs(Qutb199050)

Qutbdoesnotnameanynamesincastigatingtheldquowriterswithdefeatistandapologeticmentalities[who]writeaboutlsquojihadinIslamrsquoandtrytoremovethislsquoblotrsquofromIslamrdquo(Qutb199046)buthecouldverywellhavehadhisdistinguishedfellowEgyptianMahmudShaltutinmind

These arguments about jihad may be said to constitute a commongrammarandframeworkofanalysisformanyIslamistsalthoughseveralthinkers in this volume carefully calibrate such claims to suit variouspurposesanddifferentpublicspheresInhisjustificationfortheassassi-nationofEgyptianpresidentAnwaral-SadatforexamplelsquoAbdal-SalamFarajdepictsthestruggletoreclaimthemoralfoundationsoftheEgyp-tianstateasafightagainstjahiliyyafromwithinarguingthatthejihadagainstacorruptnationalistregimeathomemusttakeprecedenceoverfightingenemieselsewhereTheCharterofHamas(seechapter15)how-everinsiststhatallMuslimsrecognizetheprimacyofthejihadforJeru-salemweldingIslamistrhetorictothatofnationalistresistanceinanef-fortbothtofightIsraelioccupationandtocompeteforadherentswiththePalestinianLiberationOrganization(PLO)IncontrasttobothFarajandHamasBinLadenembracesaglobaljihadthatessentiallycollapsesdistinctionsbetweennationalandinternationaloffensiveanddefensivefightingenemiesathomeandthosefromafar

Yet despite such differences these arguments tend to presume thatviolent jihad is a necessary response to the pervasive power of thosewithdemonstratedhostilitytoMuslimliveslandspietiesandsensibili-tiesaformofretaliationwhoseurgencyandlegitimacyderivefromtheviolencemdashpsychologicalandeconomicaswellasphysicalmdashoftheinitialassaultThisviewofjihadsubsumesindividualsintoarchetypesofldquoin-fidelsrdquoandldquobelieversrdquoandinsodoingvitiatesmoreconventionaldis-tinctionsbetweenforexamplesoldierandcivilianorcollectiveandin-dividual responsibility It is far from inevitable that thosewhoharborsuchviewswillautomaticallyactuponthemyetthecarnagewroughtbytheattacksontheWorldTradeCenterandthePentagonin2001aBalinightclub in 2002 Madrid commuter trains in 2004 and throughoutIraqonadailybasissuggestjusthowlethalsuchclaimscanbegiventheright circumstances The fact that such violence does not discriminateamongvictimsonlyfurtherfuelsrhetoriccharacterizingIslamistsasirra-tional fanatics ldquoin love with deathrdquo terrorists animated by a religioncharacterizedbyapropensityforviolenceandauthoritarianism27

27AnxietiesabouttheparticularsusceptibilityofMuslimstoirrationalityinsularityandfanaticismhavealonganddistinguishedpedigreeinEuro-AmericanhistoryandpoliticalthoughtSeeforexampleRenan18833

43

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

AsinsomanyothermattershoweverIslamistsarehardlyofonemindonthesubjectofjihadindeedthereareIslamistswhoexplicitlyrejectthereductionof struggle toviolenceAcase inpoint isNadiaYassine(20032005c)whoinsiststhatjihadisthededicatedstruggleagainstisshytikbar(arrogance)particularlyinitscommonformasthelustforpoweranddominationAsjihadagainstistikbarisbothafinalgoalandapre-scriptionforactionYassinesuggestsitisantitheticaltoviolentpracticesthataimatdominationTheprimaryinstrumentsofjihadarenotbombsbutwords particularly thosedeployed in the art of persuasion (Fara-marzi2005NYassine2006a)WhenIslamistssuchaslsquoAbdal-SalamFarajandlsquoUmarlsquoAbdal-RahmanseektolegitimizeviolentrevolutionbyrecoursetoIslamictextsshearguestheycontravenethetruemeaningofjihadtoservetheirownarrogantendsBythesametokenBinLadenrsquosdecisiontoldquofightevilwithevilandbarbaritywithbarbarityrdquonotonlyviolatesspecificIslamicprohibitionsagainstharmingcivilianswomenandchildrenbutalsobetraystheethicalimperativetoembodythemes-sageofamercifulGodwhocautionsbelieversthat(Q8822)ldquoYouhavenopoweroverthemrdquo(NYassine2005cDaily Excelsior2002)

SuchpersistentdisagreementsamongMuslimspastandpresentsug-gest that Islam isnomore inherently violent andbloody-minded thanitmdashorChristianityor Judaism for thatmattermdashis inherentlypeacefulIslamists often claim to speak for an unchanging authentic Islam thatexistsoutsideoftimeandspaceyetthepoliticalpurchaseoftheirper-spective derives from the ways it assembles disparate yet recognizablecontemporaryexperiencesofsufferingfrustrationandlossintoanex-planationthatresonateswithMuslimswholiveincommunitiescultur-allylinguisticallyandgeographicallydistantfromoneanotherTheex-tenttowhichIslamistargumentsresonatebroadlyacrossMuslimsocie-tiesthusdependsuponasetofexperiencesandphenomenathatmarkthisparticularmomentinhistoryincludingthewaysinwhichcontempo-raryglobalinequalitiescompoundalegacyofhistoricalasymmetriestocontinuallyreproduceasenseofMuslimpowerlessnessmdashbothrealandimaginedmdashrelativetotheWestcontinuingEuro-Americanpoliticalandfinancialsupportofcorruptautocratsmanyofwhompresideoverna-tion-statesbrutallystitchedtogetherbyWesternfiat thepersistenceofauthoritarian regimes eager to control domestic unrest by catalyzingldquoMuslimragerdquotowardexternaltargetsthesenseofemasculationpro-ducedbydecadesofpoliticalrepressionandeconomicfrustrationandthecontinualflowofimagesofbloodiedMuslimbodiesdeliveredbyaburgeoningarrayofvideosatelliteandelectronicmedia

It is notable that the understanding of jihad many Islamists proffermirrorstheverystate-sanctionedviolenceagainstwhichtheyhavestrug-gledforalmostacenturyAlongwiththousandsofMuslimscaughtinthemachineryoftwentieth-centurystateviolenceprominentIslamistsfromQutbtoGhazalitoAymanal-Zawahirimdashal-Qalsquoidarsquossecondincommandmdash

44

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

arewellknowntohavebeenradicalizedbyextendedandoftenbrutaltermsofincarcerationinEgyptSyriaIraqJordanIsraelAlgeriaandelsewhere(onal-ZawahiriandprisoncfKepelandMilelli2008152ndash54)ItisthusfarfromsurprisingthatIslamistsforgedbyinterrogationtortureinprisoncampswouldconcludethatthepreeminentenactmentofMuslimpietyisviolentstruggleldquoPrisonrdquoasPalestinianKhaledAbuHilalhassaidldquoismyuniversityrdquo(Erlanger2007)anargumentmadeingreaterdetailinadifferenttimeandplacebyRussianwriterandrevolu-tionaryMaximGorky(1868ndash1936)

Apeoplebroughtupinaschoolthatremindsoneofthetormentsofhellonasmallscaleapeopleaccustomedtotheclenched-fistprisonandthewhipwillnotbeblestwithatenderheartApeoplethatthepoliceagentshaveriddenoverwillbecapableintheirturnofwalk-ingoverthebodiesofothersInacountrywhereunresthasreignedsolongit isdifficultforthepeopletorealizefromonedaytothenextthepowerofrightOnecannotdemandfromamanwhohasneverknownjusticethatheshouldbejust(Gorky1920)

InthiscontextasTimothyMitchell(1990195ndash96199207ndash8)suggestsIslamistviewsoftheworldcanbecharacterizedasbothamodeofresis-tancetostatemechanismsofcoercionandanexpressionofthemSuchisthedynamic evident inGhazalirsquosmemoirs for examplewhen shede-scribeshowtheldquodarknessofprisonsthebladesoftortureandthevi-ciousbeatingsonly increasetheenduranceandresolveofthefaithfulrdquo(Ghazali19786)

There is no doubt a great deal of pragmatism at work in IslamistargumentsaboutviolenceAsQutb(19916447ndash48)drylynotesthepathtofreedommustoccasionallybehewnbywayoftheswordbecausetyrants are not reasoned out of power and ldquojahiliyya is not lsquoabstracttheoryrsquo[it]consciouslyorunconsciouslystrivestopreserveitsownexistence to defend its essence to annihilate dangerous elementswhichthreatenitsverybeingrdquoYetitisalsothecasethatformanyoftheseIslamistsjihadisbothameansandanendanefforttoeradicatethoseobstacles torestoringa justcommunityonearththatsimultane-ouslybringshumanaction intoaccordwithGodrsquosplansandpurposes(Haddad198321)While theQurrsquoan (2256) states thatldquothere isnocompulsioninreligionrdquoIslamistscontendthatonlyinastateinwhichIslamiclawreignssupremearehumanbeingsfreefromenslavementtooneanotherrsquosruleandallareequalbyvirtueoftheircommonsubmissiontoGodAsQutb(1991107ndash8)argues

WhenthehighestauthorityinsocietyisGodalonemdashexpressedintheruleofdivinelawmdashonlythenishumanitytrulyandcompletelyliber-atedfromslaverytomenOnlythisisldquohumancivilizationrdquobecausetheessentialfoundationofhumancivilizationisthetrueandcom-

45

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

pletefreedomofhumanityandtheabsolutedignityofeveryindivid-ualinsocietyThereisnotruefreedomanddignityforhumanityortheindividualinasocietywheresomepeoplearelordswholegislateandothersareslaveswhoobey

From this perspective the realization of justice liberty equality andchoiceitselfnecessitatestheforcibleremovaloftheconstraintsimposedbyjahiliyyaalongwiththosewhoaidandabetitno matter the costAsMawdudi(1954160ndash61)writes

[W]hyisitthatinreligionsuchimportanceisgiventojihadthattheQurrsquoanpronouncesthejudgmentofhypocrisyuponthosewhoshirkandevadeitJihadisbutanothernamefortheattempttoerectthesystemoftruthandtheQurrsquoandeclaresjihadtobeatouchstoneonthesamefootingwithamanrsquosfaithInotherwordshewhohasfaithinhisheartwillneitherbecontentwiththedominationofthesystemofevilnorwillhegrudgetheexpenditureoflifeandwealthinthestruggleforerectingthesystemoftruthIfoneshowsweaknessinthismatterhisfaithitselfisdoubtfulWhatcananythingelsebesidethenprofithimThemanwhoprofesses faith in this religioncannotfulfillhisdutyonlybytryingasfaraspossibletopatternhislifeonIslamThenatureofhisfaithitselfrequiresthatheshouldconcentrateallhiseffortuponwrestingleadershipfromunbelievingandcorruptmentoentrustittotherighteousanduponerectingthesystemoftruththathasbeenordainedfortheconductoftheworldaccordingtothewillofGodBecausethisendisunattainablewith-out thehighestdegreeofcollectiveeffort theremustexistarigh-teouscommunitycommittedtotheprincipleoftruthanddevotedtothesolepurposeintheworldoferectingmaintainingandproperlyrealizingthesystemoftruth

ThefactthatsomeIslamistthinkerssanctifyviolentstruggleinsuchtermsdoesnotmeanofcoursethatallthosewhoadvocateorengageinjihadendorseviolence28NordoesitimplythatthosewhoclaimtokillforIslamareentirelywithoutulteriormotivesthosemanipulativepur-poses andpsychologicalmotivations that even themost rarified scrip-turalargumentscanexpressorserveWhattheprecedinganalysisdoessuggesthoweveristhatthereductionofthisviewofjihadtoirrationalbloodlusttheself-interestedgrabfortemporalpoweroradoorthroughwhichtopassintothehereaftermissesacrucialdimensionofitssignifi-canceandappealfortruebelieversjihadisnolessthananenactmentof

28EvenashespokeofaneweraofjahiliyyaandofjihadMawdudihimselfstoppedwellshortof recommendingor condoning the actual resort to violence in themannermanyotherIslamistsdidAsNasr(199670)observesMawdudirsquosorganizationtheJamalsquoat-iIs-lamildquohasavoidedviolentsocialchangeandhasinsteadviewedthepathtotheIslamicstateaslyingwithintheexistingsociopoliticalorderrdquoAlsoseethechapters5and3onQutbandMawdudiinthisvolume

46

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

adivineimperativetoremakethefoundationsofcollectivelifeInthisre-spectIslamistviewsofjihadcanbeseenaspartofalong-standingasso-ciationbetweenviolenceandpoliticalfoundingsuponwhichnoparticu-larcultureorhistoricalepochhasamonopolyThisassociationandtheldquolegacyofviolencerdquoitbequeathstofuturegenerationsarenolessappar-entinthoseradicalrevolutionsofrenewalthatmovebywayoftheswordfromthemarginstothecenterthanthosepoliticalfoundingsthatclaimtocreatesomethingoutofnothing(Connolly1995251)Ineithercasethetollofsuchbrutalitycanbeimmeasurableforinadditiontothevic-timswhosufferdirectlytheldquopracticeofviolencelikeallactionchangestheworldbutthemostprobablechangeistoamoreviolentworldrdquo(Ar-endt1972177)

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 ESP 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ltFEFF9ad854c18cea306a30d730ea30d730ec30b951fa529b7528002000410064006f0062006500200050004400460020658766f8306e4f5c6210306b4f7f75283057307e305930023053306e8a2d5b9a30674f5c62103055308c305f0020005000440046002030d530a130a430eb306f3001004100630072006f0062006100740020304a30883073002000410064006f00620065002000520065006100640065007200200035002e003000204ee5964d3067958b304f30533068304c3067304d307e305930023053306e8a2d5b9a306b306f30d530a930f330c8306e57cb30818fbc307f304c5fc59808306730593002gt KOR ltFEFFc7740020c124c815c7440020c0acc6a9d558c5ec0020ace0d488c9c80020c2dcd5d80020c778c1c4c5d00020ac00c7a50020c801d569d55c002000410064006f0062006500200050004400460020bb38c11cb97c0020c791c131d569b2c8b2e4002e0020c774b807ac8c0020c791c131b41c00200050004400460020bb38c11cb2940020004100630072006f0062006100740020bc0f002000410064006f00620065002000520065006100640065007200200035002e00300020c774c0c1c5d0c11c0020c5f40020c2180020c788c2b5b2c8b2e4002egt NLD (Gebruik deze instellingen om Adobe PDF-documenten te maken die zijn geoptimaliseerd voor prepress-afdrukken van hoge kwaliteit De gemaakte PDF-documenten kunnen worden geopend met Acrobat en Adobe Reader 50 en hoger) NOR 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 PTB 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 SUO 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 SVE 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 ENU (Use these settings to create Adobe PDF documents best suited for high-quality prepress printing Created PDF documents can be opened with Acrobat and Adobe Reader 50 and later) gtgt Namespace [ (Adobe) (Common) (10) ] OtherNamespaces [ ltlt AsReaderSpreads false CropImagesToFrames true ErrorControl WarnAndContinue FlattenerIgnoreSpreadOverrides false IncludeGuidesGrids false IncludeNonPrinting false IncludeSlug false Namespace [ (Adobe) (InDesign) (40) ] OmitPlacedBitmaps false OmitPlacedEPS false OmitPlacedPDF false SimulateOverprint Legacy gtgt ltlt AddBleedMarks false AddColorBars false AddCropMarks false AddPageInfo false AddRegMarks false ConvertColors ConvertToCMYK DestinationProfileName () DestinationProfileSelector DocumentCMYK Downsample16BitImages true FlattenerPreset ltlt PresetSelector MediumResolution gtgt FormElements false GenerateStructure false IncludeBookmarks false IncludeHyperlinks false IncludeInteractive false IncludeLayers false IncludeProfiles false MultimediaHandling UseObjectSettings Namespace [ (Adobe) (CreativeSuite) (20) ] PDFXOutputIntentProfileSelector DocumentCMYK PreserveEditing true UntaggedCMYKHandling LeaveUntagged UntaggedRGBHandling 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Page 35: Chapter 1 INTRODUCTION - assets.press.princeton.eduassets.press.princeton.edu/chapters/s9067.pdf · Chapter 1 INTRODUCTION This volume is intended as a broad introduction to the evolution

35

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

regardingapossibleldquoIslamicReformationrdquo22andarangeofargumentsaboutwhetherandhowIslamismmightfacilitatethedemocratizationofMuslim societies much as the Protestant Reformation is said to haveheralded the emergence of European ldquoliberal democracyrdquo While suchcomparisonsareevocativeafullerunderstandingof IslamismrequiresfirstsituatingitinrelationtoahistoricalshiftinthenatureandlocusofreligiousauthorityinIslambeginninginthenineteenthcenturyAsschol-arsofMuslimsocietieshavepointedouttheimpactofmasseducationnewtechnologiesfordisseminatingknowledgeandinformationanddra-matically changed social economic and political contexts have madeavailabletoamateurswhathadpreviouslybeenthepurviewofreligiousexpertsAtthesametimeithasinauguratedafragmentationofauthor-itywithintheveryranksofthelsquoulamathatcontinuestothepresentday23

InthiscontexttheascendanceandinfluenceofautodidactssuchasQutbHasanal-BannalsquoAbdal-SalamFarajandBinLadensimultaneouslyex-pressandaccelerateanongoingrenegotiationofauthorityoverwhomayspeakforIslamandonwhatbasisthepathofwhichisstillunfoldingandtheoutcomeasyetuncertain

Islamism and Gender

One already apparent consequence of this ongoing renegotiation overwhomayspeakforIslamandonwhatbasisistheentryofwomenintothe interpretive fray This development is increasingly unsettling thoseunwrittengendernormsarguablyattheveryheartofIslamistthoughtdisruptingthestandardsofmasculinityandfemininitythatreflecthowparticularculturesorganizehumanbeingsrsquosocialandreproductiveactiv-itiesintorolesthatareinturnthoughttoexpresstheldquonaturerdquoofmenand women Such norms are frequently considered tangential to theknottyproblemsofdefiningIslamismandadumbratingitscentralideasyetarangeofscholarshiponculturespastandpresenthasshownthatgenderisconsistentlytheterrainoverwhichbattlesforpoliticalcontrolandculturalidentityarefoughtMorespecificallyresearchindisciplinessuchasanthropologyhistoryclassicsandpostcolonialstudieshasdem-onstratedthatculturesinwhichfemalebodiesandbehaviorareregardedas indicesofmoralpurity tend to symbolically transformwomen intoconduitsof cultural corruption in timesof internal crisis and externalthreat(Papenek1994Chatterjee1990Tavakoli-Targhi1991Just1989Cohen1991Welter1966Bloch1978)Thisisespeciallytrueofcontem-

22Foralatenineteenth-centuryassessmentoftheprospectsforaldquoMuhammadanRefor-mationrdquoseeBlunt1882132ndash73

23EickelmanandPiscatori199637ndash39131ndash35Zaman2006Suchfragmentationhasinmanywaysbeenacceleratedbytheexplosionofdigitalcultureswhichpromoteamongotherthingsaldquoformofempoweredamateurismrdquo(Mirzoeff20026)

36

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

poraryreligio-politicalmovementswhosememberstendtoldquoidealizepa-triarchalstructuresofauthorityandmoralityrdquoendorsegenderdualismasgod-givenornaturalandcondemnvigorouslyrecentchangesingen-derrelationsasasymptomandsymbolofsecularistmoralbankruptcy(Riesebrodt1993Moghadam1992Hawley1994)

SeveralchaptersinthisvolumeilluminateIslamistgendernormsbyre-vealing thecharacterandcontentof Islamistconcernsabout theplaceandpurityofMuslimwomenmdashpreoccupationsFatimaMernissi(199199)hasgonesofarastocharacterizeasanobsessionDespiteimportantdifferences among Islamists thinkers many endorse gender norms inwhichthefairlyconventionalinsistencethatfemalenatureisdefinedinand through reproduction undergirds an understanding of women assymbolsofmoralvirtueandvesselsofculturalpurityThisviewsustainstheclaimthatmenandwomenareequalinreligiousbeliefbutperformfundamentallydifferentandcomplementaryfunctionsinsocietyWhilemenarenaturallymadetoruleinboththepublicandprivatedomainawomanbelongsinthedomesticrealmwhereherprimaryroleistobeawifeandmotheraswellastoinsuretheintegrityofthefamilythefirstschoolofmoraleducationAssuchfunctionsarerootedinaninescap-ablehumannaturefashionedbyGodawomanrsquosinabilityorunwilling-nesstoperformherdutiessignalsadisobediencetothedivinewillandpresages the corruption of the Muslim family from within From thisvantagepointtheWesterninsistenceonfullequalitybetweenthesexesisdoubly pernicious it at once liberates women from basic moral con-straintsandenslavesthemtomutuallyreinforcingsexualandcapitalistexploitationAsMurtazaMutahhari(1998xxxi)arguescapitalismmakesuseofwomentomarket itsgoodsldquoby trading inhonourandrespectthrough[their]powertoenticerdquotherebyldquotransform[ing]manintoaninvoluntaryagentofconsumptionrdquoInasmuchaswomenareresponsiblefor producing the next generation of Muslim men destined to restoreIslamtoitsformergloryitisnotonlythevirtueofwomenortheinteg-rityofthefamilythathangsinthebalancebutthefutureofIslamiccivili-zationitself

Zaynab al-Ghazali andMutahharimake several of these argumentsexplicitlyandindetail(seechapters10and11)butinmuchofIslamistrhetoricthenatureandsignificanceofwomenareestablishedindirectlyandsymbolicallyandthroughthreerecurrentimagesinparticularThefirstisofwomenassilentsymbolsofculturalmoralandsexualvulnera-bilityvoicelessfiguresinneedofmasculineprotectionorwhenitistoolatedefiledbodiesthatmutelydemandvengeanceSoforexamplelsquoAb-dallahlsquoAzzam(oneofBinLadenrsquosmentorsseechapter18)graphicallydetailstheagonizinghumiliationofyoungmenunabletoactwhentheAfghanwoman isldquocryingout forhelpher childrenarebeing slaugh-tered her women are being raped the innocent are killed and theircorpsesscatteredrdquo(lsquoAzzam1987a)Inthesecondimagewomenfunction

37

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

muchlikeachorusthatspeaksinpermittedcadencestoratifymasculineendeavorsSuchisthecaseforexampleinBinLadenrsquos1996ldquoDeclara-tionofWaragainsttheAmericansOccupyingtheLandoftheTwoHolyPlacesrdquo(seechapter18)wherethewomenexhortmentojihadinthefollowing way ldquoPrepare yourself like a struggler the matter is biggerthanwordsAreyougoingtoleaveusforthewolvesofKufr[unbe-lief]eatingourwingsWherearethefreemendefendingfreewomenbyarmsDeath isbetter than life inhumiliation Some scandals andshameswillneverbeotherwiseeradicatedrdquo24InthethirdimagewomenarecreaturesnotofthisworldbutofanothervirginalrewardsforthecourageousmartyrintheafterlifeThisisevidentinthefinalinstructionsforthe911hijackersforexamplewhereMuslimldquobrothersrdquoareurgedto purify their carnal impulses sharpen their knives for the dhabh (slaughter)andheedthecallofthehur lsquoayn (theblack-eyedones)await-ingtheminParadise(seechapter19)

Such rhetoric primarily registers women as an extensionmirror ormeasure of masculinity and together with explicit Islamist argumentsabouthumannatureandthefamilyarticulatesIslamistgendernormsinwhichmenandwomeneachhaveaproperlocationandpurposeinadi-vinely ordained social hierarchy Deviance from this gendered scriptthussignalsdisruptionofamuchbroaderreligio-politicalorderitbothpresumes and seeks to bring into existence The disruption caused byforeign aggression in particular exacerbates the tendency to translateconflict into an assault on Muslim masculinity and to conceptualizewomenaspotentialvehiclesforWesterncorruptioninneedofguidingand guarding Women such as Zaynab al-Ghazali and Nadia Yassinewho seek a prominent place and voice within the Islamist movementhavehadlittlechoicebuttocontendwiththisgenderedscriptDoingsohasentailedamongotherthingsnavigatingcarefullybetweenIslamistcharacterizations of womenrsquos visibility and agency as symptomatic ofthe new jahiliyya on the one hand and essentializing arguments thatequateIslamwithveilingfemalegenitalmutilationandhonorkillingsontheother

AsthechaptersonGhazaliandYassinesuggestIslamistwomenhavenegotiatedbetweensuchconstraintsandpressuresandtheirownambi-tionsindifferentwaysApioneeringdalsquoiya(onewhoinvitesMuslimstogreater piety)Ghazalirsquos own life reveals a fierce resistance to conven-tionalnormsofdomesticityevenasmuchofher(earlier)workappearsto embrace an Islamist gender ideology that defines women as wivesmothers andldquobuilders ofmenrdquo (al-Hashimi 1990 118)By contrastYassineisawifeandmotherwhoembracesanldquoIslamicfeminismrdquothatrequiresldquoreappropriatingtheinstrumentsofclassicaltheologyrdquoanden-

24TheIslamistjournalSawt alshyJihadhasgonesofarastofeatureldquowomenrsquosvoicesrdquointheformofrolemodelsnamedforexampleumm alshyshahid(motherofthemartyr)al-thoughitisunclearthattheseldquovoicesrdquoareactuallywomenrsquos(SUsher2004)

38

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

gaging the textsdirectly through ijtihad (NYassine2003) In this re-spect Yassine must be understood as part of a broader effort amongMuslimwomenwithdifferentpoliticalcommitmentstosimultaneouslyadvocateandenacttheirrighttorecuperatetheldquooriginalintentrdquooftheIslamictextsIfwomenandmendoinfacthavedistinctperspectivesontheworldYassinesuggestswomenhaveaspecialobligationtoexcavatewhattheyseeasthegenderparityoftheQurrsquoanburiedbeneaththoseldquomachointerpretationsrdquoofIslamuponwhichmenhavebuilttheirprivi-legeandpower(Khalaf2006)25

ManyAnglo-AmericanandEuropean feministsworry that Islamistsseekonly to secureor restorepatriarchalpowerConverselymany Is-lamist women view feminism as a term and a movement inescapablyWesterninoriginfreightedwiththelegacyofcolonialismanduneasilyimplicatedinculturalimperialismThisapplieseventoYassinewhoisunwillingtoadoptwithoutqualificationalabelsheassociateswithagen-dasopposedtoherowntheWesttheMoroccanstateMaghribi(North-westAfrican)elitesYetfeminismitselfisahighlycontestedtermwithin theso-calledWestitisthebearerofmultiplemeaningssomeofwhichareevenopposedandischaracterizedbydeepdisagreementsaboutwhowomenarewhatwomenneedwhoisauthorizedtoworkonwomenrsquosbehalf andbywhatmeans Inasmuch as these various feminismsmayshareonlyastatedconcernforwomenrsquoswelfarethereisnothinginco-herentinmodifyingldquofeminismrdquowithldquoIslamicrdquoldquoMuslimrdquoorevenldquoIs-lamistrdquounlessone iscommitted toarguing thatfirst Islam isanun-changingessencebeyondhistorypoliticsandculturesecondthereisaneutralobjectivevantagefromwhichtoidentifythisessenceonceandforallandfinallytheIslamicessencesoidentifiedisfundamentallyin-compatiblewitheffortstoimprovetheconditionsandqualityofwomenrsquoslivesBythesametokenIslamistwomenwhorejectthetermfeminismcanbe(althoughnotalwaysare)deeplycommittedtoimprovingwom-enrsquoswelfareaswellasactivelyresistanttoeffortsthatreduceortrans-formthemintosilentaccessoriesofmalepower

YassineandGhazalidifferaboutwhatwomenareandshouldbeyetbroadlyspeakingbothmaybeconsideredpartofarecenttrendtowardthe feminizationofdalsquowa Dalsquowa literallymeanscallappealor sum-monsbutthetermhascometosignifyavarietyofpracticesandargu-mentsmeanttoexhortinviteandguideMuslimstowhatisregardedasproperconductandmoraldevotionWomenrsquosparticipationindalsquowais

25WomenrsquosparticipationintheldquoproductionofofficialIslamicknowledgerdquohasalonghistoryalthoughtheyhaveoftendonesoinrelativeobscurityandwithoutthebenefitofeducation in the Islamicsciences thathas legitimateddirectengagementwith thesacredtexts (Cooke 2001 xiv Badran and Cooke 2004) Pioneering attempts to read genderequalityinIslamarealsonotconfinedtowritingbywomenasevincedbyQasimAminrsquosTahrir alshymarrsquoa [TheLiberationofWoman] (1899)andMumtaz lsquoAlirsquosHuquqshye niswan [TheRightsofWomen](1898)

39

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

notabrandnewphenomenonasisevidentinGhazalirsquosworkwiththeEgyptianSocietyofMuslimLadiesinthe1930sYetfromEgypttoPaki-stantoSaudiArabiatotheUnitedStatesthenumberoffemaledalsquoiyashasproliferatedexponentially inrecentyears(Cooke2001Mahmood2005Hirschkind2006)Thisreflectsinpartcurrentdoctrinalempha-sesondalsquowaasincumbentuponbothmenandwomenanddependentlessupontechnicalknowledgethanmoralvirtueandpracticalfamiliaritywiththeIslamictradition(Mahmood200565ndash66)It isalsoaconse-quenceofrecentpoliticalandsocioeconomictransformationsinMuslimsocietiesincludingtheexpansionofmasseducationthathasnotonlyin-creasedwomenrsquosliteracyandsocialmobilitybutalsomadeIslamictextsmoreaccessibletheproliferationoftechnologiesmdashfromthecassettetapetotheInternetmdashthatfacilitatethecirculationofreligiousknowledgeevenamongthosewhocannotreadortraveltheprecedentsetbythevigorousparticipationof IranianwomeninpostrevolutiondebatesaboutIslamandthemodeloflegalactivismevidentintheIslamistmovementrsquosownchallenge to the lsquoulamarsquos status as gatekeepers of religious knowledge(Singerman2005Mir-Hosseini1999)

