Chapter 13Motivation

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What Is Motivation?• Motivation is the set of forces that initiates,

directs, and makes people persist in their efforts to accomplish a goal

• Initiation of effort is concerned with the choices that people make about how much effort to put forth in their jobs.

• Direction of effort is concerned with the choices that people make in deciding where to put forth effort in their jobs.

• Persistence of effort is concerned with the choices that people make about how long they will put forth effort.

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The Basics of Motivation

• Effort and performance

• Need satisfaction

• Extrinsic and intrinsic rewards

• How to motivate with the basic model of motivation

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A Basic Model of Work Motivation and Performance

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Effort and Performance

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• Job performance– how well someone performs the job– Motivation

• effort put forth on the job

– Ability• capability to do the job(knowledge, skills, talent0

– Situational Constraints• external factors affecting performance(tools, policies, resources)

• Since job performance is a multiplicative function of motivation times ability times situational constraints, job performance will suffer if any one of these components is weak.

Job Performance = Motivation x Ability x Situational Constraints

Need Satisfaction

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• Needs– the physical or psychological requirements that must be met to ensure

survival and well-being• A person’s unmet need creates an uncomfortable, internal state

of tension that must be resolved. • People are motivated by unmet needs• Managers must learn what those unmet needs are, and address

them. • Once a need is met, it no longer motivates. • Three approaches:

– Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs– Alderfer’s ERG Theory– McClelland’s Learned Needs Theory

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Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs

EsteemRecognition, achievement

EsteemRecognition, achievement

BelongingnessFriendship, social interaction

BelongingnessFriendship, social interaction

Safety

Physical and economic

Safety

Physical and economic

Physiological

Food and water

Physiological

Food and water

Self-ActualizationRealizing your potential

Self-ActualizationRealizing your potential

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Aldefer’s ERG Theory

RelatednessBelongingnessRelatedness

Belongingness

ExistenceSafety and physiological

ExistenceSafety and physiological

GrowthEsteem, self-actualization

GrowthEsteem, self-actualization

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McClelland’s Learned Needs Theory

AchievementNeed to accomplish goals

AchievementNeed to accomplish goals

AffiliationNeed to be liked

AffiliationNeed to be liked

PowerNeed to influence others

PowerNeed to influence others

Needs Classification

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McClelland’sLearned Needs

Alderfer’sERG

Maslow’sHierarchy

Higher-Order Needs

Lower-Order Needs

Self-ActualizationEsteemBelongingness

SafetyPhysiological

GrowthRelatedness

Existence

PowerAchievementAffiliation

“What Leads to Effort?”

• Higher-order needs will not motivate as long as lower-order needs remain unsatisfied.

• It’s difficult to predict which higher-order needs will motivate employees’ behavior.

• The relative importance of the various needs may change over time.

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Predictions of Need Theories• Maslow

– needs are arranged in a hierarchy from low to high; people are motivated by their lowest unsatisfied needs

• Alderfer– people can be motivated by more than one need at a

time

• McClelland– the degree to which particular needs motivate varies

from person to person

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A Basic Model of Work Motivation and Performance

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Extrinsic and Intrinsic Rewards

• Extrinsic rewards– tangible and visible to others and are

given to employees contingent on the performance of specific tasks or behaviors

• Intrinsic rewards– the natural rewards associated with

performing a task or activity for its own sake

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Extrinsic Rewards

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Extrinsic Rewards motivate people to:

• Join the organization• Regularly attend their jobs• Perform their jobs well• Stay with the organization

Intrinsic Rewards

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Intrinsic Rewards include:

• Sense of accomplishment

• Feeling of responsibility

• Chance to learn something new

• The fun that comes from performing an interesting, challenging, and engaging task

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The Most Important Rewards • Good benefits

• Health insurance

• Job security

• Vacation time

• Interesting work

• Learning new skills

• Independent work situations

Extrinsic

Intrinsic

Motivating with the Basics

• Start by asking people what their needs are

• Satisfy lower-order needs first

• Expect peoples needs to change

• As needs change and lower-order needs are satisfied, create opportunities for employees to satisfy higher-order needs

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Adding Rewards to the Model

Equity Theory

People will be motivated at work when they perceive that they are being treated fairly. In particular, equity theory stresses the importance of

perceptions.

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Components of Equity Theory

• Inputs– employee contributions to the organization

• Outcomes– rewards employees receive from the

organization

• Referents– comparison others

• Outcome/input (O/I) ratio

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Outcomesself

Inputsself

Outcomesreferent

Inputsreferent

=

InequityWhen a person’s O/I ratio differs from their referent’s O/I ratio

• Kinds of inequity– Underreward

• your O/I ratio is worse than yours referent’s O/I ratio

• experience anger or frustration– Overreward

• your O/I ratio is better than yours referent’s I/O ratio

• experience guilt

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Reacting to Inequity

• Decreasing or withholding inputs

• Increasing outcomes

• Rationalize or distort inputs to outcomes

• Changing the referent

• Employees may leave© 2015 Cengage Learning13-2

Adding Equity Theory to the Model

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Motivating with Equity Theory

• Start by looking for and correcting major inequities

• Reduce employees’ inputs • Make sure decision-making processes

are fair– distributive justice

• The degree to which outcomes and rewards are fairly distributed

– procedural justice• The fairness of the procedures used to make reward

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Expectancy Theory

People will be motivated to the extent to which they believe that their efforts

will lead to good performance, that good performance will be rewarded,

and that they will be offered attractive rewards.

