chapter 13: motivation and emotion...... motivation and emotion case study: ... motivation answers...
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Motivation and Emotion
Original Content Copyright by HOLT McDougal. Additions and changes to the original content are the responsibility of the instructor.
Chapter 13: Motivation and Emotion
Case Study: The Happiness of Nations
Section 1: The Psychology of Motivation
Section 2: Biological Needs: Focus on Hunger
Section 3: Psychological Needs
Section 4: Emotions
Simulation: Applying What You’ve Learned
Motivation and Emotion
Original Content Copyright by HOLT McDougal. Additions and changes to the original content are the responsibility of the instructor.
We often hear statistics about how nations rank against
each other in areas such as economy, population, or size.
But we rarely hear about how happy a nation’s people are.
One psychologist set out to learn which nation had the
happiest citizens and what made them that way. Denmark
leads the list, and the United States appears in the top 20
percent. The happiest countries shared characteristics
such as personal and political liberty, and confidence in the
honesty and efficacy of the government. Some
governments have worked to increase the happiness levels
of their nations.
Case Study: The Happiness of Nations
Motivation and Emotion
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The Psychology of Motivation
• Motivations can be analyzed as needs and drives.
• Psychologists have developed several different theories
of motivation, including instinct theory, drive-reduction
theory, humanistic theory, and sociocultural theory.
Section 1 at a Glance
Motivation and Emotion
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Motivation answers why people do the things they do. A
motive is a stimulus that moves a person to behave in
ways designed to accomplish a specific goal.
• Need: a condition in which we
require something we lack
• Biological needs: filled to
survive; oxygen, food, sleep
• Psychological needs: not
necessarily based on
deprivation and can be learned;
achievement, self-esteem
Needs
Motivation
• Needs give rise to drives:
forces that motivate an
organism to take action
• Biological need for water gives
rise to the thirst drive
• Biological drives are
experienced as psychological
Drives
Motivation and Emotion
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Drive-reduction Theory
• People and animals experience a drive arising for a need as an
unpleasant tension. They learn to do whatever will reduce that
tension, such as eating to reduce the hunger drive.
• Homeostasis: tendency to maintain an internal state of equilibrium
• Drive-reduction theory does not explain all motivation.
Instinct Theory
• Instinct: behavior patterns genetically transmitted from generation to
generation
• Also called “fixed-action patterns”
• Not all animal behavior is purely instinctive, some is learned.
• Psychologists once believed all human action was instinctual, but
today most do not.
Theories of Motivation
Motivation and Emotion
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Sociocultural Theory
• Even if basic drives such as hunger are inborn, cultural experiences
and factors influence the behavior that people use to satisfy those
drives.
Humanistic Theory
• Humanists argue that humans are also motivated by the conscious
desire for personal growth and artistic fulfillment. In fact, they may
outweigh our drive to meet more basic needs.
• Self-actualization: the need to become what one believes he or she
is capable of being
• Maslow believed that striving to become or do something meaningful
is as essential to human well-being as food. He created a hierarchy
of needs, from basic physiological to self-actualization.
• Critics argue the hierarchy does not apply to everyone.
Theories of Motivation
Motivation and Emotion
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Biological Needs: Focus on Hunger
• Biological needs such as hunger involve both
physiological and psychological factors.
• Obesity has many causes but also many solutions.
Section 2 at a Glance
Motivation and Emotion
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Biological needs are based mainly on body tissue needs,
such as the needs for food, water, air, temperature
regulation, and pain avoidance. They can be complex
because they also involve psychological factors.
• The acts of chewing and
swallowing provide certain
sensations that help satisfy the
hunger drive.
• The hunger drive is usually fully
satisfied when the body digests
food.
The Role of the Mouth
The Hunger Drive
• It was once believed that
hunger pangs were the cause of
hunger.
• Now researchers know that
hunger pangs play a role in
hunger but are not the main
factor in signaling hunger.
The Role of the Stomach
Motivation and Emotion
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The Hypothalamus
• The level of sugar in the blood and
the hypothalamus are key
influences on feelings of hunger.