If Ghazali and Yassine exemplify the feminization of dalsquowa amongelitesthemosquemovementinEgyptillustratesthegrowingparticipa-tionofwomenfromdiversesocialbackgroundsinreligiousclassesde-votedtostudyinganddebatingwhatIslamrequiresforawomantobeldquomorallyuprightrdquointhecontemporaryworld(Mahmood2005)Con-ceptualizingpiety in termsof adeepandholistic commitment to self-transformationparticipantsinthemosquemovementareconcernedlesswithmattersofsovereigntyandpoliticsconventionallyunderstoodandmorewiththeldquomoralcultivationrdquoofthosedailypracticesseenascrucialtobecomingclosertoGod(Mahmood2005)SomeIslamistshavecriti-cizedthis focusonpracticesofworshipasapoliticalandoverlypriva-tizedyetsuchcriticismmissestheforceofIslamistsrsquoowninsistenceondin(religion)asawayoflifeinwhichthedomainsofpublicandprivateare inextricably linked26AsSabaMahmood (2005193194) showsthesewomenrsquosintenseeffortsatldquoretrainingethicalsensibilitiesrdquohavealdquosociopoliticalforcerdquothatextendswellbeyondmattersofgovernancefacilitatingnolessthantheemergenceofaldquonewsocialandmoralorderrdquoEvidenceofitstransformativepowermaybefoundnotonlyinthesheernumbersandvarietyofwomenmdashwealthyandpoor literateand illiter-atemdashparticipatinginthemosquemovementbutalsointherhetoricalandpoliticaleffortsbythestateandsomeIslamiststocurtailcontrolordis-creditit(Mahmood200571194)

26ParticipantsinthemosquemovementinturnareoftencriticalofwhattheyseeasthereductionofIslamtotokensofculturalauthenticityorofitsinstrumentalizationbybothnationalistsandIslamiststheycharacterizeasmoreinterestedinpoliticalmaneuveringthanreligiouspiety

40

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

Understoodtoincludebothwrittenandembodiedpracticesthefemi-nizationof dalsquowa illustrates theways inwhichwomen fromdifferentperspectivesandsocialclassesareinsistingonengagingthesacredtextsdirectly for and with one another without the mediating authority ofmenwhohavetraditionallyheldthemonopolyonsuchactivitiesAsSu-danese Islamist Lubabah al-Fadl argues ldquoAs an insan [human being]whohappenstobeawomanIhavearighttorejectthemanipulativeexegesesofoursharilsquoa thatthreatenmyexistenceinawaythat isnotconsistentwiththeGodlywayandtoapplymyownijtihadtorectifyer-roneoustendenciesbysomeshuyukh[pluralofshaykh]rdquo(Sadiki2004290)DespitetheproliferationofvoicesintentonclaimingforthemselvestheauthoritytodemarcatewhatisauthenticallyIslamicandun-Islamiconceandforallcontestationoveritsscopeandmeaningproceedsapacefacilitatedatleastinpartbywomenformerlyexcludedfromtheconver-sationAtthesametimeIslamistwomenrsquosagencyandclaimstoauthorityarefrequentlystillpredicatedonawillingnesstofollowfairlypatriarchalrulesaboutwherehowandwithwhomtheymaypracticetheirvocation(Hirschkind2003Sadiki2004283)

Islamism and Violence

IfgenderisfrequentlyanimplicitpreoccupationamongIslamistsjihadisarguably Islamistsrsquomost consistently explicit concern Jihad is derivedfromtheArabicverbthatmeanstostruggleortostriveyetitisaparticu-larkindofstruggle that isofconcern tomanyof thefigurescollectedheretheoftenviolentstruggleagainstapostatesandinfidelsbothathomeandabroadtowhicheveryindividualMuslimmustcontributeTheclaimthatfightingunbelieversisthepreeminentenactmentofindividualMus-limpiety seems to justify characterizationsof Islam ingeneral and Is-lamisminparticularassanctioningevenencouragingviolenceYetwhatIslamistsrepresentasjihadtout courtisahistoricallyspecificunderstand-ingderivedfromahighlyselectiveuseoftextsandprecedentsprominentamongthemaformerlyobscureclaimbytheinfluentialfourteenth-cen-tury jurist IbnTaymiyya thatMongol rulerswhohad contravened Is-lamiclawcouldbesubjecttoforcibleremovalFarfromadefinitiveex-pressionof Islamldquoproperlyunderstoodrdquo such Islamist argumentsnotonlymarkasignificantdeparturefrommuchofantecedentdoctrineandpractice but also diminish the importance of ongoing disagreementsamongMuslimsabouttheformandpurposesofjihad

TobeginwithMuslimscholarshavetendedtoconsiderjihadagainstforeignenemiesafard kifaya(collectiveobligation)thatisadutyagroupofpeoplewithinthecommunitymayperformonbehalfoftherestandonethatpresupposesalegitimateMuslimleadertodeclareorleadthechargeJuristshavedistinguishedthisfromthefard lsquoayn(individualduty)thatmustbefulfilledbyeverysingleMuslimincasesofdefensivejihad

41

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

thatiswhentheummaisunderattackManyIslamistsincludedheretakeamuchlessnuancedviewofjihadAsamodeofpoliticalactionQutbarguesjihadmustberegardedasaldquopermanentconditionnotanocca-sionalconcernrdquoonethatincurrentcircumstancesrequiresdeedsratherthanwordsstruggleratherthancontemplationrevolutionathomeaswellasresistanceabroad(Qutb199167ndash6882)lsquoAbdal-SalamFarajarguesalongsimilarlinesthatthenatureoftheattackonIslammakespolitical authorization by a caliph (ldquodeputyrdquo referring to a legitimatesuccessortotheProphetrsquosleadership)unnecessaryafterallldquoleadershipovertheMuslimsis(always)intheirownhandsifonlytheymakethismanifestIfthereissomethinglackingintheleadershipwellthereisnothingthatcannotbeacquiredrdquo(Jansen1986asec93)

SuchargumentsareadeliberaterejectionofearlyMuslimmodernistswhohademphasizedthelargelydefensivecharacterofjihadandsoughttoshowthatrelationsbetweenMuslimsandnon-MuslimswerenormallypeacefulratherthanantagonisticMahmudShaltut(d1963)therectorof al-Azhar from 1958 to 1963 had argued for example that theQurrsquoanicversesonfightingldquoprohibittheprovocationofhostilityandthisprohibitionisreinforcedbyGodrsquosrepugnancetoaggressionandbyhisdislikeofthosewhoprovokehostilityrdquo(Peters199674onShaltutseeZebiri1993)ConversionbyforceisanathematoIslamShaltutaversandfightingiscommandedonlyindefenseinresponsetoaggressionini-tiatedbyothersEvendefensivejihadmustaimatldquotheterminationoftheaggressionandtheestablishmentofreligiouslibertydevotedtoGodandfreefromanypressureorforcerdquo(Peters199675)

ManyIslamistsexplicitlydismisssuchargumentsasasymptomoffalseconsciousnessoneamongmanydestructiveeffectsofcolonialdomina-tionMawdudiargues for example thatwhile imperialists ravage theworld to satisfy their greed jihad alone ldquoconjures up the vision of amarching band of religious fanatics with savage beards and fiery eyesbrandishingdrawnswordsandattackingtheinfidelswherevertheymeetthemrdquoHavinginternalizedthis imageMuslimsrushtoapologizeandrenouncearmedstruggleInthiswayhelamentscolonialistsretaintheexclusiverighttoldquofightwitharmsandammunitionwhilewearecon-tented with our pen and our tonguerdquo (Mawdudi 1948 1ndash3) SayyidQutbforhispartagreedthatIslamdoesnotcountenancespreadingitsmessagebyforceandcoercionyethehadlittlepatiencewiththosewhosoughttopresentjihadaslegitimateonlyinself-defense

IfweinsistoncallingIslamicjihadadefensivemovementthenwemustchangethemeaningofthewordldquodefenserdquoandmeanbyitldquothedefenseofmanrdquoagainstallthoseforcesthatlimithisfreedomWhenwetakethisbroadmeaningofthewordldquodefenserdquoweunder-standthetruecharacterofIslaminthatitproclaimstheuniversalfreedomofeverypersonandcommunityfromservitudetoanyother

42

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

individualorsocietytheendofmanrsquosarroganceandselfishnesstheestablishmentofthesovereigntyofAllahandHisLordshipthrough-outtheworldandtheruleofthedivinesharilsquoainhumanaffairs(Qutb199050)

Qutbdoesnotnameanynamesincastigatingtheldquowriterswithdefeatistandapologeticmentalities[who]writeaboutlsquojihadinIslamrsquoandtrytoremovethislsquoblotrsquofromIslamrdquo(Qutb199046)buthecouldverywellhavehadhisdistinguishedfellowEgyptianMahmudShaltutinmind

These arguments about jihad may be said to constitute a commongrammarandframeworkofanalysisformanyIslamistsalthoughseveralthinkers in this volume carefully calibrate such claims to suit variouspurposesanddifferentpublicspheresInhisjustificationfortheassassi-nationofEgyptianpresidentAnwaral-SadatforexamplelsquoAbdal-SalamFarajdepictsthestruggletoreclaimthemoralfoundationsoftheEgyp-tianstateasafightagainstjahiliyyafromwithinarguingthatthejihadagainstacorruptnationalistregimeathomemusttakeprecedenceoverfightingenemieselsewhereTheCharterofHamas(seechapter15)how-everinsiststhatallMuslimsrecognizetheprimacyofthejihadforJeru-salemweldingIslamistrhetorictothatofnationalistresistanceinanef-fortbothtofightIsraelioccupationandtocompeteforadherentswiththePalestinianLiberationOrganization(PLO)IncontrasttobothFarajandHamasBinLadenembracesaglobaljihadthatessentiallycollapsesdistinctionsbetweennationalandinternationaloffensiveanddefensivefightingenemiesathomeandthosefromafar

Yet despite such differences these arguments tend to presume thatviolent jihad is a necessary response to the pervasive power of thosewithdemonstratedhostilitytoMuslimliveslandspietiesandsensibili-tiesaformofretaliationwhoseurgencyandlegitimacyderivefromtheviolencemdashpsychologicalandeconomicaswellasphysicalmdashoftheinitialassaultThisviewofjihadsubsumesindividualsintoarchetypesofldquoin-fidelsrdquoandldquobelieversrdquoandinsodoingvitiatesmoreconventionaldis-tinctionsbetweenforexamplesoldierandcivilianorcollectiveandin-dividual responsibility It is far from inevitable that thosewhoharborsuchviewswillautomaticallyactuponthemyetthecarnagewroughtbytheattacksontheWorldTradeCenterandthePentagonin2001aBalinightclub in 2002 Madrid commuter trains in 2004 and throughoutIraqonadailybasissuggestjusthowlethalsuchclaimscanbegiventheright circumstances The fact that such violence does not discriminateamongvictimsonlyfurtherfuelsrhetoriccharacterizingIslamistsasirra-tional fanatics ldquoin love with deathrdquo terrorists animated by a religioncharacterizedbyapropensityforviolenceandauthoritarianism27

27AnxietiesabouttheparticularsusceptibilityofMuslimstoirrationalityinsularityandfanaticismhavealonganddistinguishedpedigreeinEuro-AmericanhistoryandpoliticalthoughtSeeforexampleRenan18833

43

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

AsinsomanyothermattershoweverIslamistsarehardlyofonemindonthesubjectofjihadindeedthereareIslamistswhoexplicitlyrejectthereductionof struggle toviolenceAcase inpoint isNadiaYassine(20032005c)whoinsiststhatjihadisthededicatedstruggleagainstisshytikbar(arrogance)particularlyinitscommonformasthelustforpoweranddominationAsjihadagainstistikbarisbothafinalgoalandapre-scriptionforactionYassinesuggestsitisantitheticaltoviolentpracticesthataimatdominationTheprimaryinstrumentsofjihadarenotbombsbutwords particularly thosedeployed in the art of persuasion (Fara-marzi2005NYassine2006a)WhenIslamistssuchaslsquoAbdal-SalamFarajandlsquoUmarlsquoAbdal-RahmanseektolegitimizeviolentrevolutionbyrecoursetoIslamictextsshearguestheycontravenethetruemeaningofjihadtoservetheirownarrogantendsBythesametokenBinLadenrsquosdecisiontoldquofightevilwithevilandbarbaritywithbarbarityrdquonotonlyviolatesspecificIslamicprohibitionsagainstharmingcivilianswomenandchildrenbutalsobetraystheethicalimperativetoembodythemes-sageofamercifulGodwhocautionsbelieversthat(Q8822)ldquoYouhavenopoweroverthemrdquo(NYassine2005cDaily Excelsior2002)

SuchpersistentdisagreementsamongMuslimspastandpresentsug-gest that Islam isnomore inherently violent andbloody-minded thanitmdashorChristianityor Judaism for thatmattermdashis inherentlypeacefulIslamists often claim to speak for an unchanging authentic Islam thatexistsoutsideoftimeandspaceyetthepoliticalpurchaseoftheirper-spective derives from the ways it assembles disparate yet recognizablecontemporaryexperiencesofsufferingfrustrationandlossintoanex-planationthatresonateswithMuslimswholiveincommunitiescultur-allylinguisticallyandgeographicallydistantfromoneanotherTheex-tenttowhichIslamistargumentsresonatebroadlyacrossMuslimsocie-tiesthusdependsuponasetofexperiencesandphenomenathatmarkthisparticularmomentinhistoryincludingthewaysinwhichcontempo-raryglobalinequalitiescompoundalegacyofhistoricalasymmetriestocontinuallyreproduceasenseofMuslimpowerlessnessmdashbothrealandimaginedmdashrelativetotheWestcontinuingEuro-Americanpoliticalandfinancialsupportofcorruptautocratsmanyofwhompresideoverna-tion-statesbrutallystitchedtogetherbyWesternfiat thepersistenceofauthoritarian regimes eager to control domestic unrest by catalyzingldquoMuslimragerdquotowardexternaltargetsthesenseofemasculationpro-ducedbydecadesofpoliticalrepressionandeconomicfrustrationandthecontinualflowofimagesofbloodiedMuslimbodiesdeliveredbyaburgeoningarrayofvideosatelliteandelectronicmedia

It is notable that the understanding of jihad many Islamists proffermirrorstheverystate-sanctionedviolenceagainstwhichtheyhavestrug-gledforalmostacenturyAlongwiththousandsofMuslimscaughtinthemachineryoftwentieth-centurystateviolenceprominentIslamistsfromQutbtoGhazalitoAymanal-Zawahirimdashal-Qalsquoidarsquossecondincommandmdash

44

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

arewellknowntohavebeenradicalizedbyextendedandoftenbrutaltermsofincarcerationinEgyptSyriaIraqJordanIsraelAlgeriaandelsewhere(onal-ZawahiriandprisoncfKepelandMilelli2008152ndash54)ItisthusfarfromsurprisingthatIslamistsforgedbyinterrogationtortureinprisoncampswouldconcludethatthepreeminentenactmentofMuslimpietyisviolentstruggleldquoPrisonrdquoasPalestinianKhaledAbuHilalhassaidldquoismyuniversityrdquo(Erlanger2007)anargumentmadeingreaterdetailinadifferenttimeandplacebyRussianwriterandrevolu-tionaryMaximGorky(1868ndash1936)

Apeoplebroughtupinaschoolthatremindsoneofthetormentsofhellonasmallscaleapeopleaccustomedtotheclenched-fistprisonandthewhipwillnotbeblestwithatenderheartApeoplethatthepoliceagentshaveriddenoverwillbecapableintheirturnofwalk-ingoverthebodiesofothersInacountrywhereunresthasreignedsolongit isdifficultforthepeopletorealizefromonedaytothenextthepowerofrightOnecannotdemandfromamanwhohasneverknownjusticethatheshouldbejust(Gorky1920)

InthiscontextasTimothyMitchell(1990195ndash96199207ndash8)suggestsIslamistviewsoftheworldcanbecharacterizedasbothamodeofresis-tancetostatemechanismsofcoercionandanexpressionofthemSuchisthedynamic evident inGhazalirsquosmemoirs for examplewhen shede-scribeshowtheldquodarknessofprisonsthebladesoftortureandthevi-ciousbeatingsonly increasetheenduranceandresolveofthefaithfulrdquo(Ghazali19786)

There is no doubt a great deal of pragmatism at work in IslamistargumentsaboutviolenceAsQutb(19916447ndash48)drylynotesthepathtofreedommustoccasionallybehewnbywayoftheswordbecausetyrants are not reasoned out of power and ldquojahiliyya is not lsquoabstracttheoryrsquo[it]consciouslyorunconsciouslystrivestopreserveitsownexistence to defend its essence to annihilate dangerous elementswhichthreatenitsverybeingrdquoYetitisalsothecasethatformanyoftheseIslamistsjihadisbothameansandanendanefforttoeradicatethoseobstacles torestoringa justcommunityonearththatsimultane-ouslybringshumanaction intoaccordwithGodrsquosplansandpurposes(Haddad198321)While theQurrsquoan (2256) states thatldquothere isnocompulsioninreligionrdquoIslamistscontendthatonlyinastateinwhichIslamiclawreignssupremearehumanbeingsfreefromenslavementtooneanotherrsquosruleandallareequalbyvirtueoftheircommonsubmissiontoGodAsQutb(1991107ndash8)argues

WhenthehighestauthorityinsocietyisGodalonemdashexpressedintheruleofdivinelawmdashonlythenishumanitytrulyandcompletelyliber-atedfromslaverytomenOnlythisisldquohumancivilizationrdquobecausetheessentialfoundationofhumancivilizationisthetrueandcom-

45

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

pletefreedomofhumanityandtheabsolutedignityofeveryindivid-ualinsocietyThereisnotruefreedomanddignityforhumanityortheindividualinasocietywheresomepeoplearelordswholegislateandothersareslaveswhoobey

From this perspective the realization of justice liberty equality andchoiceitselfnecessitatestheforcibleremovaloftheconstraintsimposedbyjahiliyyaalongwiththosewhoaidandabetitno matter the costAsMawdudi(1954160ndash61)writes

[W]hyisitthatinreligionsuchimportanceisgiventojihadthattheQurrsquoanpronouncesthejudgmentofhypocrisyuponthosewhoshirkandevadeitJihadisbutanothernamefortheattempttoerectthesystemoftruthandtheQurrsquoandeclaresjihadtobeatouchstoneonthesamefootingwithamanrsquosfaithInotherwordshewhohasfaithinhisheartwillneitherbecontentwiththedominationofthesystemofevilnorwillhegrudgetheexpenditureoflifeandwealthinthestruggleforerectingthesystemoftruthIfoneshowsweaknessinthismatterhisfaithitselfisdoubtfulWhatcananythingelsebesidethenprofithimThemanwhoprofesses faith in this religioncannotfulfillhisdutyonlybytryingasfaraspossibletopatternhislifeonIslamThenatureofhisfaithitselfrequiresthatheshouldconcentrateallhiseffortuponwrestingleadershipfromunbelievingandcorruptmentoentrustittotherighteousanduponerectingthesystemoftruththathasbeenordainedfortheconductoftheworldaccordingtothewillofGodBecausethisendisunattainablewith-out thehighestdegreeofcollectiveeffort theremustexistarigh-teouscommunitycommittedtotheprincipleoftruthanddevotedtothesolepurposeintheworldoferectingmaintainingandproperlyrealizingthesystemoftruth

ThefactthatsomeIslamistthinkerssanctifyviolentstruggleinsuchtermsdoesnotmeanofcoursethatallthosewhoadvocateorengageinjihadendorseviolence28NordoesitimplythatthosewhoclaimtokillforIslamareentirelywithoutulteriormotivesthosemanipulativepur-poses andpsychologicalmotivations that even themost rarified scrip-turalargumentscanexpressorserveWhattheprecedinganalysisdoessuggesthoweveristhatthereductionofthisviewofjihadtoirrationalbloodlusttheself-interestedgrabfortemporalpoweroradoorthroughwhichtopassintothehereaftermissesacrucialdimensionofitssignifi-canceandappealfortruebelieversjihadisnolessthananenactmentof

28EvenashespokeofaneweraofjahiliyyaandofjihadMawdudihimselfstoppedwellshortof recommendingor condoning the actual resort to violence in themannermanyotherIslamistsdidAsNasr(199670)observesMawdudirsquosorganizationtheJamalsquoat-iIs-lamildquohasavoidedviolentsocialchangeandhasinsteadviewedthepathtotheIslamicstateaslyingwithintheexistingsociopoliticalorderrdquoAlsoseethechapters5and3onQutbandMawdudiinthisvolume

46

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INTRODUCTION

adivineimperativetoremakethefoundationsofcollectivelifeInthisre-spectIslamistviewsofjihadcanbeseenaspartofalong-standingasso-ciationbetweenviolenceandpoliticalfoundingsuponwhichnoparticu-larcultureorhistoricalepochhasamonopolyThisassociationandtheldquolegacyofviolencerdquoitbequeathstofuturegenerationsarenolessappar-entinthoseradicalrevolutionsofrenewalthatmovebywayoftheswordfromthemarginstothecenterthanthosepoliticalfoundingsthatclaimtocreatesomethingoutofnothing(Connolly1995251)Ineithercasethetollofsuchbrutalitycanbeimmeasurableforinadditiontothevic-timswhosufferdirectlytheldquopracticeofviolencelikeallactionchangestheworldbutthemostprobablechangeistoamoreviolentworldrdquo(Ar-endt1972177)

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ltFEFF9ad854c18cea306a30d730ea30d730ec30b951fa529b7528002000410064006f0062006500200050004400460020658766f8306e4f5c6210306b4f7f75283057307e305930023053306e8a2d5b9a30674f5c62103055308c305f0020005000440046002030d530a130a430eb306f3001004100630072006f0062006100740020304a30883073002000410064006f00620065002000520065006100640065007200200035002e003000204ee5964d3067958b304f30533068304c3067304d307e305930023053306e8a2d5b9a306b306f30d530a930f330c8306e57cb30818fbc307f304c5fc59808306730593002gt KOR ltFEFFc7740020c124c815c7440020c0acc6a9d558c5ec0020ace0d488c9c80020c2dcd5d80020c778c1c4c5d00020ac00c7a50020c801d569d55c002000410064006f0062006500200050004400460020bb38c11cb97c0020c791c131d569b2c8b2e4002e0020c774b807ac8c0020c791c131b41c00200050004400460020bb38c11cb2940020004100630072006f0062006100740020bc0f002000410064006f00620065002000520065006100640065007200200035002e00300020c774c0c1c5d0c11c0020c5f40020c2180020c788c2b5b2c8b2e4002egt NLD (Gebruik deze instellingen om Adobe PDF-documenten te maken die zijn geoptimaliseerd voor prepress-afdrukken van hoge kwaliteit De gemaakte PDF-documenten kunnen worden geopend met Acrobat en Adobe Reader 50 en hoger) NOR ltFEFF004200720075006b00200064006900730073006500200069006e006e007300740069006c006c0069006e00670065006e0065002000740069006c002000e50020006f0070007000720065007400740065002000410064006f006200650020005000440046002d0064006f006b0075006d0065006e00740065007200200073006f006d00200065007200200062006500730074002000650067006e0065007400200066006f00720020006600f80072007400720079006b006b0073007500740073006b00720069006600740020006100760020006800f800790020006b00760061006c0069007400650074002e0020005000440046002d0064006f006b0075006d0065006e00740065006e00650020006b0061006e002000e50070006e00650073002000690020004100630072006f00620061007400200065006c006c00650072002000410064006f00620065002000520065006100640065007200200035002e003000200065006c006c00650072002000730065006e006500720065002egt PTB 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 SUO ltFEFF004b00e40079007400e40020006e00e40069007400e4002000610073006500740075006b007300690061002c0020006b0075006e0020006c0075006f00740020006c00e400680069006e006e00e4002000760061006100740069007600610061006e0020007000610069006e006100740075006b00730065006e002000760061006c006d0069007300740065006c00750074007900f6006800f6006e00200073006f00700069007600690061002000410064006f0062006500200050004400460020002d0064006f006b0075006d0065006e007400740065006a0061002e0020004c0075006f0064007500740020005000440046002d0064006f006b0075006d0065006e00740069007400200076006f0069006400610061006e0020006100760061007400610020004100630072006f0062006100740069006c006c00610020006a0061002000410064006f00620065002000520065006100640065007200200035002e0030003a006c006c00610020006a006100200075007500640065006d006d0069006c006c0061002egt SVE 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 ENU (Use these settings to create Adobe PDF documents best suited for high-quality prepress printing Created PDF documents can be opened with Acrobat and Adobe Reader 50 and later) gtgt Namespace [ (Adobe) (Common) (10) ] OtherNamespaces [ ltlt AsReaderSpreads false CropImagesToFrames true ErrorControl WarnAndContinue FlattenerIgnoreSpreadOverrides false IncludeGuidesGrids false IncludeNonPrinting false IncludeSlug false Namespace [ (Adobe) (InDesign) (40) ] OmitPlacedBitmaps false OmitPlacedEPS false OmitPlacedPDF false SimulateOverprint Legacy gtgt ltlt AddBleedMarks false AddColorBars false AddCropMarks false AddPageInfo false AddRegMarks false ConvertColors ConvertToCMYK DestinationProfileName () DestinationProfileSelector DocumentCMYK Downsample16BitImages true FlattenerPreset ltlt PresetSelector MediumResolution gtgt FormElements false GenerateStructure false IncludeBookmarks false IncludeHyperlinks false IncludeInteractive false IncludeLayers false IncludeProfiles false MultimediaHandling UseObjectSettings Namespace [ (Adobe) (CreativeSuite) (20) ] PDFXOutputIntentProfileSelector DocumentCMYK PreserveEditing true UntaggedCMYKHandling LeaveUntagged UntaggedRGBHandling 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Page 36: Chapter 1 INTRODUCTION - assets.press.princeton.eduassets.press.princeton.edu/chapters/s9067.pdf · Chapter 1 INTRODUCTION This volume is intended as a broad introduction to the evolution

36

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

poraryreligio-politicalmovementswhosememberstendtoldquoidealizepa-triarchalstructuresofauthorityandmoralityrdquoendorsegenderdualismasgod-givenornaturalandcondemnvigorouslyrecentchangesingen-derrelationsasasymptomandsymbolofsecularistmoralbankruptcy(Riesebrodt1993Moghadam1992Hawley1994)

SeveralchaptersinthisvolumeilluminateIslamistgendernormsbyre-vealing thecharacterandcontentof Islamistconcernsabout theplaceandpurityofMuslimwomenmdashpreoccupationsFatimaMernissi(199199)hasgonesofarastocharacterizeasanobsessionDespiteimportantdifferences among Islamists thinkers many endorse gender norms inwhichthefairlyconventionalinsistencethatfemalenatureisdefinedinand through reproduction undergirds an understanding of women assymbolsofmoralvirtueandvesselsofculturalpurityThisviewsustainstheclaimthatmenandwomenareequalinreligiousbeliefbutperformfundamentallydifferentandcomplementaryfunctionsinsocietyWhilemenarenaturallymadetoruleinboththepublicandprivatedomainawomanbelongsinthedomesticrealmwhereherprimaryroleistobeawifeandmotheraswellastoinsuretheintegrityofthefamilythefirstschoolofmoraleducationAssuchfunctionsarerootedinaninescap-ablehumannaturefashionedbyGodawomanrsquosinabilityorunwilling-nesstoperformherdutiessignalsadisobediencetothedivinewillandpresages the corruption of the Muslim family from within From thisvantagepointtheWesterninsistenceonfullequalitybetweenthesexesisdoubly pernicious it at once liberates women from basic moral con-straintsandenslavesthemtomutuallyreinforcingsexualandcapitalistexploitationAsMurtazaMutahhari(1998xxxi)arguescapitalismmakesuseofwomentomarket itsgoodsldquoby trading inhonourandrespectthrough[their]powertoenticerdquotherebyldquotransform[ing]manintoaninvoluntaryagentofconsumptionrdquoInasmuchaswomenareresponsiblefor producing the next generation of Muslim men destined to restoreIslamtoitsformergloryitisnotonlythevirtueofwomenortheinteg-rityofthefamilythathangsinthebalancebutthefutureofIslamiccivili-zationitself

Zaynab al-Ghazali andMutahharimake several of these argumentsexplicitlyandindetail(seechapters10and11)butinmuchofIslamistrhetoricthenatureandsignificanceofwomenareestablishedindirectlyandsymbolicallyandthroughthreerecurrentimagesinparticularThefirstisofwomenassilentsymbolsofculturalmoralandsexualvulnera-bilityvoicelessfiguresinneedofmasculineprotectionorwhenitistoolatedefiledbodiesthatmutelydemandvengeanceSoforexamplelsquoAb-dallahlsquoAzzam(oneofBinLadenrsquosmentorsseechapter18)graphicallydetailstheagonizinghumiliationofyoungmenunabletoactwhentheAfghanwoman isldquocryingout forhelpher childrenarebeing slaugh-tered her women are being raped the innocent are killed and theircorpsesscatteredrdquo(lsquoAzzam1987a)Inthesecondimagewomenfunction

37

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

muchlikeachorusthatspeaksinpermittedcadencestoratifymasculineendeavorsSuchisthecaseforexampleinBinLadenrsquos1996ldquoDeclara-tionofWaragainsttheAmericansOccupyingtheLandoftheTwoHolyPlacesrdquo(seechapter18)wherethewomenexhortmentojihadinthefollowing way ldquoPrepare yourself like a struggler the matter is biggerthanwordsAreyougoingtoleaveusforthewolvesofKufr[unbe-lief]eatingourwingsWherearethefreemendefendingfreewomenbyarmsDeath isbetter than life inhumiliation Some scandals andshameswillneverbeotherwiseeradicatedrdquo24InthethirdimagewomenarecreaturesnotofthisworldbutofanothervirginalrewardsforthecourageousmartyrintheafterlifeThisisevidentinthefinalinstructionsforthe911hijackersforexamplewhereMuslimldquobrothersrdquoareurgedto purify their carnal impulses sharpen their knives for the dhabh (slaughter)andheedthecallofthehur lsquoayn (theblack-eyedones)await-ingtheminParadise(seechapter19)

