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MotivationMotivation

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What is Motivation?What is Motivation?Motive – A motive is defined an inner state that energizes, activates (or moves), and directs (or channels) the behaviour of individual towards certain goals.

Motives and Needs are different.

Motivation – While motives are energizers of actions, motivation is the actual action, (that is, work behaviour), itself.

Motivating is a term that implies that one person induces another to engage in action by ensuring that a channel to direct the motive of the individual becomes available and accessible to the individual.

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Motive, Motivating and MotivationMotive, Motivating and Motivation

Motive Motivating Motivation

Needs in individual

Setting up proper stimuli in the environment to activate the motives in individual

Engagement of individuals in work behaviour

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Theories of MotivationTheories of Motivation

Content Theories of Motivation

The content theories of motivation are basically concerned with the need patterns of the individuals.

Cognitive or Process Theories of Motivation

Cognitive models of motivation are based on the notion that individual make conscious decisions about their behaviour.

Reinforcement Theory

This theory uses the principles of learning proposed by Skinner.

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Content Theories – MaslowContent Theories – Maslow

Self-Actualization

Physiological

Safety

Belongingness

Esteem

Maslow believed that each person has an essential nature that “presses” to emerge. In his view, we all have higher-level growth needs – such as self-actualization and understanding of ourselves – but that these higher needs only assume a dominant role in our lives after our more primitive needs are satisfied.

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Alderfer’s ERG TheoryAlderfer’s ERG Theory

Growth

Relatedness

Existence

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Herzberg’s Two Factor ModelHerzberg’s Two Factor ModelHygiene factors

Motivators

Opposite of Dissatisfaction is NOT SatisfactionOpposite of Dissatisfaction is NOT Satisfaction

No Satisfaction Satisfaction

Dissatisfaction No Dissatisfaction

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Cognitive Theories – Cognitive Theories – Adam’s Equity TheoryAdam’s Equity Theory

Adam (1965) defined inequity as an injustice perceived by a person when he compares the ratio of his outcomes (rewards) to his inputs (efforts), with the ratio of another comparable person’s outcomes to inputs, and finds that they are not equal.

Outcomes for person Outcomes for other

Inputs of person Inputs of other

>PositiveInequity

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Adam’s Equity Theory…Adam’s Equity Theory…

Outcomes for person Outcomes for other

Inputs of person Inputs of other<

NegativeInequity

Consequences of Inequity1. The person can alter inputs (efforts).2. The person can try to alter outcomes or rewards.3. The person can cognitively distort inputs or outcomes.4. The person might quit the job.5. The person could try to influence the other individual to

reduce inputs.6. The person might change the level of comparison.

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Need and Expectation of people Need and Expectation of people at workat work

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A Basic model of FrustrationA Basic model of Frustration

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Expectancy TheoryExpectancy Theory

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Vroom’s VIE Model of MotivationVroom’s VIE Model of Motivation

ValenceValence – the strength of an individual’s preference for a particular outcome. In order for the valence to be positive, the person must prefer attaining the outcomes to not attaining it.

Another major input into the valence is the instrumentality of the first-level outcome in obtaining a desired second-level outcome.

Expectancy in Vroom’s theory is the probability (ranging from 0 to 1)

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Vroom’s VIE Model of MotivationVroom’s VIE Model of Motivation

Attempted High Performance Efforts

Attempted Acceptable Performance Efforts

High Performance

Acceptable Performance

Acceptable Performance

Sub-Standard Performance

Choice 1

Choice 2

Effort AlternativesE P

Probabilty

Possible Performance Results

.6

.4

.7

.3Fig: Expectancy perceptions on effort levels leading to performance

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Vroom’s model…Vroom’s model…

High Performance

Acceptable Performance

Sub-Standard Performance

Bonus

Recognition

Stress

Bonus

Recognition

Stress

Bonus

Recognition

Stress

Performance Alternatives

Outcomes

.8.6

.7

.3.4

.2

.01.01

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P OContengencies

Fig: Instrumentality Perceptions: Probabilities of Performance leading to Rewards

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Vroom’s model…Vroom’s model…

High Performance

Effort AlternativesOutcomes

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Performance Results

Fig: Choice Decisions based on Force calculations

Choice 1: Attempted High Performance Efforts

Bonus

Recognition

Stress

Bonus

Recognition

Stress

Acceptable Performance

.4

.6

.7

.3.4

.2

+.8

+.4

-.5

+.8

+.4

-.5

E P Probability

P R

Probability

Valence

VE P P RX X+.384

+.114

-.21

+.096

+.064

-.04

Force for Choice 1

= +.438

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Vroom’s model…Vroom’s model…

Acceptable Performance

Effort AlternativesOutcomes

.7

.3

Performance Results

Fig: Choice Decisions based on Force calculations

Choice 2: Attempted Acceptable Performance Efforts

Bonus

Recognition

Stress

Bonus

Recognition

Stress

Sub-standard Performance

.3

.4

.2

.01.01

.6

+.8

+.4

-.5

+.8

+.4

-.5

E P Probability

P R

Probability

Valence

VE P P RX X+.168

+.112

-.07

+.0024

+.0012

-.09

Force for Choice 2

= +.1236

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The Porter and Lawler ModelThe Porter and Lawler Model

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Porter & Lawler – Porter & Lawler – Contribution to Work MotivationContribution to Work Motivation

The expectancy models provide certain guidelines that can be followed by human resource managers. For example, on the front-end (the relationship between motivation and performance), it has been suggested that the following barriers must be overcome:

1. Doubts about ability, skills, or knowledge.

2. The physical or practical possibility of the job.

3. The interdependence of the job with other people or activities.

4. Ambiguity surrounding the job requirements.

In addition, on the back end (the relationship between performance and satisfaction), guidelines such as the following have been suggested:

1. Determine what rewards each employee values

2. Define desired performance

3. Make desired performance attainable

4. Link valued rewards to performance

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Reinforcement TheoryReinforcement TheoryReinforcement theory suggests that it is possible to predict behaviour without trying to understand the internal thought process of individuals. Reinforcement theorists believe that environmental consequences mould the behaviour of people.

Reinforcement StrategiesPositive ReinforcementNegative Reinforcement –Negative reinforcement increases the frequency and strength of desired behaviour by making it contingent upon the avoidance of undesirable consequences for the person.

PunishmentExtinctionShaping