CHAPTER 12: MOTIVATION AND EMOTION MOTIVATION Def: an internal state that activates behavior and directs it toward a goal Not readily observable Can be intrinsic, extrinsic, or both INSTINCT THEORY Proposed by William McDougall (1908) Instincts: innate tendencies that determine behavior William James: human instincts include cleanliness, curiosity, parental love, sociability, and sympathy Do not explain behavior, they label it DRIVE-REDUCTION THEORY Motivation starts with a Need: biological or physiological requirement of an organism Need produces a Drive: state of tension produced by a need that motivates an organism toward a goal D-R CONTINUED Clark Hull Organisms are driven by Homeostasis: the tendency of all organisms to correct imbalances and deviations from their normal state Says all drives extend from biological needs Overlooks fact that some experiences are inherently pleasurable INCENTIVE THEORY Incentive: an external stimulus, reinforcer, or reward that motivates behavior Drives push toward a goal, incentives pull COGNITIVE THEORY Extrinsic motivation: engaging in activities that either reduce biological needs or help us obtain external incentives Intrinsic motivation: engaging in activities b/c they are personally rewarding or b/c they fulfill our beliefs or expectations Overjustification effect: intrinsic motivation declines when extrinsic motivation is used too much HUNGER Lateral hypothalamus (LH): part of the hypothalamus that produces hunger signals Ventromedial hypothalamus (VMH): part of the hypothalamus that can cause one to stop eating GLUCOSTATIC THEORY AND SET-POINT Hypothalamus monitors glucose in blood Low levels activate LH, pancreas releases insulin Set-point: the weight around which your day-to-day weight fluctuates PSYCHOLOGICAL FACTORS OF HUNGER External cues Sight, smell, social pressures, boredom, stress OBESITY Obese: 30% or more above your ideal weight Overweight: 20% 31.8% of all Americans are obese Obese tend to eat more based on external cues ACHIEVEMENT MOTIVE The desire to set challenging goals and persist in reaching those goals despite obstacles, frustrations, or setbacks McClellands Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) High achievers: less need for intimacy; prefer to associate with experts who will help them achieve FEAR OF FAILURE Choose to take easy tasks or impossible tasks w/no chance of success Make excuses All to maintain a positive self- image FEAR OF SUCCESS Martina Horner Found fear of success was greatest in women with above average intelligence Exists in both sexes EXPECTANCY-VALUE THEORY J.W. Atkinson Expectancy: estimated likelihood of success Value: what the goal is worth to you You weigh these when deciding COMPETENCY THEORY We choose tasks of moderate difficulty to prove or improve our competency MASLOWS HIERARCHY OF NEEDS Abraham Maslow (humanist) Levels of needs Fundamental needs: biological drives Psychological needs: urge to belong, to give and receive love, and to acquire self- esteem Self-actualization needs: needs to fulfill ones unique potential Research does not support claim that lower levels must be met first What? You gonna cry about it? EXPRESSING EMOTIONS Emotion: a set of complex reactions to stimuli involving subjective feelings, physical arousal, and observable behavior Charles Darwin said that all people express certain basic feelings in the same way Some facial expressions are innate EXPRESSING CONTINUED Carroll Izard: coding system for assessing emotional states James Averill: many everyday emotional reactions are the result of social expectations and consequences---emotions can be changed by learning Expressions help describe emotion, but do not explain cause JAMES-LANGE THEORY William James and Carl Lange Emotions are the perceptions of certain internal bodily changes Body reactions form the basis of labeling and experiencing emotion Critics: you dont run first and then feel fear Physiological changes may increase intensity of feeling CANNON-BARD THEORY Walter B. Cannon and Philip Bard Certain experiences activate the thalamus and thalamus sends signals to the cortex and organs Brain sends 2 signals: arousal and experience of emotion Thalamus is not involved in emotion; the hypothalamus is THE SCHACHTER-SINGER EXPERIMENT Stanley Schachter and Jerome Singer Emotion depends on a persons perception of the social situation When we dont understand our physical reactions, we take cues from the environment on how to react Perception and arousal create emotion OPPONENT-PROCESS THEORY Richard Solomon and John Corbit Homeostatic theory of emotional reactions based on classical conditioning involving the sympathetic and parasympathetic NS When you remove a stimulus that excites one emotion, a swing is produced to an opposite emotion Emotions and physical reactions are intertwined