Such rhetoric primarily registers women as an extensionmirror ormeasure of masculinity and together with explicit Islamist argumentsabouthumannatureandthefamilyarticulatesIslamistgendernormsinwhichmenandwomeneachhaveaproperlocationandpurposeinadi-vinely ordained social hierarchy Deviance from this gendered scriptthussignalsdisruptionofamuchbroaderreligio-politicalorderitbothpresumes and seeks to bring into existence The disruption caused byforeign aggression in particular exacerbates the tendency to translateconflict into an assault on Muslim masculinity and to conceptualizewomenaspotentialvehiclesforWesterncorruptioninneedofguidingand guarding Women such as Zaynab al-Ghazali and Nadia Yassinewho seek a prominent place and voice within the Islamist movementhavehadlittlechoicebuttocontendwiththisgenderedscriptDoingsohasentailedamongotherthingsnavigatingcarefullybetweenIslamistcharacterizations of womenrsquos visibility and agency as symptomatic ofthe new jahiliyya on the one hand and essentializing arguments thatequateIslamwithveilingfemalegenitalmutilationandhonorkillingsontheother

AsthechaptersonGhazaliandYassinesuggestIslamistwomenhavenegotiatedbetweensuchconstraintsandpressuresandtheirownambi-tionsindifferentwaysApioneeringdalsquoiya(onewhoinvitesMuslimstogreater piety)Ghazalirsquos own life reveals a fierce resistance to conven-tionalnormsofdomesticityevenasmuchofher(earlier)workappearsto embrace an Islamist gender ideology that defines women as wivesmothers andldquobuilders ofmenrdquo (al-Hashimi 1990 118)By contrastYassineisawifeandmotherwhoembracesanldquoIslamicfeminismrdquothatrequiresldquoreappropriatingtheinstrumentsofclassicaltheologyrdquoanden-

24TheIslamistjournalSawt alshyJihadhasgonesofarastofeatureldquowomenrsquosvoicesrdquointheformofrolemodelsnamedforexampleumm alshyshahid(motherofthemartyr)al-thoughitisunclearthattheseldquovoicesrdquoareactuallywomenrsquos(SUsher2004)

38

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

gaging the textsdirectly through ijtihad (NYassine2003) In this re-spect Yassine must be understood as part of a broader effort amongMuslimwomenwithdifferentpoliticalcommitmentstosimultaneouslyadvocateandenacttheirrighttorecuperatetheldquooriginalintentrdquooftheIslamictextsIfwomenandmendoinfacthavedistinctperspectivesontheworldYassinesuggestswomenhaveaspecialobligationtoexcavatewhattheyseeasthegenderparityoftheQurrsquoanburiedbeneaththoseldquomachointerpretationsrdquoofIslamuponwhichmenhavebuilttheirprivi-legeandpower(Khalaf2006)25

ManyAnglo-AmericanandEuropean feministsworry that Islamistsseekonly to secureor restorepatriarchalpowerConverselymany Is-lamist women view feminism as a term and a movement inescapablyWesterninoriginfreightedwiththelegacyofcolonialismanduneasilyimplicatedinculturalimperialismThisapplieseventoYassinewhoisunwillingtoadoptwithoutqualificationalabelsheassociateswithagen-dasopposedtoherowntheWesttheMoroccanstateMaghribi(North-westAfrican)elitesYetfeminismitselfisahighlycontestedtermwithin theso-calledWestitisthebearerofmultiplemeaningssomeofwhichareevenopposedandischaracterizedbydeepdisagreementsaboutwhowomenarewhatwomenneedwhoisauthorizedtoworkonwomenrsquosbehalf andbywhatmeans Inasmuch as these various feminismsmayshareonlyastatedconcernforwomenrsquoswelfarethereisnothinginco-herentinmodifyingldquofeminismrdquowithldquoIslamicrdquoldquoMuslimrdquoorevenldquoIs-lamistrdquounlessone iscommitted toarguing thatfirst Islam isanun-changingessencebeyondhistorypoliticsandculturesecondthereisaneutralobjectivevantagefromwhichtoidentifythisessenceonceandforallandfinallytheIslamicessencesoidentifiedisfundamentallyin-compatiblewitheffortstoimprovetheconditionsandqualityofwomenrsquoslivesBythesametokenIslamistwomenwhorejectthetermfeminismcanbe(althoughnotalwaysare)deeplycommittedtoimprovingwom-enrsquoswelfareaswellasactivelyresistanttoeffortsthatreduceortrans-formthemintosilentaccessoriesofmalepower

YassineandGhazalidifferaboutwhatwomenareandshouldbeyetbroadlyspeakingbothmaybeconsideredpartofarecenttrendtowardthe feminizationofdalsquowa Dalsquowa literallymeanscallappealor sum-monsbutthetermhascometosignifyavarietyofpracticesandargu-mentsmeanttoexhortinviteandguideMuslimstowhatisregardedasproperconductandmoraldevotionWomenrsquosparticipationindalsquowais

25WomenrsquosparticipationintheldquoproductionofofficialIslamicknowledgerdquohasalonghistoryalthoughtheyhaveoftendonesoinrelativeobscurityandwithoutthebenefitofeducation in the Islamicsciences thathas legitimateddirectengagementwith thesacredtexts (Cooke 2001 xiv Badran and Cooke 2004) Pioneering attempts to read genderequalityinIslamarealsonotconfinedtowritingbywomenasevincedbyQasimAminrsquosTahrir alshymarrsquoa [TheLiberationofWoman] (1899)andMumtaz lsquoAlirsquosHuquqshye niswan [TheRightsofWomen](1898)

39

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

notabrandnewphenomenonasisevidentinGhazalirsquosworkwiththeEgyptianSocietyofMuslimLadiesinthe1930sYetfromEgypttoPaki-stantoSaudiArabiatotheUnitedStatesthenumberoffemaledalsquoiyashasproliferatedexponentially inrecentyears(Cooke2001Mahmood2005Hirschkind2006)Thisreflectsinpartcurrentdoctrinalempha-sesondalsquowaasincumbentuponbothmenandwomenanddependentlessupontechnicalknowledgethanmoralvirtueandpracticalfamiliaritywiththeIslamictradition(Mahmood200565ndash66)It isalsoaconse-quenceofrecentpoliticalandsocioeconomictransformationsinMuslimsocietiesincludingtheexpansionofmasseducationthathasnotonlyin-creasedwomenrsquosliteracyandsocialmobilitybutalsomadeIslamictextsmoreaccessibletheproliferationoftechnologiesmdashfromthecassettetapetotheInternetmdashthatfacilitatethecirculationofreligiousknowledgeevenamongthosewhocannotreadortraveltheprecedentsetbythevigorousparticipationof IranianwomeninpostrevolutiondebatesaboutIslamandthemodeloflegalactivismevidentintheIslamistmovementrsquosownchallenge to the lsquoulamarsquos status as gatekeepers of religious knowledge(Singerman2005Mir-Hosseini1999)

If Ghazali and Yassine exemplify the feminization of dalsquowa amongelitesthemosquemovementinEgyptillustratesthegrowingparticipa-tionofwomenfromdiversesocialbackgroundsinreligiousclassesde-votedtostudyinganddebatingwhatIslamrequiresforawomantobeldquomorallyuprightrdquointhecontemporaryworld(Mahmood2005)Con-ceptualizingpiety in termsof adeepandholistic commitment to self-transformationparticipantsinthemosquemovementareconcernedlesswithmattersofsovereigntyandpoliticsconventionallyunderstoodandmorewiththeldquomoralcultivationrdquoofthosedailypracticesseenascrucialtobecomingclosertoGod(Mahmood2005)SomeIslamistshavecriti-cizedthis focusonpracticesofworshipasapoliticalandoverlypriva-tizedyetsuchcriticismmissestheforceofIslamistsrsquoowninsistenceondin(religion)asawayoflifeinwhichthedomainsofpublicandprivateare inextricably linked26AsSabaMahmood (2005193194) showsthesewomenrsquosintenseeffortsatldquoretrainingethicalsensibilitiesrdquohavealdquosociopoliticalforcerdquothatextendswellbeyondmattersofgovernancefacilitatingnolessthantheemergenceofaldquonewsocialandmoralorderrdquoEvidenceofitstransformativepowermaybefoundnotonlyinthesheernumbersandvarietyofwomenmdashwealthyandpoor literateand illiter-atemdashparticipatinginthemosquemovementbutalsointherhetoricalandpoliticaleffortsbythestateandsomeIslamiststocurtailcontrolordis-creditit(Mahmood200571194)

26ParticipantsinthemosquemovementinturnareoftencriticalofwhattheyseeasthereductionofIslamtotokensofculturalauthenticityorofitsinstrumentalizationbybothnationalistsandIslamiststheycharacterizeasmoreinterestedinpoliticalmaneuveringthanreligiouspiety

40

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

Understoodtoincludebothwrittenandembodiedpracticesthefemi-nizationof dalsquowa illustrates theways inwhichwomen fromdifferentperspectivesandsocialclassesareinsistingonengagingthesacredtextsdirectly for and with one another without the mediating authority ofmenwhohavetraditionallyheldthemonopolyonsuchactivitiesAsSu-danese Islamist Lubabah al-Fadl argues ldquoAs an insan [human being]whohappenstobeawomanIhavearighttorejectthemanipulativeexegesesofoursharilsquoa thatthreatenmyexistenceinawaythat isnotconsistentwiththeGodlywayandtoapplymyownijtihadtorectifyer-roneoustendenciesbysomeshuyukh[pluralofshaykh]rdquo(Sadiki2004290)DespitetheproliferationofvoicesintentonclaimingforthemselvestheauthoritytodemarcatewhatisauthenticallyIslamicandun-Islamiconceandforallcontestationoveritsscopeandmeaningproceedsapacefacilitatedatleastinpartbywomenformerlyexcludedfromtheconver-sationAtthesametimeIslamistwomenrsquosagencyandclaimstoauthorityarefrequentlystillpredicatedonawillingnesstofollowfairlypatriarchalrulesaboutwherehowandwithwhomtheymaypracticetheirvocation(Hirschkind2003Sadiki2004283)

Islamism and Violence

IfgenderisfrequentlyanimplicitpreoccupationamongIslamistsjihadisarguably Islamistsrsquomost consistently explicit concern Jihad is derivedfromtheArabicverbthatmeanstostruggleortostriveyetitisaparticu-larkindofstruggle that isofconcern tomanyof thefigurescollectedheretheoftenviolentstruggleagainstapostatesandinfidelsbothathomeandabroadtowhicheveryindividualMuslimmustcontributeTheclaimthatfightingunbelieversisthepreeminentenactmentofindividualMus-limpiety seems to justify characterizationsof Islam ingeneral and Is-lamisminparticularassanctioningevenencouragingviolenceYetwhatIslamistsrepresentasjihadtout courtisahistoricallyspecificunderstand-ingderivedfromahighlyselectiveuseoftextsandprecedentsprominentamongthemaformerlyobscureclaimbytheinfluentialfourteenth-cen-tury jurist IbnTaymiyya thatMongol rulerswhohad contravened Is-lamiclawcouldbesubjecttoforcibleremovalFarfromadefinitiveex-pressionof Islamldquoproperlyunderstoodrdquo such Islamist argumentsnotonlymarkasignificantdeparturefrommuchofantecedentdoctrineandpractice but also diminish the importance of ongoing disagreementsamongMuslimsabouttheformandpurposesofjihad

TobeginwithMuslimscholarshavetendedtoconsiderjihadagainstforeignenemiesafard kifaya(collectiveobligation)thatisadutyagroupofpeoplewithinthecommunitymayperformonbehalfoftherestandonethatpresupposesalegitimateMuslimleadertodeclareorleadthechargeJuristshavedistinguishedthisfromthefard lsquoayn(individualduty)thatmustbefulfilledbyeverysingleMuslimincasesofdefensivejihad

41

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

thatiswhentheummaisunderattackManyIslamistsincludedheretakeamuchlessnuancedviewofjihadAsamodeofpoliticalactionQutbarguesjihadmustberegardedasaldquopermanentconditionnotanocca-sionalconcernrdquoonethatincurrentcircumstancesrequiresdeedsratherthanwordsstruggleratherthancontemplationrevolutionathomeaswellasresistanceabroad(Qutb199167ndash6882)lsquoAbdal-SalamFarajarguesalongsimilarlinesthatthenatureoftheattackonIslammakespolitical authorization by a caliph (ldquodeputyrdquo referring to a legitimatesuccessortotheProphetrsquosleadership)unnecessaryafterallldquoleadershipovertheMuslimsis(always)intheirownhandsifonlytheymakethismanifestIfthereissomethinglackingintheleadershipwellthereisnothingthatcannotbeacquiredrdquo(Jansen1986asec93)

SuchargumentsareadeliberaterejectionofearlyMuslimmodernistswhohademphasizedthelargelydefensivecharacterofjihadandsoughttoshowthatrelationsbetweenMuslimsandnon-MuslimswerenormallypeacefulratherthanantagonisticMahmudShaltut(d1963)therectorof al-Azhar from 1958 to 1963 had argued for example that theQurrsquoanicversesonfightingldquoprohibittheprovocationofhostilityandthisprohibitionisreinforcedbyGodrsquosrepugnancetoaggressionandbyhisdislikeofthosewhoprovokehostilityrdquo(Peters199674onShaltutseeZebiri1993)ConversionbyforceisanathematoIslamShaltutaversandfightingiscommandedonlyindefenseinresponsetoaggressionini-tiatedbyothersEvendefensivejihadmustaimatldquotheterminationoftheaggressionandtheestablishmentofreligiouslibertydevotedtoGodandfreefromanypressureorforcerdquo(Peters199675)

ManyIslamistsexplicitlydismisssuchargumentsasasymptomoffalseconsciousnessoneamongmanydestructiveeffectsofcolonialdomina-tionMawdudiargues for example thatwhile imperialists ravage theworld to satisfy their greed jihad alone ldquoconjures up the vision of amarching band of religious fanatics with savage beards and fiery eyesbrandishingdrawnswordsandattackingtheinfidelswherevertheymeetthemrdquoHavinginternalizedthis imageMuslimsrushtoapologizeandrenouncearmedstruggleInthiswayhelamentscolonialistsretaintheexclusiverighttoldquofightwitharmsandammunitionwhilewearecon-tented with our pen and our tonguerdquo (Mawdudi 1948 1ndash3) SayyidQutbforhispartagreedthatIslamdoesnotcountenancespreadingitsmessagebyforceandcoercionyethehadlittlepatiencewiththosewhosoughttopresentjihadaslegitimateonlyinself-defense

IfweinsistoncallingIslamicjihadadefensivemovementthenwemustchangethemeaningofthewordldquodefenserdquoandmeanbyitldquothedefenseofmanrdquoagainstallthoseforcesthatlimithisfreedomWhenwetakethisbroadmeaningofthewordldquodefenserdquoweunder-standthetruecharacterofIslaminthatitproclaimstheuniversalfreedomofeverypersonandcommunityfromservitudetoanyother

42

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

individualorsocietytheendofmanrsquosarroganceandselfishnesstheestablishmentofthesovereigntyofAllahandHisLordshipthrough-outtheworldandtheruleofthedivinesharilsquoainhumanaffairs(Qutb199050)

Qutbdoesnotnameanynamesincastigatingtheldquowriterswithdefeatistandapologeticmentalities[who]writeaboutlsquojihadinIslamrsquoandtrytoremovethislsquoblotrsquofromIslamrdquo(Qutb199046)buthecouldverywellhavehadhisdistinguishedfellowEgyptianMahmudShaltutinmind

These arguments about jihad may be said to constitute a commongrammarandframeworkofanalysisformanyIslamistsalthoughseveralthinkers in this volume carefully calibrate such claims to suit variouspurposesanddifferentpublicspheresInhisjustificationfortheassassi-nationofEgyptianpresidentAnwaral-SadatforexamplelsquoAbdal-SalamFarajdepictsthestruggletoreclaimthemoralfoundationsoftheEgyp-tianstateasafightagainstjahiliyyafromwithinarguingthatthejihadagainstacorruptnationalistregimeathomemusttakeprecedenceoverfightingenemieselsewhereTheCharterofHamas(seechapter15)how-everinsiststhatallMuslimsrecognizetheprimacyofthejihadforJeru-salemweldingIslamistrhetorictothatofnationalistresistanceinanef-fortbothtofightIsraelioccupationandtocompeteforadherentswiththePalestinianLiberationOrganization(PLO)IncontrasttobothFarajandHamasBinLadenembracesaglobaljihadthatessentiallycollapsesdistinctionsbetweennationalandinternationaloffensiveanddefensivefightingenemiesathomeandthosefromafar

Yet despite such differences these arguments tend to presume thatviolent jihad is a necessary response to the pervasive power of thosewithdemonstratedhostilitytoMuslimliveslandspietiesandsensibili-tiesaformofretaliationwhoseurgencyandlegitimacyderivefromtheviolencemdashpsychologicalandeconomicaswellasphysicalmdashoftheinitialassaultThisviewofjihadsubsumesindividualsintoarchetypesofldquoin-fidelsrdquoandldquobelieversrdquoandinsodoingvitiatesmoreconventionaldis-tinctionsbetweenforexamplesoldierandcivilianorcollectiveandin-dividual responsibility It is far from inevitable that thosewhoharborsuchviewswillautomaticallyactuponthemyetthecarnagewroughtbytheattacksontheWorldTradeCenterandthePentagonin2001aBalinightclub in 2002 Madrid commuter trains in 2004 and throughoutIraqonadailybasissuggestjusthowlethalsuchclaimscanbegiventheright circumstances The fact that such violence does not discriminateamongvictimsonlyfurtherfuelsrhetoriccharacterizingIslamistsasirra-tional fanatics ldquoin love with deathrdquo terrorists animated by a religioncharacterizedbyapropensityforviolenceandauthoritarianism27

27AnxietiesabouttheparticularsusceptibilityofMuslimstoirrationalityinsularityandfanaticismhavealonganddistinguishedpedigreeinEuro-AmericanhistoryandpoliticalthoughtSeeforexampleRenan18833

43

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INTRODUCTION

AsinsomanyothermattershoweverIslamistsarehardlyofonemindonthesubjectofjihadindeedthereareIslamistswhoexplicitlyrejectthereductionof struggle toviolenceAcase inpoint isNadiaYassine(20032005c)whoinsiststhatjihadisthededicatedstruggleagainstisshytikbar(arrogance)particularlyinitscommonformasthelustforpoweranddominationAsjihadagainstistikbarisbothafinalgoalandapre-scriptionforactionYassinesuggestsitisantitheticaltoviolentpracticesthataimatdominationTheprimaryinstrumentsofjihadarenotbombsbutwords particularly thosedeployed in the art of persuasion (Fara-marzi2005NYassine2006a)WhenIslamistssuchaslsquoAbdal-SalamFarajandlsquoUmarlsquoAbdal-RahmanseektolegitimizeviolentrevolutionbyrecoursetoIslamictextsshearguestheycontravenethetruemeaningofjihadtoservetheirownarrogantendsBythesametokenBinLadenrsquosdecisiontoldquofightevilwithevilandbarbaritywithbarbarityrdquonotonlyviolatesspecificIslamicprohibitionsagainstharmingcivilianswomenandchildrenbutalsobetraystheethicalimperativetoembodythemes-sageofamercifulGodwhocautionsbelieversthat(Q8822)ldquoYouhavenopoweroverthemrdquo(NYassine2005cDaily Excelsior2002)

SuchpersistentdisagreementsamongMuslimspastandpresentsug-gest that Islam isnomore inherently violent andbloody-minded thanitmdashorChristianityor Judaism for thatmattermdashis inherentlypeacefulIslamists often claim to speak for an unchanging authentic Islam thatexistsoutsideoftimeandspaceyetthepoliticalpurchaseoftheirper-spective derives from the ways it assembles disparate yet recognizablecontemporaryexperiencesofsufferingfrustrationandlossintoanex-planationthatresonateswithMuslimswholiveincommunitiescultur-allylinguisticallyandgeographicallydistantfromoneanotherTheex-tenttowhichIslamistargumentsresonatebroadlyacrossMuslimsocie-tiesthusdependsuponasetofexperiencesandphenomenathatmarkthisparticularmomentinhistoryincludingthewaysinwhichcontempo-raryglobalinequalitiescompoundalegacyofhistoricalasymmetriestocontinuallyreproduceasenseofMuslimpowerlessnessmdashbothrealandimaginedmdashrelativetotheWestcontinuingEuro-Americanpoliticalandfinancialsupportofcorruptautocratsmanyofwhompresideoverna-tion-statesbrutallystitchedtogetherbyWesternfiat thepersistenceofauthoritarian regimes eager to control domestic unrest by catalyzingldquoMuslimragerdquotowardexternaltargetsthesenseofemasculationpro-ducedbydecadesofpoliticalrepressionandeconomicfrustrationandthecontinualflowofimagesofbloodiedMuslimbodiesdeliveredbyaburgeoningarrayofvideosatelliteandelectronicmedia

It is notable that the understanding of jihad many Islamists proffermirrorstheverystate-sanctionedviolenceagainstwhichtheyhavestrug-gledforalmostacenturyAlongwiththousandsofMuslimscaughtinthemachineryoftwentieth-centurystateviolenceprominentIslamistsfromQutbtoGhazalitoAymanal-Zawahirimdashal-Qalsquoidarsquossecondincommandmdash

44

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

arewellknowntohavebeenradicalizedbyextendedandoftenbrutaltermsofincarcerationinEgyptSyriaIraqJordanIsraelAlgeriaandelsewhere(onal-ZawahiriandprisoncfKepelandMilelli2008152ndash54)ItisthusfarfromsurprisingthatIslamistsforgedbyinterrogationtortureinprisoncampswouldconcludethatthepreeminentenactmentofMuslimpietyisviolentstruggleldquoPrisonrdquoasPalestinianKhaledAbuHilalhassaidldquoismyuniversityrdquo(Erlanger2007)anargumentmadeingreaterdetailinadifferenttimeandplacebyRussianwriterandrevolu-tionaryMaximGorky(1868ndash1936)

Apeoplebroughtupinaschoolthatremindsoneofthetormentsofhellonasmallscaleapeopleaccustomedtotheclenched-fistprisonandthewhipwillnotbeblestwithatenderheartApeoplethatthepoliceagentshaveriddenoverwillbecapableintheirturnofwalk-ingoverthebodiesofothersInacountrywhereunresthasreignedsolongit isdifficultforthepeopletorealizefromonedaytothenextthepowerofrightOnecannotdemandfromamanwhohasneverknownjusticethatheshouldbejust(Gorky1920)

InthiscontextasTimothyMitchell(1990195ndash96199207ndash8)suggestsIslamistviewsoftheworldcanbecharacterizedasbothamodeofresis-tancetostatemechanismsofcoercionandanexpressionofthemSuchisthedynamic evident inGhazalirsquosmemoirs for examplewhen shede-scribeshowtheldquodarknessofprisonsthebladesoftortureandthevi-ciousbeatingsonly increasetheenduranceandresolveofthefaithfulrdquo(Ghazali19786)

There is no doubt a great deal of pragmatism at work in IslamistargumentsaboutviolenceAsQutb(19916447ndash48)drylynotesthepathtofreedommustoccasionallybehewnbywayoftheswordbecausetyrants are not reasoned out of power and ldquojahiliyya is not lsquoabstracttheoryrsquo[it]consciouslyorunconsciouslystrivestopreserveitsownexistence to defend its essence to annihilate dangerous elementswhichthreatenitsverybeingrdquoYetitisalsothecasethatformanyoftheseIslamistsjihadisbothameansandanendanefforttoeradicatethoseobstacles torestoringa justcommunityonearththatsimultane-ouslybringshumanaction intoaccordwithGodrsquosplansandpurposes(Haddad198321)While theQurrsquoan (2256) states thatldquothere isnocompulsioninreligionrdquoIslamistscontendthatonlyinastateinwhichIslamiclawreignssupremearehumanbeingsfreefromenslavementtooneanotherrsquosruleandallareequalbyvirtueoftheircommonsubmissiontoGodAsQutb(1991107ndash8)argues

WhenthehighestauthorityinsocietyisGodalonemdashexpressedintheruleofdivinelawmdashonlythenishumanitytrulyandcompletelyliber-atedfromslaverytomenOnlythisisldquohumancivilizationrdquobecausetheessentialfoundationofhumancivilizationisthetrueandcom-

45

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

pletefreedomofhumanityandtheabsolutedignityofeveryindivid-ualinsocietyThereisnotruefreedomanddignityforhumanityortheindividualinasocietywheresomepeoplearelordswholegislateandothersareslaveswhoobey

From this perspective the realization of justice liberty equality andchoiceitselfnecessitatestheforcibleremovaloftheconstraintsimposedbyjahiliyyaalongwiththosewhoaidandabetitno matter the costAsMawdudi(1954160ndash61)writes

[W]hyisitthatinreligionsuchimportanceisgiventojihadthattheQurrsquoanpronouncesthejudgmentofhypocrisyuponthosewhoshirkandevadeitJihadisbutanothernamefortheattempttoerectthesystemoftruthandtheQurrsquoandeclaresjihadtobeatouchstoneonthesamefootingwithamanrsquosfaithInotherwordshewhohasfaithinhisheartwillneitherbecontentwiththedominationofthesystemofevilnorwillhegrudgetheexpenditureoflifeandwealthinthestruggleforerectingthesystemoftruthIfoneshowsweaknessinthismatterhisfaithitselfisdoubtfulWhatcananythingelsebesidethenprofithimThemanwhoprofesses faith in this religioncannotfulfillhisdutyonlybytryingasfaraspossibletopatternhislifeonIslamThenatureofhisfaithitselfrequiresthatheshouldconcentrateallhiseffortuponwrestingleadershipfromunbelievingandcorruptmentoentrustittotherighteousanduponerectingthesystemoftruththathasbeenordainedfortheconductoftheworldaccordingtothewillofGodBecausethisendisunattainablewith-out thehighestdegreeofcollectiveeffort theremustexistarigh-teouscommunitycommittedtotheprincipleoftruthanddevotedtothesolepurposeintheworldoferectingmaintainingandproperlyrealizingthesystemoftruth

ThefactthatsomeIslamistthinkerssanctifyviolentstruggleinsuchtermsdoesnotmeanofcoursethatallthosewhoadvocateorengageinjihadendorseviolence28NordoesitimplythatthosewhoclaimtokillforIslamareentirelywithoutulteriormotivesthosemanipulativepur-poses andpsychologicalmotivations that even themost rarified scrip-turalargumentscanexpressorserveWhattheprecedinganalysisdoessuggesthoweveristhatthereductionofthisviewofjihadtoirrationalbloodlusttheself-interestedgrabfortemporalpoweroradoorthroughwhichtopassintothehereaftermissesacrucialdimensionofitssignifi-canceandappealfortruebelieversjihadisnolessthananenactmentof

28EvenashespokeofaneweraofjahiliyyaandofjihadMawdudihimselfstoppedwellshortof recommendingor condoning the actual resort to violence in themannermanyotherIslamistsdidAsNasr(199670)observesMawdudirsquosorganizationtheJamalsquoat-iIs-lamildquohasavoidedviolentsocialchangeandhasinsteadviewedthepathtotheIslamicstateaslyingwithintheexistingsociopoliticalorderrdquoAlsoseethechapters5and3onQutbandMawdudiinthisvolume

46

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

adivineimperativetoremakethefoundationsofcollectivelifeInthisre-spectIslamistviewsofjihadcanbeseenaspartofalong-standingasso-ciationbetweenviolenceandpoliticalfoundingsuponwhichnoparticu-larcultureorhistoricalepochhasamonopolyThisassociationandtheldquolegacyofviolencerdquoitbequeathstofuturegenerationsarenolessappar-entinthoseradicalrevolutionsofrenewalthatmovebywayoftheswordfromthemarginstothecenterthanthosepoliticalfoundingsthatclaimtocreatesomethingoutofnothing(Connolly1995251)Ineithercasethetollofsuchbrutalitycanbeimmeasurableforinadditiontothevic-timswhosufferdirectlytheldquopracticeofviolencelikeallactionchangestheworldbutthemostprobablechangeistoamoreviolentworldrdquo(Ar-endt1972177)

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(Adobe) (Common) (10) ] OtherNamespaces [ ltlt AsReaderSpreads false CropImagesToFrames true ErrorControl WarnAndContinue FlattenerIgnoreSpreadOverrides false IncludeGuidesGrids false IncludeNonPrinting false IncludeSlug false Namespace [ (Adobe) (InDesign) (40) ] OmitPlacedBitmaps false OmitPlacedEPS false OmitPlacedPDF false SimulateOverprint Legacy gtgt ltlt AddBleedMarks false AddColorBars false AddCropMarks false AddPageInfo false AddRegMarks false ConvertColors ConvertToCMYK DestinationProfileName () DestinationProfileSelector DocumentCMYK Downsample16BitImages true FlattenerPreset ltlt PresetSelector MediumResolution gtgt FormElements false GenerateStructure false IncludeBookmarks false IncludeHyperlinks false IncludeInteractive false IncludeLayers false IncludeProfiles false MultimediaHandling UseObjectSettings Namespace [ (Adobe) (CreativeSuite) (20) ] PDFXOutputIntentProfileSelector DocumentCMYK PreserveEditing true UntaggedCMYKHandling LeaveUntagged UntaggedRGBHandling UseDocumentProfile UseDocumentBleed false gtgt ]gtgt setdistillerparamsltlt HWResolution [2400 2400] PageSize [612000 792000]gtgt setpagedevice

Page 37: Chapter 1 INTRODUCTION - assets.press.princeton.eduassets.press.princeton.edu/chapters/s9067.pdf · Chapter 1 INTRODUCTION This volume is intended as a broad introduction to the evolution

37

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INTRODUCTION

muchlikeachorusthatspeaksinpermittedcadencestoratifymasculineendeavorsSuchisthecaseforexampleinBinLadenrsquos1996ldquoDeclara-tionofWaragainsttheAmericansOccupyingtheLandoftheTwoHolyPlacesrdquo(seechapter18)wherethewomenexhortmentojihadinthefollowing way ldquoPrepare yourself like a struggler the matter is biggerthanwordsAreyougoingtoleaveusforthewolvesofKufr[unbe-lief]eatingourwingsWherearethefreemendefendingfreewomenbyarmsDeath isbetter than life inhumiliation Some scandals andshameswillneverbeotherwiseeradicatedrdquo24InthethirdimagewomenarecreaturesnotofthisworldbutofanothervirginalrewardsforthecourageousmartyrintheafterlifeThisisevidentinthefinalinstructionsforthe911hijackersforexamplewhereMuslimldquobrothersrdquoareurgedto purify their carnal impulses sharpen their knives for the dhabh (slaughter)andheedthecallofthehur lsquoayn (theblack-eyedones)await-ingtheminParadise(seechapter19)

