Chapter 13 States of ConsciousnessConsciousness Dual processingBiological/Circadian rhythms Selective attention Manifest/Latent contentNREM and REM sleep Inattentional BlindnessTheories of sleep Change blindnessSleep disorders Drug rebound effectDreams/theories Sensory deprivation tankHypnosis Drugs and their effects

What is consciousness?• Consciousness is your immediate awareness of

thoughts, sensations, memories• What are states of consciousness?• Perception, memory, thinking, language, and

attitudes all operate on two levels- a conscious and an unconscious

• When you are operating in both the conscious or deliberate mode while simultaneously operating in the unconscious or automatic mode, researchers call this dual processing. What are some examples?

• What are automatic behaviors?

• Through selective attention, your conscious awareness focuses on only a very limited aspect of your experience

• How do automatic behaviors influence selective attention?

• Many traffic accidents occur because we believe that we can perform multiple activities while selectively attending to the activity of driving

• Sometimes we may be so engaged in one activity or behavior, selective attention, that we may miss important details

• Magicians are successful at diverting our attention elsewhere, making us blind to the “trick” Inattentional blindness

• Change blindness occurs when we are so focused on a behavior, activity, person; we miss a change elsewhere

Biological Rhythms and Sleep• Modern sleep research began with the invention of the

EEG and the discovery that sleep is a state marked by distinct physiological processes.

• The invention of the EEG in the 1920s gave sleep researchers and important tool for measuring the rhythmic electrical activity of the brain.

• The discovery of the rapid-eye-movement sleep, REM sleep, in the early 1950s led researchers to distinguish between two types of sleep…REM and Nrem sleep

• Circadian rhythms are the cyclical daily fluctuations in many different biological processes. The cycle is about 24 hours long.

• The suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN) is a tiny cluster of neurons in the hypothalamus in the brain that governs the timing of circadian rhythms

• Sunlight sets the SCN, and suppresses the release of melatonin; decreased light increases the production of melatonin, a pineal gland hormone that produces sleepiness.

• Circadian Rhythms and Sunlight: The 24.2 Hour day• Under free running conditions people drift toward the

natural rhythm of the suprachiasmatic nucleus (which is about 24.2 hours)

• When people leave free-running conditions, sunlight “resets” the biological clock within days, and their circadian rhythms become synchronized again.

• You experience jet lag when your circadian rhythms are drastically out of synchronization with daylight and darkness cues.

• REM sleep, or rapid-eye-movement is active sleep because it is associated with heightened body and brain activity. dreaming occurs

• NREM sleep, non-rapid-eye-movement sleep is referred to as quiet sleep because the body’s physiological functions and brain activity slow down.

• NREM sleep has 4 stages the progression takes 50-70 minutes

• Stage 1-lasts a few minutes, very relaxed brain waves slow theta waves

• Hypnagogic hallucinations are the vivid hallucinations experienced at the beginning of sleep, feelings of falling.

• Stage 2- represents the onset of true sleep, brief bursts of brain activity that last a second or two, called sleep spindles, and K complexes, delta waves begin to emerge

• Stages 3 and 4-deep sleep slow wave sleep and are very similar the sleeper is oblivious to the world

• During REM sleep, the visual and motor neurons in the sleeper’s brain activate repeatedly just as they do during wakefulness, the sleeper’s eyes dart back and for the behind closed eyelids and voluntary muscle movement is suppressed.

• Heart rate, blood pressure, and respirations can fluctuate up and down, and muscle twitches occur.

• Each cycle averages about 90 minutes.• Yawning regulates and increases your level of

arousal. Yawing is not contagious, thinking about yawning may trigger the behavior.

• Caffeine promotes wakefulness by blocking adenosine receptors-slow-wave NREM sleep reduces adenosine levels.

• Sleep paralysis is a temporary condition in which a person is unable to move upon waking in the morning or during REM sleep.

• Deaf people have been known to sign, sleep sign during sleep.

• Sleep researchers have been unsuccessful in having extended dialogues with people who talk in their sleep.

