The behavior of a model is witnessed by an observer, and the observer’s behavior is subsequently altered.

Observational learning is often referred to as social learning.

In this way, we learn a behavior simply by watching others perform it.

This type of learning can occur without our even being aware that our behavior has been influenced in this way.

A more-or-less instinctive or reflexive behavior triggered by the occurrence of the same behavior in another individual.

Example:You yawn. One by one, each of your

classmates also yawn.

One startled duck gets the entire flock started.

Laugh tracks in TV shows urge us to laugh.

We will orient ourselves towards the direction others are looking.

The probability of a behavior is changed because an individual’s attention is drawn to a particular item or location by the behavior of another individual.

Example:You notice a candy bowl in the waiting room after

a girl comes in and notices it.

It is particularly effective for increasing the probability of a behavior associated with eating, drinking, or mating.

Animals will often use scent marking at food sites.

Vicarious emotional conditioning is classically conditioning of emotional responses that result from seeing those emotional responses exhibited by others.

Expressions of fear in others may act as unconditioned stimuli (US) that elicit the emotion of fear in others.

Example:

Jellyfish: Look of fear in others Fear in oneselfNS US UR

Jellyfish Fear in oneselfCS CR

The emotional reactions of others may serve as conditioned stimuli (CSs) rather than USs.

Example:

Look of fear in others: Frightening events Fear in oneself

NS1 US URLook of fear in others Fear in oneself

CS1 CR

Jellyfish: Look of fear in others Fear in oneselfNS2 CS1 CR

Jellyfish Fear in oneselfCS2 CR

Thus, with respect to fear conditioning, the look of fear in others may function as either a US or a CS.

It is also possible that both processes are involved, and they may even combine to produce a stronger fear reaction.

Higher-order conditioning no doubt plays a major role in the conditioning of other, subtler emotions.

Example:Pleasant emotions after seeing others smile.

Acquisition through observational learning first requires that the observer pay attention to the behavior of the model.

What makes us pay attention?◦ Consequences of the model’s behavior.◦ Reinforcement received for the behavior of

attending to a model.◦ Sufficient skills to benefit from the modeling.◦ Personal characteristics of a model.

You can acquire information about a behavior without ever translating that into performance.

We are more likely (or less likely) to perform a modeled behavior when we have observed the model experience reinforcement (or punishment).

Example:A fragrance commercial depicts a woman as highly

attractive when she is wearing the fragrance.

We are more (or less) likely to perform a modeled behavior when we ourselves will experience reinforcement (or punishment)

Example:If you tell a joke and get a good laugh, you

will likely tell it again

Our history of reinforcement and punishment teaches us when it is appropriate to perform behaviors that have been modeled by others

Example: Smoking and swearing

Form of observational learning that involves the close duplication of a novel behavior.

Example:◦ Chelsea imitates another woman’s flirting

behavior to get into a club.

Children have a strong tendency to imitate.

Generalized imitation is a tendency to imitate a new modeled behavior with no specific reinforcement for doing so.

This is important for teaching children with developmental delays.

There has been considerable debate.

Most studies have examined the ability of animals to solve novel problems.

Example:The monkey must obtain food locked away

in a box.

The animals do not copy the actions of the model exactly.

Simple stimulus enhancement can result in a duplication of behavior that looks a lot like imitation.

Example:Kitten following its mother’s behavior.

Some researchers believe at least some animals are capable of true imitation.

Examples:Birds & Great Apes

Some argue that past research has utilized inappropriate criteria for judging imitative ability in animals.

Example:Adults performed similarly to chimpanzees

when given the same test.

Researchers have uncovered anecdotal evidence.

Example:In one camp, orangutans regularly copied the

complex actions of the humans.

Bandura is well known for his “Bobo doll studies” on aggression.

The research involved various types of models, various forms of demonstrated aggression, and children of varying ages.

Children who observed a model behaving aggressively toward the Bobo doll tended to demonstrate true imitation of the model’s aggressive behavior.

The effect was even stronger if the child had observed reinforcement of the adult’s aggression.

Filmed violence was as effective as live violence.

There has been a substantial change in children’s exposure to violent media.

The amount of violent media viewed in childhood is significantly correlated with aggressive and antisocial behavior 10 years later.

The amount of television watched in childhood is positively correlated with amount of aggressive or violent behavior toward others.

Males are more likely to be violence – females more likely to be victims of violence.

Certain neurons fire when other people behave

Amygdala handles emotional valence and fearful memories

Without an amygdala you can’t tell who others are feeling (especially poor recognition of facial expressions)

Whether written, spoken, or symbolic, we use it to communicate everything—meaning, motives, feelings, and beliefs.

Many animal species have evolved complex communication systems of their own.

Example:◦ Alarm calling of the vervet monkeys.