Such rhetoric primarily registers women as an extensionmirror ormeasure of masculinity and together with explicit Islamist argumentsabouthumannatureandthefamilyarticulatesIslamistgendernormsinwhichmenandwomeneachhaveaproperlocationandpurposeinadi-vinely ordained social hierarchy Deviance from this gendered scriptthussignalsdisruptionofamuchbroaderreligio-politicalorderitbothpresumes and seeks to bring into existence The disruption caused byforeign aggression in particular exacerbates the tendency to translateconflict into an assault on Muslim masculinity and to conceptualizewomenaspotentialvehiclesforWesterncorruptioninneedofguidingand guarding Women such as Zaynab al-Ghazali and Nadia Yassinewho seek a prominent place and voice within the Islamist movementhavehadlittlechoicebuttocontendwiththisgenderedscriptDoingsohasentailedamongotherthingsnavigatingcarefullybetweenIslamistcharacterizations of womenrsquos visibility and agency as symptomatic ofthe new jahiliyya on the one hand and essentializing arguments thatequateIslamwithveilingfemalegenitalmutilationandhonorkillingsontheother

AsthechaptersonGhazaliandYassinesuggestIslamistwomenhavenegotiatedbetweensuchconstraintsandpressuresandtheirownambi-tionsindifferentwaysApioneeringdalsquoiya(onewhoinvitesMuslimstogreater piety)Ghazalirsquos own life reveals a fierce resistance to conven-tionalnormsofdomesticityevenasmuchofher(earlier)workappearsto embrace an Islamist gender ideology that defines women as wivesmothers andldquobuilders ofmenrdquo (al-Hashimi 1990 118)By contrastYassineisawifeandmotherwhoembracesanldquoIslamicfeminismrdquothatrequiresldquoreappropriatingtheinstrumentsofclassicaltheologyrdquoanden-

24TheIslamistjournalSawt alshyJihadhasgonesofarastofeatureldquowomenrsquosvoicesrdquointheformofrolemodelsnamedforexampleumm alshyshahid(motherofthemartyr)al-thoughitisunclearthattheseldquovoicesrdquoareactuallywomenrsquos(SUsher2004)

38

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INTRODUCTION

gaging the textsdirectly through ijtihad (NYassine2003) In this re-spect Yassine must be understood as part of a broader effort amongMuslimwomenwithdifferentpoliticalcommitmentstosimultaneouslyadvocateandenacttheirrighttorecuperatetheldquooriginalintentrdquooftheIslamictextsIfwomenandmendoinfacthavedistinctperspectivesontheworldYassinesuggestswomenhaveaspecialobligationtoexcavatewhattheyseeasthegenderparityoftheQurrsquoanburiedbeneaththoseldquomachointerpretationsrdquoofIslamuponwhichmenhavebuilttheirprivi-legeandpower(Khalaf2006)25

ManyAnglo-AmericanandEuropean feministsworry that Islamistsseekonly to secureor restorepatriarchalpowerConverselymany Is-lamist women view feminism as a term and a movement inescapablyWesterninoriginfreightedwiththelegacyofcolonialismanduneasilyimplicatedinculturalimperialismThisapplieseventoYassinewhoisunwillingtoadoptwithoutqualificationalabelsheassociateswithagen-dasopposedtoherowntheWesttheMoroccanstateMaghribi(North-westAfrican)elitesYetfeminismitselfisahighlycontestedtermwithin theso-calledWestitisthebearerofmultiplemeaningssomeofwhichareevenopposedandischaracterizedbydeepdisagreementsaboutwhowomenarewhatwomenneedwhoisauthorizedtoworkonwomenrsquosbehalf andbywhatmeans Inasmuch as these various feminismsmayshareonlyastatedconcernforwomenrsquoswelfarethereisnothinginco-herentinmodifyingldquofeminismrdquowithldquoIslamicrdquoldquoMuslimrdquoorevenldquoIs-lamistrdquounlessone iscommitted toarguing thatfirst Islam isanun-changingessencebeyondhistorypoliticsandculturesecondthereisaneutralobjectivevantagefromwhichtoidentifythisessenceonceandforallandfinallytheIslamicessencesoidentifiedisfundamentallyin-compatiblewitheffortstoimprovetheconditionsandqualityofwomenrsquoslivesBythesametokenIslamistwomenwhorejectthetermfeminismcanbe(althoughnotalwaysare)deeplycommittedtoimprovingwom-enrsquoswelfareaswellasactivelyresistanttoeffortsthatreduceortrans-formthemintosilentaccessoriesofmalepower

YassineandGhazalidifferaboutwhatwomenareandshouldbeyetbroadlyspeakingbothmaybeconsideredpartofarecenttrendtowardthe feminizationofdalsquowa Dalsquowa literallymeanscallappealor sum-monsbutthetermhascometosignifyavarietyofpracticesandargu-mentsmeanttoexhortinviteandguideMuslimstowhatisregardedasproperconductandmoraldevotionWomenrsquosparticipationindalsquowais

25WomenrsquosparticipationintheldquoproductionofofficialIslamicknowledgerdquohasalonghistoryalthoughtheyhaveoftendonesoinrelativeobscurityandwithoutthebenefitofeducation in the Islamicsciences thathas legitimateddirectengagementwith thesacredtexts (Cooke 2001 xiv Badran and Cooke 2004) Pioneering attempts to read genderequalityinIslamarealsonotconfinedtowritingbywomenasevincedbyQasimAminrsquosTahrir alshymarrsquoa [TheLiberationofWoman] (1899)andMumtaz lsquoAlirsquosHuquqshye niswan [TheRightsofWomen](1898)

39

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

notabrandnewphenomenonasisevidentinGhazalirsquosworkwiththeEgyptianSocietyofMuslimLadiesinthe1930sYetfromEgypttoPaki-stantoSaudiArabiatotheUnitedStatesthenumberoffemaledalsquoiyashasproliferatedexponentially inrecentyears(Cooke2001Mahmood2005Hirschkind2006)Thisreflectsinpartcurrentdoctrinalempha-sesondalsquowaasincumbentuponbothmenandwomenanddependentlessupontechnicalknowledgethanmoralvirtueandpracticalfamiliaritywiththeIslamictradition(Mahmood200565ndash66)It isalsoaconse-quenceofrecentpoliticalandsocioeconomictransformationsinMuslimsocietiesincludingtheexpansionofmasseducationthathasnotonlyin-creasedwomenrsquosliteracyandsocialmobilitybutalsomadeIslamictextsmoreaccessibletheproliferationoftechnologiesmdashfromthecassettetapetotheInternetmdashthatfacilitatethecirculationofreligiousknowledgeevenamongthosewhocannotreadortraveltheprecedentsetbythevigorousparticipationof IranianwomeninpostrevolutiondebatesaboutIslamandthemodeloflegalactivismevidentintheIslamistmovementrsquosownchallenge to the lsquoulamarsquos status as gatekeepers of religious knowledge(Singerman2005Mir-Hosseini1999)

If Ghazali and Yassine exemplify the feminization of dalsquowa amongelitesthemosquemovementinEgyptillustratesthegrowingparticipa-tionofwomenfromdiversesocialbackgroundsinreligiousclassesde-votedtostudyinganddebatingwhatIslamrequiresforawomantobeldquomorallyuprightrdquointhecontemporaryworld(Mahmood2005)Con-ceptualizingpiety in termsof adeepandholistic commitment to self-transformationparticipantsinthemosquemovementareconcernedlesswithmattersofsovereigntyandpoliticsconventionallyunderstoodandmorewiththeldquomoralcultivationrdquoofthosedailypracticesseenascrucialtobecomingclosertoGod(Mahmood2005)SomeIslamistshavecriti-cizedthis focusonpracticesofworshipasapoliticalandoverlypriva-tizedyetsuchcriticismmissestheforceofIslamistsrsquoowninsistenceondin(religion)asawayoflifeinwhichthedomainsofpublicandprivateare inextricably linked26AsSabaMahmood (2005193194) showsthesewomenrsquosintenseeffortsatldquoretrainingethicalsensibilitiesrdquohavealdquosociopoliticalforcerdquothatextendswellbeyondmattersofgovernancefacilitatingnolessthantheemergenceofaldquonewsocialandmoralorderrdquoEvidenceofitstransformativepowermaybefoundnotonlyinthesheernumbersandvarietyofwomenmdashwealthyandpoor literateand illiter-atemdashparticipatinginthemosquemovementbutalsointherhetoricalandpoliticaleffortsbythestateandsomeIslamiststocurtailcontrolordis-creditit(Mahmood200571194)

26ParticipantsinthemosquemovementinturnareoftencriticalofwhattheyseeasthereductionofIslamtotokensofculturalauthenticityorofitsinstrumentalizationbybothnationalistsandIslamiststheycharacterizeasmoreinterestedinpoliticalmaneuveringthanreligiouspiety

40

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

Understoodtoincludebothwrittenandembodiedpracticesthefemi-nizationof dalsquowa illustrates theways inwhichwomen fromdifferentperspectivesandsocialclassesareinsistingonengagingthesacredtextsdirectly for and with one another without the mediating authority ofmenwhohavetraditionallyheldthemonopolyonsuchactivitiesAsSu-danese Islamist Lubabah al-Fadl argues ldquoAs an insan [human being]whohappenstobeawomanIhavearighttorejectthemanipulativeexegesesofoursharilsquoa thatthreatenmyexistenceinawaythat isnotconsistentwiththeGodlywayandtoapplymyownijtihadtorectifyer-roneoustendenciesbysomeshuyukh[pluralofshaykh]rdquo(Sadiki2004290)DespitetheproliferationofvoicesintentonclaimingforthemselvestheauthoritytodemarcatewhatisauthenticallyIslamicandun-Islamiconceandforallcontestationoveritsscopeandmeaningproceedsapacefacilitatedatleastinpartbywomenformerlyexcludedfromtheconver-sationAtthesametimeIslamistwomenrsquosagencyandclaimstoauthorityarefrequentlystillpredicatedonawillingnesstofollowfairlypatriarchalrulesaboutwherehowandwithwhomtheymaypracticetheirvocation(Hirschkind2003Sadiki2004283)

Islamism and Violence

IfgenderisfrequentlyanimplicitpreoccupationamongIslamistsjihadisarguably Islamistsrsquomost consistently explicit concern Jihad is derivedfromtheArabicverbthatmeanstostruggleortostriveyetitisaparticu-larkindofstruggle that isofconcern tomanyof thefigurescollectedheretheoftenviolentstruggleagainstapostatesandinfidelsbothathomeandabroadtowhicheveryindividualMuslimmustcontributeTheclaimthatfightingunbelieversisthepreeminentenactmentofindividualMus-limpiety seems to justify characterizationsof Islam ingeneral and Is-lamisminparticularassanctioningevenencouragingviolenceYetwhatIslamistsrepresentasjihadtout courtisahistoricallyspecificunderstand-ingderivedfromahighlyselectiveuseoftextsandprecedentsprominentamongthemaformerlyobscureclaimbytheinfluentialfourteenth-cen-tury jurist IbnTaymiyya thatMongol rulerswhohad contravened Is-lamiclawcouldbesubjecttoforcibleremovalFarfromadefinitiveex-pressionof Islamldquoproperlyunderstoodrdquo such Islamist argumentsnotonlymarkasignificantdeparturefrommuchofantecedentdoctrineandpractice but also diminish the importance of ongoing disagreementsamongMuslimsabouttheformandpurposesofjihad

TobeginwithMuslimscholarshavetendedtoconsiderjihadagainstforeignenemiesafard kifaya(collectiveobligation)thatisadutyagroupofpeoplewithinthecommunitymayperformonbehalfoftherestandonethatpresupposesalegitimateMuslimleadertodeclareorleadthechargeJuristshavedistinguishedthisfromthefard lsquoayn(individualduty)thatmustbefulfilledbyeverysingleMuslimincasesofdefensivejihad

41

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

thatiswhentheummaisunderattackManyIslamistsincludedheretakeamuchlessnuancedviewofjihadAsamodeofpoliticalactionQutbarguesjihadmustberegardedasaldquopermanentconditionnotanocca-sionalconcernrdquoonethatincurrentcircumstancesrequiresdeedsratherthanwordsstruggleratherthancontemplationrevolutionathomeaswellasresistanceabroad(Qutb199167ndash6882)lsquoAbdal-SalamFarajarguesalongsimilarlinesthatthenatureoftheattackonIslammakespolitical authorization by a caliph (ldquodeputyrdquo referring to a legitimatesuccessortotheProphetrsquosleadership)unnecessaryafterallldquoleadershipovertheMuslimsis(always)intheirownhandsifonlytheymakethismanifestIfthereissomethinglackingintheleadershipwellthereisnothingthatcannotbeacquiredrdquo(Jansen1986asec93)

SuchargumentsareadeliberaterejectionofearlyMuslimmodernistswhohademphasizedthelargelydefensivecharacterofjihadandsoughttoshowthatrelationsbetweenMuslimsandnon-MuslimswerenormallypeacefulratherthanantagonisticMahmudShaltut(d1963)therectorof al-Azhar from 1958 to 1963 had argued for example that theQurrsquoanicversesonfightingldquoprohibittheprovocationofhostilityandthisprohibitionisreinforcedbyGodrsquosrepugnancetoaggressionandbyhisdislikeofthosewhoprovokehostilityrdquo(Peters199674onShaltutseeZebiri1993)ConversionbyforceisanathematoIslamShaltutaversandfightingiscommandedonlyindefenseinresponsetoaggressionini-tiatedbyothersEvendefensivejihadmustaimatldquotheterminationoftheaggressionandtheestablishmentofreligiouslibertydevotedtoGodandfreefromanypressureorforcerdquo(Peters199675)

ManyIslamistsexplicitlydismisssuchargumentsasasymptomoffalseconsciousnessoneamongmanydestructiveeffectsofcolonialdomina-tionMawdudiargues for example thatwhile imperialists ravage theworld to satisfy their greed jihad alone ldquoconjures up the vision of amarching band of religious fanatics with savage beards and fiery eyesbrandishingdrawnswordsandattackingtheinfidelswherevertheymeetthemrdquoHavinginternalizedthis imageMuslimsrushtoapologizeandrenouncearmedstruggleInthiswayhelamentscolonialistsretaintheexclusiverighttoldquofightwitharmsandammunitionwhilewearecon-tented with our pen and our tonguerdquo (Mawdudi 1948 1ndash3) SayyidQutbforhispartagreedthatIslamdoesnotcountenancespreadingitsmessagebyforceandcoercionyethehadlittlepatiencewiththosewhosoughttopresentjihadaslegitimateonlyinself-defense

IfweinsistoncallingIslamicjihadadefensivemovementthenwemustchangethemeaningofthewordldquodefenserdquoandmeanbyitldquothedefenseofmanrdquoagainstallthoseforcesthatlimithisfreedomWhenwetakethisbroadmeaningofthewordldquodefenserdquoweunder-standthetruecharacterofIslaminthatitproclaimstheuniversalfreedomofeverypersonandcommunityfromservitudetoanyother

42

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

individualorsocietytheendofmanrsquosarroganceandselfishnesstheestablishmentofthesovereigntyofAllahandHisLordshipthrough-outtheworldandtheruleofthedivinesharilsquoainhumanaffairs(Qutb199050)

Qutbdoesnotnameanynamesincastigatingtheldquowriterswithdefeatistandapologeticmentalities[who]writeaboutlsquojihadinIslamrsquoandtrytoremovethislsquoblotrsquofromIslamrdquo(Qutb199046)buthecouldverywellhavehadhisdistinguishedfellowEgyptianMahmudShaltutinmind

These arguments about jihad may be said to constitute a commongrammarandframeworkofanalysisformanyIslamistsalthoughseveralthinkers in this volume carefully calibrate such claims to suit variouspurposesanddifferentpublicspheresInhisjustificationfortheassassi-nationofEgyptianpresidentAnwaral-SadatforexamplelsquoAbdal-SalamFarajdepictsthestruggletoreclaimthemoralfoundationsoftheEgyp-tianstateasafightagainstjahiliyyafromwithinarguingthatthejihadagainstacorruptnationalistregimeathomemusttakeprecedenceoverfightingenemieselsewhereTheCharterofHamas(seechapter15)how-everinsiststhatallMuslimsrecognizetheprimacyofthejihadforJeru-salemweldingIslamistrhetorictothatofnationalistresistanceinanef-fortbothtofightIsraelioccupationandtocompeteforadherentswiththePalestinianLiberationOrganization(PLO)IncontrasttobothFarajandHamasBinLadenembracesaglobaljihadthatessentiallycollapsesdistinctionsbetweennationalandinternationaloffensiveanddefensivefightingenemiesathomeandthosefromafar

Yet despite such differences these arguments tend to presume thatviolent jihad is a necessary response to the pervasive power of thosewithdemonstratedhostilitytoMuslimliveslandspietiesandsensibili-tiesaformofretaliationwhoseurgencyandlegitimacyderivefromtheviolencemdashpsychologicalandeconomicaswellasphysicalmdashoftheinitialassaultThisviewofjihadsubsumesindividualsintoarchetypesofldquoin-fidelsrdquoandldquobelieversrdquoandinsodoingvitiatesmoreconventionaldis-tinctionsbetweenforexamplesoldierandcivilianorcollectiveandin-dividual responsibility It is far from inevitable that thosewhoharborsuchviewswillautomaticallyactuponthemyetthecarnagewroughtbytheattacksontheWorldTradeCenterandthePentagonin2001aBalinightclub in 2002 Madrid commuter trains in 2004 and throughoutIraqonadailybasissuggestjusthowlethalsuchclaimscanbegiventheright circumstances The fact that such violence does not discriminateamongvictimsonlyfurtherfuelsrhetoriccharacterizingIslamistsasirra-tional fanatics ldquoin love with deathrdquo terrorists animated by a religioncharacterizedbyapropensityforviolenceandauthoritarianism27

27AnxietiesabouttheparticularsusceptibilityofMuslimstoirrationalityinsularityandfanaticismhavealonganddistinguishedpedigreeinEuro-AmericanhistoryandpoliticalthoughtSeeforexampleRenan18833

43

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

AsinsomanyothermattershoweverIslamistsarehardlyofonemindonthesubjectofjihadindeedthereareIslamistswhoexplicitlyrejectthereductionof struggle toviolenceAcase inpoint isNadiaYassine(20032005c)whoinsiststhatjihadisthededicatedstruggleagainstisshytikbar(arrogance)particularlyinitscommonformasthelustforpoweranddominationAsjihadagainstistikbarisbothafinalgoalandapre-scriptionforactionYassinesuggestsitisantitheticaltoviolentpracticesthataimatdominationTheprimaryinstrumentsofjihadarenotbombsbutwords particularly thosedeployed in the art of persuasion (Fara-marzi2005NYassine2006a)WhenIslamistssuchaslsquoAbdal-SalamFarajandlsquoUmarlsquoAbdal-RahmanseektolegitimizeviolentrevolutionbyrecoursetoIslamictextsshearguestheycontravenethetruemeaningofjihadtoservetheirownarrogantendsBythesametokenBinLadenrsquosdecisiontoldquofightevilwithevilandbarbaritywithbarbarityrdquonotonlyviolatesspecificIslamicprohibitionsagainstharmingcivilianswomenandchildrenbutalsobetraystheethicalimperativetoembodythemes-sageofamercifulGodwhocautionsbelieversthat(Q8822)ldquoYouhavenopoweroverthemrdquo(NYassine2005cDaily Excelsior2002)

SuchpersistentdisagreementsamongMuslimspastandpresentsug-gest that Islam isnomore inherently violent andbloody-minded thanitmdashorChristianityor Judaism for thatmattermdashis inherentlypeacefulIslamists often claim to speak for an unchanging authentic Islam thatexistsoutsideoftimeandspaceyetthepoliticalpurchaseoftheirper-spective derives from the ways it assembles disparate yet recognizablecontemporaryexperiencesofsufferingfrustrationandlossintoanex-planationthatresonateswithMuslimswholiveincommunitiescultur-allylinguisticallyandgeographicallydistantfromoneanotherTheex-tenttowhichIslamistargumentsresonatebroadlyacrossMuslimsocie-tiesthusdependsuponasetofexperiencesandphenomenathatmarkthisparticularmomentinhistoryincludingthewaysinwhichcontempo-raryglobalinequalitiescompoundalegacyofhistoricalasymmetriestocontinuallyreproduceasenseofMuslimpowerlessnessmdashbothrealandimaginedmdashrelativetotheWestcontinuingEuro-Americanpoliticalandfinancialsupportofcorruptautocratsmanyofwhompresideoverna-tion-statesbrutallystitchedtogetherbyWesternfiat thepersistenceofauthoritarian regimes eager to control domestic unrest by catalyzingldquoMuslimragerdquotowardexternaltargetsthesenseofemasculationpro-ducedbydecadesofpoliticalrepressionandeconomicfrustrationandthecontinualflowofimagesofbloodiedMuslimbodiesdeliveredbyaburgeoningarrayofvideosatelliteandelectronicmedia

It is notable that the understanding of jihad many Islamists proffermirrorstheverystate-sanctionedviolenceagainstwhichtheyhavestrug-gledforalmostacenturyAlongwiththousandsofMuslimscaughtinthemachineryoftwentieth-centurystateviolenceprominentIslamistsfromQutbtoGhazalitoAymanal-Zawahirimdashal-Qalsquoidarsquossecondincommandmdash

44

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

arewellknowntohavebeenradicalizedbyextendedandoftenbrutaltermsofincarcerationinEgyptSyriaIraqJordanIsraelAlgeriaandelsewhere(onal-ZawahiriandprisoncfKepelandMilelli2008152ndash54)ItisthusfarfromsurprisingthatIslamistsforgedbyinterrogationtortureinprisoncampswouldconcludethatthepreeminentenactmentofMuslimpietyisviolentstruggleldquoPrisonrdquoasPalestinianKhaledAbuHilalhassaidldquoismyuniversityrdquo(Erlanger2007)anargumentmadeingreaterdetailinadifferenttimeandplacebyRussianwriterandrevolu-tionaryMaximGorky(1868ndash1936)

Apeoplebroughtupinaschoolthatremindsoneofthetormentsofhellonasmallscaleapeopleaccustomedtotheclenched-fistprisonandthewhipwillnotbeblestwithatenderheartApeoplethatthepoliceagentshaveriddenoverwillbecapableintheirturnofwalk-ingoverthebodiesofothersInacountrywhereunresthasreignedsolongit isdifficultforthepeopletorealizefromonedaytothenextthepowerofrightOnecannotdemandfromamanwhohasneverknownjusticethatheshouldbejust(Gorky1920)

InthiscontextasTimothyMitchell(1990195ndash96199207ndash8)suggestsIslamistviewsoftheworldcanbecharacterizedasbothamodeofresis-tancetostatemechanismsofcoercionandanexpressionofthemSuchisthedynamic evident inGhazalirsquosmemoirs for examplewhen shede-scribeshowtheldquodarknessofprisonsthebladesoftortureandthevi-ciousbeatingsonly increasetheenduranceandresolveofthefaithfulrdquo(Ghazali19786)

There is no doubt a great deal of pragmatism at work in IslamistargumentsaboutviolenceAsQutb(19916447ndash48)drylynotesthepathtofreedommustoccasionallybehewnbywayoftheswordbecausetyrants are not reasoned out of power and ldquojahiliyya is not lsquoabstracttheoryrsquo[it]consciouslyorunconsciouslystrivestopreserveitsownexistence to defend its essence to annihilate dangerous elementswhichthreatenitsverybeingrdquoYetitisalsothecasethatformanyoftheseIslamistsjihadisbothameansandanendanefforttoeradicatethoseobstacles torestoringa justcommunityonearththatsimultane-ouslybringshumanaction intoaccordwithGodrsquosplansandpurposes(Haddad198321)While theQurrsquoan (2256) states thatldquothere isnocompulsioninreligionrdquoIslamistscontendthatonlyinastateinwhichIslamiclawreignssupremearehumanbeingsfreefromenslavementtooneanotherrsquosruleandallareequalbyvirtueoftheircommonsubmissiontoGodAsQutb(1991107ndash8)argues

WhenthehighestauthorityinsocietyisGodalonemdashexpressedintheruleofdivinelawmdashonlythenishumanitytrulyandcompletelyliber-atedfromslaverytomenOnlythisisldquohumancivilizationrdquobecausetheessentialfoundationofhumancivilizationisthetrueandcom-

45

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

pletefreedomofhumanityandtheabsolutedignityofeveryindivid-ualinsocietyThereisnotruefreedomanddignityforhumanityortheindividualinasocietywheresomepeoplearelordswholegislateandothersareslaveswhoobey

From this perspective the realization of justice liberty equality andchoiceitselfnecessitatestheforcibleremovaloftheconstraintsimposedbyjahiliyyaalongwiththosewhoaidandabetitno matter the costAsMawdudi(1954160ndash61)writes

[W]hyisitthatinreligionsuchimportanceisgiventojihadthattheQurrsquoanpronouncesthejudgmentofhypocrisyuponthosewhoshirkandevadeitJihadisbutanothernamefortheattempttoerectthesystemoftruthandtheQurrsquoandeclaresjihadtobeatouchstoneonthesamefootingwithamanrsquosfaithInotherwordshewhohasfaithinhisheartwillneitherbecontentwiththedominationofthesystemofevilnorwillhegrudgetheexpenditureoflifeandwealthinthestruggleforerectingthesystemoftruthIfoneshowsweaknessinthismatterhisfaithitselfisdoubtfulWhatcananythingelsebesidethenprofithimThemanwhoprofesses faith in this religioncannotfulfillhisdutyonlybytryingasfaraspossibletopatternhislifeonIslamThenatureofhisfaithitselfrequiresthatheshouldconcentrateallhiseffortuponwrestingleadershipfromunbelievingandcorruptmentoentrustittotherighteousanduponerectingthesystemoftruththathasbeenordainedfortheconductoftheworldaccordingtothewillofGodBecausethisendisunattainablewith-out thehighestdegreeofcollectiveeffort theremustexistarigh-teouscommunitycommittedtotheprincipleoftruthanddevotedtothesolepurposeintheworldoferectingmaintainingandproperlyrealizingthesystemoftruth

ThefactthatsomeIslamistthinkerssanctifyviolentstruggleinsuchtermsdoesnotmeanofcoursethatallthosewhoadvocateorengageinjihadendorseviolence28NordoesitimplythatthosewhoclaimtokillforIslamareentirelywithoutulteriormotivesthosemanipulativepur-poses andpsychologicalmotivations that even themost rarified scrip-turalargumentscanexpressorserveWhattheprecedinganalysisdoessuggesthoweveristhatthereductionofthisviewofjihadtoirrationalbloodlusttheself-interestedgrabfortemporalpoweroradoorthroughwhichtopassintothehereaftermissesacrucialdimensionofitssignifi-canceandappealfortruebelieversjihadisnolessthananenactmentof

28EvenashespokeofaneweraofjahiliyyaandofjihadMawdudihimselfstoppedwellshortof recommendingor condoning the actual resort to violence in themannermanyotherIslamistsdidAsNasr(199670)observesMawdudirsquosorganizationtheJamalsquoat-iIs-lamildquohasavoidedviolentsocialchangeandhasinsteadviewedthepathtotheIslamicstateaslyingwithintheexistingsociopoliticalorderrdquoAlsoseethechapters5and3onQutbandMawdudiinthisvolume

46

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INTRODUCTION

adivineimperativetoremakethefoundationsofcollectivelifeInthisre-spectIslamistviewsofjihadcanbeseenaspartofalong-standingasso-ciationbetweenviolenceandpoliticalfoundingsuponwhichnoparticu-larcultureorhistoricalepochhasamonopolyThisassociationandtheldquolegacyofviolencerdquoitbequeathstofuturegenerationsarenolessappar-entinthoseradicalrevolutionsofrenewalthatmovebywayoftheswordfromthemarginstothecenterthanthosepoliticalfoundingsthatclaimtocreatesomethingoutofnothing(Connolly1995251)Ineithercasethetollofsuchbrutalitycanbeimmeasurableforinadditiontothevic-timswhosufferdirectlytheldquopracticeofviolencelikeallactionchangestheworldbutthemostprobablechangeistoamoreviolentworldrdquo(Ar-endt1972177)

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Page 38: Chapter 1 INTRODUCTION - assets.press.princeton.eduassets.press.princeton.edu/chapters/s9067.pdf · Chapter 1 INTRODUCTION This volume is intended as a broad introduction to the evolution

38

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INTRODUCTION

gaging the textsdirectly through ijtihad (NYassine2003) In this re-spect Yassine must be understood as part of a broader effort amongMuslimwomenwithdifferentpoliticalcommitmentstosimultaneouslyadvocateandenacttheirrighttorecuperatetheldquooriginalintentrdquooftheIslamictextsIfwomenandmendoinfacthavedistinctperspectivesontheworldYassinesuggestswomenhaveaspecialobligationtoexcavatewhattheyseeasthegenderparityoftheQurrsquoanburiedbeneaththoseldquomachointerpretationsrdquoofIslamuponwhichmenhavebuilttheirprivi-legeandpower(Khalaf2006)25

ManyAnglo-AmericanandEuropean feministsworry that Islamistsseekonly to secureor restorepatriarchalpowerConverselymany Is-lamist women view feminism as a term and a movement inescapablyWesterninoriginfreightedwiththelegacyofcolonialismanduneasilyimplicatedinculturalimperialismThisapplieseventoYassinewhoisunwillingtoadoptwithoutqualificationalabelsheassociateswithagen-dasopposedtoherowntheWesttheMoroccanstateMaghribi(North-westAfrican)elitesYetfeminismitselfisahighlycontestedtermwithin theso-calledWestitisthebearerofmultiplemeaningssomeofwhichareevenopposedandischaracterizedbydeepdisagreementsaboutwhowomenarewhatwomenneedwhoisauthorizedtoworkonwomenrsquosbehalf andbywhatmeans Inasmuch as these various feminismsmayshareonlyastatedconcernforwomenrsquoswelfarethereisnothinginco-herentinmodifyingldquofeminismrdquowithldquoIslamicrdquoldquoMuslimrdquoorevenldquoIs-lamistrdquounlessone iscommitted toarguing thatfirst Islam isanun-changingessencebeyondhistorypoliticsandculturesecondthereisaneutralobjectivevantagefromwhichtoidentifythisessenceonceandforallandfinallytheIslamicessencesoidentifiedisfundamentallyin-compatiblewitheffortstoimprovetheconditionsandqualityofwomenrsquoslivesBythesametokenIslamistwomenwhorejectthetermfeminismcanbe(althoughnotalwaysare)deeplycommittedtoimprovingwom-enrsquoswelfareaswellasactivelyresistanttoeffortsthatreduceortrans-formthemintosilentaccessoriesofmalepower