• Sleep walking has a genetic component• Over the course of our lives, the quantity and quality of

sleep change considerably, • From birth onward, total sleep time, REM sleep, and NREM

sleep slowly decrease.• The amount of time spent in slow-wave NREM sleep (stages

3 and 4) also decreases over the lifespan.

Why do we sleep?• There is a biological need for sleep.• Sleep deprivation studies, people who go without sleep for extended

periods of time experience disruptions in mood can become volatile, mental ability, reaction time, perceptual skills, and complex motor skills.

• Sleep restriction results in diminished concentration, vigilance, reaction time, memory skills, and the ability to gauge risks.

• When people are selectively deprived of REM sleep, they experience REM rebound and the same for NREM (stages 3 and 4) sleep.

• How can sleep restriction be dangerous?• The restorative theory of sleep suggests that sleep promotes

physiological processes that restore and rejuvenate the body and the mind.

• NREM sleep is important for restoring the body.• REM sleep is important for restoring mental and brain functions.• The adaptive theory of sleep, or evolutionary theory of sleep, suggests

that wave patterns have evolved over time as a way of preventing a particular species from interacting with the environment when it is too dangerous to do so.

Effect of Sleep deprivation

Sleep Disorders• What is the most common sleep disorder?• The most common sleep disorder among adults is insomnia. • Insomnia is the inability to fall asleep, stay asleep, or feel adequately rested by

sleep.• Which sex suffers more from insomnia?• Women• Obstructive sleep apnea is the second most common sleep disorder, especially for

overweight men over 50.• Obstructive sleep apnea is a disorder in which the sleeper repeatedly stops

breathing during sleep.• OSA tends to run in families, is 2x as common in men than in women, and

increases other serious health risks.• Narcolepsy is a chronic lifelong condition, typically beginning in adolescence, and

is characterized by excessive daytime sleepiness, often causing lapses of sleep in the daytime.

• Narcolepsy affects males and females equally, and is characterized by sleep paralysis when going to sleep or waking from sleep.

• There are several factors that play a role including chromosomal, brain, neurotransmitter, and immune system abnormalities. there is no cure.

• What are some parasomnias?• 1.night terrors• 2.sleep sex• 3. sleep walking• 4. sleep eating• Parasomnias-undesired arousal or actions during sleep, the parasomniacs

arise during NREM sleep (stages ¾), occur most commonly in children, have a genetic predisposition, can be triggered by many things, researchers do not know what all is involved with the parasomias.

• Night terrors, or sleep terrors, are characterized by sharply increased physiological arousal, intense fear and panic, frightening hallucinations and no recall of the episode the next morning.

• Sleep terrors are typically brief, and typically resolves itself by adolescence.

• Sleep sex, occurs more in men than in women, involves abnormal sexual behavior during sleep, masturbation and/or sexual intercourse.

• Sleepwalking, or somnambulism, is characterized by an episode of walking or performing actions during stage 3 or 4 of NREM sleep, most are children, 4% are adults.

• Sleep related eating, more women that men, the sleeper sleepwalks and eats compulsively, the eater may eat potentially dangerous items like cat food.

Is sleep murder possible? some factors are considered

• 1. sleep disorder present• 2. no motive• 3. sleep related violence precipitated by

medication/fever• 4. person happened to be present• 5. there is some amnesia• 6. sorrow after the event• 7. the event is brief

• In REM sleep behavior disorder, the sleeper acts out his dreams.

• the disorder has several causes • 1- there is some brain damage in lower brain

centers that control physical and mental arousal during sleep

• 2-side effect of anti-depressants• 3-people with this disorder later develop

Parkinson’s disease

Dreams• Adults spend about 25 percent of their night’s sleep dreaming.• During sleep, sleep thinking occurs frequently, more frequently than

dreams.• A dream is a sequence of perceptions, thoughts, and emotions during

sleep that are experienced as a series of real-life events.• Most dreams occur during REM sleep, people may have four or five

episodes a night.• An important activity during sleep is memory consolidation.• Episodic memories=NREM• Procedural memories=REM• REM sleep is characterized by:• 1. decreased activity in the frontal lobes and the primary visual cortex,

cutting dreamers off from reality which explains the bizarre dreams. bizarre dreams are the exception, not the rule

• 2. increased activity in association areas of the visual cortex, increasing visual images

• 3. increased activity in the limbic system brain areas associated with emotions, motivation, and memory, which causes the emotionality of the dream. (neg are more common)

Dreams• What is the difference between a dream and a

nightmare?• A nightmare is a dream in which the dreamer

is being attacked or pursued aggressively. Nightmares typically waken the dreamer.