• The hypothalamus is a part of the
brain that regulates body
temperature and various aspects of
psychological motivation and
emotion.
• Different parts of the hypothalamus
control the urge to begin eating and
to stop eating.
Psychological Influences
• In human beings, psychological as
well as biological factors affect
feelings of hunger.
• Learning that certain amounts of
food or drink will produce a feeling
of well-being and relaxation can
cause people to eat and drink
when they feel upset.
Motivation and Emotion
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• More than 6 out of 10 adult
Americans are overweight, while 3
out of 10 are obese: weighing
more than 30 percent greater than
their recommended weight.
• Obese people suffer more illnesses
than non-obese, including heart
disease, stroke, diabetes, gall
bladder disease, gout, respiratory
problems, and certain kinds of
cancer.
• Weight control is often elusive for
most obese people.
Causes of Obesity
• It seems to run in families, but is
not necessarily inherited.
• Certain genes may prevent the
message of having eaten enough
to reach the brain.
• Genes also determine how many
fat cells a person has.
• Genes determine metabolic rate.
• Psychological factors such as
stress and personal circumstances
such as family gathering can
increase food intake.
Obesity
Motivation and Emotion
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Losing Weight
• Psychologists and other
professionals have worked to
devise strategies for weight loss.
• Not everyone should lose weight.
• A sound diet is one that is sensible,
realistic, and well planned.
• Eating foods that are low in fat sets
a good precedent for a lifetime of
healthful eating.
• Nutritional information is important.
• Exercising helps burn calories and
increase metabolism.
Keeping Weight Off
• Many people who lose weight
struggle not to regain weight.
• Maintaining a new, more healthy
weight requires ongoing work.
• An increase in self-esteem and the
adoption of a new, life-long
approach to eating and exercising
are important factors in keeping
weight off.
Motivation and Emotion
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Psychological Needs
• All people seek sensory stimulation.
• Some people feel driven to high achievement.
• People seek to balance their beliefs, actions, and
thoughts.
• Humans are motivated to be social.
Section 3 at a Glance
Motivation and Emotion
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• We experience psychological
needs as well as biological needs.
• Some psychological needs
motivate us to reduce tension or
stimulation. Other psychological
needs actually lead us to increase
the amount of stimulation we
experience.
• Stimulus motives: the desires for
stimulation
Sensory Deprivation
• Sensory deprivation: the absence
of stimulation
• Students who were placed in a
situation of sensory deprivation
became bored and irritable,
reported hallucinations, and quit the
study early.
• They reported extreme boredom
and disorientation for some time.
Stimulus Motives
Motivation and Emotion
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Exploration and
Manipulation
• Most people are motivated to
explore their immediate
surroundings.
• Once people become sufficiently
comfortable with their environment,
they seek new stimulation.
• Do people and animals explore and
manipulate their environment
because these activities help them
meet the needs for food and
safety? Or do they explore simply
for the sake of new stimulation?
• Many psychologists believe that
exploration and manipulation are
reinforcing in and of themselves.
Motivation and Emotion
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Achievement motivation: the drive to get ahead, tackle
challenging situations, and meet high personal standards of
success
People with higher achievement motivation make better grades
and make more money than others.
• Performance goals: specific goal;
extrinsic rewards (good grades,
good income)
• Learning goals: knowledge goal;
intrinsic rewards (self-
satisfaction)
Types of Goals
Achievement Motivation
• The attitude of parents and
caregivers plays a crucial role.
• Parents may encourage a child
to find his or her own answer, or
may reward good grades and
punish bad grades.
Development of Achievement
Motivation
Motivation and Emotion
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Cognitive Consistency
• Cognitive consistency: thinking and behaving in a way that fits
what an individual believes and how others expect that individual to
think and behave.
• Most people prefer that the “pieces” of their lives fit together, and feel
better when the important relationships in their lives are stable and
orderly.
• Many psychological needs are aimed at reducing stimulation or
tension, especially in interactions with other people. These types of
psychological needs are based on people’s need to maintain a
balance between their personal beliefs, actions, and thoughts.