YassineandGhazalidifferaboutwhatwomenareandshouldbeyetbroadlyspeakingbothmaybeconsideredpartofarecenttrendtowardthe feminizationofdalsquowa Dalsquowa literallymeanscallappealor sum-monsbutthetermhascometosignifyavarietyofpracticesandargu-mentsmeanttoexhortinviteandguideMuslimstowhatisregardedasproperconductandmoraldevotionWomenrsquosparticipationindalsquowais

25WomenrsquosparticipationintheldquoproductionofofficialIslamicknowledgerdquohasalonghistoryalthoughtheyhaveoftendonesoinrelativeobscurityandwithoutthebenefitofeducation in the Islamicsciences thathas legitimateddirectengagementwith thesacredtexts (Cooke 2001 xiv Badran and Cooke 2004) Pioneering attempts to read genderequalityinIslamarealsonotconfinedtowritingbywomenasevincedbyQasimAminrsquosTahrir alshymarrsquoa [TheLiberationofWoman] (1899)andMumtaz lsquoAlirsquosHuquqshye niswan [TheRightsofWomen](1898)

39

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

notabrandnewphenomenonasisevidentinGhazalirsquosworkwiththeEgyptianSocietyofMuslimLadiesinthe1930sYetfromEgypttoPaki-stantoSaudiArabiatotheUnitedStatesthenumberoffemaledalsquoiyashasproliferatedexponentially inrecentyears(Cooke2001Mahmood2005Hirschkind2006)Thisreflectsinpartcurrentdoctrinalempha-sesondalsquowaasincumbentuponbothmenandwomenanddependentlessupontechnicalknowledgethanmoralvirtueandpracticalfamiliaritywiththeIslamictradition(Mahmood200565ndash66)It isalsoaconse-quenceofrecentpoliticalandsocioeconomictransformationsinMuslimsocietiesincludingtheexpansionofmasseducationthathasnotonlyin-creasedwomenrsquosliteracyandsocialmobilitybutalsomadeIslamictextsmoreaccessibletheproliferationoftechnologiesmdashfromthecassettetapetotheInternetmdashthatfacilitatethecirculationofreligiousknowledgeevenamongthosewhocannotreadortraveltheprecedentsetbythevigorousparticipationof IranianwomeninpostrevolutiondebatesaboutIslamandthemodeloflegalactivismevidentintheIslamistmovementrsquosownchallenge to the lsquoulamarsquos status as gatekeepers of religious knowledge(Singerman2005Mir-Hosseini1999)

If Ghazali and Yassine exemplify the feminization of dalsquowa amongelitesthemosquemovementinEgyptillustratesthegrowingparticipa-tionofwomenfromdiversesocialbackgroundsinreligiousclassesde-votedtostudyinganddebatingwhatIslamrequiresforawomantobeldquomorallyuprightrdquointhecontemporaryworld(Mahmood2005)Con-ceptualizingpiety in termsof adeepandholistic commitment to self-transformationparticipantsinthemosquemovementareconcernedlesswithmattersofsovereigntyandpoliticsconventionallyunderstoodandmorewiththeldquomoralcultivationrdquoofthosedailypracticesseenascrucialtobecomingclosertoGod(Mahmood2005)SomeIslamistshavecriti-cizedthis focusonpracticesofworshipasapoliticalandoverlypriva-tizedyetsuchcriticismmissestheforceofIslamistsrsquoowninsistenceondin(religion)asawayoflifeinwhichthedomainsofpublicandprivateare inextricably linked26AsSabaMahmood (2005193194) showsthesewomenrsquosintenseeffortsatldquoretrainingethicalsensibilitiesrdquohavealdquosociopoliticalforcerdquothatextendswellbeyondmattersofgovernancefacilitatingnolessthantheemergenceofaldquonewsocialandmoralorderrdquoEvidenceofitstransformativepowermaybefoundnotonlyinthesheernumbersandvarietyofwomenmdashwealthyandpoor literateand illiter-atemdashparticipatinginthemosquemovementbutalsointherhetoricalandpoliticaleffortsbythestateandsomeIslamiststocurtailcontrolordis-creditit(Mahmood200571194)

26ParticipantsinthemosquemovementinturnareoftencriticalofwhattheyseeasthereductionofIslamtotokensofculturalauthenticityorofitsinstrumentalizationbybothnationalistsandIslamiststheycharacterizeasmoreinterestedinpoliticalmaneuveringthanreligiouspiety

40

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

Understoodtoincludebothwrittenandembodiedpracticesthefemi-nizationof dalsquowa illustrates theways inwhichwomen fromdifferentperspectivesandsocialclassesareinsistingonengagingthesacredtextsdirectly for and with one another without the mediating authority ofmenwhohavetraditionallyheldthemonopolyonsuchactivitiesAsSu-danese Islamist Lubabah al-Fadl argues ldquoAs an insan [human being]whohappenstobeawomanIhavearighttorejectthemanipulativeexegesesofoursharilsquoa thatthreatenmyexistenceinawaythat isnotconsistentwiththeGodlywayandtoapplymyownijtihadtorectifyer-roneoustendenciesbysomeshuyukh[pluralofshaykh]rdquo(Sadiki2004290)DespitetheproliferationofvoicesintentonclaimingforthemselvestheauthoritytodemarcatewhatisauthenticallyIslamicandun-Islamiconceandforallcontestationoveritsscopeandmeaningproceedsapacefacilitatedatleastinpartbywomenformerlyexcludedfromtheconver-sationAtthesametimeIslamistwomenrsquosagencyandclaimstoauthorityarefrequentlystillpredicatedonawillingnesstofollowfairlypatriarchalrulesaboutwherehowandwithwhomtheymaypracticetheirvocation(Hirschkind2003Sadiki2004283)

Islamism and Violence

IfgenderisfrequentlyanimplicitpreoccupationamongIslamistsjihadisarguably Islamistsrsquomost consistently explicit concern Jihad is derivedfromtheArabicverbthatmeanstostruggleortostriveyetitisaparticu-larkindofstruggle that isofconcern tomanyof thefigurescollectedheretheoftenviolentstruggleagainstapostatesandinfidelsbothathomeandabroadtowhicheveryindividualMuslimmustcontributeTheclaimthatfightingunbelieversisthepreeminentenactmentofindividualMus-limpiety seems to justify characterizationsof Islam ingeneral and Is-lamisminparticularassanctioningevenencouragingviolenceYetwhatIslamistsrepresentasjihadtout courtisahistoricallyspecificunderstand-ingderivedfromahighlyselectiveuseoftextsandprecedentsprominentamongthemaformerlyobscureclaimbytheinfluentialfourteenth-cen-tury jurist IbnTaymiyya thatMongol rulerswhohad contravened Is-lamiclawcouldbesubjecttoforcibleremovalFarfromadefinitiveex-pressionof Islamldquoproperlyunderstoodrdquo such Islamist argumentsnotonlymarkasignificantdeparturefrommuchofantecedentdoctrineandpractice but also diminish the importance of ongoing disagreementsamongMuslimsabouttheformandpurposesofjihad

TobeginwithMuslimscholarshavetendedtoconsiderjihadagainstforeignenemiesafard kifaya(collectiveobligation)thatisadutyagroupofpeoplewithinthecommunitymayperformonbehalfoftherestandonethatpresupposesalegitimateMuslimleadertodeclareorleadthechargeJuristshavedistinguishedthisfromthefard lsquoayn(individualduty)thatmustbefulfilledbyeverysingleMuslimincasesofdefensivejihad

41

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

thatiswhentheummaisunderattackManyIslamistsincludedheretakeamuchlessnuancedviewofjihadAsamodeofpoliticalactionQutbarguesjihadmustberegardedasaldquopermanentconditionnotanocca-sionalconcernrdquoonethatincurrentcircumstancesrequiresdeedsratherthanwordsstruggleratherthancontemplationrevolutionathomeaswellasresistanceabroad(Qutb199167ndash6882)lsquoAbdal-SalamFarajarguesalongsimilarlinesthatthenatureoftheattackonIslammakespolitical authorization by a caliph (ldquodeputyrdquo referring to a legitimatesuccessortotheProphetrsquosleadership)unnecessaryafterallldquoleadershipovertheMuslimsis(always)intheirownhandsifonlytheymakethismanifestIfthereissomethinglackingintheleadershipwellthereisnothingthatcannotbeacquiredrdquo(Jansen1986asec93)

SuchargumentsareadeliberaterejectionofearlyMuslimmodernistswhohademphasizedthelargelydefensivecharacterofjihadandsoughttoshowthatrelationsbetweenMuslimsandnon-MuslimswerenormallypeacefulratherthanantagonisticMahmudShaltut(d1963)therectorof al-Azhar from 1958 to 1963 had argued for example that theQurrsquoanicversesonfightingldquoprohibittheprovocationofhostilityandthisprohibitionisreinforcedbyGodrsquosrepugnancetoaggressionandbyhisdislikeofthosewhoprovokehostilityrdquo(Peters199674onShaltutseeZebiri1993)ConversionbyforceisanathematoIslamShaltutaversandfightingiscommandedonlyindefenseinresponsetoaggressionini-tiatedbyothersEvendefensivejihadmustaimatldquotheterminationoftheaggressionandtheestablishmentofreligiouslibertydevotedtoGodandfreefromanypressureorforcerdquo(Peters199675)

ManyIslamistsexplicitlydismisssuchargumentsasasymptomoffalseconsciousnessoneamongmanydestructiveeffectsofcolonialdomina-tionMawdudiargues for example thatwhile imperialists ravage theworld to satisfy their greed jihad alone ldquoconjures up the vision of amarching band of religious fanatics with savage beards and fiery eyesbrandishingdrawnswordsandattackingtheinfidelswherevertheymeetthemrdquoHavinginternalizedthis imageMuslimsrushtoapologizeandrenouncearmedstruggleInthiswayhelamentscolonialistsretaintheexclusiverighttoldquofightwitharmsandammunitionwhilewearecon-tented with our pen and our tonguerdquo (Mawdudi 1948 1ndash3) SayyidQutbforhispartagreedthatIslamdoesnotcountenancespreadingitsmessagebyforceandcoercionyethehadlittlepatiencewiththosewhosoughttopresentjihadaslegitimateonlyinself-defense

IfweinsistoncallingIslamicjihadadefensivemovementthenwemustchangethemeaningofthewordldquodefenserdquoandmeanbyitldquothedefenseofmanrdquoagainstallthoseforcesthatlimithisfreedomWhenwetakethisbroadmeaningofthewordldquodefenserdquoweunder-standthetruecharacterofIslaminthatitproclaimstheuniversalfreedomofeverypersonandcommunityfromservitudetoanyother

42

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

individualorsocietytheendofmanrsquosarroganceandselfishnesstheestablishmentofthesovereigntyofAllahandHisLordshipthrough-outtheworldandtheruleofthedivinesharilsquoainhumanaffairs(Qutb199050)

Qutbdoesnotnameanynamesincastigatingtheldquowriterswithdefeatistandapologeticmentalities[who]writeaboutlsquojihadinIslamrsquoandtrytoremovethislsquoblotrsquofromIslamrdquo(Qutb199046)buthecouldverywellhavehadhisdistinguishedfellowEgyptianMahmudShaltutinmind

These arguments about jihad may be said to constitute a commongrammarandframeworkofanalysisformanyIslamistsalthoughseveralthinkers in this volume carefully calibrate such claims to suit variouspurposesanddifferentpublicspheresInhisjustificationfortheassassi-nationofEgyptianpresidentAnwaral-SadatforexamplelsquoAbdal-SalamFarajdepictsthestruggletoreclaimthemoralfoundationsoftheEgyp-tianstateasafightagainstjahiliyyafromwithinarguingthatthejihadagainstacorruptnationalistregimeathomemusttakeprecedenceoverfightingenemieselsewhereTheCharterofHamas(seechapter15)how-everinsiststhatallMuslimsrecognizetheprimacyofthejihadforJeru-salemweldingIslamistrhetorictothatofnationalistresistanceinanef-fortbothtofightIsraelioccupationandtocompeteforadherentswiththePalestinianLiberationOrganization(PLO)IncontrasttobothFarajandHamasBinLadenembracesaglobaljihadthatessentiallycollapsesdistinctionsbetweennationalandinternationaloffensiveanddefensivefightingenemiesathomeandthosefromafar

Yet despite such differences these arguments tend to presume thatviolent jihad is a necessary response to the pervasive power of thosewithdemonstratedhostilitytoMuslimliveslandspietiesandsensibili-tiesaformofretaliationwhoseurgencyandlegitimacyderivefromtheviolencemdashpsychologicalandeconomicaswellasphysicalmdashoftheinitialassaultThisviewofjihadsubsumesindividualsintoarchetypesofldquoin-fidelsrdquoandldquobelieversrdquoandinsodoingvitiatesmoreconventionaldis-tinctionsbetweenforexamplesoldierandcivilianorcollectiveandin-dividual responsibility It is far from inevitable that thosewhoharborsuchviewswillautomaticallyactuponthemyetthecarnagewroughtbytheattacksontheWorldTradeCenterandthePentagonin2001aBalinightclub in 2002 Madrid commuter trains in 2004 and throughoutIraqonadailybasissuggestjusthowlethalsuchclaimscanbegiventheright circumstances The fact that such violence does not discriminateamongvictimsonlyfurtherfuelsrhetoriccharacterizingIslamistsasirra-tional fanatics ldquoin love with deathrdquo terrorists animated by a religioncharacterizedbyapropensityforviolenceandauthoritarianism27

27AnxietiesabouttheparticularsusceptibilityofMuslimstoirrationalityinsularityandfanaticismhavealonganddistinguishedpedigreeinEuro-AmericanhistoryandpoliticalthoughtSeeforexampleRenan18833

43

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

AsinsomanyothermattershoweverIslamistsarehardlyofonemindonthesubjectofjihadindeedthereareIslamistswhoexplicitlyrejectthereductionof struggle toviolenceAcase inpoint isNadiaYassine(20032005c)whoinsiststhatjihadisthededicatedstruggleagainstisshytikbar(arrogance)particularlyinitscommonformasthelustforpoweranddominationAsjihadagainstistikbarisbothafinalgoalandapre-scriptionforactionYassinesuggestsitisantitheticaltoviolentpracticesthataimatdominationTheprimaryinstrumentsofjihadarenotbombsbutwords particularly thosedeployed in the art of persuasion (Fara-marzi2005NYassine2006a)WhenIslamistssuchaslsquoAbdal-SalamFarajandlsquoUmarlsquoAbdal-RahmanseektolegitimizeviolentrevolutionbyrecoursetoIslamictextsshearguestheycontravenethetruemeaningofjihadtoservetheirownarrogantendsBythesametokenBinLadenrsquosdecisiontoldquofightevilwithevilandbarbaritywithbarbarityrdquonotonlyviolatesspecificIslamicprohibitionsagainstharmingcivilianswomenandchildrenbutalsobetraystheethicalimperativetoembodythemes-sageofamercifulGodwhocautionsbelieversthat(Q8822)ldquoYouhavenopoweroverthemrdquo(NYassine2005cDaily Excelsior2002)

SuchpersistentdisagreementsamongMuslimspastandpresentsug-gest that Islam isnomore inherently violent andbloody-minded thanitmdashorChristianityor Judaism for thatmattermdashis inherentlypeacefulIslamists often claim to speak for an unchanging authentic Islam thatexistsoutsideoftimeandspaceyetthepoliticalpurchaseoftheirper-spective derives from the ways it assembles disparate yet recognizablecontemporaryexperiencesofsufferingfrustrationandlossintoanex-planationthatresonateswithMuslimswholiveincommunitiescultur-allylinguisticallyandgeographicallydistantfromoneanotherTheex-tenttowhichIslamistargumentsresonatebroadlyacrossMuslimsocie-tiesthusdependsuponasetofexperiencesandphenomenathatmarkthisparticularmomentinhistoryincludingthewaysinwhichcontempo-raryglobalinequalitiescompoundalegacyofhistoricalasymmetriestocontinuallyreproduceasenseofMuslimpowerlessnessmdashbothrealandimaginedmdashrelativetotheWestcontinuingEuro-Americanpoliticalandfinancialsupportofcorruptautocratsmanyofwhompresideoverna-tion-statesbrutallystitchedtogetherbyWesternfiat thepersistenceofauthoritarian regimes eager to control domestic unrest by catalyzingldquoMuslimragerdquotowardexternaltargetsthesenseofemasculationpro-ducedbydecadesofpoliticalrepressionandeconomicfrustrationandthecontinualflowofimagesofbloodiedMuslimbodiesdeliveredbyaburgeoningarrayofvideosatelliteandelectronicmedia

It is notable that the understanding of jihad many Islamists proffermirrorstheverystate-sanctionedviolenceagainstwhichtheyhavestrug-gledforalmostacenturyAlongwiththousandsofMuslimscaughtinthemachineryoftwentieth-centurystateviolenceprominentIslamistsfromQutbtoGhazalitoAymanal-Zawahirimdashal-Qalsquoidarsquossecondincommandmdash

44

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

arewellknowntohavebeenradicalizedbyextendedandoftenbrutaltermsofincarcerationinEgyptSyriaIraqJordanIsraelAlgeriaandelsewhere(onal-ZawahiriandprisoncfKepelandMilelli2008152ndash54)ItisthusfarfromsurprisingthatIslamistsforgedbyinterrogationtortureinprisoncampswouldconcludethatthepreeminentenactmentofMuslimpietyisviolentstruggleldquoPrisonrdquoasPalestinianKhaledAbuHilalhassaidldquoismyuniversityrdquo(Erlanger2007)anargumentmadeingreaterdetailinadifferenttimeandplacebyRussianwriterandrevolu-tionaryMaximGorky(1868ndash1936)

Apeoplebroughtupinaschoolthatremindsoneofthetormentsofhellonasmallscaleapeopleaccustomedtotheclenched-fistprisonandthewhipwillnotbeblestwithatenderheartApeoplethatthepoliceagentshaveriddenoverwillbecapableintheirturnofwalk-ingoverthebodiesofothersInacountrywhereunresthasreignedsolongit isdifficultforthepeopletorealizefromonedaytothenextthepowerofrightOnecannotdemandfromamanwhohasneverknownjusticethatheshouldbejust(Gorky1920)

InthiscontextasTimothyMitchell(1990195ndash96199207ndash8)suggestsIslamistviewsoftheworldcanbecharacterizedasbothamodeofresis-tancetostatemechanismsofcoercionandanexpressionofthemSuchisthedynamic evident inGhazalirsquosmemoirs for examplewhen shede-scribeshowtheldquodarknessofprisonsthebladesoftortureandthevi-ciousbeatingsonly increasetheenduranceandresolveofthefaithfulrdquo(Ghazali19786)

There is no doubt a great deal of pragmatism at work in IslamistargumentsaboutviolenceAsQutb(19916447ndash48)drylynotesthepathtofreedommustoccasionallybehewnbywayoftheswordbecausetyrants are not reasoned out of power and ldquojahiliyya is not lsquoabstracttheoryrsquo[it]consciouslyorunconsciouslystrivestopreserveitsownexistence to defend its essence to annihilate dangerous elementswhichthreatenitsverybeingrdquoYetitisalsothecasethatformanyoftheseIslamistsjihadisbothameansandanendanefforttoeradicatethoseobstacles torestoringa justcommunityonearththatsimultane-ouslybringshumanaction intoaccordwithGodrsquosplansandpurposes(Haddad198321)While theQurrsquoan (2256) states thatldquothere isnocompulsioninreligionrdquoIslamistscontendthatonlyinastateinwhichIslamiclawreignssupremearehumanbeingsfreefromenslavementtooneanotherrsquosruleandallareequalbyvirtueoftheircommonsubmissiontoGodAsQutb(1991107ndash8)argues

WhenthehighestauthorityinsocietyisGodalonemdashexpressedintheruleofdivinelawmdashonlythenishumanitytrulyandcompletelyliber-atedfromslaverytomenOnlythisisldquohumancivilizationrdquobecausetheessentialfoundationofhumancivilizationisthetrueandcom-

45

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

pletefreedomofhumanityandtheabsolutedignityofeveryindivid-ualinsocietyThereisnotruefreedomanddignityforhumanityortheindividualinasocietywheresomepeoplearelordswholegislateandothersareslaveswhoobey

From this perspective the realization of justice liberty equality andchoiceitselfnecessitatestheforcibleremovaloftheconstraintsimposedbyjahiliyyaalongwiththosewhoaidandabetitno matter the costAsMawdudi(1954160ndash61)writes

[W]hyisitthatinreligionsuchimportanceisgiventojihadthattheQurrsquoanpronouncesthejudgmentofhypocrisyuponthosewhoshirkandevadeitJihadisbutanothernamefortheattempttoerectthesystemoftruthandtheQurrsquoandeclaresjihadtobeatouchstoneonthesamefootingwithamanrsquosfaithInotherwordshewhohasfaithinhisheartwillneitherbecontentwiththedominationofthesystemofevilnorwillhegrudgetheexpenditureoflifeandwealthinthestruggleforerectingthesystemoftruthIfoneshowsweaknessinthismatterhisfaithitselfisdoubtfulWhatcananythingelsebesidethenprofithimThemanwhoprofesses faith in this religioncannotfulfillhisdutyonlybytryingasfaraspossibletopatternhislifeonIslamThenatureofhisfaithitselfrequiresthatheshouldconcentrateallhiseffortuponwrestingleadershipfromunbelievingandcorruptmentoentrustittotherighteousanduponerectingthesystemoftruththathasbeenordainedfortheconductoftheworldaccordingtothewillofGodBecausethisendisunattainablewith-out thehighestdegreeofcollectiveeffort theremustexistarigh-teouscommunitycommittedtotheprincipleoftruthanddevotedtothesolepurposeintheworldoferectingmaintainingandproperlyrealizingthesystemoftruth

ThefactthatsomeIslamistthinkerssanctifyviolentstruggleinsuchtermsdoesnotmeanofcoursethatallthosewhoadvocateorengageinjihadendorseviolence28NordoesitimplythatthosewhoclaimtokillforIslamareentirelywithoutulteriormotivesthosemanipulativepur-poses andpsychologicalmotivations that even themost rarified scrip-turalargumentscanexpressorserveWhattheprecedinganalysisdoessuggesthoweveristhatthereductionofthisviewofjihadtoirrationalbloodlusttheself-interestedgrabfortemporalpoweroradoorthroughwhichtopassintothehereaftermissesacrucialdimensionofitssignifi-canceandappealfortruebelieversjihadisnolessthananenactmentof

28EvenashespokeofaneweraofjahiliyyaandofjihadMawdudihimselfstoppedwellshortof recommendingor condoning the actual resort to violence in themannermanyotherIslamistsdidAsNasr(199670)observesMawdudirsquosorganizationtheJamalsquoat-iIs-lamildquohasavoidedviolentsocialchangeandhasinsteadviewedthepathtotheIslamicstateaslyingwithintheexistingsociopoliticalorderrdquoAlsoseethechapters5and3onQutbandMawdudiinthisvolume

46

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

adivineimperativetoremakethefoundationsofcollectivelifeInthisre-spectIslamistviewsofjihadcanbeseenaspartofalong-standingasso-ciationbetweenviolenceandpoliticalfoundingsuponwhichnoparticu-larcultureorhistoricalepochhasamonopolyThisassociationandtheldquolegacyofviolencerdquoitbequeathstofuturegenerationsarenolessappar-entinthoseradicalrevolutionsofrenewalthatmovebywayoftheswordfromthemarginstothecenterthanthosepoliticalfoundingsthatclaimtocreatesomethingoutofnothing(Connolly1995251)Ineithercasethetollofsuchbrutalitycanbeimmeasurableforinadditiontothevic-timswhosufferdirectlytheldquopracticeofviolencelikeallactionchangestheworldbutthemostprobablechangeistoamoreviolentworldrdquo(Ar-endt1972177)

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 SUO 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Page 39: Chapter 1 INTRODUCTION - assets.press.princeton.eduassets.press.princeton.edu/chapters/s9067.pdf · Chapter 1 INTRODUCTION This volume is intended as a broad introduction to the evolution

39

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

notabrandnewphenomenonasisevidentinGhazalirsquosworkwiththeEgyptianSocietyofMuslimLadiesinthe1930sYetfromEgypttoPaki-stantoSaudiArabiatotheUnitedStatesthenumberoffemaledalsquoiyashasproliferatedexponentially inrecentyears(Cooke2001Mahmood2005Hirschkind2006)Thisreflectsinpartcurrentdoctrinalempha-sesondalsquowaasincumbentuponbothmenandwomenanddependentlessupontechnicalknowledgethanmoralvirtueandpracticalfamiliaritywiththeIslamictradition(Mahmood200565ndash66)It isalsoaconse-quenceofrecentpoliticalandsocioeconomictransformationsinMuslimsocietiesincludingtheexpansionofmasseducationthathasnotonlyin-creasedwomenrsquosliteracyandsocialmobilitybutalsomadeIslamictextsmoreaccessibletheproliferationoftechnologiesmdashfromthecassettetapetotheInternetmdashthatfacilitatethecirculationofreligiousknowledgeevenamongthosewhocannotreadortraveltheprecedentsetbythevigorousparticipationof IranianwomeninpostrevolutiondebatesaboutIslamandthemodeloflegalactivismevidentintheIslamistmovementrsquosownchallenge to the lsquoulamarsquos status as gatekeepers of religious knowledge(Singerman2005Mir-Hosseini1999)

If Ghazali and Yassine exemplify the feminization of dalsquowa amongelitesthemosquemovementinEgyptillustratesthegrowingparticipa-tionofwomenfromdiversesocialbackgroundsinreligiousclassesde-votedtostudyinganddebatingwhatIslamrequiresforawomantobeldquomorallyuprightrdquointhecontemporaryworld(Mahmood2005)Con-ceptualizingpiety in termsof adeepandholistic commitment to self-transformationparticipantsinthemosquemovementareconcernedlesswithmattersofsovereigntyandpoliticsconventionallyunderstoodandmorewiththeldquomoralcultivationrdquoofthosedailypracticesseenascrucialtobecomingclosertoGod(Mahmood2005)SomeIslamistshavecriti-cizedthis focusonpracticesofworshipasapoliticalandoverlypriva-tizedyetsuchcriticismmissestheforceofIslamistsrsquoowninsistenceondin(religion)asawayoflifeinwhichthedomainsofpublicandprivateare inextricably linked26AsSabaMahmood (2005193194) showsthesewomenrsquosintenseeffortsatldquoretrainingethicalsensibilitiesrdquohavealdquosociopoliticalforcerdquothatextendswellbeyondmattersofgovernancefacilitatingnolessthantheemergenceofaldquonewsocialandmoralorderrdquoEvidenceofitstransformativepowermaybefoundnotonlyinthesheernumbersandvarietyofwomenmdashwealthyandpoor literateand illiter-atemdashparticipatinginthemosquemovementbutalsointherhetoricalandpoliticaleffortsbythestateandsomeIslamiststocurtailcontrolordis-creditit(Mahmood200571194)

26ParticipantsinthemosquemovementinturnareoftencriticalofwhattheyseeasthereductionofIslamtotokensofculturalauthenticityorofitsinstrumentalizationbybothnationalistsandIslamiststheycharacterizeasmoreinterestedinpoliticalmaneuveringthanreligiouspiety

40

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

Understoodtoincludebothwrittenandembodiedpracticesthefemi-nizationof dalsquowa illustrates theways inwhichwomen fromdifferentperspectivesandsocialclassesareinsistingonengagingthesacredtextsdirectly for and with one another without the mediating authority ofmenwhohavetraditionallyheldthemonopolyonsuchactivitiesAsSu-danese Islamist Lubabah al-Fadl argues ldquoAs an insan [human being]whohappenstobeawomanIhavearighttorejectthemanipulativeexegesesofoursharilsquoa thatthreatenmyexistenceinawaythat isnotconsistentwiththeGodlywayandtoapplymyownijtihadtorectifyer-roneoustendenciesbysomeshuyukh[pluralofshaykh]rdquo(Sadiki2004290)DespitetheproliferationofvoicesintentonclaimingforthemselvestheauthoritytodemarcatewhatisauthenticallyIslamicandun-Islamiconceandforallcontestationoveritsscopeandmeaningproceedsapacefacilitatedatleastinpartbywomenformerlyexcludedfromtheconver-sationAtthesametimeIslamistwomenrsquosagencyandclaimstoauthorityarefrequentlystillpredicatedonawillingnesstofollowfairlypatriarchalrulesaboutwherehowandwithwhomtheymaypracticetheirvocation(Hirschkind2003Sadiki2004283)

Islamism and Violence

IfgenderisfrequentlyanimplicitpreoccupationamongIslamistsjihadisarguably Islamistsrsquomost consistently explicit concern Jihad is derivedfromtheArabicverbthatmeanstostruggleortostriveyetitisaparticu-larkindofstruggle that isofconcern tomanyof thefigurescollectedheretheoftenviolentstruggleagainstapostatesandinfidelsbothathomeandabroadtowhicheveryindividualMuslimmustcontributeTheclaimthatfightingunbelieversisthepreeminentenactmentofindividualMus-limpiety seems to justify characterizationsof Islam ingeneral and Is-lamisminparticularassanctioningevenencouragingviolenceYetwhatIslamistsrepresentasjihadtout courtisahistoricallyspecificunderstand-ingderivedfromahighlyselectiveuseoftextsandprecedentsprominentamongthemaformerlyobscureclaimbytheinfluentialfourteenth-cen-tury jurist IbnTaymiyya thatMongol rulerswhohad contravened Is-lamiclawcouldbesubjecttoforcibleremovalFarfromadefinitiveex-pressionof Islamldquoproperlyunderstoodrdquo such Islamist argumentsnotonlymarkasignificantdeparturefrommuchofantecedentdoctrineandpractice but also diminish the importance of ongoing disagreementsamongMuslimsabouttheformandpurposesofjihad