Reference is the use of arbitrary symbols to symbolically refer to objects that exist in the world.

Grammar is simply a set of rules that control the meaning of a string of words.

Productivity is the infinite number of expressions that can be generated to express novel or creative ideas.

Situational freedom means that it can be used in a variety of contexts and is not fixed to a particular situation.

Research has focused on teaching great apes to talk to us.

The first researchers tried to train chimps to speak by raising infant chimps in a home environment (cross-fostering).

Even though the chimpanzees thrived in the home environment, they never learned to talk.

“Speaking” is not something that chimps do naturally.

Viki had to tortuously manipulate her mouth with her hand.

Chimps lacked the vocal apparatus to produce comprehensible speech.

The next approach was to teach chimpanzees gestures.

Experimenters conducted cross-fostering studies on chimps’ ability to learn ASL.

Food rewards seemed to focus the chimps on producing the signs rather than on communicating with the researchers spontaneously.

They were capable of reference, but it is unclear if they exhibited grammar, productivity, and situational freedom.

The next series of experiments were conducted in laboratory situations, using visual symbols.

The chimps that learned Yerkish could respond to questions and ask for objects.

The chimps mastered reference but is it unclear if they could use grammar.

The chimps did not have much to talk about except obtaining food.

Parrots, gorillas and dolphins have relatively complex brains and are social animals.

Researchers have been training dolphins to use a symbolic language.

They have learned a vocabulary of symbols—ball, pipe, surfboard, spit, fetch, bottom, and so on—that refer to objects and actions.

California sea lions have also learned symbolic gestures and can respond accurately to three-word sentences.

A rule is a statement telling us that in a certain setting, if we perform a certain behavior, then a certain consequence will follow.

Examples:◦ “If you drive through a red light, you will get a

ticket”;◦ “If you study hard throughout the semester,

you will get a good grade”; and ◦ “If you are pleasant to others, they will be

pleasant to you”.

Rules (or instructions) are extremely useful for rapidly establishing appropriate patterns of behavior.

Example:◦ Teaching a person to press a button to

earn money whenever a light is turned on.

Parents devote considerable time to training young children to follow the rules.

Rule-governed behaviors are often less efficient than behavior that has been directly shaped by natural contingencies.

Example:Learning to play golf from a book or practice.

Rule-governed behaviors are sometimes surprisingly insensitive to the actual contingencies of reinforcement.

Example:Human participants who are told they can earn

money by pressing a button press too often.

Verbal descriptions of contingencies that we present to ourselves to influence our behavior.

Say–do correspondence occurs when there is a close match between what we say we are going to do and what we actually do at a later time.

Parents play a critical role in the development of this correspondence.

Personal rules are most effective when they establish a “bright boundary” between acceptable and unacceptable behavior.

We are more likely to succeed when the rule specifically sets out the conditions under which it has been obeyed or violated.

Example:◦ “I will study from 7:00 p.m. to 9:00 p.m. this evening”

rather than “I will study today.”

Personal process rules that specify when, where, and how a goal is to be accomplished can significantly affect the probability of accomplishing the goal.

Research has supported this approach.

In observational learning, an observer’s behavior is altered as a result of socially interacting with or observing the behavior of a model.

Two simple forms are contagious behavior and stimulus enhancement.

In classical conditioning of observational learning, the emotional cues exhibited by a model serve as CSs that elicit vicarious emotional responses.

In operant conditioning of observational learning, the observer must acquire information from the model.

Such acquisition depends on ◦ the consequences of the model’s behavior, ◦ the personal characteristics of the model, ◦ whether the observer is capable of understanding

and duplicating the modeled behavior, and ◦ whether the observer is explicitly reinforced for

attending to the modeled behavior.

Translating acquired knowledge into performance depends on whether the observer’s performance of the behavior is reinforced or punished.

Animals learn through observation but appear to be unable to truly imitate.

Examples of imitation can often be explained as examples of stimulus enhancement.

Bandura initially warned of the power of social learning of violent behavior in his classic “Bobodoll studies.”

More recent evidence suggests that exposure to media violence increases the likelihood that a person will behave violently, or perhaps become a victim of violence.

Defining characteristics of language include reference, grammar, situational freedom, and productivity.

Research programs have attempted to teach animals a human-like language.

Some animals can learn to use symbols to refer to objects and actions.

The research has also shown some evidence of grammatical ability.

A rule is a verbal description of a contingency, and behavior that is generated as a result of such rules is known as rule-governed behavior.

Rules allow us to learn about contingencies without having to directly experience those contingencies.

Rule-governed behavior is often less efficient than behavior that has been shaped by actual contingencies.

It is sometimes surprisingly insensitive to contingencies.

A personal rule (or self-instruction) is a description of a contingency that we verbalize to ourselves to influence our own behavior.