Making Things Fit
Motivation and Emotion
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Cognitive-dissonance Theory
• Cognitive-dissonance theory: people are motivated to reduce the
inconsistency of their thoughts and behaviors.
• Suggests that people having a basic disagreement may seek to
reduce the dissonance by trying to pretend the differences between
them are unimportant or even by denying that the differences exist
Balance Theory
• Balance theory: people need to organize their perceptions, opinions,
and beliefs in a harmonious manner.
• Maintain cognitive balance by holding consistent views and having
friends who hold similar views.
• When someone we care about disagrees with us, an uncomfortable
state of imbalance arises.
Motivation and Emotion
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• Affiliation: the desire to join with others and be part of something
larger than oneself
• People make friends, join groups, and participate in activities with
others.
• Affiliation motivation helps keep families, groups, and nations
together.
• Sometimes a strong need to affiliate may be a sign of anxiety.
• The desire to affiliate with a group can lead people to disregard their
own perceptions.
Affiliation
Motivation and Emotion
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Emotions
• Emotions have biological, cognitive, and behavioral
components.
• Facial expressions of emotion are the same around the
world.
• Psychologists have developed several different theories
of emotion.
Section 4 at a Glance
Motivation and Emotion
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• Emotions: states of feeling
• Positive emotions such as happiness and love make life worth living,
while negative emotions such as fear and sadness can make life
difficult.
• Some emotions arise in response to a situation.
• Emotions have biological, cognitive, and behavioral components.
• Theories try to group emotions into different categories or determine
how many emotions there are.
The Nature of Emotions
Motivation and Emotion
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Anger
• A common response to an insult or attack, it can make a person seem
out of control.
• Most people get angry at an alleged offense, especially those that
seem deliberate or thoughtless.
• Small annoyances such as a loud noise or bad odor can cause anger.
• Being assertive instead of hostile can diffuse anger.
Happiness
• James said that the motive behind everything that people do is “how to
gain, how to keep, how to recover happiness.”
• People who are happy think the world is a happier, safer place, make
decisions more readily, and report greater satisfaction with their lives.
• Happier people are more likely to help others.
Motivation and Emotion
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• People can “read” other people’s faces and tell what emotions they
are feeling by their expressions.
• Cross-cultural evidence suggest that facial expressions are probably
inborn.
• Certain facial expressions seem to suggest the same emotions in all
people.
• Smiling appears to be a universal sign of friendliness and approval,
while baring the teeth may be a universal sign of anger.
• Darwin believed that the universal recognition of facial expressions
had survival value by communicating motivation.
Facial Expressions
Motivation and Emotion
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The Commonsense Approach
• A person quickly interprets a situation, and the interpretation triggers
body sensations that signal a feeling, or emotion. The emotion, in
turn, triggers a behavior.
• Most psychologists agree that thoughts (the appraisal of a situation)
come before feelings and behavior.
• Three important theories of emotion are the James-Lange theory, the
Cannon-Bard theory, and the theory of cognitive appraisal.
The Opponent-process Theory
• Opponent-process theory: emotions often come in pairs, with one
emotion being followed by its opposite.
• Extreme sadness may follow extreme happiness.
Theories of Emotion
Motivation and Emotion
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The James-Lange Theory
• People’s emotions follow, rather than cause, behavioral reactions.
• Certain situations trigger reactions, called instinctive bodily response
patterns.
• Suggests people can change their feelings by changing behaviors.
The Cannon-Bard Theory
• Emotions accompany the bodily responses that are aroused by an
external stimulus.
• Situations trigger both behaviors and emotions at the same time.
The Theory of Cognitive Appraisal
• All emotions have similar bodily response patterns.
• Maintains that the way people label an emotion depends on their
cognitive appraisal of the situation.
Motivation and Emotion
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• The theories of emotion are quite different from each other.
• It is possible that a behavioral reaction pattern could come before,
along with, or after an emotional response.
• The truth may lie in a combination of theories.
• In short, people are complex, thinking beings who evaluate
information both from their personal situations and from their bodily
responses to those situations.
Evaluation of the Theories