TobeginwithMuslimscholarshavetendedtoconsiderjihadagainstforeignenemiesafard kifaya(collectiveobligation)thatisadutyagroupofpeoplewithinthecommunitymayperformonbehalfoftherestandonethatpresupposesalegitimateMuslimleadertodeclareorleadthechargeJuristshavedistinguishedthisfromthefard lsquoayn(individualduty)thatmustbefulfilledbyeverysingleMuslimincasesofdefensivejihad

41

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

thatiswhentheummaisunderattackManyIslamistsincludedheretakeamuchlessnuancedviewofjihadAsamodeofpoliticalactionQutbarguesjihadmustberegardedasaldquopermanentconditionnotanocca-sionalconcernrdquoonethatincurrentcircumstancesrequiresdeedsratherthanwordsstruggleratherthancontemplationrevolutionathomeaswellasresistanceabroad(Qutb199167ndash6882)lsquoAbdal-SalamFarajarguesalongsimilarlinesthatthenatureoftheattackonIslammakespolitical authorization by a caliph (ldquodeputyrdquo referring to a legitimatesuccessortotheProphetrsquosleadership)unnecessaryafterallldquoleadershipovertheMuslimsis(always)intheirownhandsifonlytheymakethismanifestIfthereissomethinglackingintheleadershipwellthereisnothingthatcannotbeacquiredrdquo(Jansen1986asec93)

SuchargumentsareadeliberaterejectionofearlyMuslimmodernistswhohademphasizedthelargelydefensivecharacterofjihadandsoughttoshowthatrelationsbetweenMuslimsandnon-MuslimswerenormallypeacefulratherthanantagonisticMahmudShaltut(d1963)therectorof al-Azhar from 1958 to 1963 had argued for example that theQurrsquoanicversesonfightingldquoprohibittheprovocationofhostilityandthisprohibitionisreinforcedbyGodrsquosrepugnancetoaggressionandbyhisdislikeofthosewhoprovokehostilityrdquo(Peters199674onShaltutseeZebiri1993)ConversionbyforceisanathematoIslamShaltutaversandfightingiscommandedonlyindefenseinresponsetoaggressionini-tiatedbyothersEvendefensivejihadmustaimatldquotheterminationoftheaggressionandtheestablishmentofreligiouslibertydevotedtoGodandfreefromanypressureorforcerdquo(Peters199675)

ManyIslamistsexplicitlydismisssuchargumentsasasymptomoffalseconsciousnessoneamongmanydestructiveeffectsofcolonialdomina-tionMawdudiargues for example thatwhile imperialists ravage theworld to satisfy their greed jihad alone ldquoconjures up the vision of amarching band of religious fanatics with savage beards and fiery eyesbrandishingdrawnswordsandattackingtheinfidelswherevertheymeetthemrdquoHavinginternalizedthis imageMuslimsrushtoapologizeandrenouncearmedstruggleInthiswayhelamentscolonialistsretaintheexclusiverighttoldquofightwitharmsandammunitionwhilewearecon-tented with our pen and our tonguerdquo (Mawdudi 1948 1ndash3) SayyidQutbforhispartagreedthatIslamdoesnotcountenancespreadingitsmessagebyforceandcoercionyethehadlittlepatiencewiththosewhosoughttopresentjihadaslegitimateonlyinself-defense

IfweinsistoncallingIslamicjihadadefensivemovementthenwemustchangethemeaningofthewordldquodefenserdquoandmeanbyitldquothedefenseofmanrdquoagainstallthoseforcesthatlimithisfreedomWhenwetakethisbroadmeaningofthewordldquodefenserdquoweunder-standthetruecharacterofIslaminthatitproclaimstheuniversalfreedomofeverypersonandcommunityfromservitudetoanyother

42

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

individualorsocietytheendofmanrsquosarroganceandselfishnesstheestablishmentofthesovereigntyofAllahandHisLordshipthrough-outtheworldandtheruleofthedivinesharilsquoainhumanaffairs(Qutb199050)

Qutbdoesnotnameanynamesincastigatingtheldquowriterswithdefeatistandapologeticmentalities[who]writeaboutlsquojihadinIslamrsquoandtrytoremovethislsquoblotrsquofromIslamrdquo(Qutb199046)buthecouldverywellhavehadhisdistinguishedfellowEgyptianMahmudShaltutinmind

These arguments about jihad may be said to constitute a commongrammarandframeworkofanalysisformanyIslamistsalthoughseveralthinkers in this volume carefully calibrate such claims to suit variouspurposesanddifferentpublicspheresInhisjustificationfortheassassi-nationofEgyptianpresidentAnwaral-SadatforexamplelsquoAbdal-SalamFarajdepictsthestruggletoreclaimthemoralfoundationsoftheEgyp-tianstateasafightagainstjahiliyyafromwithinarguingthatthejihadagainstacorruptnationalistregimeathomemusttakeprecedenceoverfightingenemieselsewhereTheCharterofHamas(seechapter15)how-everinsiststhatallMuslimsrecognizetheprimacyofthejihadforJeru-salemweldingIslamistrhetorictothatofnationalistresistanceinanef-fortbothtofightIsraelioccupationandtocompeteforadherentswiththePalestinianLiberationOrganization(PLO)IncontrasttobothFarajandHamasBinLadenembracesaglobaljihadthatessentiallycollapsesdistinctionsbetweennationalandinternationaloffensiveanddefensivefightingenemiesathomeandthosefromafar

Yet despite such differences these arguments tend to presume thatviolent jihad is a necessary response to the pervasive power of thosewithdemonstratedhostilitytoMuslimliveslandspietiesandsensibili-tiesaformofretaliationwhoseurgencyandlegitimacyderivefromtheviolencemdashpsychologicalandeconomicaswellasphysicalmdashoftheinitialassaultThisviewofjihadsubsumesindividualsintoarchetypesofldquoin-fidelsrdquoandldquobelieversrdquoandinsodoingvitiatesmoreconventionaldis-tinctionsbetweenforexamplesoldierandcivilianorcollectiveandin-dividual responsibility It is far from inevitable that thosewhoharborsuchviewswillautomaticallyactuponthemyetthecarnagewroughtbytheattacksontheWorldTradeCenterandthePentagonin2001aBalinightclub in 2002 Madrid commuter trains in 2004 and throughoutIraqonadailybasissuggestjusthowlethalsuchclaimscanbegiventheright circumstances The fact that such violence does not discriminateamongvictimsonlyfurtherfuelsrhetoriccharacterizingIslamistsasirra-tional fanatics ldquoin love with deathrdquo terrorists animated by a religioncharacterizedbyapropensityforviolenceandauthoritarianism27

27AnxietiesabouttheparticularsusceptibilityofMuslimstoirrationalityinsularityandfanaticismhavealonganddistinguishedpedigreeinEuro-AmericanhistoryandpoliticalthoughtSeeforexampleRenan18833

43

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

AsinsomanyothermattershoweverIslamistsarehardlyofonemindonthesubjectofjihadindeedthereareIslamistswhoexplicitlyrejectthereductionof struggle toviolenceAcase inpoint isNadiaYassine(20032005c)whoinsiststhatjihadisthededicatedstruggleagainstisshytikbar(arrogance)particularlyinitscommonformasthelustforpoweranddominationAsjihadagainstistikbarisbothafinalgoalandapre-scriptionforactionYassinesuggestsitisantitheticaltoviolentpracticesthataimatdominationTheprimaryinstrumentsofjihadarenotbombsbutwords particularly thosedeployed in the art of persuasion (Fara-marzi2005NYassine2006a)WhenIslamistssuchaslsquoAbdal-SalamFarajandlsquoUmarlsquoAbdal-RahmanseektolegitimizeviolentrevolutionbyrecoursetoIslamictextsshearguestheycontravenethetruemeaningofjihadtoservetheirownarrogantendsBythesametokenBinLadenrsquosdecisiontoldquofightevilwithevilandbarbaritywithbarbarityrdquonotonlyviolatesspecificIslamicprohibitionsagainstharmingcivilianswomenandchildrenbutalsobetraystheethicalimperativetoembodythemes-sageofamercifulGodwhocautionsbelieversthat(Q8822)ldquoYouhavenopoweroverthemrdquo(NYassine2005cDaily Excelsior2002)

SuchpersistentdisagreementsamongMuslimspastandpresentsug-gest that Islam isnomore inherently violent andbloody-minded thanitmdashorChristianityor Judaism for thatmattermdashis inherentlypeacefulIslamists often claim to speak for an unchanging authentic Islam thatexistsoutsideoftimeandspaceyetthepoliticalpurchaseoftheirper-spective derives from the ways it assembles disparate yet recognizablecontemporaryexperiencesofsufferingfrustrationandlossintoanex-planationthatresonateswithMuslimswholiveincommunitiescultur-allylinguisticallyandgeographicallydistantfromoneanotherTheex-tenttowhichIslamistargumentsresonatebroadlyacrossMuslimsocie-tiesthusdependsuponasetofexperiencesandphenomenathatmarkthisparticularmomentinhistoryincludingthewaysinwhichcontempo-raryglobalinequalitiescompoundalegacyofhistoricalasymmetriestocontinuallyreproduceasenseofMuslimpowerlessnessmdashbothrealandimaginedmdashrelativetotheWestcontinuingEuro-Americanpoliticalandfinancialsupportofcorruptautocratsmanyofwhompresideoverna-tion-statesbrutallystitchedtogetherbyWesternfiat thepersistenceofauthoritarian regimes eager to control domestic unrest by catalyzingldquoMuslimragerdquotowardexternaltargetsthesenseofemasculationpro-ducedbydecadesofpoliticalrepressionandeconomicfrustrationandthecontinualflowofimagesofbloodiedMuslimbodiesdeliveredbyaburgeoningarrayofvideosatelliteandelectronicmedia

It is notable that the understanding of jihad many Islamists proffermirrorstheverystate-sanctionedviolenceagainstwhichtheyhavestrug-gledforalmostacenturyAlongwiththousandsofMuslimscaughtinthemachineryoftwentieth-centurystateviolenceprominentIslamistsfromQutbtoGhazalitoAymanal-Zawahirimdashal-Qalsquoidarsquossecondincommandmdash

44

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

arewellknowntohavebeenradicalizedbyextendedandoftenbrutaltermsofincarcerationinEgyptSyriaIraqJordanIsraelAlgeriaandelsewhere(onal-ZawahiriandprisoncfKepelandMilelli2008152ndash54)ItisthusfarfromsurprisingthatIslamistsforgedbyinterrogationtortureinprisoncampswouldconcludethatthepreeminentenactmentofMuslimpietyisviolentstruggleldquoPrisonrdquoasPalestinianKhaledAbuHilalhassaidldquoismyuniversityrdquo(Erlanger2007)anargumentmadeingreaterdetailinadifferenttimeandplacebyRussianwriterandrevolu-tionaryMaximGorky(1868ndash1936)

Apeoplebroughtupinaschoolthatremindsoneofthetormentsofhellonasmallscaleapeopleaccustomedtotheclenched-fistprisonandthewhipwillnotbeblestwithatenderheartApeoplethatthepoliceagentshaveriddenoverwillbecapableintheirturnofwalk-ingoverthebodiesofothersInacountrywhereunresthasreignedsolongit isdifficultforthepeopletorealizefromonedaytothenextthepowerofrightOnecannotdemandfromamanwhohasneverknownjusticethatheshouldbejust(Gorky1920)

InthiscontextasTimothyMitchell(1990195ndash96199207ndash8)suggestsIslamistviewsoftheworldcanbecharacterizedasbothamodeofresis-tancetostatemechanismsofcoercionandanexpressionofthemSuchisthedynamic evident inGhazalirsquosmemoirs for examplewhen shede-scribeshowtheldquodarknessofprisonsthebladesoftortureandthevi-ciousbeatingsonly increasetheenduranceandresolveofthefaithfulrdquo(Ghazali19786)

There is no doubt a great deal of pragmatism at work in IslamistargumentsaboutviolenceAsQutb(19916447ndash48)drylynotesthepathtofreedommustoccasionallybehewnbywayoftheswordbecausetyrants are not reasoned out of power and ldquojahiliyya is not lsquoabstracttheoryrsquo[it]consciouslyorunconsciouslystrivestopreserveitsownexistence to defend its essence to annihilate dangerous elementswhichthreatenitsverybeingrdquoYetitisalsothecasethatformanyoftheseIslamistsjihadisbothameansandanendanefforttoeradicatethoseobstacles torestoringa justcommunityonearththatsimultane-ouslybringshumanaction intoaccordwithGodrsquosplansandpurposes(Haddad198321)While theQurrsquoan (2256) states thatldquothere isnocompulsioninreligionrdquoIslamistscontendthatonlyinastateinwhichIslamiclawreignssupremearehumanbeingsfreefromenslavementtooneanotherrsquosruleandallareequalbyvirtueoftheircommonsubmissiontoGodAsQutb(1991107ndash8)argues

WhenthehighestauthorityinsocietyisGodalonemdashexpressedintheruleofdivinelawmdashonlythenishumanitytrulyandcompletelyliber-atedfromslaverytomenOnlythisisldquohumancivilizationrdquobecausetheessentialfoundationofhumancivilizationisthetrueandcom-

45

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

pletefreedomofhumanityandtheabsolutedignityofeveryindivid-ualinsocietyThereisnotruefreedomanddignityforhumanityortheindividualinasocietywheresomepeoplearelordswholegislateandothersareslaveswhoobey

From this perspective the realization of justice liberty equality andchoiceitselfnecessitatestheforcibleremovaloftheconstraintsimposedbyjahiliyyaalongwiththosewhoaidandabetitno matter the costAsMawdudi(1954160ndash61)writes

[W]hyisitthatinreligionsuchimportanceisgiventojihadthattheQurrsquoanpronouncesthejudgmentofhypocrisyuponthosewhoshirkandevadeitJihadisbutanothernamefortheattempttoerectthesystemoftruthandtheQurrsquoandeclaresjihadtobeatouchstoneonthesamefootingwithamanrsquosfaithInotherwordshewhohasfaithinhisheartwillneitherbecontentwiththedominationofthesystemofevilnorwillhegrudgetheexpenditureoflifeandwealthinthestruggleforerectingthesystemoftruthIfoneshowsweaknessinthismatterhisfaithitselfisdoubtfulWhatcananythingelsebesidethenprofithimThemanwhoprofesses faith in this religioncannotfulfillhisdutyonlybytryingasfaraspossibletopatternhislifeonIslamThenatureofhisfaithitselfrequiresthatheshouldconcentrateallhiseffortuponwrestingleadershipfromunbelievingandcorruptmentoentrustittotherighteousanduponerectingthesystemoftruththathasbeenordainedfortheconductoftheworldaccordingtothewillofGodBecausethisendisunattainablewith-out thehighestdegreeofcollectiveeffort theremustexistarigh-teouscommunitycommittedtotheprincipleoftruthanddevotedtothesolepurposeintheworldoferectingmaintainingandproperlyrealizingthesystemoftruth

ThefactthatsomeIslamistthinkerssanctifyviolentstruggleinsuchtermsdoesnotmeanofcoursethatallthosewhoadvocateorengageinjihadendorseviolence28NordoesitimplythatthosewhoclaimtokillforIslamareentirelywithoutulteriormotivesthosemanipulativepur-poses andpsychologicalmotivations that even themost rarified scrip-turalargumentscanexpressorserveWhattheprecedinganalysisdoessuggesthoweveristhatthereductionofthisviewofjihadtoirrationalbloodlusttheself-interestedgrabfortemporalpoweroradoorthroughwhichtopassintothehereaftermissesacrucialdimensionofitssignifi-canceandappealfortruebelieversjihadisnolessthananenactmentof

28EvenashespokeofaneweraofjahiliyyaandofjihadMawdudihimselfstoppedwellshortof recommendingor condoning the actual resort to violence in themannermanyotherIslamistsdidAsNasr(199670)observesMawdudirsquosorganizationtheJamalsquoat-iIs-lamildquohasavoidedviolentsocialchangeandhasinsteadviewedthepathtotheIslamicstateaslyingwithintheexistingsociopoliticalorderrdquoAlsoseethechapters5and3onQutbandMawdudiinthisvolume

46

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INTRODUCTION

adivineimperativetoremakethefoundationsofcollectivelifeInthisre-spectIslamistviewsofjihadcanbeseenaspartofalong-standingasso-ciationbetweenviolenceandpoliticalfoundingsuponwhichnoparticu-larcultureorhistoricalepochhasamonopolyThisassociationandtheldquolegacyofviolencerdquoitbequeathstofuturegenerationsarenolessappar-entinthoseradicalrevolutionsofrenewalthatmovebywayoftheswordfromthemarginstothecenterthanthosepoliticalfoundingsthatclaimtocreatesomethingoutofnothing(Connolly1995251)Ineithercasethetollofsuchbrutalitycanbeimmeasurableforinadditiontothevic-timswhosufferdirectlytheldquopracticeofviolencelikeallactionchangestheworldbutthemostprobablechangeistoamoreviolentworldrdquo(Ar-endt1972177)

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Page 40: Chapter 1 INTRODUCTION - assets.press.princeton.eduassets.press.princeton.edu/chapters/s9067.pdf · Chapter 1 INTRODUCTION This volume is intended as a broad introduction to the evolution

40

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

Understoodtoincludebothwrittenandembodiedpracticesthefemi-nizationof dalsquowa illustrates theways inwhichwomen fromdifferentperspectivesandsocialclassesareinsistingonengagingthesacredtextsdirectly for and with one another without the mediating authority ofmenwhohavetraditionallyheldthemonopolyonsuchactivitiesAsSu-danese Islamist Lubabah al-Fadl argues ldquoAs an insan [human being]whohappenstobeawomanIhavearighttorejectthemanipulativeexegesesofoursharilsquoa thatthreatenmyexistenceinawaythat isnotconsistentwiththeGodlywayandtoapplymyownijtihadtorectifyer-roneoustendenciesbysomeshuyukh[pluralofshaykh]rdquo(Sadiki2004290)DespitetheproliferationofvoicesintentonclaimingforthemselvestheauthoritytodemarcatewhatisauthenticallyIslamicandun-Islamiconceandforallcontestationoveritsscopeandmeaningproceedsapacefacilitatedatleastinpartbywomenformerlyexcludedfromtheconver-sationAtthesametimeIslamistwomenrsquosagencyandclaimstoauthorityarefrequentlystillpredicatedonawillingnesstofollowfairlypatriarchalrulesaboutwherehowandwithwhomtheymaypracticetheirvocation(Hirschkind2003Sadiki2004283)

Islamism and Violence

IfgenderisfrequentlyanimplicitpreoccupationamongIslamistsjihadisarguably Islamistsrsquomost consistently explicit concern Jihad is derivedfromtheArabicverbthatmeanstostruggleortostriveyetitisaparticu-larkindofstruggle that isofconcern tomanyof thefigurescollectedheretheoftenviolentstruggleagainstapostatesandinfidelsbothathomeandabroadtowhicheveryindividualMuslimmustcontributeTheclaimthatfightingunbelieversisthepreeminentenactmentofindividualMus-limpiety seems to justify characterizationsof Islam ingeneral and Is-lamisminparticularassanctioningevenencouragingviolenceYetwhatIslamistsrepresentasjihadtout courtisahistoricallyspecificunderstand-ingderivedfromahighlyselectiveuseoftextsandprecedentsprominentamongthemaformerlyobscureclaimbytheinfluentialfourteenth-cen-tury jurist IbnTaymiyya thatMongol rulerswhohad contravened Is-lamiclawcouldbesubjecttoforcibleremovalFarfromadefinitiveex-pressionof Islamldquoproperlyunderstoodrdquo such Islamist argumentsnotonlymarkasignificantdeparturefrommuchofantecedentdoctrineandpractice but also diminish the importance of ongoing disagreementsamongMuslimsabouttheformandpurposesofjihad

TobeginwithMuslimscholarshavetendedtoconsiderjihadagainstforeignenemiesafard kifaya(collectiveobligation)thatisadutyagroupofpeoplewithinthecommunitymayperformonbehalfoftherestandonethatpresupposesalegitimateMuslimleadertodeclareorleadthechargeJuristshavedistinguishedthisfromthefard lsquoayn(individualduty)thatmustbefulfilledbyeverysingleMuslimincasesofdefensivejihad

41

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

thatiswhentheummaisunderattackManyIslamistsincludedheretakeamuchlessnuancedviewofjihadAsamodeofpoliticalactionQutbarguesjihadmustberegardedasaldquopermanentconditionnotanocca-sionalconcernrdquoonethatincurrentcircumstancesrequiresdeedsratherthanwordsstruggleratherthancontemplationrevolutionathomeaswellasresistanceabroad(Qutb199167ndash6882)lsquoAbdal-SalamFarajarguesalongsimilarlinesthatthenatureoftheattackonIslammakespolitical authorization by a caliph (ldquodeputyrdquo referring to a legitimatesuccessortotheProphetrsquosleadership)unnecessaryafterallldquoleadershipovertheMuslimsis(always)intheirownhandsifonlytheymakethismanifestIfthereissomethinglackingintheleadershipwellthereisnothingthatcannotbeacquiredrdquo(Jansen1986asec93)

SuchargumentsareadeliberaterejectionofearlyMuslimmodernistswhohademphasizedthelargelydefensivecharacterofjihadandsoughttoshowthatrelationsbetweenMuslimsandnon-MuslimswerenormallypeacefulratherthanantagonisticMahmudShaltut(d1963)therectorof al-Azhar from 1958 to 1963 had argued for example that theQurrsquoanicversesonfightingldquoprohibittheprovocationofhostilityandthisprohibitionisreinforcedbyGodrsquosrepugnancetoaggressionandbyhisdislikeofthosewhoprovokehostilityrdquo(Peters199674onShaltutseeZebiri1993)ConversionbyforceisanathematoIslamShaltutaversandfightingiscommandedonlyindefenseinresponsetoaggressionini-tiatedbyothersEvendefensivejihadmustaimatldquotheterminationoftheaggressionandtheestablishmentofreligiouslibertydevotedtoGodandfreefromanypressureorforcerdquo(Peters199675)

ManyIslamistsexplicitlydismisssuchargumentsasasymptomoffalseconsciousnessoneamongmanydestructiveeffectsofcolonialdomina-tionMawdudiargues for example thatwhile imperialists ravage theworld to satisfy their greed jihad alone ldquoconjures up the vision of amarching band of religious fanatics with savage beards and fiery eyesbrandishingdrawnswordsandattackingtheinfidelswherevertheymeetthemrdquoHavinginternalizedthis imageMuslimsrushtoapologizeandrenouncearmedstruggleInthiswayhelamentscolonialistsretaintheexclusiverighttoldquofightwitharmsandammunitionwhilewearecon-tented with our pen and our tonguerdquo (Mawdudi 1948 1ndash3) SayyidQutbforhispartagreedthatIslamdoesnotcountenancespreadingitsmessagebyforceandcoercionyethehadlittlepatiencewiththosewhosoughttopresentjihadaslegitimateonlyinself-defense

IfweinsistoncallingIslamicjihadadefensivemovementthenwemustchangethemeaningofthewordldquodefenserdquoandmeanbyitldquothedefenseofmanrdquoagainstallthoseforcesthatlimithisfreedomWhenwetakethisbroadmeaningofthewordldquodefenserdquoweunder-standthetruecharacterofIslaminthatitproclaimstheuniversalfreedomofeverypersonandcommunityfromservitudetoanyother

42

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

individualorsocietytheendofmanrsquosarroganceandselfishnesstheestablishmentofthesovereigntyofAllahandHisLordshipthrough-outtheworldandtheruleofthedivinesharilsquoainhumanaffairs(Qutb199050)

Qutbdoesnotnameanynamesincastigatingtheldquowriterswithdefeatistandapologeticmentalities[who]writeaboutlsquojihadinIslamrsquoandtrytoremovethislsquoblotrsquofromIslamrdquo(Qutb199046)buthecouldverywellhavehadhisdistinguishedfellowEgyptianMahmudShaltutinmind

These arguments about jihad may be said to constitute a commongrammarandframeworkofanalysisformanyIslamistsalthoughseveralthinkers in this volume carefully calibrate such claims to suit variouspurposesanddifferentpublicspheresInhisjustificationfortheassassi-nationofEgyptianpresidentAnwaral-SadatforexamplelsquoAbdal-SalamFarajdepictsthestruggletoreclaimthemoralfoundationsoftheEgyp-tianstateasafightagainstjahiliyyafromwithinarguingthatthejihadagainstacorruptnationalistregimeathomemusttakeprecedenceoverfightingenemieselsewhereTheCharterofHamas(seechapter15)how-everinsiststhatallMuslimsrecognizetheprimacyofthejihadforJeru-salemweldingIslamistrhetorictothatofnationalistresistanceinanef-fortbothtofightIsraelioccupationandtocompeteforadherentswiththePalestinianLiberationOrganization(PLO)IncontrasttobothFarajandHamasBinLadenembracesaglobaljihadthatessentiallycollapsesdistinctionsbetweennationalandinternationaloffensiveanddefensivefightingenemiesathomeandthosefromafar

Yet despite such differences these arguments tend to presume thatviolent jihad is a necessary response to the pervasive power of thosewithdemonstratedhostilitytoMuslimliveslandspietiesandsensibili-tiesaformofretaliationwhoseurgencyandlegitimacyderivefromtheviolencemdashpsychologicalandeconomicaswellasphysicalmdashoftheinitialassaultThisviewofjihadsubsumesindividualsintoarchetypesofldquoin-fidelsrdquoandldquobelieversrdquoandinsodoingvitiatesmoreconventionaldis-tinctionsbetweenforexamplesoldierandcivilianorcollectiveandin-dividual responsibility It is far from inevitable that thosewhoharborsuchviewswillautomaticallyactuponthemyetthecarnagewroughtbytheattacksontheWorldTradeCenterandthePentagonin2001aBalinightclub in 2002 Madrid commuter trains in 2004 and throughoutIraqonadailybasissuggestjusthowlethalsuchclaimscanbegiventheright circumstances The fact that such violence does not discriminateamongvictimsonlyfurtherfuelsrhetoriccharacterizingIslamistsasirra-tional fanatics ldquoin love with deathrdquo terrorists animated by a religioncharacterizedbyapropensityforviolenceandauthoritarianism27

27AnxietiesabouttheparticularsusceptibilityofMuslimstoirrationalityinsularityandfanaticismhavealonganddistinguishedpedigreeinEuro-AmericanhistoryandpoliticalthoughtSeeforexampleRenan18833

43

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INTRODUCTION

AsinsomanyothermattershoweverIslamistsarehardlyofonemindonthesubjectofjihadindeedthereareIslamistswhoexplicitlyrejectthereductionof struggle toviolenceAcase inpoint isNadiaYassine(20032005c)whoinsiststhatjihadisthededicatedstruggleagainstisshytikbar(arrogance)particularlyinitscommonformasthelustforpoweranddominationAsjihadagainstistikbarisbothafinalgoalandapre-scriptionforactionYassinesuggestsitisantitheticaltoviolentpracticesthataimatdominationTheprimaryinstrumentsofjihadarenotbombsbutwords particularly thosedeployed in the art of persuasion (Fara-marzi2005NYassine2006a)WhenIslamistssuchaslsquoAbdal-SalamFarajandlsquoUmarlsquoAbdal-RahmanseektolegitimizeviolentrevolutionbyrecoursetoIslamictextsshearguestheycontravenethetruemeaningofjihadtoservetheirownarrogantendsBythesametokenBinLadenrsquosdecisiontoldquofightevilwithevilandbarbaritywithbarbarityrdquonotonlyviolatesspecificIslamicprohibitionsagainstharmingcivilianswomenandchildrenbutalsobetraystheethicalimperativetoembodythemes-sageofamercifulGodwhocautionsbelieversthat(Q8822)ldquoYouhavenopoweroverthemrdquo(NYassine2005cDaily Excelsior2002)

SuchpersistentdisagreementsamongMuslimspastandpresentsug-gest that Islam isnomore inherently violent andbloody-minded thanitmdashorChristianityor Judaism for thatmattermdashis inherentlypeacefulIslamists often claim to speak for an unchanging authentic Islam thatexistsoutsideoftimeandspaceyetthepoliticalpurchaseoftheirper-spective derives from the ways it assembles disparate yet recognizablecontemporaryexperiencesofsufferingfrustrationandlossintoanex-planationthatresonateswithMuslimswholiveincommunitiescultur-allylinguisticallyandgeographicallydistantfromoneanotherTheex-tenttowhichIslamistargumentsresonatebroadlyacrossMuslimsocie-tiesthusdependsuponasetofexperiencesandphenomenathatmarkthisparticularmomentinhistoryincludingthewaysinwhichcontempo-raryglobalinequalitiescompoundalegacyofhistoricalasymmetriestocontinuallyreproduceasenseofMuslimpowerlessnessmdashbothrealandimaginedmdashrelativetotheWestcontinuingEuro-Americanpoliticalandfinancialsupportofcorruptautocratsmanyofwhompresideoverna-tion-statesbrutallystitchedtogetherbyWesternfiat thepersistenceofauthoritarian regimes eager to control domestic unrest by catalyzingldquoMuslimragerdquotowardexternaltargetsthesenseofemasculationpro-ducedbydecadesofpoliticalrepressionandeconomicfrustrationandthecontinualflowofimagesofbloodiedMuslimbodiesdeliveredbyaburgeoningarrayofvideosatelliteandelectronicmedia

It is notable that the understanding of jihad many Islamists proffermirrorstheverystate-sanctionedviolenceagainstwhichtheyhavestrug-gledforalmostacenturyAlongwiththousandsofMuslimscaughtinthemachineryoftwentieth-centurystateviolenceprominentIslamistsfromQutbtoGhazalitoAymanal-Zawahirimdashal-Qalsquoidarsquossecondincommandmdash