• Nightmares occur more frequently during middle and late childhood, then the frequency decreases

• Family and twin studies suggest some genetic role in the predisposition to nightmares.

• Sigmund Freud believed that dreams were an outlet for unacceptable urges.

• According to Freud, there are two components to dreams, the manifest content and the latent content.

• The manifest content is the dream content, the latent content is the psychological meanings of the dream.

Hypnosis

• Hypnosis is a social interaction in which the hypnotic participant responds to the hypnotist’s suggestions.

• There are limitations to hypnosis• 1. a person cannot be hypnotized to do

something against his or her will• 2. Hypnosis cannot make you perform behaviors

that you are morally opposed to performing.• 3. Hypnosis cannot make you perform actions

that you are not physically capable of performing.

Benefits of a Sensory Deprivation Tank

• Treatment in sensory deprivation tanks has been shown to help with a variety of psychological and medical issues.

• The sensory deprivation tank has been used for therapy and relaxation. In a typical session for alternative healing and meditative purposes, a person may rest in an isolation tank for up to an hour. Treatment in isolation tanks has been shown to help with a variety of medical issues, including insomnia and muscle pain, headaches, and addictive behaviors such as smoking, alcoholism, and obesity.

• Although relatively short sessions of sensory deprivation can be relaxing and both mentally and physically beneficial, prolonged sensory deprivation can lead to disorders of perception, including confusion and hallucinations which is why the sensory deprivation is sometimes used as an instrument of torture.

Meditation • Meditation refers to techniques in which the individual

focuses on something specific, such as an object, a word, or one’s breathing, with the goal of ignoring external distractions, focusing on one’s internal state, and achieving a state of relaxation and well-being.

• Brain imaging studies have indicated that meditation is not only relaxing but can also induce an altered state of consciousness.

• the action of the sympathetic division of the autonomic nervous system (ANS) is suppressed during meditation, creating a more relaxed physiological state as the meditator moves into deeper states of relaxation and consciousness.

What are Psychoactive Drugs?• Psychoactive drugs are chemical substances that can alter arousal, mood, thinking,

sensation, and perception. • Addiction- a condition in which a person feels psychologically and physically

compelled to take a specific drug.• Physical dependence- a condition in which a person’s body and brain chemistry

physically adapt to a drug.• Drug tolerance- a condition in which the user needs increasing amounts of the

drug to achieve the original, desired effect.• Drug abuse-refers to recurrent drug use that results in disruption in academic,

social, other functioning or in legal and psychological problems.• The drug rebound effect is the experience of withdrawal symptoms that are the

opposite of the drug’s effect.• Psychoactive drugs influence the brain activity by altering synaptic transmission by

blocking, mimicking, or influencing a particular neurotransmitter’s effects…usually dopamine producing neurons.

• With repeated drug use, the brain’s reward pathways adapt to the high dopamine levels.

• Usually a person who has developed an addiction to a drug, will only overcome the addiction through psychotherapy and the benefit of a treatment program

Determining whether there is drug abuse is influenced by many factors.

• Drug Description Street or brand names

• Heroin Strong depressant Smack, junk, H • GHB (Gamma hydroxy butyrate) Rave” drug (not Ecstacy), also used as a “date rape” drug.