People make conscious choices about their motivation

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Components of Expectancy Theory

Motivation = Valence x Expectancy x Instrumentality

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Expectancy Theory

• Valence– The attractiveness or desirability of various

rewards or outcomes.

• Expectancy– The perceived relationship between effort and

performance.

• Instrumentality– The perceived relationship between performance

and rewards.

• Motivation=Valence x Expectancy x Instrumentality

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Motivating with Expectancy Theory

• Systematically gather information to find out what employees want from their jobs

• Take specific steps to link rewards to individual performance in a clear and understandable way

• Empower employees to make decisions if management really wants them to believe that their hard work and effort will lead to good performance

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Adding Expectancy Theory to the Model

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Reinforcement Theory

Behavior is a function of its consequences, behaviors followed by positive

consequences will occur more frequently, and behaviors followed by negative

consequences, or not followed by positive consequences, will occur less frequently.

•Reinforcement•Reinforcement contingencies•Schedule of reinforcement

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Reinforcement Theory

• Reinforcement has two parts: reinforcement contingencies and schedules of reinforcement. – Reinforcement contingencies are the cause-

and-effect relationships between the performance of specific behaviors and specific consequences.

– A schedule of reinforcement is the set of rules regarding reinforcement contingencies, such as which behaviors will be reinforced, which consequences will follow those behaviors, and the schedule by which those consequences will be delivered.

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Reinforcement Contingencies

• Positive reinforcement– Follow behaviors with desirable consequences

(strengthens behavior, increases its frequency)• Negative reinforcement(Avoidance learning)

– When employees perform a specific behavior to avoid an unpleasant consequence. (strengthens behavior, increases its frequency)

• Punishment– Weakens behavior by following behaviors with unpleasant

consequences(weakens behavior, less likely to occur.)• Extinction

– positive consequence no longer allowed to follow a previously reinforced behavior. (weakens behavior, less likely to occur)

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Schedules for Delivering Reinforcement

• Continuous reinforcement schedules– a consequence follows every instance of a behavior. – For example, employees working on a piece-rate pay system

earn money (consequence) for every part they manufacture (the behavior). The more they produce, they more they earn.

• Intermittent reinforcement schedules– consequences are delivered after a specified or average time

has elapsed or after a specified or average number of behaviors has occurred.

– there are four types of intermittent reinforcement schedules. – Two of these are based on time and are called interval

reinforcement schedules, while the other two, known as ratio schedules, are based on behaviors

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Intermittent Reinforcement Schedules

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VariableVariable

Interval(Time)

Interval(Time)

Fixed

Ratio(Behavior)

Ratio(Behavior)

consequences followbehavior after a fixed time has elapsedEx. paychecks

consequences followbehavior after a fixed time has elapsedEx. paychecks

Consequences followbehavior after differenttimes that vary aroundan average timeEx. Bonus receives at 80 or 100 days on a 90 dayschedule

Consequences followbehavior after differenttimes that vary aroundan average timeEx. Bonus receives at 80 or 100 days on a 90 dayschedule

Consequences follow a specific number of behaviorsEx. Bonus after 10 sales9 sales would notreceive a bonus

Consequences follow a specific number of behaviorsEx. Bonus after 10 sales9 sales would notreceive a bonus

Consequences followa different number ofbehaviors that vary around an average numberEx. Bonus after 7 or 11 or9 sales

Consequences followa different number ofbehaviors that vary around an average numberEx. Bonus after 7 or 11 or9 sales

Motivating with Reinforcement Theory

• Five steps of reinforcement theory:– Identify, measure, analyze, intervene,

evaluate

• Don’t reinforce the wrong behaviors

• Correctly administer punishment at the appropriate time

• Choose the simplest and most effective schedule of reinforcement

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Reinforcement Theory

• Identify means identifying critical, observable, performance-related behaviors

• Measure means measuring the baseline frequencies of these behaviors

• Analyze means analyzing the causes and consequences of these behaviors

• Intervene means changing the organization by using positive and negative reinforcement to increase the frequency of these critical behaviors

• Evaluate means evaluating the extent to which the intervention actually changed workers' behavior.

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Adding Reinforcement Theory to the Model

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Goal-Setting Theory

People will be motivated to the extent that they accept specific, challenging

goals and receive feedback that indicates their progress toward goal

achievement.

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Components of Goal-Setting Theory

• Goal specificity– the extent to which goals are detailed, exact, and

unambiguous

• Goal difficulty– is the extent to which a goal is hard or challenging to

accomplish

• Goal acceptance– the extent to which people consciously understand and

agree to goals

• Performance feedback– information about the quality or quantity of past

performance and indicates whether progress is being made toward the accomplishment of a goal

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Motivating with Goal-Setting Theory

• Assign employees specific, challenging goals

• Make sure workers truly accept organizational goals

• Provide frequent, specific, performance-related feedback

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Adding Goal-Setting Theory to the Model

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Motivating with the Integrated Model