44

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

arewellknowntohavebeenradicalizedbyextendedandoftenbrutaltermsofincarcerationinEgyptSyriaIraqJordanIsraelAlgeriaandelsewhere(onal-ZawahiriandprisoncfKepelandMilelli2008152ndash54)ItisthusfarfromsurprisingthatIslamistsforgedbyinterrogationtortureinprisoncampswouldconcludethatthepreeminentenactmentofMuslimpietyisviolentstruggleldquoPrisonrdquoasPalestinianKhaledAbuHilalhassaidldquoismyuniversityrdquo(Erlanger2007)anargumentmadeingreaterdetailinadifferenttimeandplacebyRussianwriterandrevolu-tionaryMaximGorky(1868ndash1936)

Apeoplebroughtupinaschoolthatremindsoneofthetormentsofhellonasmallscaleapeopleaccustomedtotheclenched-fistprisonandthewhipwillnotbeblestwithatenderheartApeoplethatthepoliceagentshaveriddenoverwillbecapableintheirturnofwalk-ingoverthebodiesofothersInacountrywhereunresthasreignedsolongit isdifficultforthepeopletorealizefromonedaytothenextthepowerofrightOnecannotdemandfromamanwhohasneverknownjusticethatheshouldbejust(Gorky1920)

InthiscontextasTimothyMitchell(1990195ndash96199207ndash8)suggestsIslamistviewsoftheworldcanbecharacterizedasbothamodeofresis-tancetostatemechanismsofcoercionandanexpressionofthemSuchisthedynamic evident inGhazalirsquosmemoirs for examplewhen shede-scribeshowtheldquodarknessofprisonsthebladesoftortureandthevi-ciousbeatingsonly increasetheenduranceandresolveofthefaithfulrdquo(Ghazali19786)

There is no doubt a great deal of pragmatism at work in IslamistargumentsaboutviolenceAsQutb(19916447ndash48)drylynotesthepathtofreedommustoccasionallybehewnbywayoftheswordbecausetyrants are not reasoned out of power and ldquojahiliyya is not lsquoabstracttheoryrsquo[it]consciouslyorunconsciouslystrivestopreserveitsownexistence to defend its essence to annihilate dangerous elementswhichthreatenitsverybeingrdquoYetitisalsothecasethatformanyoftheseIslamistsjihadisbothameansandanendanefforttoeradicatethoseobstacles torestoringa justcommunityonearththatsimultane-ouslybringshumanaction intoaccordwithGodrsquosplansandpurposes(Haddad198321)While theQurrsquoan (2256) states thatldquothere isnocompulsioninreligionrdquoIslamistscontendthatonlyinastateinwhichIslamiclawreignssupremearehumanbeingsfreefromenslavementtooneanotherrsquosruleandallareequalbyvirtueoftheircommonsubmissiontoGodAsQutb(1991107ndash8)argues

WhenthehighestauthorityinsocietyisGodalonemdashexpressedintheruleofdivinelawmdashonlythenishumanitytrulyandcompletelyliber-atedfromslaverytomenOnlythisisldquohumancivilizationrdquobecausetheessentialfoundationofhumancivilizationisthetrueandcom-

45

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

pletefreedomofhumanityandtheabsolutedignityofeveryindivid-ualinsocietyThereisnotruefreedomanddignityforhumanityortheindividualinasocietywheresomepeoplearelordswholegislateandothersareslaveswhoobey

From this perspective the realization of justice liberty equality andchoiceitselfnecessitatestheforcibleremovaloftheconstraintsimposedbyjahiliyyaalongwiththosewhoaidandabetitno matter the costAsMawdudi(1954160ndash61)writes

[W]hyisitthatinreligionsuchimportanceisgiventojihadthattheQurrsquoanpronouncesthejudgmentofhypocrisyuponthosewhoshirkandevadeitJihadisbutanothernamefortheattempttoerectthesystemoftruthandtheQurrsquoandeclaresjihadtobeatouchstoneonthesamefootingwithamanrsquosfaithInotherwordshewhohasfaithinhisheartwillneitherbecontentwiththedominationofthesystemofevilnorwillhegrudgetheexpenditureoflifeandwealthinthestruggleforerectingthesystemoftruthIfoneshowsweaknessinthismatterhisfaithitselfisdoubtfulWhatcananythingelsebesidethenprofithimThemanwhoprofesses faith in this religioncannotfulfillhisdutyonlybytryingasfaraspossibletopatternhislifeonIslamThenatureofhisfaithitselfrequiresthatheshouldconcentrateallhiseffortuponwrestingleadershipfromunbelievingandcorruptmentoentrustittotherighteousanduponerectingthesystemoftruththathasbeenordainedfortheconductoftheworldaccordingtothewillofGodBecausethisendisunattainablewith-out thehighestdegreeofcollectiveeffort theremustexistarigh-teouscommunitycommittedtotheprincipleoftruthanddevotedtothesolepurposeintheworldoferectingmaintainingandproperlyrealizingthesystemoftruth

ThefactthatsomeIslamistthinkerssanctifyviolentstruggleinsuchtermsdoesnotmeanofcoursethatallthosewhoadvocateorengageinjihadendorseviolence28NordoesitimplythatthosewhoclaimtokillforIslamareentirelywithoutulteriormotivesthosemanipulativepur-poses andpsychologicalmotivations that even themost rarified scrip-turalargumentscanexpressorserveWhattheprecedinganalysisdoessuggesthoweveristhatthereductionofthisviewofjihadtoirrationalbloodlusttheself-interestedgrabfortemporalpoweroradoorthroughwhichtopassintothehereaftermissesacrucialdimensionofitssignifi-canceandappealfortruebelieversjihadisnolessthananenactmentof

28EvenashespokeofaneweraofjahiliyyaandofjihadMawdudihimselfstoppedwellshortof recommendingor condoning the actual resort to violence in themannermanyotherIslamistsdidAsNasr(199670)observesMawdudirsquosorganizationtheJamalsquoat-iIs-lamildquohasavoidedviolentsocialchangeandhasinsteadviewedthepathtotheIslamicstateaslyingwithintheexistingsociopoliticalorderrdquoAlsoseethechapters5and3onQutbandMawdudiinthisvolume

46

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

adivineimperativetoremakethefoundationsofcollectivelifeInthisre-spectIslamistviewsofjihadcanbeseenaspartofalong-standingasso-ciationbetweenviolenceandpoliticalfoundingsuponwhichnoparticu-larcultureorhistoricalepochhasamonopolyThisassociationandtheldquolegacyofviolencerdquoitbequeathstofuturegenerationsarenolessappar-entinthoseradicalrevolutionsofrenewalthatmovebywayoftheswordfromthemarginstothecenterthanthosepoliticalfoundingsthatclaimtocreatesomethingoutofnothing(Connolly1995251)Ineithercasethetollofsuchbrutalitycanbeimmeasurableforinadditiontothevic-timswhosufferdirectlytheldquopracticeofviolencelikeallactionchangestheworldbutthemostprobablechangeistoamoreviolentworldrdquo(Ar-endt1972177)

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Page 41: Chapter 1 INTRODUCTION - assets.press.princeton.eduassets.press.princeton.edu/chapters/s9067.pdf · Chapter 1 INTRODUCTION This volume is intended as a broad introduction to the evolution

41

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INTRODUCTION

thatiswhentheummaisunderattackManyIslamistsincludedheretakeamuchlessnuancedviewofjihadAsamodeofpoliticalactionQutbarguesjihadmustberegardedasaldquopermanentconditionnotanocca-sionalconcernrdquoonethatincurrentcircumstancesrequiresdeedsratherthanwordsstruggleratherthancontemplationrevolutionathomeaswellasresistanceabroad(Qutb199167ndash6882)lsquoAbdal-SalamFarajarguesalongsimilarlinesthatthenatureoftheattackonIslammakespolitical authorization by a caliph (ldquodeputyrdquo referring to a legitimatesuccessortotheProphetrsquosleadership)unnecessaryafterallldquoleadershipovertheMuslimsis(always)intheirownhandsifonlytheymakethismanifestIfthereissomethinglackingintheleadershipwellthereisnothingthatcannotbeacquiredrdquo(Jansen1986asec93)

SuchargumentsareadeliberaterejectionofearlyMuslimmodernistswhohademphasizedthelargelydefensivecharacterofjihadandsoughttoshowthatrelationsbetweenMuslimsandnon-MuslimswerenormallypeacefulratherthanantagonisticMahmudShaltut(d1963)therectorof al-Azhar from 1958 to 1963 had argued for example that theQurrsquoanicversesonfightingldquoprohibittheprovocationofhostilityandthisprohibitionisreinforcedbyGodrsquosrepugnancetoaggressionandbyhisdislikeofthosewhoprovokehostilityrdquo(Peters199674onShaltutseeZebiri1993)ConversionbyforceisanathematoIslamShaltutaversandfightingiscommandedonlyindefenseinresponsetoaggressionini-tiatedbyothersEvendefensivejihadmustaimatldquotheterminationoftheaggressionandtheestablishmentofreligiouslibertydevotedtoGodandfreefromanypressureorforcerdquo(Peters199675)

ManyIslamistsexplicitlydismisssuchargumentsasasymptomoffalseconsciousnessoneamongmanydestructiveeffectsofcolonialdomina-tionMawdudiargues for example thatwhile imperialists ravage theworld to satisfy their greed jihad alone ldquoconjures up the vision of amarching band of religious fanatics with savage beards and fiery eyesbrandishingdrawnswordsandattackingtheinfidelswherevertheymeetthemrdquoHavinginternalizedthis imageMuslimsrushtoapologizeandrenouncearmedstruggleInthiswayhelamentscolonialistsretaintheexclusiverighttoldquofightwitharmsandammunitionwhilewearecon-tented with our pen and our tonguerdquo (Mawdudi 1948 1ndash3) SayyidQutbforhispartagreedthatIslamdoesnotcountenancespreadingitsmessagebyforceandcoercionyethehadlittlepatiencewiththosewhosoughttopresentjihadaslegitimateonlyinself-defense

IfweinsistoncallingIslamicjihadadefensivemovementthenwemustchangethemeaningofthewordldquodefenserdquoandmeanbyitldquothedefenseofmanrdquoagainstallthoseforcesthatlimithisfreedomWhenwetakethisbroadmeaningofthewordldquodefenserdquoweunder-standthetruecharacterofIslaminthatitproclaimstheuniversalfreedomofeverypersonandcommunityfromservitudetoanyother

42

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

individualorsocietytheendofmanrsquosarroganceandselfishnesstheestablishmentofthesovereigntyofAllahandHisLordshipthrough-outtheworldandtheruleofthedivinesharilsquoainhumanaffairs(Qutb199050)

Qutbdoesnotnameanynamesincastigatingtheldquowriterswithdefeatistandapologeticmentalities[who]writeaboutlsquojihadinIslamrsquoandtrytoremovethislsquoblotrsquofromIslamrdquo(Qutb199046)buthecouldverywellhavehadhisdistinguishedfellowEgyptianMahmudShaltutinmind

These arguments about jihad may be said to constitute a commongrammarandframeworkofanalysisformanyIslamistsalthoughseveralthinkers in this volume carefully calibrate such claims to suit variouspurposesanddifferentpublicspheresInhisjustificationfortheassassi-nationofEgyptianpresidentAnwaral-SadatforexamplelsquoAbdal-SalamFarajdepictsthestruggletoreclaimthemoralfoundationsoftheEgyp-tianstateasafightagainstjahiliyyafromwithinarguingthatthejihadagainstacorruptnationalistregimeathomemusttakeprecedenceoverfightingenemieselsewhereTheCharterofHamas(seechapter15)how-everinsiststhatallMuslimsrecognizetheprimacyofthejihadforJeru-salemweldingIslamistrhetorictothatofnationalistresistanceinanef-fortbothtofightIsraelioccupationandtocompeteforadherentswiththePalestinianLiberationOrganization(PLO)IncontrasttobothFarajandHamasBinLadenembracesaglobaljihadthatessentiallycollapsesdistinctionsbetweennationalandinternationaloffensiveanddefensivefightingenemiesathomeandthosefromafar

Yet despite such differences these arguments tend to presume thatviolent jihad is a necessary response to the pervasive power of thosewithdemonstratedhostilitytoMuslimliveslandspietiesandsensibili-tiesaformofretaliationwhoseurgencyandlegitimacyderivefromtheviolencemdashpsychologicalandeconomicaswellasphysicalmdashoftheinitialassaultThisviewofjihadsubsumesindividualsintoarchetypesofldquoin-fidelsrdquoandldquobelieversrdquoandinsodoingvitiatesmoreconventionaldis-tinctionsbetweenforexamplesoldierandcivilianorcollectiveandin-dividual responsibility It is far from inevitable that thosewhoharborsuchviewswillautomaticallyactuponthemyetthecarnagewroughtbytheattacksontheWorldTradeCenterandthePentagonin2001aBalinightclub in 2002 Madrid commuter trains in 2004 and throughoutIraqonadailybasissuggestjusthowlethalsuchclaimscanbegiventheright circumstances The fact that such violence does not discriminateamongvictimsonlyfurtherfuelsrhetoriccharacterizingIslamistsasirra-tional fanatics ldquoin love with deathrdquo terrorists animated by a religioncharacterizedbyapropensityforviolenceandauthoritarianism27

27AnxietiesabouttheparticularsusceptibilityofMuslimstoirrationalityinsularityandfanaticismhavealonganddistinguishedpedigreeinEuro-AmericanhistoryandpoliticalthoughtSeeforexampleRenan18833

43

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

AsinsomanyothermattershoweverIslamistsarehardlyofonemindonthesubjectofjihadindeedthereareIslamistswhoexplicitlyrejectthereductionof struggle toviolenceAcase inpoint isNadiaYassine(20032005c)whoinsiststhatjihadisthededicatedstruggleagainstisshytikbar(arrogance)particularlyinitscommonformasthelustforpoweranddominationAsjihadagainstistikbarisbothafinalgoalandapre-scriptionforactionYassinesuggestsitisantitheticaltoviolentpracticesthataimatdominationTheprimaryinstrumentsofjihadarenotbombsbutwords particularly thosedeployed in the art of persuasion (Fara-marzi2005NYassine2006a)WhenIslamistssuchaslsquoAbdal-SalamFarajandlsquoUmarlsquoAbdal-RahmanseektolegitimizeviolentrevolutionbyrecoursetoIslamictextsshearguestheycontravenethetruemeaningofjihadtoservetheirownarrogantendsBythesametokenBinLadenrsquosdecisiontoldquofightevilwithevilandbarbaritywithbarbarityrdquonotonlyviolatesspecificIslamicprohibitionsagainstharmingcivilianswomenandchildrenbutalsobetraystheethicalimperativetoembodythemes-sageofamercifulGodwhocautionsbelieversthat(Q8822)ldquoYouhavenopoweroverthemrdquo(NYassine2005cDaily Excelsior2002)

SuchpersistentdisagreementsamongMuslimspastandpresentsug-gest that Islam isnomore inherently violent andbloody-minded thanitmdashorChristianityor Judaism for thatmattermdashis inherentlypeacefulIslamists often claim to speak for an unchanging authentic Islam thatexistsoutsideoftimeandspaceyetthepoliticalpurchaseoftheirper-spective derives from the ways it assembles disparate yet recognizablecontemporaryexperiencesofsufferingfrustrationandlossintoanex-planationthatresonateswithMuslimswholiveincommunitiescultur-allylinguisticallyandgeographicallydistantfromoneanotherTheex-tenttowhichIslamistargumentsresonatebroadlyacrossMuslimsocie-tiesthusdependsuponasetofexperiencesandphenomenathatmarkthisparticularmomentinhistoryincludingthewaysinwhichcontempo-raryglobalinequalitiescompoundalegacyofhistoricalasymmetriestocontinuallyreproduceasenseofMuslimpowerlessnessmdashbothrealandimaginedmdashrelativetotheWestcontinuingEuro-Americanpoliticalandfinancialsupportofcorruptautocratsmanyofwhompresideoverna-tion-statesbrutallystitchedtogetherbyWesternfiat thepersistenceofauthoritarian regimes eager to control domestic unrest by catalyzingldquoMuslimragerdquotowardexternaltargetsthesenseofemasculationpro-ducedbydecadesofpoliticalrepressionandeconomicfrustrationandthecontinualflowofimagesofbloodiedMuslimbodiesdeliveredbyaburgeoningarrayofvideosatelliteandelectronicmedia

It is notable that the understanding of jihad many Islamists proffermirrorstheverystate-sanctionedviolenceagainstwhichtheyhavestrug-gledforalmostacenturyAlongwiththousandsofMuslimscaughtinthemachineryoftwentieth-centurystateviolenceprominentIslamistsfromQutbtoGhazalitoAymanal-Zawahirimdashal-Qalsquoidarsquossecondincommandmdash

44

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

arewellknowntohavebeenradicalizedbyextendedandoftenbrutaltermsofincarcerationinEgyptSyriaIraqJordanIsraelAlgeriaandelsewhere(onal-ZawahiriandprisoncfKepelandMilelli2008152ndash54)ItisthusfarfromsurprisingthatIslamistsforgedbyinterrogationtortureinprisoncampswouldconcludethatthepreeminentenactmentofMuslimpietyisviolentstruggleldquoPrisonrdquoasPalestinianKhaledAbuHilalhassaidldquoismyuniversityrdquo(Erlanger2007)anargumentmadeingreaterdetailinadifferenttimeandplacebyRussianwriterandrevolu-tionaryMaximGorky(1868ndash1936)

Apeoplebroughtupinaschoolthatremindsoneofthetormentsofhellonasmallscaleapeopleaccustomedtotheclenched-fistprisonandthewhipwillnotbeblestwithatenderheartApeoplethatthepoliceagentshaveriddenoverwillbecapableintheirturnofwalk-ingoverthebodiesofothersInacountrywhereunresthasreignedsolongit isdifficultforthepeopletorealizefromonedaytothenextthepowerofrightOnecannotdemandfromamanwhohasneverknownjusticethatheshouldbejust(Gorky1920)

InthiscontextasTimothyMitchell(1990195ndash96199207ndash8)suggestsIslamistviewsoftheworldcanbecharacterizedasbothamodeofresis-tancetostatemechanismsofcoercionandanexpressionofthemSuchisthedynamic evident inGhazalirsquosmemoirs for examplewhen shede-scribeshowtheldquodarknessofprisonsthebladesoftortureandthevi-ciousbeatingsonly increasetheenduranceandresolveofthefaithfulrdquo(Ghazali19786)

There is no doubt a great deal of pragmatism at work in IslamistargumentsaboutviolenceAsQutb(19916447ndash48)drylynotesthepathtofreedommustoccasionallybehewnbywayoftheswordbecausetyrants are not reasoned out of power and ldquojahiliyya is not lsquoabstracttheoryrsquo[it]consciouslyorunconsciouslystrivestopreserveitsownexistence to defend its essence to annihilate dangerous elementswhichthreatenitsverybeingrdquoYetitisalsothecasethatformanyoftheseIslamistsjihadisbothameansandanendanefforttoeradicatethoseobstacles torestoringa justcommunityonearththatsimultane-ouslybringshumanaction intoaccordwithGodrsquosplansandpurposes(Haddad198321)While theQurrsquoan (2256) states thatldquothere isnocompulsioninreligionrdquoIslamistscontendthatonlyinastateinwhichIslamiclawreignssupremearehumanbeingsfreefromenslavementtooneanotherrsquosruleandallareequalbyvirtueoftheircommonsubmissiontoGodAsQutb(1991107ndash8)argues

WhenthehighestauthorityinsocietyisGodalonemdashexpressedintheruleofdivinelawmdashonlythenishumanitytrulyandcompletelyliber-atedfromslaverytomenOnlythisisldquohumancivilizationrdquobecausetheessentialfoundationofhumancivilizationisthetrueandcom-

45

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

pletefreedomofhumanityandtheabsolutedignityofeveryindivid-ualinsocietyThereisnotruefreedomanddignityforhumanityortheindividualinasocietywheresomepeoplearelordswholegislateandothersareslaveswhoobey

From this perspective the realization of justice liberty equality andchoiceitselfnecessitatestheforcibleremovaloftheconstraintsimposedbyjahiliyyaalongwiththosewhoaidandabetitno matter the costAsMawdudi(1954160ndash61)writes

[W]hyisitthatinreligionsuchimportanceisgiventojihadthattheQurrsquoanpronouncesthejudgmentofhypocrisyuponthosewhoshirkandevadeitJihadisbutanothernamefortheattempttoerectthesystemoftruthandtheQurrsquoandeclaresjihadtobeatouchstoneonthesamefootingwithamanrsquosfaithInotherwordshewhohasfaithinhisheartwillneitherbecontentwiththedominationofthesystemofevilnorwillhegrudgetheexpenditureoflifeandwealthinthestruggleforerectingthesystemoftruthIfoneshowsweaknessinthismatterhisfaithitselfisdoubtfulWhatcananythingelsebesidethenprofithimThemanwhoprofesses faith in this religioncannotfulfillhisdutyonlybytryingasfaraspossibletopatternhislifeonIslamThenatureofhisfaithitselfrequiresthatheshouldconcentrateallhiseffortuponwrestingleadershipfromunbelievingandcorruptmentoentrustittotherighteousanduponerectingthesystemoftruththathasbeenordainedfortheconductoftheworldaccordingtothewillofGodBecausethisendisunattainablewith-out thehighestdegreeofcollectiveeffort theremustexistarigh-teouscommunitycommittedtotheprincipleoftruthanddevotedtothesolepurposeintheworldoferectingmaintainingandproperlyrealizingthesystemoftruth

ThefactthatsomeIslamistthinkerssanctifyviolentstruggleinsuchtermsdoesnotmeanofcoursethatallthosewhoadvocateorengageinjihadendorseviolence28NordoesitimplythatthosewhoclaimtokillforIslamareentirelywithoutulteriormotivesthosemanipulativepur-poses andpsychologicalmotivations that even themost rarified scrip-turalargumentscanexpressorserveWhattheprecedinganalysisdoessuggesthoweveristhatthereductionofthisviewofjihadtoirrationalbloodlusttheself-interestedgrabfortemporalpoweroradoorthroughwhichtopassintothehereaftermissesacrucialdimensionofitssignifi-canceandappealfortruebelieversjihadisnolessthananenactmentof

28EvenashespokeofaneweraofjahiliyyaandofjihadMawdudihimselfstoppedwellshortof recommendingor condoning the actual resort to violence in themannermanyotherIslamistsdidAsNasr(199670)observesMawdudirsquosorganizationtheJamalsquoat-iIs-lamildquohasavoidedviolentsocialchangeandhasinsteadviewedthepathtotheIslamicstateaslyingwithintheexistingsociopoliticalorderrdquoAlsoseethechapters5and3onQutbandMawdudiinthisvolume

46

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

adivineimperativetoremakethefoundationsofcollectivelifeInthisre-spectIslamistviewsofjihadcanbeseenaspartofalong-standingasso-ciationbetweenviolenceandpoliticalfoundingsuponwhichnoparticu-larcultureorhistoricalepochhasamonopolyThisassociationandtheldquolegacyofviolencerdquoitbequeathstofuturegenerationsarenolessappar-entinthoseradicalrevolutionsofrenewalthatmovebywayoftheswordfromthemarginstothecenterthanthosepoliticalfoundingsthatclaimtocreatesomethingoutofnothing(Connolly1995251)Ineithercasethetollofsuchbrutalitycanbeimmeasurableforinadditiontothevic-timswhosufferdirectlytheldquopracticeofviolencelikeallactionchangestheworldbutthemostprobablechangeistoamoreviolentworldrdquo(Ar-endt1972177)

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Page 42: Chapter 1 INTRODUCTION - assets.press.princeton.eduassets.press.princeton.edu/chapters/s9067.pdf · Chapter 1 INTRODUCTION This volume is intended as a broad introduction to the evolution

42

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

individualorsocietytheendofmanrsquosarroganceandselfishnesstheestablishmentofthesovereigntyofAllahandHisLordshipthrough-outtheworldandtheruleofthedivinesharilsquoainhumanaffairs(Qutb199050)

Qutbdoesnotnameanynamesincastigatingtheldquowriterswithdefeatistandapologeticmentalities[who]writeaboutlsquojihadinIslamrsquoandtrytoremovethislsquoblotrsquofromIslamrdquo(Qutb199046)buthecouldverywellhavehadhisdistinguishedfellowEgyptianMahmudShaltutinmind

These arguments about jihad may be said to constitute a commongrammarandframeworkofanalysisformanyIslamistsalthoughseveralthinkers in this volume carefully calibrate such claims to suit variouspurposesanddifferentpublicspheresInhisjustificationfortheassassi-nationofEgyptianpresidentAnwaral-SadatforexamplelsquoAbdal-SalamFarajdepictsthestruggletoreclaimthemoralfoundationsoftheEgyp-tianstateasafightagainstjahiliyyafromwithinarguingthatthejihadagainstacorruptnationalistregimeathomemusttakeprecedenceoverfightingenemieselsewhereTheCharterofHamas(seechapter15)how-everinsiststhatallMuslimsrecognizetheprimacyofthejihadforJeru-salemweldingIslamistrhetorictothatofnationalistresistanceinanef-fortbothtofightIsraelioccupationandtocompeteforadherentswiththePalestinianLiberationOrganization(PLO)IncontrasttobothFarajandHamasBinLadenembracesaglobaljihadthatessentiallycollapsesdistinctionsbetweennationalandinternationaloffensiveanddefensivefightingenemiesathomeandthosefromafar

Yet despite such differences these arguments tend to presume thatviolent jihad is a necessary response to the pervasive power of thosewithdemonstratedhostilitytoMuslimliveslandspietiesandsensibili-tiesaformofretaliationwhoseurgencyandlegitimacyderivefromtheviolencemdashpsychologicalandeconomicaswellasphysicalmdashoftheinitialassaultThisviewofjihadsubsumesindividualsintoarchetypesofldquoin-fidelsrdquoandldquobelieversrdquoandinsodoingvitiatesmoreconventionaldis-tinctionsbetweenforexamplesoldierandcivilianorcollectiveandin-dividual responsibility It is far from inevitable that thosewhoharborsuchviewswillautomaticallyactuponthemyetthecarnagewroughtbytheattacksontheWorldTradeCenterandthePentagonin2001aBalinightclub in 2002 Madrid commuter trains in 2004 and throughoutIraqonadailybasissuggestjusthowlethalsuchclaimscanbegiventheright circumstances The fact that such violence does not discriminateamongvictimsonlyfurtherfuelsrhetoriccharacterizingIslamistsasirra-tional fanatics ldquoin love with deathrdquo terrorists animated by a religioncharacterizedbyapropensityforviolenceandauthoritarianism27

27AnxietiesabouttheparticularsusceptibilityofMuslimstoirrationalityinsularityandfanaticismhavealonganddistinguishedpedigreeinEuro-AmericanhistoryandpoliticalthoughtSeeforexampleRenan18833

43

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

AsinsomanyothermattershoweverIslamistsarehardlyofonemindonthesubjectofjihadindeedthereareIslamistswhoexplicitlyrejectthereductionof struggle toviolenceAcase inpoint isNadiaYassine(20032005c)whoinsiststhatjihadisthededicatedstruggleagainstisshytikbar(arrogance)particularlyinitscommonformasthelustforpoweranddominationAsjihadagainstistikbarisbothafinalgoalandapre-scriptionforactionYassinesuggestsitisantitheticaltoviolentpracticesthataimatdominationTheprimaryinstrumentsofjihadarenotbombsbutwords particularly thosedeployed in the art of persuasion (Fara-marzi2005NYassine2006a)WhenIslamistssuchaslsquoAbdal-SalamFarajandlsquoUmarlsquoAbdal-RahmanseektolegitimizeviolentrevolutionbyrecoursetoIslamictextsshearguestheycontravenethetruemeaningofjihadtoservetheirownarrogantendsBythesametokenBinLadenrsquosdecisiontoldquofightevilwithevilandbarbaritywithbarbarityrdquonotonlyviolatesspecificIslamicprohibitionsagainstharmingcivilianswomenandchildrenbutalsobetraystheethicalimperativetoembodythemes-sageofamercifulGodwhocautionsbelieversthat(Q8822)ldquoYouhavenopoweroverthemrdquo(NYassine2005cDaily Excelsior2002)

SuchpersistentdisagreementsamongMuslimspastandpresentsug-gest that Islam isnomore inherently violent andbloody-minded thanitmdashorChristianityor Judaism for thatmattermdashis inherentlypeacefulIslamists often claim to speak for an unchanging authentic Islam thatexistsoutsideoftimeandspaceyetthepoliticalpurchaseoftheirper-spective derives from the ways it assembles disparate yet recognizablecontemporaryexperiencesofsufferingfrustrationandlossintoanex-planationthatresonateswithMuslimswholiveincommunitiescultur-allylinguisticallyandgeographicallydistantfromoneanotherTheex-tenttowhichIslamistargumentsresonatebroadlyacrossMuslimsocie-tiesthusdependsuponasetofexperiencesandphenomenathatmarkthisparticularmomentinhistoryincludingthewaysinwhichcontempo-raryglobalinequalitiescompoundalegacyofhistoricalasymmetriestocontinuallyreproduceasenseofMuslimpowerlessnessmdashbothrealandimaginedmdashrelativetotheWestcontinuingEuro-Americanpoliticalandfinancialsupportofcorruptautocratsmanyofwhompresideoverna-tion-statesbrutallystitchedtogetherbyWesternfiat thepersistenceofauthoritarian regimes eager to control domestic unrest by catalyzingldquoMuslimragerdquotowardexternaltargetsthesenseofemasculationpro-ducedbydecadesofpoliticalrepressionandeconomicfrustrationandthecontinualflowofimagesofbloodiedMuslimbodiesdeliveredbyaburgeoningarrayofvideosatelliteandelectronicmedia

It is notable that the understanding of jihad many Islamists proffermirrorstheverystate-sanctionedviolenceagainstwhichtheyhavestrug-gledforalmostacenturyAlongwiththousandsofMuslimscaughtinthemachineryoftwentieth-centurystateviolenceprominentIslamistsfromQutbtoGhazalitoAymanal-Zawahirimdashal-Qalsquoidarsquossecondincommandmdash