Georgia home boy, liquid ecstasy, liquid X, liquid G, fantasy

• Isobutyl nitrite Depressant and toxic inhalant Poppers, rush, locker room

• Alcohol Active compound is ethanol • • DXM (Dextromethorphan) Active ingredient in over-the-counter cold and cough medicines

• Methamphetamine May be injected or smoked Meth, crank • Cocaine May be inhaled or smoked Crack, coke, rock, blue • MDMA (methylene-dioxymethamphetamine) Very powerful stimulant Molly,Ecstasy

• Codeine Depressant • Methadone Opioid • Mescaline Hallucinogen • Benzodiazepine Prescription tranquilizer Centrax, Dalmane, Doral, Halcion, Librium,

ProSom, Restoril, Xanax, Valium • • Ketamine Prescription anesthetic Ketanest, Ketaset, Ketalar ,Special K • DMT (Dimethyltryptamine) Hallucinogen • • Phenobarbital Usually prescribed as a sleeping pill Luminal (Phenobarbital), Mebaraland,

Nembutal, Seconal, Sombulex

Drug Description Street or brand names

• Laughing gas • Lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD) Acid • Marijuana (Cannabis) Active ingredient is THC

Pot, spliff, weed

Use of Various Drugs by 12th-Graders in 2005

Dependence and Addiction• Drugs stimulate, inhibit, or mimic the activity of the brain’s own chemical messengers, the neurotransmitters

• Why do drugs affect people in different ways?

• What is tolerance?

• As drug use increases, the brain’s chemistry changes in composition, to offset the drug’s effect…called neuroadaptation…this is why the person needs more of the drug to achieve the initial effect, tolerance

• Drug tolerance- a condition in which the user needs increasing amounts of the drug to achieve the original, desired effect.

• When do we know when we have developed a dependency on a drug?

• When we feel that we need the drug, physically and/or psychologically, we can say that we are dependent and have developed an addiction

• When we stop taking the drug, we experience discomfort and distress…this is withdrawal

Psychoactive Drugs• There are three categories of psychoactive drugs• Depressants• Stimulants• Hallucinogens or psychedelic drugs

• What are depressants?

• Depressants are a class of psychoactive drugs that depress or inhibit the CNS activity.

• • All depressants are potentially physically addictive.• • What are some depressants?• • Alcohol• Inhalents• Barbituates• Opiates

Stimulants• What are stimulants?• Stimulants are mildly addicting tend to

increase brain activity• Stimulants include…• Caffeine • Nicotine • Cocaine • Amphetamines

Psychedelic drugs or Hallucinogens• Psychedelic drugs create sensory and perceptual distortions, alter

mood, and affect thinking…mind manifesting• Psychodelic drugs include mescaline, LSD, and marijuana• Mescaline is a naturally occurring psychedelic drug derived from the

peyote cactus• LSD is a powerful synthetic psychedelic drug and is very similar

chemically to the neurotransmitter serotonin, which is involved in regulating moods and sensations

• The effects of a psychedelic experience vary greatly, depending on an individual’s personality, current emotional state, surroundings, and the other people present. Adverse reactions include flashbacks, depression, and long-term psychological instability.

• Marijuana is derived from the hemp plant, the chemical THC, is the active ingredient is marijuana

Designer or Club drugs• Designer drugs are a loose collection of psychoactive drugs

that are popular at dance clubs, parties, and raves…many are designer drugs, that is, drugs that were synthesized in the laboratory

• Ecstasy, which is the chemical MDMA, at low doses has stimulant effects; at high doses, it has mild psychedelic effects

• Ecstasy’s effects may result from its causing the release of serotonin and its ability to block serotonin reuptake

• Side effects include dehydration, rapid heartbeat, tremors, muscle tension and involuntary teeth-clenching, hyperthermia, and enlarged pupils

• Dissociative anesthetics deaden pain; at high doses, they induce a stupor or coma

• • PCP (angel dust) and ketamine (special K) produce marked feelings of

dissociation and depersonalization, PCP effects are unpredictable and highly addictive…memory problems and depression are common effects of long-term use

• Biological Influences • Some people may be biologically vulnerable to drugs

• Psychological and Social-cultural Influences

• Psychological and social-cultural influences also contribute to drug use