44

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

arewellknowntohavebeenradicalizedbyextendedandoftenbrutaltermsofincarcerationinEgyptSyriaIraqJordanIsraelAlgeriaandelsewhere(onal-ZawahiriandprisoncfKepelandMilelli2008152ndash54)ItisthusfarfromsurprisingthatIslamistsforgedbyinterrogationtortureinprisoncampswouldconcludethatthepreeminentenactmentofMuslimpietyisviolentstruggleldquoPrisonrdquoasPalestinianKhaledAbuHilalhassaidldquoismyuniversityrdquo(Erlanger2007)anargumentmadeingreaterdetailinadifferenttimeandplacebyRussianwriterandrevolu-tionaryMaximGorky(1868ndash1936)

Apeoplebroughtupinaschoolthatremindsoneofthetormentsofhellonasmallscaleapeopleaccustomedtotheclenched-fistprisonandthewhipwillnotbeblestwithatenderheartApeoplethatthepoliceagentshaveriddenoverwillbecapableintheirturnofwalk-ingoverthebodiesofothersInacountrywhereunresthasreignedsolongit isdifficultforthepeopletorealizefromonedaytothenextthepowerofrightOnecannotdemandfromamanwhohasneverknownjusticethatheshouldbejust(Gorky1920)

InthiscontextasTimothyMitchell(1990195ndash96199207ndash8)suggestsIslamistviewsoftheworldcanbecharacterizedasbothamodeofresis-tancetostatemechanismsofcoercionandanexpressionofthemSuchisthedynamic evident inGhazalirsquosmemoirs for examplewhen shede-scribeshowtheldquodarknessofprisonsthebladesoftortureandthevi-ciousbeatingsonly increasetheenduranceandresolveofthefaithfulrdquo(Ghazali19786)

There is no doubt a great deal of pragmatism at work in IslamistargumentsaboutviolenceAsQutb(19916447ndash48)drylynotesthepathtofreedommustoccasionallybehewnbywayoftheswordbecausetyrants are not reasoned out of power and ldquojahiliyya is not lsquoabstracttheoryrsquo[it]consciouslyorunconsciouslystrivestopreserveitsownexistence to defend its essence to annihilate dangerous elementswhichthreatenitsverybeingrdquoYetitisalsothecasethatformanyoftheseIslamistsjihadisbothameansandanendanefforttoeradicatethoseobstacles torestoringa justcommunityonearththatsimultane-ouslybringshumanaction intoaccordwithGodrsquosplansandpurposes(Haddad198321)While theQurrsquoan (2256) states thatldquothere isnocompulsioninreligionrdquoIslamistscontendthatonlyinastateinwhichIslamiclawreignssupremearehumanbeingsfreefromenslavementtooneanotherrsquosruleandallareequalbyvirtueoftheircommonsubmissiontoGodAsQutb(1991107ndash8)argues

WhenthehighestauthorityinsocietyisGodalonemdashexpressedintheruleofdivinelawmdashonlythenishumanitytrulyandcompletelyliber-atedfromslaverytomenOnlythisisldquohumancivilizationrdquobecausetheessentialfoundationofhumancivilizationisthetrueandcom-

45

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

pletefreedomofhumanityandtheabsolutedignityofeveryindivid-ualinsocietyThereisnotruefreedomanddignityforhumanityortheindividualinasocietywheresomepeoplearelordswholegislateandothersareslaveswhoobey

From this perspective the realization of justice liberty equality andchoiceitselfnecessitatestheforcibleremovaloftheconstraintsimposedbyjahiliyyaalongwiththosewhoaidandabetitno matter the costAsMawdudi(1954160ndash61)writes

[W]hyisitthatinreligionsuchimportanceisgiventojihadthattheQurrsquoanpronouncesthejudgmentofhypocrisyuponthosewhoshirkandevadeitJihadisbutanothernamefortheattempttoerectthesystemoftruthandtheQurrsquoandeclaresjihadtobeatouchstoneonthesamefootingwithamanrsquosfaithInotherwordshewhohasfaithinhisheartwillneitherbecontentwiththedominationofthesystemofevilnorwillhegrudgetheexpenditureoflifeandwealthinthestruggleforerectingthesystemoftruthIfoneshowsweaknessinthismatterhisfaithitselfisdoubtfulWhatcananythingelsebesidethenprofithimThemanwhoprofesses faith in this religioncannotfulfillhisdutyonlybytryingasfaraspossibletopatternhislifeonIslamThenatureofhisfaithitselfrequiresthatheshouldconcentrateallhiseffortuponwrestingleadershipfromunbelievingandcorruptmentoentrustittotherighteousanduponerectingthesystemoftruththathasbeenordainedfortheconductoftheworldaccordingtothewillofGodBecausethisendisunattainablewith-out thehighestdegreeofcollectiveeffort theremustexistarigh-teouscommunitycommittedtotheprincipleoftruthanddevotedtothesolepurposeintheworldoferectingmaintainingandproperlyrealizingthesystemoftruth

ThefactthatsomeIslamistthinkerssanctifyviolentstruggleinsuchtermsdoesnotmeanofcoursethatallthosewhoadvocateorengageinjihadendorseviolence28NordoesitimplythatthosewhoclaimtokillforIslamareentirelywithoutulteriormotivesthosemanipulativepur-poses andpsychologicalmotivations that even themost rarified scrip-turalargumentscanexpressorserveWhattheprecedinganalysisdoessuggesthoweveristhatthereductionofthisviewofjihadtoirrationalbloodlusttheself-interestedgrabfortemporalpoweroradoorthroughwhichtopassintothehereaftermissesacrucialdimensionofitssignifi-canceandappealfortruebelieversjihadisnolessthananenactmentof

28EvenashespokeofaneweraofjahiliyyaandofjihadMawdudihimselfstoppedwellshortof recommendingor condoning the actual resort to violence in themannermanyotherIslamistsdidAsNasr(199670)observesMawdudirsquosorganizationtheJamalsquoat-iIs-lamildquohasavoidedviolentsocialchangeandhasinsteadviewedthepathtotheIslamicstateaslyingwithintheexistingsociopoliticalorderrdquoAlsoseethechapters5and3onQutbandMawdudiinthisvolume

46

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

adivineimperativetoremakethefoundationsofcollectivelifeInthisre-spectIslamistviewsofjihadcanbeseenaspartofalong-standingasso-ciationbetweenviolenceandpoliticalfoundingsuponwhichnoparticu-larcultureorhistoricalepochhasamonopolyThisassociationandtheldquolegacyofviolencerdquoitbequeathstofuturegenerationsarenolessappar-entinthoseradicalrevolutionsofrenewalthatmovebywayoftheswordfromthemarginstothecenterthanthosepoliticalfoundingsthatclaimtocreatesomethingoutofnothing(Connolly1995251)Ineithercasethetollofsuchbrutalitycanbeimmeasurableforinadditiontothevic-timswhosufferdirectlytheldquopracticeofviolencelikeallactionchangestheworldbutthemostprobablechangeistoamoreviolentworldrdquo(Ar-endt1972177)

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Page 43: Chapter 1 INTRODUCTION - assets.press.princeton.eduassets.press.princeton.edu/chapters/s9067.pdf · Chapter 1 INTRODUCTION This volume is intended as a broad introduction to the evolution

43

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

AsinsomanyothermattershoweverIslamistsarehardlyofonemindonthesubjectofjihadindeedthereareIslamistswhoexplicitlyrejectthereductionof struggle toviolenceAcase inpoint isNadiaYassine(20032005c)whoinsiststhatjihadisthededicatedstruggleagainstisshytikbar(arrogance)particularlyinitscommonformasthelustforpoweranddominationAsjihadagainstistikbarisbothafinalgoalandapre-scriptionforactionYassinesuggestsitisantitheticaltoviolentpracticesthataimatdominationTheprimaryinstrumentsofjihadarenotbombsbutwords particularly thosedeployed in the art of persuasion (Fara-marzi2005NYassine2006a)WhenIslamistssuchaslsquoAbdal-SalamFarajandlsquoUmarlsquoAbdal-RahmanseektolegitimizeviolentrevolutionbyrecoursetoIslamictextsshearguestheycontravenethetruemeaningofjihadtoservetheirownarrogantendsBythesametokenBinLadenrsquosdecisiontoldquofightevilwithevilandbarbaritywithbarbarityrdquonotonlyviolatesspecificIslamicprohibitionsagainstharmingcivilianswomenandchildrenbutalsobetraystheethicalimperativetoembodythemes-sageofamercifulGodwhocautionsbelieversthat(Q8822)ldquoYouhavenopoweroverthemrdquo(NYassine2005cDaily Excelsior2002)

SuchpersistentdisagreementsamongMuslimspastandpresentsug-gest that Islam isnomore inherently violent andbloody-minded thanitmdashorChristianityor Judaism for thatmattermdashis inherentlypeacefulIslamists often claim to speak for an unchanging authentic Islam thatexistsoutsideoftimeandspaceyetthepoliticalpurchaseoftheirper-spective derives from the ways it assembles disparate yet recognizablecontemporaryexperiencesofsufferingfrustrationandlossintoanex-planationthatresonateswithMuslimswholiveincommunitiescultur-allylinguisticallyandgeographicallydistantfromoneanotherTheex-tenttowhichIslamistargumentsresonatebroadlyacrossMuslimsocie-tiesthusdependsuponasetofexperiencesandphenomenathatmarkthisparticularmomentinhistoryincludingthewaysinwhichcontempo-raryglobalinequalitiescompoundalegacyofhistoricalasymmetriestocontinuallyreproduceasenseofMuslimpowerlessnessmdashbothrealandimaginedmdashrelativetotheWestcontinuingEuro-Americanpoliticalandfinancialsupportofcorruptautocratsmanyofwhompresideoverna-tion-statesbrutallystitchedtogetherbyWesternfiat thepersistenceofauthoritarian regimes eager to control domestic unrest by catalyzingldquoMuslimragerdquotowardexternaltargetsthesenseofemasculationpro-ducedbydecadesofpoliticalrepressionandeconomicfrustrationandthecontinualflowofimagesofbloodiedMuslimbodiesdeliveredbyaburgeoningarrayofvideosatelliteandelectronicmedia

It is notable that the understanding of jihad many Islamists proffermirrorstheverystate-sanctionedviolenceagainstwhichtheyhavestrug-gledforalmostacenturyAlongwiththousandsofMuslimscaughtinthemachineryoftwentieth-centurystateviolenceprominentIslamistsfromQutbtoGhazalitoAymanal-Zawahirimdashal-Qalsquoidarsquossecondincommandmdash

44

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

arewellknowntohavebeenradicalizedbyextendedandoftenbrutaltermsofincarcerationinEgyptSyriaIraqJordanIsraelAlgeriaandelsewhere(onal-ZawahiriandprisoncfKepelandMilelli2008152ndash54)ItisthusfarfromsurprisingthatIslamistsforgedbyinterrogationtortureinprisoncampswouldconcludethatthepreeminentenactmentofMuslimpietyisviolentstruggleldquoPrisonrdquoasPalestinianKhaledAbuHilalhassaidldquoismyuniversityrdquo(Erlanger2007)anargumentmadeingreaterdetailinadifferenttimeandplacebyRussianwriterandrevolu-tionaryMaximGorky(1868ndash1936)

Apeoplebroughtupinaschoolthatremindsoneofthetormentsofhellonasmallscaleapeopleaccustomedtotheclenched-fistprisonandthewhipwillnotbeblestwithatenderheartApeoplethatthepoliceagentshaveriddenoverwillbecapableintheirturnofwalk-ingoverthebodiesofothersInacountrywhereunresthasreignedsolongit isdifficultforthepeopletorealizefromonedaytothenextthepowerofrightOnecannotdemandfromamanwhohasneverknownjusticethatheshouldbejust(Gorky1920)

InthiscontextasTimothyMitchell(1990195ndash96199207ndash8)suggestsIslamistviewsoftheworldcanbecharacterizedasbothamodeofresis-tancetostatemechanismsofcoercionandanexpressionofthemSuchisthedynamic evident inGhazalirsquosmemoirs for examplewhen shede-scribeshowtheldquodarknessofprisonsthebladesoftortureandthevi-ciousbeatingsonly increasetheenduranceandresolveofthefaithfulrdquo(Ghazali19786)

There is no doubt a great deal of pragmatism at work in IslamistargumentsaboutviolenceAsQutb(19916447ndash48)drylynotesthepathtofreedommustoccasionallybehewnbywayoftheswordbecausetyrants are not reasoned out of power and ldquojahiliyya is not lsquoabstracttheoryrsquo[it]consciouslyorunconsciouslystrivestopreserveitsownexistence to defend its essence to annihilate dangerous elementswhichthreatenitsverybeingrdquoYetitisalsothecasethatformanyoftheseIslamistsjihadisbothameansandanendanefforttoeradicatethoseobstacles torestoringa justcommunityonearththatsimultane-ouslybringshumanaction intoaccordwithGodrsquosplansandpurposes(Haddad198321)While theQurrsquoan (2256) states thatldquothere isnocompulsioninreligionrdquoIslamistscontendthatonlyinastateinwhichIslamiclawreignssupremearehumanbeingsfreefromenslavementtooneanotherrsquosruleandallareequalbyvirtueoftheircommonsubmissiontoGodAsQutb(1991107ndash8)argues

WhenthehighestauthorityinsocietyisGodalonemdashexpressedintheruleofdivinelawmdashonlythenishumanitytrulyandcompletelyliber-atedfromslaverytomenOnlythisisldquohumancivilizationrdquobecausetheessentialfoundationofhumancivilizationisthetrueandcom-

45

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

pletefreedomofhumanityandtheabsolutedignityofeveryindivid-ualinsocietyThereisnotruefreedomanddignityforhumanityortheindividualinasocietywheresomepeoplearelordswholegislateandothersareslaveswhoobey

From this perspective the realization of justice liberty equality andchoiceitselfnecessitatestheforcibleremovaloftheconstraintsimposedbyjahiliyyaalongwiththosewhoaidandabetitno matter the costAsMawdudi(1954160ndash61)writes

[W]hyisitthatinreligionsuchimportanceisgiventojihadthattheQurrsquoanpronouncesthejudgmentofhypocrisyuponthosewhoshirkandevadeitJihadisbutanothernamefortheattempttoerectthesystemoftruthandtheQurrsquoandeclaresjihadtobeatouchstoneonthesamefootingwithamanrsquosfaithInotherwordshewhohasfaithinhisheartwillneitherbecontentwiththedominationofthesystemofevilnorwillhegrudgetheexpenditureoflifeandwealthinthestruggleforerectingthesystemoftruthIfoneshowsweaknessinthismatterhisfaithitselfisdoubtfulWhatcananythingelsebesidethenprofithimThemanwhoprofesses faith in this religioncannotfulfillhisdutyonlybytryingasfaraspossibletopatternhislifeonIslamThenatureofhisfaithitselfrequiresthatheshouldconcentrateallhiseffortuponwrestingleadershipfromunbelievingandcorruptmentoentrustittotherighteousanduponerectingthesystemoftruththathasbeenordainedfortheconductoftheworldaccordingtothewillofGodBecausethisendisunattainablewith-out thehighestdegreeofcollectiveeffort theremustexistarigh-teouscommunitycommittedtotheprincipleoftruthanddevotedtothesolepurposeintheworldoferectingmaintainingandproperlyrealizingthesystemoftruth

ThefactthatsomeIslamistthinkerssanctifyviolentstruggleinsuchtermsdoesnotmeanofcoursethatallthosewhoadvocateorengageinjihadendorseviolence28NordoesitimplythatthosewhoclaimtokillforIslamareentirelywithoutulteriormotivesthosemanipulativepur-poses andpsychologicalmotivations that even themost rarified scrip-turalargumentscanexpressorserveWhattheprecedinganalysisdoessuggesthoweveristhatthereductionofthisviewofjihadtoirrationalbloodlusttheself-interestedgrabfortemporalpoweroradoorthroughwhichtopassintothehereaftermissesacrucialdimensionofitssignifi-canceandappealfortruebelieversjihadisnolessthananenactmentof

28EvenashespokeofaneweraofjahiliyyaandofjihadMawdudihimselfstoppedwellshortof recommendingor condoning the actual resort to violence in themannermanyotherIslamistsdidAsNasr(199670)observesMawdudirsquosorganizationtheJamalsquoat-iIs-lamildquohasavoidedviolentsocialchangeandhasinsteadviewedthepathtotheIslamicstateaslyingwithintheexistingsociopoliticalorderrdquoAlsoseethechapters5and3onQutbandMawdudiinthisvolume

46

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

adivineimperativetoremakethefoundationsofcollectivelifeInthisre-spectIslamistviewsofjihadcanbeseenaspartofalong-standingasso-ciationbetweenviolenceandpoliticalfoundingsuponwhichnoparticu-larcultureorhistoricalepochhasamonopolyThisassociationandtheldquolegacyofviolencerdquoitbequeathstofuturegenerationsarenolessappar-entinthoseradicalrevolutionsofrenewalthatmovebywayoftheswordfromthemarginstothecenterthanthosepoliticalfoundingsthatclaimtocreatesomethingoutofnothing(Connolly1995251)Ineithercasethetollofsuchbrutalitycanbeimmeasurableforinadditiontothevic-timswhosufferdirectlytheldquopracticeofviolencelikeallactionchangestheworldbutthemostprobablechangeistoamoreviolentworldrdquo(Ar-endt1972177)

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Page 44: Chapter 1 INTRODUCTION - assets.press.princeton.eduassets.press.princeton.edu/chapters/s9067.pdf · Chapter 1 INTRODUCTION This volume is intended as a broad introduction to the evolution

44

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

arewellknowntohavebeenradicalizedbyextendedandoftenbrutaltermsofincarcerationinEgyptSyriaIraqJordanIsraelAlgeriaandelsewhere(onal-ZawahiriandprisoncfKepelandMilelli2008152ndash54)ItisthusfarfromsurprisingthatIslamistsforgedbyinterrogationtortureinprisoncampswouldconcludethatthepreeminentenactmentofMuslimpietyisviolentstruggleldquoPrisonrdquoasPalestinianKhaledAbuHilalhassaidldquoismyuniversityrdquo(Erlanger2007)anargumentmadeingreaterdetailinadifferenttimeandplacebyRussianwriterandrevolu-tionaryMaximGorky(1868ndash1936)

Apeoplebroughtupinaschoolthatremindsoneofthetormentsofhellonasmallscaleapeopleaccustomedtotheclenched-fistprisonandthewhipwillnotbeblestwithatenderheartApeoplethatthepoliceagentshaveriddenoverwillbecapableintheirturnofwalk-ingoverthebodiesofothersInacountrywhereunresthasreignedsolongit isdifficultforthepeopletorealizefromonedaytothenextthepowerofrightOnecannotdemandfromamanwhohasneverknownjusticethatheshouldbejust(Gorky1920)

InthiscontextasTimothyMitchell(1990195ndash96199207ndash8)suggestsIslamistviewsoftheworldcanbecharacterizedasbothamodeofresis-tancetostatemechanismsofcoercionandanexpressionofthemSuchisthedynamic evident inGhazalirsquosmemoirs for examplewhen shede-scribeshowtheldquodarknessofprisonsthebladesoftortureandthevi-ciousbeatingsonly increasetheenduranceandresolveofthefaithfulrdquo(Ghazali19786)

There is no doubt a great deal of pragmatism at work in IslamistargumentsaboutviolenceAsQutb(19916447ndash48)drylynotesthepathtofreedommustoccasionallybehewnbywayoftheswordbecausetyrants are not reasoned out of power and ldquojahiliyya is not lsquoabstracttheoryrsquo[it]consciouslyorunconsciouslystrivestopreserveitsownexistence to defend its essence to annihilate dangerous elementswhichthreatenitsverybeingrdquoYetitisalsothecasethatformanyoftheseIslamistsjihadisbothameansandanendanefforttoeradicatethoseobstacles torestoringa justcommunityonearththatsimultane-ouslybringshumanaction intoaccordwithGodrsquosplansandpurposes(Haddad198321)While theQurrsquoan (2256) states thatldquothere isnocompulsioninreligionrdquoIslamistscontendthatonlyinastateinwhichIslamiclawreignssupremearehumanbeingsfreefromenslavementtooneanotherrsquosruleandallareequalbyvirtueoftheircommonsubmissiontoGodAsQutb(1991107ndash8)argues

WhenthehighestauthorityinsocietyisGodalonemdashexpressedintheruleofdivinelawmdashonlythenishumanitytrulyandcompletelyliber-atedfromslaverytomenOnlythisisldquohumancivilizationrdquobecausetheessentialfoundationofhumancivilizationisthetrueandcom-

45

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

pletefreedomofhumanityandtheabsolutedignityofeveryindivid-ualinsocietyThereisnotruefreedomanddignityforhumanityortheindividualinasocietywheresomepeoplearelordswholegislateandothersareslaveswhoobey

From this perspective the realization of justice liberty equality andchoiceitselfnecessitatestheforcibleremovaloftheconstraintsimposedbyjahiliyyaalongwiththosewhoaidandabetitno matter the costAsMawdudi(1954160ndash61)writes

[W]hyisitthatinreligionsuchimportanceisgiventojihadthattheQurrsquoanpronouncesthejudgmentofhypocrisyuponthosewhoshirkandevadeitJihadisbutanothernamefortheattempttoerectthesystemoftruthandtheQurrsquoandeclaresjihadtobeatouchstoneonthesamefootingwithamanrsquosfaithInotherwordshewhohasfaithinhisheartwillneitherbecontentwiththedominationofthesystemofevilnorwillhegrudgetheexpenditureoflifeandwealthinthestruggleforerectingthesystemoftruthIfoneshowsweaknessinthismatterhisfaithitselfisdoubtfulWhatcananythingelsebesidethenprofithimThemanwhoprofesses faith in this religioncannotfulfillhisdutyonlybytryingasfaraspossibletopatternhislifeonIslamThenatureofhisfaithitselfrequiresthatheshouldconcentrateallhiseffortuponwrestingleadershipfromunbelievingandcorruptmentoentrustittotherighteousanduponerectingthesystemoftruththathasbeenordainedfortheconductoftheworldaccordingtothewillofGodBecausethisendisunattainablewith-out thehighestdegreeofcollectiveeffort theremustexistarigh-teouscommunitycommittedtotheprincipleoftruthanddevotedtothesolepurposeintheworldoferectingmaintainingandproperlyrealizingthesystemoftruth

ThefactthatsomeIslamistthinkerssanctifyviolentstruggleinsuchtermsdoesnotmeanofcoursethatallthosewhoadvocateorengageinjihadendorseviolence28NordoesitimplythatthosewhoclaimtokillforIslamareentirelywithoutulteriormotivesthosemanipulativepur-poses andpsychologicalmotivations that even themost rarified scrip-turalargumentscanexpressorserveWhattheprecedinganalysisdoessuggesthoweveristhatthereductionofthisviewofjihadtoirrationalbloodlusttheself-interestedgrabfortemporalpoweroradoorthroughwhichtopassintothehereaftermissesacrucialdimensionofitssignifi-canceandappealfortruebelieversjihadisnolessthananenactmentof

28EvenashespokeofaneweraofjahiliyyaandofjihadMawdudihimselfstoppedwellshortof recommendingor condoning the actual resort to violence in themannermanyotherIslamistsdidAsNasr(199670)observesMawdudirsquosorganizationtheJamalsquoat-iIs-lamildquohasavoidedviolentsocialchangeandhasinsteadviewedthepathtotheIslamicstateaslyingwithintheexistingsociopoliticalorderrdquoAlsoseethechapters5and3onQutbandMawdudiinthisvolume

46

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

adivineimperativetoremakethefoundationsofcollectivelifeInthisre-spectIslamistviewsofjihadcanbeseenaspartofalong-standingasso-ciationbetweenviolenceandpoliticalfoundingsuponwhichnoparticu-larcultureorhistoricalepochhasamonopolyThisassociationandtheldquolegacyofviolencerdquoitbequeathstofuturegenerationsarenolessappar-entinthoseradicalrevolutionsofrenewalthatmovebywayoftheswordfromthemarginstothecenterthanthosepoliticalfoundingsthatclaimtocreatesomethingoutofnothing(Connolly1995251)Ineithercasethetollofsuchbrutalitycanbeimmeasurableforinadditiontothevic-timswhosufferdirectlytheldquopracticeofviolencelikeallactionchangestheworldbutthemostprobablechangeistoamoreviolentworldrdquo(Ar-endt1972177)

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Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

pletefreedomofhumanityandtheabsolutedignityofeveryindivid-ualinsocietyThereisnotruefreedomanddignityforhumanityortheindividualinasocietywheresomepeoplearelordswholegislateandothersareslaveswhoobey

From this perspective the realization of justice liberty equality andchoiceitselfnecessitatestheforcibleremovaloftheconstraintsimposedbyjahiliyyaalongwiththosewhoaidandabetitno matter the costAsMawdudi(1954160ndash61)writes

[W]hyisitthatinreligionsuchimportanceisgiventojihadthattheQurrsquoanpronouncesthejudgmentofhypocrisyuponthosewhoshirkandevadeitJihadisbutanothernamefortheattempttoerectthesystemoftruthandtheQurrsquoandeclaresjihadtobeatouchstoneonthesamefootingwithamanrsquosfaithInotherwordshewhohasfaithinhisheartwillneitherbecontentwiththedominationofthesystemofevilnorwillhegrudgetheexpenditureoflifeandwealthinthestruggleforerectingthesystemoftruthIfoneshowsweaknessinthismatterhisfaithitselfisdoubtfulWhatcananythingelsebesidethenprofithimThemanwhoprofesses faith in this religioncannotfulfillhisdutyonlybytryingasfaraspossibletopatternhislifeonIslamThenatureofhisfaithitselfrequiresthatheshouldconcentrateallhiseffortuponwrestingleadershipfromunbelievingandcorruptmentoentrustittotherighteousanduponerectingthesystemoftruththathasbeenordainedfortheconductoftheworldaccordingtothewillofGodBecausethisendisunattainablewith-out thehighestdegreeofcollectiveeffort theremustexistarigh-teouscommunitycommittedtotheprincipleoftruthanddevotedtothesolepurposeintheworldoferectingmaintainingandproperlyrealizingthesystemoftruth

ThefactthatsomeIslamistthinkerssanctifyviolentstruggleinsuchtermsdoesnotmeanofcoursethatallthosewhoadvocateorengageinjihadendorseviolence28NordoesitimplythatthosewhoclaimtokillforIslamareentirelywithoutulteriormotivesthosemanipulativepur-poses andpsychologicalmotivations that even themost rarified scrip-turalargumentscanexpressorserveWhattheprecedinganalysisdoessuggesthoweveristhatthereductionofthisviewofjihadtoirrationalbloodlusttheself-interestedgrabfortemporalpoweroradoorthroughwhichtopassintothehereaftermissesacrucialdimensionofitssignifi-canceandappealfortruebelieversjihadisnolessthananenactmentof

28EvenashespokeofaneweraofjahiliyyaandofjihadMawdudihimselfstoppedwellshortof recommendingor condoning the actual resort to violence in themannermanyotherIslamistsdidAsNasr(199670)observesMawdudirsquosorganizationtheJamalsquoat-iIs-lamildquohasavoidedviolentsocialchangeandhasinsteadviewedthepathtotheIslamicstateaslyingwithintheexistingsociopoliticalorderrdquoAlsoseethechapters5and3onQutbandMawdudiinthisvolume

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adivineimperativetoremakethefoundationsofcollectivelifeInthisre-spectIslamistviewsofjihadcanbeseenaspartofalong-standingasso-ciationbetweenviolenceandpoliticalfoundingsuponwhichnoparticu-larcultureorhistoricalepochhasamonopolyThisassociationandtheldquolegacyofviolencerdquoitbequeathstofuturegenerationsarenolessappar-entinthoseradicalrevolutionsofrenewalthatmovebywayoftheswordfromthemarginstothecenterthanthosepoliticalfoundingsthatclaimtocreatesomethingoutofnothing(Connolly1995251)Ineithercasethetollofsuchbrutalitycanbeimmeasurableforinadditiontothevic-timswhosufferdirectlytheldquopracticeofviolencelikeallactionchangestheworldbutthemostprobablechangeistoamoreviolentworldrdquo(Ar-endt1972177)

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Page 46: Chapter 1 INTRODUCTION - assets.press.princeton.eduassets.press.princeton.edu/chapters/s9067.pdf · Chapter 1 INTRODUCTION This volume is intended as a broad introduction to the evolution

46

Copyrighted Material

INTRODUCTION

adivineimperativetoremakethefoundationsofcollectivelifeInthisre-spectIslamistviewsofjihadcanbeseenaspartofalong-standingasso-ciationbetweenviolenceandpoliticalfoundingsuponwhichnoparticu-larcultureorhistoricalepochhasamonopolyThisassociationandtheldquolegacyofviolencerdquoitbequeathstofuturegenerationsarenolessappar-entinthoseradicalrevolutionsofrenewalthatmovebywayoftheswordfromthemarginstothecenterthanthosepoliticalfoundingsthatclaimtocreatesomethingoutofnothing(Connolly1995251)Ineithercasethetollofsuchbrutalitycanbeimmeasurableforinadditiontothevic-timswhosufferdirectlytheldquopracticeofviolencelikeallactionchangestheworldbutthemostprobablechangeistoamoreviolentworldrdquo(Ar-endt1972177)

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 JPN ltFEFF9ad854c18cea306a30d730ea30d730ec30b951fa529b7528002000410064006f0062006500200050004400460020658766f8306e4f5c6210306b4f7f75283057307e305930023053306e8a2d5b9a30674f5c62103055308c305f0020005000440046002030d530a130a430eb306f3001004100630072006f0062006100740020304a30883073002000410064006f00620065002000520065006100640065007200200035002e003000204ee5964d3067958b304f30533068304c3067304d307e305930023053306e8a2d5b9a306b306f30d530a930f330c8306e57cb30818fbc307f304c5fc59808306730593002gt KOR ltFEFFc7740020c124c815c7440020c0acc6a9d558c5ec0020ace0d488c9c80020c2dcd5d80020c778c1c4c5d00020ac00c7a50020c801d569d55c002000410064006f0062006500200050004400460020bb38c11cb97c0020c791c131d569b2c8b2e4002e0020c774b807ac8c0020c791c131b41c00200050004400460020bb38c11cb2940020004100630072006f0062006100740020bc0f002000410064006f00620065002000520065006100640065007200200035002e00300020c774c0c1c5d0c11c0020c5f40020c2180020c788c2b5b2c8b2e4002egt NLD (Gebruik deze instellingen om Adobe PDF-documenten te maken die zijn 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